title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: In January 2004, B and C Companies of the 2nd Battalion, 103rd Armor Regiment were activated and, with attachments from several other Pennsylvania Army National Guard units, reconfigured as military police companies and trained at Ft. Dix for deployment to Iraq. They were designated as companies of the 89th MP Brigade and left for Iraq in March 2004 with days of each other. Once in Iraq, they were assigned to some of the most sensitive missions of OIF II. Three platoons of Bravo Company (1st, 3rd and Headquarters) were attached to the Iraq Survey Group; while 2nd and 4th Platoons served in military police operations, to include area patrols and traffic control points supporting 1st Marine Division out of Camp Fallujah and eventually relocated to the Green Zone/International Zone as security escorts attached to the U.S.Navy for high-ranking Interim Iraqi government officials. Charlie Company was assigned to the HVD facility at Camp Cropper, with an entire platoon assigned solely to former Iraqi dictator Saddam Hussein. The units both redeployed in March 2005.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: In June 2004, the 1st Battalion, 103rd Armor was activated at Fort Bliss, Texas and deployed to Iraq in November in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. The Task Force was composed units from the K Troop 104th Cavalry, A Co. 1-111 Infantry, 1-112 Infantry, 1-103rd Armor, 1-109th Infantry, 103rd Engineers, and several Soldiers from the 116th CAV (Idaho NG). This marked the first deployment of a 28th ID combat battalion to a war zone since World War II. The battalion, now designated as a Task Force (Task Force DRAGOON), was stationed at Forward Operating Base Summerall, near Bayji. Attached initially to the 2nd Brigade, 1st Infantry Division, and then the 1st Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division, the 800-man TF 1–103rd Armor, commanded by LTC Philip J. Logan, engaged in combat operations for 12 months before redeploying to the United States in November 2005. Thirteen soldiers from TF Dragoon were killed in action during combat operations in Salah Ad Din Province, a heavily Sunni Muslim area in the north part of the "Sunni Triangle." For its outstanding performance during combat operations, TF 1-103rd Armor was awarded the Army Meritorious Unit Citation.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: The division's 2nd Infantry Brigade Combat Team (2/28 BCT) was mobilized in January 2005. 2/28 BCT consisted of approximately 4,000 National Guardsmen from over 30 states and was commanded by COL John L. Gronski. Over 2,000 of the soldiers were from the Pennsylvania Army National Guard. Other states that contributed large units included Vermont, Utah, Michigan, Kentucky, New Jersey and Nebraska. 2/28 BCT conducted its post mobilization training at Camp Shelby, MS. The soldiers were trained in full spectrum operations and received additional equipment.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: In May 2005, 2nd Brigade soldiers trained at the National Training Center at Fort Irwin, CA to prepare for their upcoming mission in Iraq due to start in July 2005.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: In late June and early July 2005 2nd Brigade soldiers began deploying to the Al Anbar Governorate and were under the command of the 2nd Marine Division through February 2006 and then were under command of 1st Marine Expeditionary Force Forward through June 2006.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: The 2/28 BCT received 'transfer of authority' for its area of operations (AO) in central Al Anbar Province in July 2005. The area of operations was very large, but 2/28 BCT focused operations along the Euphrates River Valley from Ramadi to Al Habbaniyah, about 22 miles (35 kilometers) to the east. Ramadi was the 2/28 BCT main effort for the following reasons: 1) capital of Al Anbar province and home to the provincial governor and government center; 2) large urban area with a population of approximately 400,000 Iraqi citizens; 3) Al-Qaeda in Iraq focused on the area. The Ramadi area was known as one of the most violent and dangerous areas in Iraq.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: The mission of the 2/28 BCT was to neutralize the insurgency and develop Iraqi Security Forces within the area of operations in order to create stable and secure conditions and allow for self-governance. The BCT conducted counterinsurgency operations to kill or detain insurgents, to locate weapons caches, to detect improvised explosive devices (IEDs), to engage in ongoing dialogue with community and government leaders, to recruit, train and integrate Iraqi Army and Iraqi Police, and to conduct civil affairs projects to improve sewer, water, energy, medical and school facilities.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: 2/28 BCT operations resulted in: 1) Millions of dollars of humanitarian assistance projects were completed; 2) Over 3,000 insurgents and terrorists detained or killed; 3) Successful referendum election in October 2005 and successful general election in December 2005; 4) Approximately 5,000 Iraqi soldiers trained and integrated into all operations, including transitioning area of operations to Iraqi brigades and battalions; 5) Hundreds of tons of explosives, ammunition, and weapons seized from insurgent caches; 6) over 1,000 young men of Ramadi recruited into the Iraqi Police; 7) Coalition force and Iraqi Army outposts established and areas controlled that had formerly been insurgent strongholds; 8) Over 1,100 roadside bombs discovered before they could be used against civilians, Iraqi government officials, or coalition forces and Iraqi soldiers.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: 2/28 BCT was awarded the Navy Unit Commendation as part of the I Marine Expeditionary Force (Forward) for the period of 28 February 2006 until transition of authority to 1st Armored Division.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: The brigade trained at Camp Shelby, Mississippi from 19 September 2008 until November 2008 when it moved to the Joint Readiness Training Center (JRTC) in Fort Polk, Louisiana until December 2008. The brigade continued training at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst in December 2008 and moved to Camp Buehring, Kuwait in the United States Central Command area of operations in January 2009 awaiting movement into Iraq. The 56th SBCT, based out Camp Taji, Iraq, conducted operations in the northern Baghdad Governorate from January to September 2009, before redeploying to Kuwait and returning home at Joint Base McGuire-Dix-Lakehurst.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: Soldiers of the Combat Aviation Brigade, 28th Infantry Division began mobilization on 29 January 2009 for Operation Iraqi Freedom from 2009 to 2011. Over 2,000 soldiers from multiple states completed validation training at Fort Sill, Oklahoma before moving to Camp Buehring, Kuwait. Throughout the opening days of May 2009, soldiers flew into multiple Forward Operating Bases across Iraq and Iran with the majority of the brigade based out of Tallil, Al Kut, and Basrah.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: As a modular division, the 28th Infantry Division consists of a headquarters battalion, one infantry brigade combat team, one Stryker brigade combat team, one combat aviation brigade, and an attached maneuver enhancement brigade. The division headquarters exercises training and readiness oversight of the following elements, but they are not organic:


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: A shrine dedicated to the 28th Infantry Division is located on the grounds of the Pennsylvania Military Museum in Boalsburg, Pennsylvania. This site was formerly the estate of Colonel Theodore Davis Boal. In 1916, Boal formed the Boal Troop, a State College-based, horse-mounted machine gun unit of the 1st Pennsylvania Cavalry, which was accepted as a provisional unit of the Pennsylvania Army National Guard. In April 1917, the Boal Troop was reconfigured as an infantry unit, Company A of the 107th Machine Gun Battalion, and deployed to France for service in World War I.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: In 1919, soldiers of the Boal Troop returning from the war erected a monument on the Boal Estate dedicated to their fallen comrades. In the 1920s, other units of the 28th began erecting their own memorials, and began to refer to the area as a "shrine." In 1931, the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania purchased the site, and in 1969 the Pennsylvania Military Museum was opened. By 1971, memorials to most of the units of the 28th that served in World War I had been erected, and in 1997 a World War II memorial was dedicated at this site.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: Members of the 28th Infantry Division have gathered for a memorial service at the shrine every third Sunday in May since 1919. U.S. Route 322, on which the shrine is located, is named the Pennsylvania 28th Division Highway.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: The 28th Infantry Division was portrayed in the 1998 HBO film "When Trumpets Fade", a movie about the Battle of Hürtgen Forest.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: The 1919 silent film "J'accuse", a romantic drama set against the horrors of World War I, includes references to the 28th Division's role in the war.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: In the 1968 film "The Subject Was Roses" the character Timmy, played by Martin Sheen wears his 28th Division uniform throughout the picture.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: In the 1974 T.V. Movie The Execution of Private Slovik see's Martin Sheen as Slovik, here in the movie the 28th Division patch is seen on many characters, to include Sheen.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: In the opening scenes of the 1978 film "Dawn of the Dead", Soldiers are seen wearing red keystones on their uniforms. The Soldier in the movie "The Happening" is wearing keystone patches on his uniform.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: The 28th Infantry Division is mentioned in the miniseries "Band of Brothers" in episode 5, "Crossroads" at approximately 43 minutes in the movie theater scene.


title: 28th Infantry Division (United States)

