title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: JFK Stadium hosted Team America's soccer match against England on May 31, 1976, as part of the 1976 U.S.A. Bicentennial Cup Tournament. In the game, England defeated Team America, 3-1, in front of a small crowd of 16,239. England and Italy had failed to qualify for the 1976 European Championship final tournament and so they joined Brazil and Team America, composed of international stars playing in the North American Soccer League, in the four team competition. Because Team America was composed of international players and was not the American national team, the Football Association does not regard England's match against Team America as an official international match.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: JFK Stadium was one of fifteen United States stadia (and along with Franklin Field, also in Philadelphia) inspected by a five-member FIFA committee in April 1988 in the evaluation of the United States as a possible host of the 1994 FIFA World Cup. By the time the World Cup was held in 1994, JFK Stadium had already been demolished two years prior.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: The Philadelphia Flyers won their second Stanley Cup on May 27, 1975, and celebrated with a parade down Broad Street the next day that ended at the stadium. Five years later, the Philadelphia Phillies won their first World Series on October 21 of that year. The following day, the team paraded the exact route.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Judy Garland gave her last concert in America here in 1968, singing in part with the Count Basie band.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Yes, Peter Frampton, Gary Wright, and others played the "1976 Bicentennial Concert" here on June 12, 1976, to 105,000 fans.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Led Zeppelin was scheduled to conclude their 1977 US Tour at the stadium, but the final 7 concerts of the tour were cancelled, due to the death of Robert Plant's 5-year-old son Karac. The original Led Zeppelin never played in the US again, although the surviving members performed at Live Aid.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Peter Frampton returned from a 7-month lay-off and played with Lynyrd Skynyrd, The J. Geils Band and Dickey Betts & Great Southern, before 91,000 fans, on June 11, 1977.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: On June 17, 1978, The Rolling Stones performed in front of 90,000 fans. Opening acts included Bob Marley's former bandmate Peter Tosh and Foreigner.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: On Saturday June 20, 1981, a concert called The Roundup, which included bands .38 Special, Marshall Tucker Band, Molly Hatchet, The Outlaws and the Allman Brothers, took place in one of the original All Day concert events starting at 10 a.m.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Another all-star show was staged at JFK on July 30, 1978 that featured the Sanford-Townsend Band, Bob Welch, Steve Miller Band and Fleetwood Mac. The Bob Welch and Steve Miller sets were marred by PA system problems. The Fleetwood Mac set was marred by the unreliable vocals of Stevie Nicks, who was disinterested at best and off-key or off-tempo at worst. The rest of the band was strong, however, especially Lindsey Buckingham's guitar work and Christine McVie's vocals.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: The Rolling Stones opened their 1981 American Tour ("Tattoo You") with two shows at JFK Stadium, on September 25 and 26, 1981 in front of 90,000 fans each night. Opening acts were Journey and George Thorogood & the Destroyers. (The Stones pre-opened the tour with a warm-up show at the Sir Morgan's Cove club in Worcester, Massachusetts, on September 14, 1981.) Mick Jagger met the press at JFK Stadium on August 26, 1981, to announce the tour. Apparently in honor of the old stadium's football heritage and the Eagles' recent NFC championship, Jagger—who performed in something resembling a pair of football trousers and knee pads for much of the tour—at one point donned an Eagles jersey that became part of his '81-'82 stage wardrobe.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: On June 19, 1982, an all-day show opened with a still mostly unknown Huey Lewis & the News and featured Joan Jett & the Black Hearts, Loverboy, The Kinks and headliner Foreigner, who were touring their 7x-platinum "4" album and inflated a colorful, 30-foot-high facsimile of a Wurlitzer-style jukebox as they performed "Juke Box Hero" in the show's final minutes.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: On July 3, 1982, Rick James performed in concert at JFK Stadium, called "The Throwdown in Phillytown." Also featured were Frankie Beverly and Maze, Kool and the Gang, Atlantic Starr, and One Way featuring Al Hudson.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Blondie concluded their Tracks Across America Tour here, on August 21, 1982. They disbanded shortly thereafter, due to guitarist Chris Stein being diagnosed with a rare life-threatening disease, pemphigus and "The Hunter" having sold very poorly. They did not perform live again for 15 years, until 1997. Genesis was the headliner and used the open air stadium for one of their spectacular nighttime laser and fireworks shows. The show started at 3pm and also featured Elvis Costello & The Attractions, A Flock of Seagulls, and Robert Hazard & The Heroes.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: The Who performed at the stadium on September 25, 1982, early into their (then) Farewell Tour which also supported their album "It's Hard". Opening acts for the show were Santana, The Clash, and The Hooters. A total of 91,451 were in attendance, one of the largest ticketed single-show, non-festival stadium concerts ever held in the U.S., as documented by "Billboard".