text: References to the 28th Infantry Division's World War II experiences appear in the book "Company Commander" by Charles Brown MacDonald. They appear in Chapter 2 of the print version or at 43:17 of the audio version.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: Duke of Beaufort (), a title in the Peerage of England, was created by Charles II in 1682 for Henry Somerset, 3rd Marquess of Worcester, a descendant of Charles Somerset, 1st Earl of Worcester, legitimised son of Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset, a Lancastrian leader in the Wars of the Roses. The name "Beaufort" refers to a castle in Champagne, France (now Montmorency-Beaufort). It is the only current dukedom to take its name from a place outside the British Isles.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: The Dukes of Beaufort descend in the male line from the House of Plantagenet through John of Gaunt, son of Edward III. This statement was challenged after the analysis of the Y chromosomal DNA of the remains of Richard III. Most living male heirs of the 5th Duke of Beaufort were found to carry a relatively common Y chromosome type, which is different from the rare lineage found in Richard III's remains. The instance of false paternity could have occurred anywhere in the numerous generations separating Richard III from the 5th Duke of Beaufort. The break also could have occurred with Richard III's grandfather Richard of Conisburgh, whose paternity has been called into question although he was acknowledged by his father.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: The Beaufort Castle was in possession of John of Gaunt, and the surname Beaufort was given to Gaunt's four legitimised children by his mistress and third wife, Katherine Swynford. This was the foundation of the House of Beaufort, Dukes of Somerset. A descendant of the Beauforts through his mother was Henry VII of England. Charles Somerset, 1st Earl of Worcester, (c. 1460 – 15 March 1526), was the bastard son of Henry Beaufort, 3rd Duke of Somerset by his mistress Joan Hill.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: The Duke of Beaufort holds two subsidiary titles: Marquess of Worcester (created 1642) and Earl of Worcester (1514). The title Marquess of Worcester is used as a courtesy title by the duke's eldest son and heir. The title Earl of Glamorgan is used by the eldest son of the heir apparent to the dukedom. The Earl of Glamorgan's eldest son is known as Viscount Grosmont. The Earldom of Glamorgan and Viscountcy of Grosmont derive from an irregular creation by Charles I in 1644 in favour of Edward Somerset, who later succeeded his father as 2nd Marquess of Worcester.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: Although the Earldom of Glamorgan and Viscountcy of Grosmont were not recognised as substantive titles at the restoration of Charles II, because of irregularities in the patent of creation, they have nevertheless continued to be used as convenient courtesy titles in order to distinguish the bearer from the Marquess of Worcester as heir apparent, the Earldom of Worcester not being distinctive enough for this purpose. All subsidiary titles are in the Peerage of England.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: Field Marshal The Lord Raglan, born Lord FitzRoy Somerset (1788–1855), was the youngest son of the fifth duke.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: The family seat was once Raglan Castle, Monmouthshire, but was Badminton House near Chipping Sodbury in Gloucestershire. The principal burial place of the Dukes and Duchesses of Beaufort is St Michael and All Angels' Church, Badminton.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: Following the creation of the dukedom, each successive duke has served as Master of the Duke of Beaufort's Hunt, a foxhound pack kenneled on the Badminton Estate.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: The heir apparent is the present holder's son, Henry Robert FitzRoy Somerset, Marquess of Worcester (b. 20 January 1989).


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: The heraldic blazon for the coat of arms of the dukedom is: "Quarterly, 1st and 4th, azure three fleurs-de-lys or" (for France); "2nd and 3rd, gules three lions passant guardant in pale or" (for England)", all within a bordure compony argent and azure".


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: This can be translated as: a shield divided into quarters, the top left and bottom right quarters are blue with three golden fleurs-de-lys (for France), and the top right and bottom left quarters are red with three golden lions "passant" with their faces toward the viewer, one above the other (for England); the foregoing quarters are within a border around the shield with segments alternating white and blue.


title: Duke of Beaufort

text: In heraldry, a "bordure compony" is traditionally used to designate illegitimacy. Since the original Beaufort siblings' father was of the English royal family, the English royal arms are used. At that time, the king of England also claimed the French crown, hence the inclusion of the French royal arms.


title: Star Magic

text: ABS-CBN Center for Communication Arts, Inc., doing business as Star Magic (formerly known as ABS-CBN Talent Center), is the talent agency owned by ABS-CBN Corporation based in Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines that was founded in 1992.


title: Star Magic

text: In April 1992, Freddie M. Garcia, then ABS-CBN executive vice president and general manager, and Johnny Manahan, then program director, formed the idea of creating a stable of new stars exclusively for the network. Star Magic was created to assist young talent in the Philippines, where its talents undergo training in acting, personality development and physical enhancement before joining in the Philippine television and film industry such as the television shows of ABS-CBN and Star Cinema films, commercial projects, and corporate events.


title: Star Magic

text: On June 26, 2011, the company celebrated its 19th anniversary on "ASAP Rocks". It also launched the new website and the new music video with the current artists of the company.


title: Star Magic

text: In 2020, following the expiration and subsequent denial of ABS-CBN's franchise, Manahan and Mariole Alberto stepped down, with Manahan moving to Brightlight Productions and later to GMA Artist Center. Laurenti Dyogi was named the new head which took effect on January 1, 2021.


title: Star Magic

text: In 2021, Star Magic announced during its Black Pen Day Signing that they will be launching Star Magic Records, a sub label under ABS-CBN Music; Star Magic Studio, which will create content for Star Magic artists; and Star Magic Digital Artist Agency, as well as relaunching ABS-CBN's theatre arm Teatro Kapamilya.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: King Solomon's Mines is a 1985 action adventure film, and a film adaptation of the 1885 novel of the same name by H. Rider Haggard. It stars Richard Chamberlain, Sharon Stone, Herbert Lom and John Rhys-Davies. It was produced by Cannon Films. It was adapted by Gene Quintano and James R. Silke and directed by J. Lee Thompson. This version of the story was a light, comedic take, deliberately referring to, and parodying, the "Indiana Jones" film series (in which Rhys-Davies had also appeared). It was filmed outside Harare in Zimbabwe. The film was made and released exactly 100 years after the release of the novel on which the film is based.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: "King Solomon's Mines" was followed by a sequel (filmed back-to-back), "Allan Quatermain and the Lost City of Gold" (1986). It was originally planned to be the first in a trilogy, and there were two attempts to film a third movie: first, a film that would have been based on "She and Allan", another Haggard novel, and then a film which would have been titled "Allan Quatermain and the Jewel of the East", to be directed by producer Menahem Golan. Neither attempt was successful, in part due to the financial failure of "Lost City of Gold".


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: Jesse Huston (Sharon Stone) has hired Allan Quatermain to find her father, believed lost on an expedition to find the fabled King Solomon's Mines. Together with his companion, the mysterious Umbopo, they penetrate unknown country, following a map believed to be genuine. It transpires that Professor Huston has been captured by a German military expedition on the same quest, led by Bockner (Herbert Lom), a single-minded knackwurst-munching, bald-headed Colonel and a ruthless Turkish slave-trader and adventurer, Dogati (John Rhys-Davies), who is a long-standing adversary of Quatermain. Huston is being forced to interpret another map, also believed to be genuine.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: The two rival expeditions shadow each other, clashing on several occasions, but Quatermain's group manages to rescue Professor Huston, who confirms the mines are indeed real and he implores Quatermain to stop Bockner and Dogati from finding them. After a few harrowing encounters with both the Germans and some of the local native tribes, they finally enter the tribal lands of the Kukuana who capture them. The tribe is under the control of the evil priestess, Gagoola, who has Quatermain hung upside down over a pond full of crocodiles. Just when all seems lost, Umbopo arrives and after defeating Gagoola's warriors in combat, reveals his identity as an exiled tribal chief and the rightful ruler of the Kukuanas.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: As the tribesmen submit to him, Bockner and Dogati attack the village in full force. Amid the ensuing chaos, Gagoola captures Jesse and flees into caves in the depths of the Breasts of Sheba, the twin mountain peaks where the mines are located. Quatermain and Umbopo give chase after them and they are in turn pursued by Bockner and Dogati. They follow Quatermain and Umbopo to the entrance to the mines, but are hampered by a moat of quicksand. Bockner orders his men forward into the moat, but they have trouble crossing it. Dogati then shoots down all of Bockner's soldiers, as well as most of his own men, and uses their bodies as stepping stones to cross the moat safely. As they approach the entrance, Bockner shoots Dogati and takes command of what little remains of the party.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: Inside the mines, Quatermain and Umbopo rescue Jesse and find the resting place of all the former tribal queens, including the Queen of Sheba herself, encased in crystal. Umbopo explains that Gagoola had attempted to sacrifice Jesse in order to keep her power as the Kukuanas' ruler because of Jesse's strong resemblance to the Queen of Sheba. Then Gagoola appears and taunts Umbopo, who pursues her through the caverns.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: As Bockner and his men arrive next, Quatermain and Jesse flee for safety, but end up in the cavern's treasure chamber, which is full of raw diamonds and other priceless treasures. As they gather some of the diamonds to take with them, Bockner hears their voices from outside the chamber, but before he can enter, Gagoola activates a hidden rock switch and seals Quatermain and Jesse inside the chamber. The switch also triggers a trap that causes the ceiling of the chamber, which is lined with stalactites to lower on them. Quatermain and Jesse manage to stop the ceiling trap, but then the chamber begins filling up with water. Just as the chamber fills completely, a lit stick of dynamite set by Bockner outside the chamber door explodes, sending them both spewing out of the chamber in the resulting flood to safety.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: Bockner enters the chamber and quickly lays claim to the treasure, only to be confronted by a wounded, but very much alive, Dogati, who was wearing a protective vest that shielded him from the bullets. He then forces Bockner to swallow some of the diamonds, intending to cut him open to retrieve them later on. Meanwhile, Umbopo finally corners Gagoola. But rather than face his judgment, she instead leaps down one of the volcano's shafts and is incinerated when she lands in the molten lava below. However, the reaction causes a series of eruptions throughout the mines. Dogati is partially buried when the treasure chamber's ceiling collapses, but Bockner is unharmed. He gloats to Dogati after claiming a few more diamonds for himself, then leaves the chamber. But not before firing his gun at the ruined ceiling, burying Dogati alive. Quatermain, Jesse and Umbopo quickly flee for their lives through the collapsing caverns. They cross over a small booby- trapped lake (which one of Bockner's men fell victim to earlier), only to be stopped by Bockner, who demands they surrender their diamonds to him. Quatermain places the diamonds on the central stepping stone that triggers the trap and tells Bockner to come take the diamonds himself if he wants them. Bockner does so and falls into the lake, only to be seized in the jaws of a Mokele-mbembe and dragged beneath the water. The trap resets itself and the diamonds rise back to the surface, but Umbopo warns Quatermain and Jesse not to take them, saying they belong to the mountain.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: The trio continue their escape through the caverns, which becomes even more dangerous as the lava chamber they are in is full of fire and falling rocks. Quatermain tells Umbopo to take Jesse through to safety while he follows them. But before he can do so, he is struck down by Dogati, who survived the cave-in. A brutal fight between them ensues, but Quatermain gains the upper hand at the last instant, sending Dogati falling into the chamber's lava pit to his death. Quatermain manages to escape from the mines at the last minute, just as the volcano explodes, sealing the entrance forever.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: Returning to the village, Umbopo assumes his rightful place as the ruler of the Kukuanas and he and his people bid a fond farewell to Quatermain and Jesse. As they exit the village, they each reveal they had kept a diamond from the mines as a souvenir of their adventure and the movie ends with them kissing outside the village gates.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: It was Richard Chamberlain's first feature since "The Last Wave". "I haven't seen any scripts of anything I wanted to do", said Chamberlain prior to filming. "But I love doing miniseries, so it's not as if I've been pining away all this time. "King Solomon's Mines" is not a remake of the old Stewart Granger trek through the jungle. It's a sensational script. It's very much a Raiders of the Lost Ark type of movie – very tongue-in-cheek and full of adventures and stunts... Bullets flying, lions eating people, witches up in the trees. All that stuff."