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Journey headlined a concert June 4, 1983. The show featured Bryan Adams, The Tubes, Sammy Hagar and John Cougar (as John Mellencamp was referred to at the time). This show provided the majority of the concert footage for an NFL Films produced documentary, called "Journey, Frontiers and Beyond".


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: On August 20, 1983, The Police headlined another "JFK Jam" as these multi-act, all-day shows were being referred to. This time the opening acts were R.E.M., Madness, and Joan Jett.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Pop group The Jacksons performed for 4 sold-out shows in September 1984 during their Victory Tour in front of 200,000 in attendance, one of the largest audiences of the tour.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Live Aid was primarily a dual-venue concert held on July 13, 1985. The event was held simultaneously on the American side at JFK Stadium (attended by 89,484 people) and on the UK side at Wembley Stadium, in London (attended by 72,000 people), as well as other venues in other countries. Musical acts that appeared in Philadelphia included Madonna, Tom Petty and the Heartbreakers, REO Speedwagon, The Hooters, Bryan Adams, Eric Clapton, The Cars, Black Sabbath, Judas Priest, the surviving members of Led Zeppelin, Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young, Mick Jagger, Tina Turner and Bob Dylan, accompanied by Keith Richards and Ronnie Wood, of The Rolling Stones. Phil Collins performed at Wembley Stadium, traveled by helicopter to Heathrow Airport, flew to Philadelphia via Concorde supersonic jet and performed at JFK Stadium.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Bob Dylan and The Grateful Dead performed on July 10, 1987 in front of 70,000-plus on a day when it was 90 °F in the shade (they were spraying fans near the stage with water). The day John Hammond died.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: U2 performed at the stadium on September 25, 1987, during their Joshua Tree Tour, in front of a crowd of 86,145 people.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Pink Floyd held a concert on September 19, 1987, in front of a crowd in excess of 120,000 (general admission was sold on the field), but the show was not sold out.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: The stadium played host to the Monsters of Rock Festival Tour, featuring Van Halen, Scorpions, Dokken, Metallica and Kingdom Come, on June 11, 1988.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: The stadium also played host to Amnesty International's Human Rights Now! benefit concert on September 19, 1988, for which attendance was about 80,000 people. The show was headlined by Bruce Springsteen and the E Street Band and also featured Sting, Tracy Chapman, Peter Gabriel, Youssou N'Dour and Joan Baez.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: It was not known at the time, but the stadium's last event was a Grateful Dead concert on July 7, 1989, with Bruce Hornsby & The Range as their opening act. Fans at the show recall concrete crumbling and bathrooms in poor shape. The Dead closed the show with "Knockin' on Heaven's Door"; it would be the last song played at the stadium. In 2010, the concert recording was released on a CD/DVD combination, titled "Crimson White & Indigo".


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: On August 28, 29, and 30, 1989, in preparation for opening their 1989 Steel Wheels tour in Philadelphia (Veterans Stadium, August 31, 1989), the Rolling Stones set up their stage inside JFK Stadium for two full dress-rehearsal performances on August 28 and 29, 1989. A few dozen fans were allowed to enter the stadium to attend these rehearsals.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: Six days after the Grateful Dead's 1989 show, then-Mayor Wilson Goode condemned the stadium due to multiple findings by city inspectors that the structure was structurally unsafe and a potential fire hazard. Just hours before the concert, city inspectors had discovered piles of combustible materials, numerous electrical problems, and crumbling and/or falling concrete. By this time, some 20,000 people were already in the stadium, with another 20,000 in line waiting to enter. The Grateful Dead were only allowed to perform due to strict no-smoking regulations that had been enacted some time before.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: While renovation and repairs of the stadium were discussed, this was quickly rejected due to the exceedingly high costs, and it was demolished on September 23, 1992.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: The 1993 Philadelphia stop for the Lollapalooza music festival was held at the JFK Stadium site on July 18, 1993. The site was an open field, as construction had not yet begun on the then still tentatively named "Spectrum II" (Wells Fargo Center). This was the show at which Rage Against the Machine stood on stage without playing in protest of the Parents Music Resource Center.