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: Kathleen Turner was reportedly offered $1.5 million to play the female lead but turned it down because the role was too similar to the one she played in "Romancing the Stone". Sharon Stone was cast due to a misunderstanding; The Cannon Group CEO Menahem Golan had demanded they get "that Stone woman", but he had meant Turner.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: The film was shot on location in the Mashonaland region of northeastern Zimbabwe over ten months. The crew included many Israelis and South Africans, which caused some objections from the local Arab population. The Arab League protested the depiction of all the Arab characters as slavers. Richard Chamberlain said, ""I happen to think that people are people and I don't care where they come from as long as they do a good job... This is a comedy, and one of the best defenses against out-of-date stereotypes is to poke fun at them. It shows how absurd they are.""


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: The film's score was composed and conducted by Jerry Goldsmith, and performed by the Hungarian State Opera Orchestra. Restless Records issued an album on LP and cassette; Milan later released it on compact disc minus the cue "The Ritual" and paired with Alan Silvestri's "The Delta Force". In 1991 Intrada Records released an expanded version, later reissued in 1997; Prometheus released the complete score in 2006. Quartet Records issued a two-disc edition in 2014 with the Prometheus content on disc one and the original album presentation on disc two.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: The film earned $5 million in its opening weekend. The film overperformed in every single media market in Alabama, Tennessee, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Indiana, Wisconsin as well as some media markets in southeastern Minnesota. That overperformance was largely attributed to the Cannon Group, Inc. overspending on marketing in those media markets before reining in their own spending. The overperformance at the box office in those media markets allowed the film to not only make all of the production money back, but to go even further and make several million dollars in profit for the Cannon Group.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: "King Solomon's Mines" holds a 13% approval rating at Rotten Tomatoes with an average rating of 3.7/10. On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 29 out of 100, based on 5 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". Though it made a profit, the film was panned by critics, many of whom felt it was not as good as the 1950 film version with Stewart Granger and Deborah Kerr. The film "did significantly better with general audiences than it did with critics" as audiences were "far more forgiving a movie that was 'intended' to be extremely cheesy" while professional critics "correctly pointed out that it wasn't nearly as good as the Stewart Granger version of the same movie, while failing to acknowledge that it wasn't supposed to be as good, and at no point took itself seriously as movie."


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: It was nominated for two Razzie Awards, including Worst Supporting Actor for Herbert Lom and Worst Musical Score for Goldsmith.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: The direct sequel, "Allan Quatermain and the Lost City of Gold", was released in 1987 with both Richard Chamberlain and Sharon Stone returning. Director J. Lee Thompson did not return, choosing instead to direct "Murphy's Law" with Charles Bronson. The sequel was directed by television veteran Gary Nelson and was a critical and box office disappointment.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: The Cannon Group had originally planned a trilogy of films, the third film was to be an adaptation of "She and Allan" but this was ultimately abandoned after the extreme negative reception of "Allan Quatermain and the Lost City of Gold", coupled with the financial difficulties of the company at the time.


title: King Solomon's Mines (1985 film)

text: In 2011, a new sequel was proposed by Menahem Golan called "Allan Quatermain and the Jewel of the East". The script was written by Golan and Richard Albiston, to be directed by Golan himself. The plot concerned Quatermain attempting to rescue his daughter from Chinese treasure hunters in the Congo. According to the 2015 documentary "Golan: A Farewell to Mr. Cinema", Richard Chamberlain had agreed to return as the title character, but Golan died before the film began shooting.


title: DVD player

text: A DVD player is a device that plays DVDs produced under both the DVD-Video and DVD-Audio technical standards, two different and incompatible standards. Some DVD players will also play audio CDs. DVD players are connected to a television to watch the DVD content, which could be a movie, a recorded TV show, or other content.


title: DVD player

text: The first DVD player is claimed to have been created by the Japanese electronics vendor Toshiba in November 1996, and the first to be released to US customers is claimed to have been by Sony in April 1997.


title: DVD player

text: Some manufacturers originally announced that DVD players would be available as early as the middle of 1996. These predictions were too optimistic. Delivery was initially held up for "political" reasons of copy protection demanded by movie studios, but was later delayed by lack of movie titles. The first players appeared in Japan on November 1, 1996, followed by the United States on March 31, 1997, with distribution limited to only seven major cities for the first six months.


title: DVD player

text: Players slowly trickled into other regions around the world. Prices for the first players in 1997 started at $600 and could top out at prices over $1000. By the end of 2000, players were available for under $100 at discount retailers. In 2003 players became available for under $50. Six years after the initial launch, close to one thousand models of DVD players were available from over a hundred consumer electronics manufacturers.


title: DVD player

text: Fujitsu released the first DVD-ROM-equipped computer on November 6 in Great Britain. Toshiba released a DVD-ROM-equipped computer and a DVD-ROM drive in Japan in early 1997 (moved back from December which was moved back from November). DVD-ROM drives from Toshiba, Pioneer, Panasonic, Hitachi, and Sony began appearing in sample quantities as early as January 1997, but none were available before May. The first PC upgrade kits (a combination of DVD-ROM drive and hardware decoder card) became available from Creative Labs, Hi-Val, and Diamond Multimedia in April and May 1997. In 2014, every major PC manufacturer had models that include DVD-ROM drives.


title: DVD player

text: The first DVD-Audio players were released in Japan by Pioneer in late 1999, but they did not play copy-protected discs. Matsushita (under the Panasonic and Technics labels) first released full-fledged players in July 2000 for $700 to $1,200. DVD-Audio players are now also made by Aiwa, Denon, JVC, Kenwood, Madrigal, Marantz, Nakamichi, Onkyo, Toshiba, Yamaha, and others. Sony released the first SACD players in May 1999 for $5,000. Pioneer's first DVD-Audio players released in late 1999 also played SACD. SACD players are now also made by Accuphase, Aiwa, Denon, Kenwood, Marantz, Philips, Sharp, and others.


title: DVD player

text: A DVD player has to be able to read a DVD in ISO – UDF version 1.02 format, and needs to read and obey the DVDs Regional lockout codes and display a warning if the player is not authorized to play the DVD.


title: DVD player

text: To play a DVD smoothly, it needs to be able to decode the MPEG-2 video stream with a maximum bit rate of 10 Mbit/s at peak and 8 Mbit/s continuously.


title: DVD player

text: DVD players cannot play Blu-ray discs due to using different wavelength laser's Blu-ray use a Blue Violet laser instead of a Red laser. However, Blu-ray players are typically backwards compatible, meaning they will play DVDs. Some are compatible with CD and other disc formats.


title: DVD player

text: DVD players are largely controlled through a remote control. Built-in controls on the main unit's panel such as a four-directional buttons vary depending on model. Some models may lack advanced built-in controls, making operation more dependent on the remote control.


title: DVD player

text: Additionally, most DVD players allow users to play audio CDs (CD-DA, MP3, etc.) and Video CDs (VCD). A few include a home cinema decoder (i.e. Dolby Digital, Digital Theater Systems (DTS)). Some newer devices also play videos in the MPEG-4 ASP video compression format (such as DivX) popular in the Internet.


title: DVD player

text: Most hardware DVD players must be connected to a television; there are portable devices which have an attached LCD screen and stereo speakers. Portable DVD players are often used for long road trips and travel. They often have a plug for the 12 volt power jack in cars. Some models have two screens, so that two people in the back seat can both watch the movie. Other portable DVD players have a single screen that opens up like a laptop computer screen.


title: DVD player

text: Due to multiple audio (and video) output devices, there are many outputs on a DVD player, such as an RCA jack, component outputs, and an HDMI output. Consumers may become confused with how to connect a player to a TV or amplifier. Most systems include an optional digital audio connector for this task, which is then paired with a similar input on the amplifier. The physical connection is typically RCA connectors or TOSLINK, which transmits a S/PDIF stream carrying either uncompressed digital audio (PCM) or the original compressed audio data (Dolby Digital, DTS, MPEG audio) to be decoded by the audio equipment.


title: DVD player

text: Video is another issue which continues to present most problems. Early generations of DVD players usually outputted analog video only, via both composite video on an RCA jack and S-Video. However, neither connector was intended to be used for progressive video, and most later players sold then gained another set of connectors, component video, which keeps the three components of the video, luminance and two color differentials, on fully separate wires. This video information is taken directly from the DVD itself. The three components compare well to S-Video, which uses two wires, uniting and degrading the two color signals, and composite, which uses only wire one, uniting and degrading all three signals.


title: DVD player

text: The connectors are further confused by using a number of different physical connectors on different player models, RCA or BNC, as well as using VGA cables in a non-standard way (VGA is normally analog RGB—a different, incompatible form of component video). Even worse, there are often two sets of component outputs, one carrying interlaced video, and the other progressive, or an interlaced/progressive switch (either a physical switch or a menu setting).


title: DVD player

text: In Europe (but not most other PAL areas), SCART connectors are generally used, which can carry composite and analog RGB interlaced video signals (RGB can be progressive, but not all DVD players and displays support this mode) or Y/C (S-Video), as well as analog two-channel sound and automatic 4:3 or 16:9 (widescreen) switching on a single convenient multi-wire cable. The analog RGB component signal offers video quality which is superior to S-Video and identical to YPbPr component video. However, analog RGB and S-Video signals can not be carried simultaneously, due to each using the same pins for different uses, and displays often must be manually configured as to the input signal, since no switching mode exists for S-Video. (A switching mode does exist to indicate whether composite or RGB is being used.) Some DVD players and set-top boxes offer YPbPr component video signals over the wires in the SCART connector intended for RGB, though this violates the official specification and manual configuration is again necessary. (Hypothetically, unlike RGB component, YPbPr component signals and S-Video Y/C signals could both be sent over the wire simultaneously, since they share the luminance (Y) component.)


title: DVD player

text: HDMI is a digital connection for carrying high-definition video, similar to DVI. Along with video, HDMI also supports up to eight-channel digital audio. DVD players with connectors for high-definition video can upconvert the source to formats used for higher definition video (e.g., 720p, 1080i, 1080p, etc.), before outputting the signal. By no means, however, will the resulting signal be high-definition video; that is, aside from optional deinterlacing, upconverting generally consists of merely scaling the video's dimensions to match that of higher resolution formats, foregoing the scaling that would normally occur in the output device.


title: DVD player

text: Some DVD players include a USB video recorder. As well as such, there are also have DVD players with a USB port to be able to play digital media types as well as MP4, MP3, etc.


title: DVD player

text: Wireless connections (bluetooth and/or Wi-Fi) are useful to manage (play/record) wirelessly content from or to other devices (i.e. cell phones).


title: DVD player

text: , retail prices for such a device, depending on its optional features (such as digital sound or video output), start between 30 and 80 USD/Euro. They are usually cheaper than VCRs.


title: DVD player

text: the largest producer of DVD players is China; in 2002 they produced 30 million players, more than 70% of the world output. These producers have to pay US$15–$20 per player in license fees, to the patent holders of the DVD technology (Sony, Philips, Toshiba and Time Warner) as well as for MPEG-2 licenses. To avoid these fees, China has developed the Enhanced Versatile Disc standard as an intended successor of DVD; , EVD players were only being sold in China.


title: DVD player

text: Software DVD players are programs that allow users to view DVD videos on a computer with a DVD-ROM drive. Some examples are the VLC media player, 5KPlayer and MPlayer (all free software), as well as WinDVD, TotalMedia Theatre, PowerDVD and DVD Player.


title: DVD player

text: Among others, there are variants & huge kinds of software DVD players as well as multimedia player software which has DVD video playback capability, whether its proprietary-type (as commercial software), freeware, shareware or just a free software are available in the market.


title: DVD player

text: In the battle to succeed and to improve upon the role of the DVD player as the mainstream medium for stored audiovisual content on optical disc, there were two major contestants: the HD DVD player and the Blu-ray Disc player, utilizing two incompatible technologies that reproduced higher resolution video images and more complete audio information than was possible with DVD. On February 19, 2008, Toshiba, creator of the former technology, announced it would cease production on all HD DVD products, leaving Blu-ray as the high definition successor to DVD players.


title: DVD player

text: As technology improved, various players were sold, some of which were also Blu-ray players, that could upscale and up-convert DVD content, increasing the overall perceived picture quality.


title: Going Overboard

text: Going Overboard is a 1989 American comedy film directed by Valerie Breiman, and stars Adam Sandler in his film debut, Burt Young, Allen Covert, Billy Zane, Terry Moore, Milton Berle and Billy Bob Thornton in a small role. The film was originally released in 1989, but once Sandler became successful after appearing on "Saturday Night Live" and in the films "Billy Madison" and "Happy Gilmore", it was given a wider release by Vidmark Entertainment in 1995.


title: Going Overboard

text: Shecky Moskowitz (Adam Sandler) is a struggling comedian working on a cruise ship. Shecky gets his chance to be the ship's comedian when it is thought that the regular comedian, Dickie Diamond (Scott LaRose), had fallen overboard and drowned. (Dickie actually locked himself in the men's room.) Shecky is nervous about performing, but King Neptune (Billy Zane) convinces him to go for the opportunity by telling Shecky about the power of laughter. Shecky's first performance is very unsuccessful as he is booed off the stage, he is especially heckled by the construction worker Dave (Billy Bob Thornton). However, after a lecture by Milton Berle, Shecky succeeds in making the audience laugh. At that point, the terrorists come on board and want to kill Miss Australia. Shecky, remembering the advice about the power of laughter, saves her by promising to put the assassins in a film.


title: Going Overboard

text: Producer Randolf Turrow came up with the idea after he was asked to judge a beauty pageant in Palm Springs, Florida and learned that the pageant promoters rented a cruise ship filled with beauty contest winners as a publicity stunt. Turrow decided that this gave him a good opportunity to make a film, so he contacted a friend in Texas, Mark Schultz, to finance the film. Turrow contacted Valerie Berman a week before filming began to write the script. The project went from concept to completion in three months. It was written in three days, cast in one day, prepared in two days and filmed in six days, with two additional days for pick-up shots. The cruise ship denied the filmmakers permission to use any of the public areas with passengers present, so all the shots on common areas were either shot at night or when the passengers were off the ship. The filmmakers then hired some of the onboard staff to be the extras. The film was put together so quickly that the crew forgot the correct lenses so they had to shoot on incorrect lenses, which is noticeable in some shots.


title: Going Overboard

text: The film was first released regionally, as ""The Unsinkable Shecky Moskowitz"", on October 27, 1989. It made its television debut in June 1990 on Up All Night and was retitled ""Babes Ahoy"". It was finally released on video in the U.S. in 1995 as "Going Overboard", one week after the video release of Billy Madison.


title: Going Overboard

text: David Nusair of "Reel Film Reviews" gave it 0 out of 4 and called it "...a slapdash and thoroughly amateurish piece of work that suffers from a total dearth of positive attributes."


title: Going Overboard

text: Adam Sandler has disowned the film, it is the only film in his filmography not listed on his website. However, while he has said it is not a good movie, he has claimed it was a good experience. As of 2022, the film is number 16 in IMDB's list of the Bottom 100 Films on the website.


title: The Michael J. Fox Show

text: The Michael J. Fox Show is an American sitcom television series starring Michael J. Fox, that aired on NBC in the United States from September 26, 2013, to January 23, 2014, as part of the 2013–14 American television season. Fox made his regular return to television for the first time since he was on ABC's "Spin City". It was his second NBC series, as he appeared on that network's sitcom "Family Ties" from 1982 to 1989 as Alex P. Keaton.


title: The Michael J. Fox Show

text: On February 5, 2014, NBC cancelled the series due to the 2014 Winter Olympics. A representative for NBC later stated in regards to the show, "It's not cancelled. We are looking for a place on the schedule after April 3." Despite this, the remaining episodes never aired in the U.S. and, on May 10, 2014, NBC officially canceled the show after one season. The remaining seven episodes were aired in Australia on Nine Network from March 12 to April 23, 2014.


title: The Michael J. Fox Show

text: After being diagnosed with Parkinson's disease, Mike Henry had to give up his career as a news anchor for New York's WNBC and focus on his health and his family. Four years later, Mike decides to get back to work and struggles between family and career.


title: The Michael J. Fox Show

text: The show had a positive reception from critics, with many praising Michael J. Fox and Betsy Brandt's performances. It was called one of six new shows to keep an eye on of the 2013-14 television season by "Entertainment Weekly". "The New York Times" found the show distinctly unfunny, remarking that something felt "off".


title: The Michael J. Fox Show

text: In Australia the series premiered in double episodes, each scoring the highest rated overnight subscription television figures of the night (77,000 and 73,000 respectively). However, successive episodes saw a significant drop in ratings.


title: The Michael J. Fox Show

text: On June 25, 2013, the series was honored, along with five others, with the Critics' Choice Television Award for Most Exciting New Series. Fox was nominated for a Golden Globe.


title: The Michael J. Fox Show

text: On July 7, 2015, Sony Pictures Home Entertainment released "The Michael J. Fox Show - The Complete 1st Season" on DVD in Region 1.


title: Multiplicative group of integers modulo n

text: In modular arithmetic, the integers coprime (relatively prime) to "n" from the set formula_1 of "n" non-negative integers form a group under multiplication modulo "n", called the multiplicative group of integers modulo "n". Equivalently, the elements of this group can be thought of as the congruence classes, also known as "residues" modulo "n", that are coprime to "n".


text: In the theory of rings, a branch of abstract algebra, it is described as the group of units of the ring of integers modulo "n". Here "units" refers to elements with a multiplicative inverse, which, in this ring, are exactly those coprime to "n".


text: This quotient group, usually denoted formula_2, is fundamental in number theory. It is used in cryptography, integer factorization, and primality testing. It is an abelian, finite group whose order is given by Euler's totient function: formula_3 For prime "n" the group is cyclic and in general the structure is easy to describe, though even for prime "n" no general formula for finding generators is known.


text: It is a straightforward exercise to show that, under multiplication, the set of congruence classes modulo "n" that are coprime to "n" satisfy the axioms for an abelian group.


text: Indeed, "a" is coprime to "n" if and only if . Integers in the same congruence class satisfy , hence one is coprime to "n" if and only if the other is. Thus the notion of congruence classes modulo "n" that are coprime to "n" is well-defined.


text: This implies that the multiplication is associative, commutative, and that the class of 1 is the unique multiplicative identity.


text: It exists precisely when "a" is coprime to "n", because in that case and by Bézout's lemma there are integers "x" and "y" satisfying . Notice that the equation implies that "x" is coprime to "n", so the multiplicative inverse belongs to the group.


text: The set of (congruence classes of) integers modulo "n" with the operations of addition and multiplication is a ring.


text: It is denoted formula_4  or  formula_5  (the notation refers to taking the quotient of integers modulo the ideal formula_6 or formula_7 consisting of the multiples of "n").


text: Outside of number theory the simpler notation formula_8 is often used, though it can be confused with the -adic integers when "n" is a prime number.