title: John F. Kennedy Stadium (Philadelphia)

text: The Wells Fargo Center now stands on the site, which is part of the complex that also includes Lincoln Financial Field and Citizens Bank Park.


title: CJ (rapper)

text: Christopher Daniel Soriano Jr. (born January 4, 1997), better known by his stage name CJ, is an American rapper from Staten Island, New York. He is best known for his 2020 breakout single "Whoopty", which peaked at number 3 on the UK Singles Chart and at number 10 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. The song was later included on his debut EP, "Loyalty over Royalty", released in February 2021.


title: CJ (rapper)

text: Soriano began rapping as a hobby at the age of 9, and began recording and uploading songs to YouTube and SoundCloud at the age of 14.


title: CJ (rapper)

text: In July 2020, Soriano self-released his first commercial breakthrough single, titled "Whoopty". The song contains a sample from Arijit Singh's "Sanam Re", with CJ rapping over the beat that he found on YouTube (later the rights were cleared). The song peaked at number 10 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 in February 2021, and the UK top three. He also reached the top of the "Billboard" Emerging Artists chart. He later signed a record deal with Warner Records and his uncle, record executive, James Cruz, on his record label, called Cruz Control Entertainment. He stated that various labels reached out to him, however, Warner had the "best situation". On January 26, 2021, CJ released the single, titled "Bop", the follow-up to "Whoopty". His debut extended play, titled "Loyalty Over Royalty" was released on February 19, 2021. It was executive produced by French Montana.


title: Plant propagation

text: Plant propagation is the process by which new plants grow from a variety of sources: seeds, cuttings, and other plant parts. Plant propagation can also refer to the man-made or natural dispersal of seeds.


title: Plant propagation

text: Propagation typically occurs as a step in the overall cycle of plant growth. For seeds, it happens after ripening and dispersal; for vegetative parts, it happens after detachment or pruning; for asexually-reproducing plants, such as strawberry, it happens as the new plant develops from existing parts. Plant propagation can be divided into four basic types: sexual, asexual (vegetative), layering, and grafting.


title: Plant propagation

text: Countless plants are propagated each day in horticulture and agriculture. The materials commonly used for plant propagation are seeds and cuttings.


title: Plant propagation

text: Seeds and spores can be used for reproduction (e.g. sowing). Seeds are typically produced from sexual reproduction within a species because genetic recombination has occurred. A plant grown from seeds may have different characteristics from its parents. Some species produce seeds that require special conditions to germinate, such as cold treatment. The seeds of many Australian plants and plants from southern Africa and the American west require smoke or fire to germinate. Some plant species, including many trees, do not produce seeds until they reach maturity, which may take many years. Seeds can be difficult to acquire and some plants do not produce seed at all. Some plants (like certain plants modified using genetic use restriction technology) may produce seed, but not a fertile seed. In certain cases, this is done to prevent the accidental spreading of these plants, for example by birds and other animals.


title: Plant propagation

text: Plants have a number of mechanisms for asexual or vegetative reproduction. Some of these have been taken advantage of by horticulturists and to multiply or clone plants rapidly. Humans may utilize these processes as propagation methods, such as tissue culture and grafting. Plants are produced using material from a single parent and as such, there is no exchange of genetic material, therefore vegetative propagation methods almost always produce plants that are identical to the parent. Vegetative reproduction uses plant parts such as roots, stems, and leaves.


title: Plant propagation

text: In some plants, seeds can be produced without fertilization and the seeds contain only the genetic material of the parent plant. Therefore, propagation via asexual seeds or apomixis is asexual reproduction but not vegetative propagation.


title: Plant propagation

text: A heated propagator is a horticultural device to maintain a warm and damp environment for seeds and cuttings to grow in.


title: Plant propagation

text: This can be in the form of a clear enclosed bin sitting over a hot pad, or even a portable heater pointed at the bin. The key is to keep the moisture in the clear bin, while keeping lighting over the top of it, usually.


title: Plant propagation

text: An electric seed-propagation mat is a heated rubber mat covered by a metal cage that is used in gardening. The mats are made so that planters containing seedlings can be placed on top of the metal cage without the risk of starting a fire. In extreme cold, gardeners place a loose plastic cover over the planters/mats which creates a sort of miniature greenhouse. The constant and predictable heat allows people to garden in the winter months when the weather is generally too cold for seedlings to survive naturally. When combined with a lighting system, many plants can be grown indoors using these mats.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Jesus College is a constituent college of the University of Cambridge. The college's full name is The College of the Blessed Virgin Mary, Saint John the Evangelist and the glorious Virgin Saint Radegund, near Cambridge. Its common name comes from the name of its chapel, Jesus Chapel.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Jesus College was established in 1496 on the site of the twelfth-century Benedictine nunnery of St Mary and St Radegund by John Alcock, then Bishop of Ely. The cockerel is the symbol of Jesus College, after the surname of its founder. For the 300 years from 1560 to 1860, Jesus College was primarily a training college for Church of England clergy.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Jesus College has assets of approximately £344m making it Cambridge's fourth-wealthiest college. The college is known for its particularly expansive grounds which include its sporting fields and for its close proximity to its boathouse.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Three members of Jesus College have received a Nobel Prize. Two fellows of the college have been appointed to the International Court of Justice.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Sonita Alleyne was elected master of Jesus College in 2019, 40 years after the college began admitting women as students. She is also the first black leader of an Oxbridge college.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: When founded in 1496, the College consisted of buildings taken over from the Nunnery of St Mary and St Radegund, which was founded at the beginning of the 12th century; the chapel is the oldest university building in Cambridge still in use, and predates the foundation of the college by 350 years, the University by half a century.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The Benedictine Convent, upon dissolution, included the chapel and the cloister attached to it; the nuns' refectory, which became the college hall; and the former lodging of the prioress, which became the Master's Lodge. This set of buildings remains the core of the college to this day and this accounts for its distinctly monastic architectural style, which sets it apart from other Cambridge colleges. A library was soon added, and the chapel was considerably modified and reduced in scale by Alcock. At its foundation, the college had a master, six fellows and six scholars.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Jesus College admits undergraduate and graduates students to all subjects at the university though typically accepts a larger number of students for engineering, medicine, law, natural sciences, mathematics, economics, history, languages, and human, social and political sciences. The college offers a wide range of scholarships.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The college consistently performs well in the informal Tompkins Table, which ranks Cambridge colleges by undergraduate results. Along with students from Trinity, King's, Christ's and St John's, students of the college have been members of the Cambridge Apostles.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The main entrance to Jesus College is a walled passage known as the "Chimney". The term is derived from the Middle French word "cheminée", for "little path" or "little way". The Chimney leads directly to the Porter's Lodge and then into First Court. All the courts at the college, with the exception of the cloister, are open on at least one side.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The Quincentenary Library is the main library of Jesus College and is open 24 hours a day. The library was designed by Eldred Evans and David Shalev in commemoration of the 500th anniversary of the foundation of the college in 1996. Completion of the library was shortly followed by a new accommodation building in 2000, now known as Library Court. The Quincentenary Library has a particularly large law collection, housed in a law library on the ground floor.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The Old Library was in regular use until 1912. It still contains over 9,000 books and is available to private researchers upon appointment. The Old Library includes the Malthus Collection, being the family collection of alumnus Thomas Malthus, famous for his study "An Essay on the Principle of Population" which influenced Charles Darwin.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Jesus College has large sporting grounds on-site. These include football, rugby, cricket, tennis, squash, basketball and hockey pitches. The Jesus College Boat House is 400 yards away, across Midsummer Common.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The college frequently hosts exhibitions of sculpture by contemporary artists. It has hosted work by Sir Antony Gormley, Sir Eduardo Paolozzi, and Barry Flanagan. The college grounds also include a nature trail, inspired by poetry composed by Samuel Taylor Coleridge during his time as a student.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Jesus College is one of the few colleges to allow anyone to walk on the lawns of its courts, with the exception of First Court, Cloister Court and those that are burial sites for deceased nuns from the original nunnery.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The College Chapel was founded in 1157 and took until 1245 to complete, and is believed to be the oldest university building in Cambridge still in use. Originally it was the chapel of the Benedictine Convent of St Mary and St Radegund, which was dissolved by Bishop John Alcock.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The original structure of the chapel was cruciform in shape and the nave had both north and south aisles. A high, pitched roof was surmounted by a belfry and steeple; this collapsed in 1277. The chapel was also used as the parish church of St Radegund. Twice the chapel was ravaged by fire, in 1313 and 1376.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: When the college took over the precincts during the 15th century, the parish was renamed after the college as Jesus parish, with the churchyard still being used for burials. This, however, was short lived, as by the middle of the 16th century Jesus parish was absorbed into that of All Saints. Significant alterations were carried out to the church under Alcock, transforming the cathedral-sized church, which was the largest in Cambridge into a College chapel for a small group of scholars. A large part of the original nave was replaced by College rooms, and subsequently part of the Master's Lodge.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The misericords were created by the architect Augustus Pugin between 1849 and 1853. Pugin used fragments of the misericords dating from 1500, which had been preserved in the Master's Lodge as templates. Repairs were also undertaken by George Frederick Bodley between 1864 and 1867, who commissioned decorative schemes from Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. The same firm returned in the 1870s to install stained glass.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Said and sung services are held every day during term. Choral Evensong take place four times a week (Tuesdays, Thursdays, Saturdays, and Sundays), and sung Eucharist on Sunday mornings. There are also Compline twice a term, as well as Masses on major holy days. The chapel, famed for its warm but clean acoustics, is also a much sought-after space for concerts and recitals, as well as recordings.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Until December 2016, Mark Williams, former assistant organist at St Paul's Cathedral had been the Director of Music since September 2009; Richard Pinel, former assistant organist at St George's Chapel, Windsor and Organ Scholar at Magdalen College, Oxford, is currently the Director of Music. Former Organ Scholars include Malcolm Archer, who (until 2018) was the Organist and Director of Chapel Music, Winchester College, James O'Donnell, Organist and Master of the Choristers of Westminster Abbey, and Charles Harrison, Organist and Master of the Choristers of Chichester Cathedral.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The following Latin grace is recited before formal dinners at Jesus College ("Oratio Ante Cibum"; English: "Prayer before Food"):