text: The multiplicative group of integers modulo "n", which is the group of units in this ring, may be written as (depending on the author) formula_9   formula_10   formula_11   formula_12   (for German "Einheit", which translates as "unit"), formula_13, or similar notations. This article uses formula_14


text: For example, the multiplicative group formula_18 for a prime "p" is cyclic and hence isomorphic to the additive group formula_19, but the isomorphism is not obvious.


text: The order of the multiplicative group of integers modulo "n" is the number of integers in formula_1 coprime to "n".


text: The group formula_2 is cyclic if and only if "n" is 1, 2, 4, "p" or 2"p", where "p" is an odd prime and . For all other values of "n" the group is not cyclic.


text: By definition, the group is cyclic if and only if it has a generator "g" (a generating set {"g"} of size one), that is, the powers formula_26 give all possible residues modulo "n" coprime to "n" (the first formula_27 powers formula_28 give each exactly once).


text: Modulo 1 any two integers are congruent, i.e., there is only one congruence class, [0], coprime to 1. Therefore, formula_31 is the trivial group with element. Because of its trivial nature, the case of congruences modulo 1 is generally ignored and some authors choose not to include the case of "n" = 1 in theorem statements.


text: Modulo 4 there are two coprime congruence classes, [1] and [3], so formula_33 the cyclic group with two elements.


text: Modulo 8 there are four coprime congruence classes, [1], [3], [5] and [7]. The square of each of these is 1, so formula_34 the Klein four-group.


text: Modulo 16 there are eight coprime congruence classes [1], [3], [5], [7], [9], [11], [13] and [15]. formula_35 is the 2-torsion subgroup (i.e., the square of each element is 1), so formula_36 is not cyclic. The powers of 3, formula_37 are a subgroup of order 4, as are the powers of 5, formula_38   Thus formula_39


text: The pattern shown by 8 and 16 holds for higher powers 2, : formula_40 is the 2-torsion subgroup (so formula_41 is not cyclic) and the powers of 3 are a cyclic subgroup of order , so formula_42


text: By the fundamental theorem of finite abelian groups, the group formula_2 is isomorphic to a direct product of cyclic groups of prime power orders.


text: More specifically, the Chinese remainder theorem says that if formula_44 then the ring formula_4 is the direct product of the rings corresponding to each of its prime power factors:


text: Similarly, the group of units formula_2 is the direct product of the groups corresponding to each of the prime power factors:


text: For each odd prime power formula_49 the corresponding factor formula_50 is the cyclic group of order formula_51, which may further factor into cyclic groups of prime-power orders.


text: For powers of 2 the factor formula_52 is not cyclic unless "k" = 0, 1, 2, but factors into cyclic groups as described above.


text: The order of the group formula_27 is the product of the orders of the cyclic groups in the direct product.


text: The exponent of the group, that is, the least common multiple of the orders in the cyclic groups, is given by the Carmichael function formula_54 .


text: In other words, formula_54 is the smallest number such that for each "a" coprime to "n", formula_56 holds.


text: If "n" is composite, there exists a subgroup of the multiplicative group, called the "group of false witnesses", in which the elements, when raised to the power , are congruent to 1 modulo "n". (Because the residue 1 when raised to any power is congruent to 1 modulo "n", the set of such elements is nonempty.) One could say, because of Fermat's Little Theorem, that such residues are "false positives" or "false witnesses" for the primality of "n". The number 2 is the residue most often used in this basic primality check, hence is famous since 2 is congruent to 1 modulo 341, and 341 is the smallest such composite number (with respect to 2). For 341, the false witnesses subgroup contains 100 residues and so is of index 3 inside the 300 element multiplicative group mod 341.


text: The smallest example with a nontrivial subgroup of false witnesses is . There are 6 residues coprime to 9: 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8. Since 8 is congruent to , it follows that 8 is congruent to 1 modulo 9. So 1 and 8 are false positives for the "primality" of 9 (since 9 is not actually prime). These are in fact the only ones, so the subgroup {1,8} is the subgroup of false witnesses. The same argument shows that is a "false witness" for any odd composite "n".


text: For "n" = 91 (= 7 × 13), there are formula_58 residues coprime to 91, half of them (i.e., 36 of them) are false witnesses of 91, namely 1, 3, 4, 9, 10, 12, 16, 17, 22, 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 36, 38, 40, 43, 48, 51, 53, 55, 61, 62, 64, 66, 68, 69, 74, 75, 79, 81, 82, 87, 88, and 90, since for these values of "x", "x" is congruent to 1 mod 91.


text: "n" = 561 (= 3 × 11 × 17) is a Carmichael number, thus "s" is congruent to 1 modulo 561 for any integer "s" coprime to 561. The subgroup of false witnesses is, in this case, not proper; it is the entire group of multiplicative units modulo 561, which consists of 320 residues.


text: This table shows the cyclic decomposition of formula_2 and a generating set for "n" ≤ 128. The decomposition and generating sets are not unique; for example,


text: (but formula_61). The table below lists the shortest decomposition (among those, the lexicographically first is chosen – this guarantees isomorphic groups are listed with the same decompositions). The generating set is also chosen to be as short as possible, and for "n" with primitive root, the smallest primitive root modulo "n" is listed.


text: For example, take formula_62. Then formula_63 means that the order of the group is 8 (i.e., there are 8 numbers less than 20 and coprime to it); formula_64 means the order of each element divides 4, that is, the fourth power of any number coprime to 20 is congruent to 1 (mod 20). The set {3,19} generates the group, which means that every element of formula_62 is of the form (where "a" is 0, 1, 2, or 3, because the element 3 has order 4, and similarly "b" is 0 or 1, because the element 19 has order 2).


text: The "Disquisitiones Arithmeticae" has been translated from Gauss's Ciceronian Latin into English and German. The German edition includes all of his papers on number theory: all the proofs of quadratic reciprocity, the determination of the sign of the Gauss sum, the investigations into biquadratic reciprocity, and unpublished notes.


title: Angular resolution

text: Angular resolution describes the ability of any image-forming device such as an optical or radio telescope, a microscope, a camera, or an eye, to distinguish small details of an object, thereby making it a major determinant of image resolution. It is used in optics applied to light waves, in antenna theory applied to radio waves, and in acoustics applied to sound waves. The colloquial use of the term "resolution" sometimes causes confusion; when an optical system is said to have a high resolution or high angular resolution, it means that the perceived distance, or actual angular distance, between resolved neighboring objects is small. The value that quantifies this property, "θ," which is given by the Rayleigh criterion, is low for a system with a high resolution. The closely related term spatial resolution refers to the precision of a measurement with respect to space, which is directly connected to angular resolution in imaging instruments. The Rayleigh criterion shows that the minimum angular spread that can be resolved by an image forming system is limited by diffraction to the ratio of the wavelength of the waves to the aperture width. For this reason, high resolution imaging systems such as astronomical telescopes, long distance telephoto camera lenses and radio telescopes have large apertures.


title: Angular resolution

text: "Resolving power" is the ability of an imaging device to separate (i.e., to see as distinct) points of an object that are located at a small angular distance or it is the power of an optical instrument to separate far away objects, that are close together, into individual images. The term "resolution" or "minimum resolvable distance" is the minimum distance between distinguishable objects in an image, although the term is loosely used by many users of microscopes and telescopes to describe resolving power. As explained below, diffraction-limited resolution is defined by the Rayleigh criterion as the angular separation of two point sources when the maximum of each source lies in the first minimum of the diffraction pattern (Airy disk) of the other. In scientific analysis, in general, the term "resolution" is used to describe the precision with which any instrument measures and records (in an image or spectrum) any variable in the specimen or sample under study.


title: Angular resolution

text: The imaging system's resolution can be limited either by aberration or by diffraction causing blurring of the image. These two phenomena have different origins and are unrelated. Aberrations can be explained by geometrical optics and can in principle be solved by increasing the optical quality of the system. On the other hand, diffraction comes from the wave nature of light and is determined by the finite aperture of the optical elements. The lens' circular aperture is analogous to a two-dimensional version of the single-slit experiment. Light passing through the lens interferes with itself creating a ring-shape diffraction pattern, known as the Airy pattern, if the wavefront of the transmitted light is taken to be spherical or plane over the exit aperture.


title: Angular resolution

text: The interplay between diffraction and aberration can be characterised by the point spread function (PSF). The narrower the aperture of a lens the more likely the PSF is dominated by diffraction. In that case, the angular resolution of an optical system can be estimated (from the diameter of the aperture and the wavelength of the light) by the Rayleigh criterion defined by Lord Rayleigh: two point sources are regarded as just resolved when the principal diffraction maximum (center) of the Airy disk of one image coincides with the first minimum of the Airy disk of the other, as shown in the accompanying photos. (In the bottom photo on the right that shows the Rayleigh criterion limit, the central maximum of one point source might look as though it lies outside the first minimum of the other, but examination with a ruler verifies that the two do intersect.) If the distance is greater, the two points are well resolved and if it is smaller, they are regarded as not resolved. Rayleigh defended this criterion on sources of equal strength.


title: Angular resolution

text: where "θ" is the "angular resolution" (radians), "λ" is the wavelength of light, and "D" is the diameter of the lens' aperture. The factor 1.22 is derived from a calculation of the position of the first dark circular ring surrounding the central Airy disc of the diffraction pattern. This number is more precisely 1.21966989... (), the first zero of the order-one Bessel function of the first kind formula_2 divided by π.


title: Angular resolution

text: The formal Rayleigh criterion is close to the empirical resolution limit found earlier by the English astronomer W. R. Dawes, who tested human observers on close binary stars of equal brightness. The result, "θ" = 4.56/"D", with "D" in inches and "θ" in arcseconds, is slightly narrower than calculated with the Rayleigh criterion. A calculation using Airy discs as point spread function shows that at Dawes' limit there is a 5% dip between the two maxima, whereas at Rayleigh's criterion there is a 26.3% dip. Modern image processing techniques including deconvolution of the point spread function allow resolution of binaries with even less angular separation.