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: "Oculi omnium in te aspiciunt et in te sperant, Deus. Tu das illis escam tempore opportuno. Aperis tu manus, et imples omne animal benedictione tua. Benedic nobis, Domine, et omnibus tuis donis, quae ex larga liberalitate tua sumpturi sumus, per Jesum Christum Dominum nostrum. Deus est caritas. Qui manet in caritate manet in Deo et Deus in illo. Sit Deus in nobis, et nos maneamus in illo."


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The eyes of all look towards you and trust in you, O God. You give them food in due season. You open your hands and fill every living thing with your blessing. Bless us, O Lord, and all your gifts, which through your great generosity we are about to receive, through Jesus Christ our Lord. God is love. He who abides in love abides in God and God in him. May God be in us and may we abide in him.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: "Deus pacis et dilectionis semper maneat nobiscum; tu autem, Domine, miserere nostrum. Agimus tibi gratias pro omnibus tuis beneficiis, qui vivis et regnas, Deus, per omnia saecula saeculorum. Deus conservet Ecclesiam, Reginam, regnum, senatum, et pacem."


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: May the God of peace and love always abide with us; have mercy upon us, O Lord. We thank you for all your mercies, who live and reign, God, for ever and ever. May God preserve the Church, the Queen, the realm, Parliament and peace.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Although Jesus College is one of the older colleges at the university, it is known for having a relaxed and informal atmosphere. This is in large part attributable to its active student unions, the Jesus College Student Union (JCSU) and the Jesus College Graduate Union (MCR). These unions organise a wide range of social, cultural, welfare and sporting events throughout the year. The John Hughes Arts Festival, founded by College students in 2014 in memory of the late Dean of Chapel, John Hughes, enters its third year in 2017, providing a broad programme of arts events.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Jesus College hosts an annual May Ball. Musician James Bay played at the 2015 May Ball. The headliners for 2016 were Coasts, Clean Bandit and Jack Garratt.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Jesus College offers a large number of sports, including rowing, football, rugby, hockey, tennis, squash and basketball. The college typically fields a number of teams in each sport. The Jesus College Boat Club is particularly strong, with the 1st Men's VIII never having dropped below 12th place in the May Bumps and 11th position in the Lent Bumps. The JCBC organises the annual Fairbairn Cup Races.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: A three-course dinner known as Formal Hall is served in the college's main dining hall five nights a week. Gowns are worn by all members of the college, along with lounge suit for men and formal dress for women. A four-course dinner for graduate students of the college known as Grad Hall is served in Upper Hall each Wednesday. Unlike most traditional Oxbridge colleges, the college allows graduate students to dine at High Table on Tuesdays.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: The college also offers informal dining at lunch and dinner known as Caff, as well as brunch on Saturday mornings and a carvery lunch on Sundays. The college also has a popular student bar known as JBar which sells a wide variety of drinks, including JPA (Jesus Pale Ale).