title: Angular resolution

text: Using a small-angle approximation, the angular resolution may be converted into a "spatial resolution", Δ"ℓ", by multiplication of the angle (in radians) with the distance to the object. For a microscope, that distance is close to the focal length "f" of the objective. For this case, the Rayleigh criterion reads:


title: Angular resolution

text: This is the radius, in the imaging plane, of the smallest spot to which a collimated beam of light can be focused, which also corresponds to the size of smallest object that the lens can resolve. The size is proportional to wavelength, "λ", and thus, for example, blue light can be focused to a smaller spot than red light. If the lens is focusing a beam of light with a finite extent (e.g., a laser beam), the value of "D" corresponds to the diameter of the light beam, not the lens. Since the spatial resolution is inversely proportional to "D", this leads to the slightly surprising result that a wide beam of light may be focused to a smaller spot than a narrow one. This result is related to the Fourier properties of a lens.


title: Angular resolution

text: A similar result holds for a small sensor imaging a subject at infinity: The angular resolution can be converted to a spatial resolution on the sensor by using "f" as the distance to the image sensor; this relates the spatial resolution of the image to the f-number, #:


title: Angular resolution

text: Since this is the radius of the Airy disk, the resolution is better estimated by the diameter, formula_5


title: Angular resolution

text: Point-like sources separated by an angle smaller than the angular resolution cannot be resolved. A single optical telescope may have an angular resolution less than one arcsecond, but astronomical seeing and other atmospheric effects make attaining this very hard.


title: Angular resolution

text: where "λ" is the wavelength of the observed radiation, and "D" is the diameter of the telescope's objective. The resulting "R" is in radians. For example, in the case of yellow light with a wavelength of 580 nm, for a resolution of 0.1 arc second, we need D=1.2 m. Sources larger than the angular resolution are called extended sources or diffuse sources, and smaller sources are called point sources.


title: Angular resolution

text: The highest angular resolutions for telescopes can be achieved by arrays of telescopes called astronomical interferometers: These instruments can achieve angular resolutions of 0.001 arcsecond at optical wavelengths, and much higher resolutions at x-ray wavelengths. In order to perform aperture synthesis imaging, a large number of telescopes are required laid out in a 2-dimensional arrangement with a dimensional precision better than a fraction (0.25x) of the required image resolution.


title: Angular resolution

text: where "λ" is the wavelength of the observed radiation, and "B" is the length of the maximum physical separation of the telescopes in the array, called the baseline. The resulting "R" is in radians. Sources larger than the angular resolution are called extended sources or diffuse sources, and smaller sources are called point sources.


title: Angular resolution

text: For example, in order to form an image in yellow light with a wavelength of 580 nm, for a resolution of 1 milli-arcsecond, we need telescopes laid out in an array that is 120 m × 120 m with a dimensional precision better than 145 nm.


title: Angular resolution

text: The resolution "R" (here measured as a distance, not to be confused with the angular resolution of a previous subsection) depends on the angular aperture formula_8:


title: Angular resolution

text: Here NA is the numerical aperture, formula_11 is half the included angle formula_8 of the lens, which depends on the diameter of the lens and its focal length, formula_13 is the refractive index of the medium between the lens and the specimen, and formula_14 is the wavelength of light illuminating or emanating from (in the case of fluorescence microscopy) the sample.


title: Angular resolution

text: It follows that the NAs of both the objective and the condenser should be as high as possible for maximum resolution. In the case that both NAs are the same, the equation may be reduced to:


title: Angular resolution

text: The practical limit for formula_11 is about 70°. In a dry objective or condenser, this gives a maximum NA of 0.95. In a high-resolution oil immersion lens, the maximum NA is typically 1.45, when using immersion oil with a refractive index of 1.52. Due to these limitations, the resolution limit of a light microscope using visible light is about 200 nm. Given that the shortest wavelength of visible light is violet (formula_17),


title: Angular resolution

text: Oil immersion objectives can have practical difficulties due to their shallow depth of field and extremely short working distance, which calls for the use of very thin (0.17 mm) cover slips, or, in an inverted microscope, thin glass-bottomed Petri dishes.


title: Angular resolution

text: However, resolution below this theoretical limit can be achieved using super-resolution microscopy. These include optical near-fields (Near-field scanning optical microscope) or a diffraction technique called 4Pi STED microscopy. Objects as small as 30 nm have been resolved with both techniques. In addition to this Photoactivated localization microscopy can resolve structures of that size, but is also able to give information in z-direction (3D).


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: A backdoor is a typically covert method of bypassing normal authentication or encryption in a computer, product, embedded device (e.g. a home router), or its embodiment (e.g. part of a cryptosystem, algorithm, chipset, or even a "homunculus computer" —a tiny computer-within-a-computer such as that found in Intel's AMT technology). Backdoors are most often used for securing remote access to a computer, or obtaining access to plaintext in cryptographic systems. From there it may be used to gain access to privileged information like passwords, corrupt or delete data on hard drives, or transfer information within autoschediastic networks.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: A backdoor may take the form of a hidden part of a program, a separate program (e.g. Back Orifice may subvert the system through a rootkit), code in the firmware of the hardware, or parts of an operating system such as Windows. Trojan horses can be used to create vulnerabilities in a device. A Trojan horse may appear to be an entirely legitimate program, but when executed, it triggers an activity that may install a backdoor. Although some are secretly installed, other backdoors are deliberate and widely known. These kinds of backdoors have "legitimate" uses such as providing the manufacturer with a way to restore user passwords.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Many systems that store information within the cloud fail to create accurate security measures. If many systems are connected within the cloud, hackers can gain access to all other platforms through the most vulnerable system.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Default passwords (or other default credentials) can function as backdoors if they are not changed by the user. Some debugging features can also act as backdoors if they are not removed in the release version.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: In 1993, the United States government attempted to deploy an encryption system, the Clipper chip, with an explicit backdoor for law enforcement and national security access. The chip was unsuccessful.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: The threat of backdoors surfaced when multiuser and networked operating systems became widely adopted. Petersen and Turn discussed computer subversion in a paper published in the proceedings of the 1967 AFIPS Conference. They noted a class of active infiltration attacks that use "trapdoor" entry points into the system to bypass security facilities and permit direct access to data. The use of the word "trapdoor" here clearly coincides with more recent definitions of a backdoor. However, since the advent of public key cryptography the term "trapdoor" has acquired a different meaning (see trapdoor function), and thus the term "backdoor" is now preferred, only after the term trapdoor went out of use. More generally, such security breaches were discussed at length in a RAND Corporation task force report published under ARPA sponsorship by J.P. Anderson and D.J. Edwards in 1970.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: A backdoor in a login system might take the form of a hard coded user and password combination which gives access to the system. An example of this sort of backdoor was used as a plot device in the 1983 film "WarGames", in which the architect of the "WOPR" computer system had inserted a hardcoded password which gave the user access to the system, and to undocumented parts of the system (in particular, a video game-like simulation mode and direct interaction with the artificial intelligence).


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Although the number of backdoors in systems using proprietary software (software whose source code is not publicly available) is not widely credited, they are nevertheless frequently exposed. Programmers have even succeeded in secretly installing large amounts of benign code as Easter eggs in programs, although such cases may involve official forbearance, if not actual permission.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: There are a number of cloak and dagger considerations that come into play when apportioning responsibility.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Covert backdoors sometimes masquerade as inadvertent defects (bugs) for reasons of plausible deniability. In some cases, these might begin life as an actual bug (inadvertent error), which, once discovered are then deliberately left unfixed and undisclosed, whether by a rogue employee for personal advantage, or with C-level executive awareness and oversight.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: It is also possible for an entirely above-board corporation's technology base to be covertly and untraceably tainted by external agents (hackers), though this level of sophistication is thought to exist mainly at the level of nation state actors. For example, if a photomask obtained from a photomask supplier differs in a few gates from its photomask specification, a chip manufacturer would be hard-pressed to detect this if otherwise functionally silent; a covert rootkit running in the photomask etching equipment could enact this discrepancy unbeknown to the photomask manufacturer, either, and by such means, one backdoor potentially leads to another. (This hypothetical scenario is essentially a silicon version of the undetectable compiler backdoor, discussed below.)