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Sonita Alleyne was elected master of the college in 2019. She was preceded by Ian White, former Van Eck Professor of Engineering at the university. Previous masters of the college include:


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Three members of the college have received Nobel Prizes. Philip W. Anderson was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics (1977). Anderson was a fellow from 1969 to 1975 while he held a visiting professorship at the Cavendish Laboratory and has been an Honorary Fellow since 1978. Peter D. Mitchell, an undergraduate and later research student, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (1978). He became an Honorary Fellow in 1979. Eric Maskin was a joint winner of the Nobel Prize in Economics in 2007. Maskin was a research fellow from 1976 to 1977 and has been an Honorary Fellow since 2009.


title: Jesus College, Cambridge

text: Several prominent figures in the law have been fellows of the college. Professor Glanville Williams, described as Britain's foremost scholar of criminal law, was a Fellow from 1957 to 1978. The Glanville Williams Society, consisting of current and former members of Jesus College, meets annually in his honour. Justice David Hayton, editor of "Underhill and Hayton's Law of Trusts and Trustees" and current judge of the Caribbean Court of Justice was a Fellow from 1973 to 1987. Professor Robert Jennings was a Fellow of the college and later Whewhell Professor of International Law (1955–1982) before his appointment to the International Court of Justice (ICJ), where he served as a Judge (1982–1991) and later as President (1991–1995). Professor James Crawford was also a Fellow of the college and later Whewhell Professor of International Law (1992–2014) before his appointment to the International Court of Justice in November 2014. Current Honorary Fellows include Lord Roger Toulson of the Supreme Court of the United Kingdom, Sir Rupert Jackson of the Court of Appeal, and Sir Colman Treacy, also of the Court of Appeal, all of whom were students of the college.


title: Mike Castle (actor)

text: Castle began his career in 2011, playing Randy in the short called "The Ghosts". The following year, Castle was in the 2012 television movie "Family Trap". He also was in an episode of the television show "Harder Than It Looks", playing the delivery guy.


title: Mike Castle (actor)

text: In 2014, Castle was in an episode of the television series "Sirens". Castle also appeared in the television mini-series "Hope & Randy" in 2014.


title: Mike Castle (actor)

text: Castle starred as A.J. Salerno in the TBS television series "Clipped", alongside Ashley Tisdale and George Wendt, in 2015.


title: Mike Castle (actor)

text: Castle is known for playing Adam in Netflix's "Brews Brothers." Castle played a videographer in season 11, episode 8 of "Curb Your Enthusiasm".


title: Maayavan

text: Maayavan () is a 2017 Indian Tamil-language science fiction thriller film co written, produced and directed by C. V. Kumar. The film stars Sundeep Kishan and Lavanya Tripathi while Jackie Shroff, Daniel Balaji, Mime Gopi, R. Amarendran, Bagavathi Perumal, and Jayaprakash play supporting roles. The film features music composed by Ghibran, cinematography by Gopi Amarnath, and editing by Leo John Paul. The film was launched in February 2016 and released on 14 December 2017. It was dubbed in Telugu as "Project Z". The film had an average opening at the Chennai Box office.


title: Maayavan

text: The film commences with the demise of a prominent neurologist named Pramodh (R. Amarendran). His gym trainer Dheena (Sai Dheena) is seen paying respects at the funeral before leaving. The plot then shifts to a young crime inspector named Kumaran (Sundeep Kishan), who is chasing a petty thief and witnesses Dheena murdering his wife. Kumaran chases Dheena, who corners him and halts him with a blow to his head. In an ensuing tussle, Kumaran manages to kill Dheena.