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: In general terms, the long dependency-chains in the modern, highly specialized technological economy and innumerable human-elements process control-points make it difficult to conclusively pinpoint responsibility at such time as a covert backdoor becomes unveiled.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Even direct admissions of responsibility must be scrutinized carefully if the confessing party is beholden to other powerful interests.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Many computer worms, such as Sobig and Mydoom, install a backdoor on the affected computer (generally a PC on broadband running Microsoft Windows and Microsoft Outlook). Such backdoors appear to be installed so that spammers can send junk e-mail from the infected machines. Others, such as the Sony/BMG rootkit, placed secretly on millions of music CDs through late 2005, are intended as DRM measures—and, in that case, as data-gathering agents, since both surreptitious programs they installed routinely contacted central servers.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: A sophisticated attempt to plant a backdoor in the Linux kernel, exposed in November 2003, added a small and subtle code change by subverting the revision control system. In this case, a two-line change appeared to "check" root access permissions of a caller to the sys_wait4 function, but because it used assignment codice_1 instead of equality checking codice_2, it actually "granted" permissions to the system. This difference is easily overlooked, and could even be interpreted as an accidental typographical error, rather than an intentional attack.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: In January 2014, a backdoor was discovered in certain Samsung Android products, like the Galaxy devices. The Samsung proprietary Android versions are fitted with a backdoor that provides remote access to the data stored on the device. In particular, the Samsung Android software that is in charge of handling the communications with the modem, using the Samsung IPC protocol, implements a class of requests known as remote file server (RFS) commands, that allows the backdoor operator to perform via modem remote I/O operations on the device hard disk or other storage. As the modem is running Samsung proprietary Android software, it is likely that it offers over-the-air remote control that could then be used to issue the RFS commands and thus to access the file system on the device.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Harder to detect backdoors involve modifying object code, rather than source code – object code is much harder to inspect, as it is designed to be machine-readable, not human-readable. These backdoors can be inserted either directly in the on-disk object code, or inserted at some point during compilation, assembly linking, or loading – in the latter case the backdoor never appears on disk, only in memory. Object code backdoors are difficult to detect by inspection of the object code, but are easily detected by simply checking for changes (differences), notably in length or in checksum, and in some cases can be detected or analyzed by disassembling the object code. Further, object code backdoors can be removed (assuming source code is available) by simply recompiling from source on a trusted system.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Thus for such backdoors to avoid detection, all extant copies of a binary must be subverted, and any validation checksums must also be compromised, and source must be unavailable, to prevent recompilation. Alternatively, these other tools (length checks, diff, checksumming, disassemblers) can themselves be compromised to conceal the backdoor, for example detecting that the subverted binary is being checksummed and returning the expected value, not the actual value. To conceal these further subversions, the tools must also conceal the changes in themselves – for example, a subverted checksummer must also detect if it is checksumming itself (or other subverted tools) and return false values. This leads to extensive changes in the system and tools being needed to conceal a single change.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Because object code can be regenerated by recompiling (reassembling, relinking) the original source code, making a persistent object code backdoor (without modifying source code) requires subverting the compiler itself – so that when it detects that it is compiling the program under attack it inserts the backdoor – or alternatively the assembler, linker, or loader. As this requires subverting the compiler, this in turn can be fixed by recompiling the compiler, removing the backdoor insertion code. This defense can in turn be subverted by putting a source meta-backdoor in the compiler, so that when it detects that it is compiling itself it then inserts this meta-backdoor generator, together with the original backdoor generator for the original program under attack. After this is done, the source meta-backdoor can be removed, and the compiler recompiled from original source with the compromised compiler executable: the backdoor has been bootstrapped. This attack dates to , and was popularized in Thompson's 1984 article, entitled "Reflections on Trusting Trust"; it is hence colloquially known as the "Trusting Trust" attack. See compiler backdoors, below, for details. Analogous attacks can target lower levels of the system,


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: such as the operating system, and can be inserted during the system booting process; these are also mentioned in , and now exist in the form of boot sector viruses.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: A traditional backdoor is a symmetric backdoor: anyone that finds the backdoor can in turn use it. The notion of an asymmetric backdoor was introduced by Adam Young and Moti Yung in the "Proceedings of Advances in Cryptology: Crypto '96". An asymmetric backdoor can only be used by the attacker who plants it, even if the full implementation of the backdoor becomes public (e.g., via publishing, being discovered and disclosed by reverse engineering, etc.). Also, it is computationally intractable to detect the presence of an asymmetric backdoor under black-box queries. This class of attacks have been termed kleptography; they can be carried out in software, hardware (for example, smartcards), or a combination of the two. The theory of asymmetric backdoors is part of a larger field now called cryptovirology. Notably, NSA inserted a kleptographic backdoor into the Dual EC DRBG standard.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: There exists an experimental asymmetric backdoor in RSA key generation. This OpenSSL RSA backdoor, designed by Young and Yung, utilizes a twisted pair of elliptic curves, and has been made available.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: A sophisticated form of black box backdoor is a compiler backdoor, where not only is a compiler subverted (to insert a backdoor in some other program, such as a login program), but it is further modified to detect when it is compiling itself and then inserts both the backdoor insertion code (targeting the other program) and the code-modifying self-compilation, like the mechanism through which retroviruses infect their host. This can be done by modifying the source code, and the resulting compromised compiler (object code) can compile the original (unmodified) source code and insert itself: the exploit has been boot-strapped.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: This attack was originally presented in , which was a United States Air Force security analysis of Multics, where they described such an attack on a PL/I compiler, and call it a "compiler trap door"; they also mention a variant where the system initialization code is modified to insert a backdoor during booting, as this is complex and poorly understood, and call it an "initialization trapdoor"; this is now known as a boot sector virus.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: This attack was then actually implemented by Ken Thompson, and popularized in his Turing Award acceptance speech in 1983 (published 1984), "Reflections on Trusting Trust", which points out that trust is relative, and the only software one can truly trust is code where every step of the bootstrapping has been inspected. This backdoor mechanism is based on the fact that people only review source (human-written) code, and not compiled machine code (object code). A program called a compiler is used to create the second from the first, and the compiler is usually trusted to do an honest job.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Thompson's paper describes a modified version of the Unix C compiler that would put an invisible backdoor in the Unix login command when it noticed that the login program was being compiled, and would also add this feature undetectably to future compiler versions upon their compilation as well.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Because the compiler itself was a compiled program, users would be extremely unlikely to notice the machine code instructions that performed these tasks. (Because of the second task, the compiler's source code would appear "clean".) What's worse, in Thompson's proof of concept implementation, the subverted compiler also subverted the analysis program (the disassembler), so that anyone who examined the binaries in the usual way would not actually see the real code that was running, but something else instead.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: An updated analysis of the original exploit is given in , and a historical overview and survey of the literature is given in .


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Thompson's version was, officially, never released into the wild. It is believed, however, that a version was distributed to BBN and at least one use of the backdoor was recorded. There are scattered anecdotal reports of such backdoors in subsequent years.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: In August 2009, an attack of this kind was discovered by Sophos labs. The W32/Induc-A virus infected the program compiler for Delphi, a Windows programming language. The virus introduced its own code to the compilation of new Delphi programs, allowing it to infect and propagate to many systems, without the knowledge of the software programmer. The virus looks for a Delphi installation, modifies the SysConst.pas file, which is the source code of a part of the standard library and compiles it. After that, every program compiled by that Delphi installation will contain the virus. An attack that propagates by building its own Trojan horse can be especially hard to discover. It resulted in many software vendors releasing infected executables without realizing it, sometimes claiming false positives. After all, the executable was not tampered with, the compiler was. It is believed that the Induc-A virus had been propagating for at least a year before it was discovered.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: In 2015, a malicious copy of Xcode, XcodeGhost, also performed a similar attack and infected iOS apps from a dozen of software companies in China. Globally, 4000 apps were found to be affected. It was not a true Thompson Trojan, as it does not infect development tools themselves, but it did show toolchain poisoning can indeed cause substantial damages.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: Once a system has been compromised with a backdoor or Trojan horse, such as the "Trusting Trust" compiler, it is very hard for the "rightful" user to regain control of the system – typically one should rebuild a clean system and transfer data (but not executables) over. However, several practical weaknesses in the "Trusting Trust" scheme have been suggested. For example, a sufficiently motivated user could painstakingly review the machine code of the untrusted compiler before using it. As mentioned above, there are ways to hide the Trojan horse, such as subverting the disassembler; but there are ways to counter that defense, too, such as writing a disassembler from scratch.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: A generic method to counter trusting trust attacks is called Diverse Double-Compiling (DDC). The method requires a different compiler and the source code of the compiler-under-test. That source, compiled with both compilers, results in two different stage-1 compilers, which however should have the same behavior. Thus the same source compiled with both stage-1 compilers must then result in two identical stage-2 compilers. A formal proof is given that the latter comparison guarantees that the purported source code and executable of the compiler-under-test correspond, under some assumptions. This method was applied by its author to verify that the C compiler of the GCC suite (v. 3.0.4) contained no trojan, using icc (v. 11.0) as the different compiler.


title: Backdoor (computing)

text: In practice such verifications are not done by end users, except in extreme circumstances of intrusion detection and analysis, due to the rarity of such sophisticated attacks, and because programs are typically distributed in binary form. Removing backdoors (including compiler backdoors) is typically done by simply rebuilding a clean system. However, the sophisticated verifications are of interest to operating system vendors, to ensure that they are not distributing a compromised system, and in high-security settings, where such attacks are a realistic concern.


title: Masculism

text: Masculism or masculinism may variously refer to ideologies and socio-political movements that seek to eliminate sexism against men, equalize their rights with women, and increase adherence to or promotion of attributes regarded as typical of men and boys. The terms may also refer to the men's rights movement or men's movement, as well as a type of antifeminism.


title: Masculism

text: According to the historian Judith Allen, Charlotte Perkins Gilman invented the term "masculism" in 1914, when she gave a public lecture series in New York entitled "Studies in Masculism". Apparently the printer did not like the term and tried to change it. Allen writes that Gilman used "masculism" to refer to the opposition of misogynist men to women's rights and, more broadly, to describe "men's collective political and cultural actions on behalf of their own sex", or what Allen calls the "sexual politics of androcentric cultural discourses". Gilman referred to men and women who opposed women's suffrage as masculists—women who collaborated with these men were "Women Who Won't Move Forward"—and described World War I as "masculism at its worst".


title: Masculism

text: In response to the lecture, W. H. Sampson wrote in a letter to the "New York Times" that women must share the blame for war: "It is perfectly useless to pretend that men have fought, struggled and labored for themselves, while women have stayed at home, wishing they wouldn't, praying before the shrines for peace, and using every atom of their influence to bring about a holy calm."


title: Masculism

text: The "Oxford English Dictionary" (2000) defines "masculinism", and synonymously "masculism", as: "Advocacy of the rights of men; adherence to or promotion of opinions, values, etc., regarded as typical of men; (more generally) anti-feminism, machismo." According to Susan Whitlow in "The Encyclopedia of Literary and Cultural Theory" (2011), the terms are "used interchangeably across disciplines". Sociologist Robert Menzies wrote in 2007 that both terms are common in men's rights and anti-feminist literature: "The intrepid virtual adventurer who boldly goes into these unabashedly mascul(in)ist spaces is quickly rewarded with a torrent of diatribes, invectives, atrocity tales, claims to entitlement, calls to arms, and prescriptions for change in the service of men, children, families, God, the past, the future, the nation, the planet, and all other things non-feminist."


title: Masculism

text: The gender-studies scholar Julia Wood describes "masculinism" as an ideology asserting that women and men should have different roles and rights owing to fundamental differences between them, and that men suffer from discrimination and "need to reclaim their rightful status as men". Sociologists Arthur Brittan and Satoshi Ikeda describe masculinism as an ideology justifying male domination in society. Masculinism, according to Brittan, maintains that there is "a fundamental difference" between men and women and rejects feminist arguments that male–female relationships are political constructs.


title: Masculism

text: According to Ferrel Christensen, a Canadian philosopher and president of the former Alberta-based Movement for the Establishment of Real Gender Equality, "Defining 'masculism' is made difficult by the fact that the term has been used by very few people, and by hardly any philosophers." He differentiates between "progressive masculists", who welcome many of the societal changes promoted by feminists, while believing that some measures to reduce sexism against women have increased it against men, and an "extremist version" of masculism that promotes male supremacy. He argued that if masculism and feminism refer to the belief that men/women are systematically discriminated against, and that this discrimination should be eliminated, there is not necessarily a conflict between feminism and masculism, and some assert that they are both. However, many believe that one sex is more discriminated against, and thus use one label and reject the other.


title: Masculism

text: The political scientist Georgia Duerst-Lahti distinguishes between "masculism", which expresses the ethos of the early gender-egalitarian men's movement, and "masculinism", which refers to the ideology of patriarchy. Sociologists Melissa Blais and Francis Dupuis-Déri describe masculism as a form of antifeminism; they equate "masculist" and "masculinist", attributing the former to author Warren Farrell. The most common term, they argue, is the "men's movement"; they write that there is a growing consensus in the French-language media that the movement should be referred to as "masculiniste". According to Whitlow, masculinist theory such as Farrell's and that of gender-studies scholar R.W. Connell developed alongside third-wave feminism and queer theory, and was influenced by those theories' questioning of traditional gender roles and the meaning of terms such as "man" and "woman".


title: Masculism

text: According to Bethany M. Coston and Michael Kimmel, members of the mythopoetic men's movement identify as masculinist. Nicholas Davidson, in "The Failure of Feminism" (1988), calls "masculism" "virism": "Where the feminist perspective is that social ills are caused by the dominance of masculine values, the virist perspective is that they are caused by a decline of those values. ..." Christensen calls virism "an extreme brand of masculism and masculinism".


title: Masculism

text: Many masculists oppose co-educational schooling, believing that single-sex schools better promote the well-being of boys.


title: Masculism

text: Data from the U.S. in 1994 reported that men suffer 94% of workplace fatalities. Farrell has argued that men do a disproportionate share of dirty, physically demanding, and hazardous jobs.


title: Masculism

text: Masculists cite higher rates of suicide in men than women. Farrell expresses concern about violence against men being depicted as humorous, in the media and elsewhere.


title: Masculism

text: They also express concern about violence against men being ignored or minimized in comparison to violence against women, asserting gender symmetry in domestic violence. Another of Farrell's concerns is that traditional assumptions of female innocence or sympathy for women, termed benevolent sexism, do lead to unequal penalties for women and men who commit similar crimes, to lack of sympathy for male victims in domestic violence cases when the perpetrator is female, and to dismissal of female-on-male sexual assault and sexual harassment cases.


title: Masculism

text: A masculist approach to gender studies, which have frequently focused on woman-based or feminist approaches, examines oppression within a masculinist, patriarchal society from a male standpoint. According to Oxford Reference, "Masculinists reject the idea of universal patriarchy, arguing that before feminism most men were as disempowered as most women."


title: Masculism

text: In the wake of the abolition of apartheid, South Africa saw a resurgence of masculinist Christian evangelical groups, led by the Mighty Men Conference (MMC) and the complementary Worthy Women Conference (WWC). The latter saw the development of what theologian Sarojini Nadar and psychologist Cheryl Potgeier call "formenism": "For"men"ism, like masculinism, subscribes to a belief in the inherent superiority of men over women (in other words, only men can be leaders), but unlike masculinism, it is not an ideology developed and sustained by men, but one constructed, endorsed and sustained by "women"" [emphasis in original]. The Mighty Men movement harkens back to the Victorian idea of Muscular Christianity. Feminist scholars argue that the movement's lack of attention to women's rights and the struggle for racial equality makes it a threat to women and to the stability of the country. Scholar Miranda Pillay argues that the Mighty Men movement's appeal lies in its resistance to gender equality as incompatible with Christian values, and in raising patriarchy to a "hyper-normative status", beyond challenge by other claims to power.


title: Masculism

text: The Worthy Women Conference is an auxiliary to the MMC in advocating a belief in the inherent superiority of men over women. Its leader, Gretha Wiid, blames South Africa's disorder on the liberation of women, and aims to restore the nation through its families, making women again subservient to men. Her success is attributed to her balancing claims that God created the gender hierarchy, but that women are no less valuable than men, and that restoration of traditional gender roles relieves existential anxiety in post-apartheid South Africa.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: Lacey Mae Schwimmer (born June 28, 1988) is an American ballroom dancer and singer. She is best known as a fourth place finalist of the third season of "So You Think You Can Dance". She is the daughter of noted dancer Buddy Schwimmer, as well as the cousin of Heidi Groskreutz, who placed fourth on the second season of "So You Think You Can Dance" and younger sister of Benji Schwimmer, the winner of the show's second season. She participated in the seventh season of "Dancing with the Stars" as a professional dancer paired with Lance Bass of 'N Sync, in the eighth season of the show paired with "Jackass" star Steve-O and in the ninth season paired with actor and Iron Chef America host Mark Dacascos. Schwimmer returned to "Dancing with the Stars" for its eleventh season and she was partnered with Disney Channel star Kyle Massey and in the 12th season, paired with radio host Mike Catherwood. In the thirteenth season, she was paired with transgender activist Chaz Bono. Schwimmer did not return for season 14 of "Dancing With The Stars'.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: Schwimmer competes in West Coast Swing and International Latin dance styles. She made an appearance in Jon Chu and Adam Sevani's "Biggest Online Dance Battle" against M&M Cru and was credited as a member of "America's Best Dance Crew" with Hok, another "So You Think You Can Dance" competitor. She's made television appearances on "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", "Good Morning America", and "Jimmy Kimmel Live!". In 2008 she danced alongside Adam Sandler at the MTV Movie Awards 2008. She then appeared in the video of the song Rainbow, by Elisa with singer songwriter Vinnie Ferra.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: She is a part of the iHollywood Dance faculty teaching master classes in the United States and Norway. Schwimmer also has her own line of tube socks as well as a dance wear line designed by Sugar and Bruno Dancewear collection.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: Lacey Schwimmer grew up in Redlands, California. Her parents are Laurie Kauffman and notable West Coast Swing dancer Buddy Schwimmer. She is the younger sister of Benji Schwimmer, winner of the second season of "So You Think You Can Dance".


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: Schwimmer has been training and dancing competitively since a young age. At age seven, she and partner Brian Cordoba danced in the 1995 U.S. Open Swing Dance Championships. At age ten, she and partner Blace Thompson placed 1st in the Young America Division at the 1998 U.S. Open Swing Dance Championships. Schwimmer went on to have annual top rankings at the U.S. Open Swing Dance Championships and has won numerous U.S. titles.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: In January 2003, Schwimmer was paired with Jared Murillo, and the two began competing at a junior level. They were upgraded to the youth level in August 2003 and participated in dozens of competitions. They received the U.S. title in the Young Adult Division of the U.S. Open Swing Dance Championships. They were also awarded the US National Youth Latin Championship in 2006. Schwimmer also appeared in Christina Aguilera's "Candyman" music video as a jitterbugger.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: Schwimmer and Murillo have a cameo appearance in "The Suite Life of Zack & Cody" in the episode "Loosely Ballroom". She is in the background of the scene during which a ballroom competition takes place.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: Schwimmer entered the preliminary auditions for "So You Think You Can Dance"{'}s third season partnered by her brother, Benji Schwimmer, following his win the previous season.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: After her selection to the top 20 finalists, Schwimmer was paired with contemporary/hip hop dancer Kameron Bink. The two danced together for five weeks successfully, with judges praising their chemistry and the ease with which they danced together; they were the only couple never in danger of elimination. As per the show's competitive structure at the time, couples were assigned new partners each week after week five; Schwimmer subsequently partnered with Danny Tidwell, Neil Haskell and Pasha Kovalev before being named to the season's Top 4 Finalist.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: Historically, Lacey Schwimmer is among a group of ten dancers to have advanced through their respective seasons to the finales without finishing a single episode in jeopardy of elimination (others include Donyelle Jones, Katee Shean, Jakob Karr, Ashleigh Di Lello, Evan Kasprzak, Kent Boyd, Marko Germar, and champions of seasons 2, 4, and 8 respectively, Benji Schwimmer, Joshua Allen, and Melanie Moore).


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: Schwimmer joined her fellow season 3 contestants in the show's 2007 dance tour, which began in Albany, New York.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: Lacey assisted her brother Benji in choreographing a West Coast Swing routine for Katee Shean and Joshua Allen during the show's fourth season.


title: Lacey Schwimmer

text: On the morning of August 25, 2008, on "Good Morning America", Schwimmer was announced as the first "So You Think You Can Dance" alum to be a professional dancer on season seven of "Dancing with the Stars" and was partnered with Lance Bass. "TV Guide" reported that Schwimmer had endometriosis but was still able to continue on the show as her condition did not require surgery. She returned for seasons 8, 9, 11, 12 and 13. During that time, she and professional dancers Chelsie Hightower and Dmitry Chaplin were the only former participants from "So You Think You Can Dance" to perform as regulars on "Dancing with the Stars". However, other "SYTYCD" alumni such as Anya Garnis, Iveta Lukosiute, Ashleigh Di Lello, Ryan DiLello and Pasha Kovalev have often done special performances performed during the results show.