title: Maayavan

text: A meeting with psychiatrist Aadhirai (Lavanya Tripathi) ends on a rough note when she deems him medically unfit to rejoin the police force. Later, when he faces symptoms which attribute to PTSD, he mends his ways with Aadhirai, who helps him overcome his disorder. A second murder happens in which a famous actress, Vishma (Akshara Gowda) is killed. Kumaran visits the spot and gets stressed and shocked upon finding similar bloodstains from the earlier murder and the same brand of cigarette smoked by the murderer. Aadhirai finds him, treats him for his PTSD, and makes him normal. Kumaran meets with Rudhran (Daniel Balaji) and introduces Aadhirai to him as a motivational speaker. Kumaran, now fitter, sets out his investigation and finds that a makeup man named Gopi (Mime Gopi) must have done the murder as he is the prime suspect. Upon investigation, he gets to know that Gopi and Dheena showed a different behavior a few days before they committed the murders. Kumaran tracks down Gopi, but he jumps to his death before confessing anything.


title: Maayavan

text: The next murder happens, and the victim is another scientist named Narayanan (Kathi Ravi). Kumaran tries to find shreds of evidence in Narayanan's home and finds a book written by Rudhran. Thinking that Rudhran might know the scientist, Kumaran visits his office and finds that his behavior has changed. His dog starts to bark at him, and he has also started to smoke recently, that too the same brand that was found in the earlier murders. Kumaran deduces that some strange thing is happening, and Rudhran could either be murdered or become the next murderer. He nabs Rudhran when he shows his more ruthless and cold-blooded side when he kills his dog. Kumaran takes Rudhran into custody. While signing on the FIR, Rudhran signs a different name but corrects it to his sign. Kumaran notices this and finds out that the first sign was signed "Pramodh".


title: Maayavan

text: A brief investigation reveals that Pramodh is a late colleague of Narayanan. They worked together at the Indian Institute of Neurosciences. A senior official named Velayudham (Jayaprakash) reveals that Pramodh was involved in a project called Project Maayavan, which could enable a person to store their memories into a hard drive, which can be transferred to another individual by injecting a gel which would house millions of nano-transmitters. When injected into the brain, these transmitters will attach to the neurons. When the person dies, their memories could be transmitted to another individual whose brain would already have been injected with the gel. The memories of the new person will first be erased, and the old person's memories will be transferred via the nano-transmitters. This way the person (their memories) will not die and will instead live forever.


title: Maayavan

text: To prove his theory, Pramodh works day and night. During this experiment, he sends a patient into a coma but is not bothered about human life and instead wants to succeed in his mission. After Narayanan becomes the Director of the Indian Institute of Neurosciences, he stops Pramodh's project. Pramodh uses himself as the subject, transfers his memories in a hard drive, and commits suicide. Once he dies, his memories get transferred to his trainer, and then to Gopi and then Rudhran. Kumaran solves this and finds that the next target is Army general Major Sathyan (Jackie Shroff). Pramodh, who is living in Rudhran's body, commits suicide and arrives in Sathyan's brain. Sathyan invites Kumaran and says that his technology will let him live for more than 1000 years, and no one can stop him. With a clue from Pramodh's wife, Kumaran finds his secret lab where Pramodh has his memories stored. Pramodh successfully retrieves the hard drive containing his memories, which includes blackmailing and later killing Kumaran's friend Karna (Bagavathi Perumal). He then kidnaps Velayudham and goes to the institute lab to let him switch to another body. Kumaran tracks him down, and a gunfight ensues. Finally, Kumaran realizes that Aadhirai is the next subject. If Sathyan dies, then Pramodh's memories will transfer to Aadhirai's body, leaving Kumaran with a difficult choice.


title: Maayavan

text: 20 years later, Kumaran is happily married to Aadhirai who is celebrating her 40th birthday with their son. It is shown that Kumaran has trapped Sathyan in his basement and has kept him alive.


title: Maayavan

text: Film producer C. V. Kumar began his first directorial project in June 2014 and signed on Naveen Chandra to play the lead role. The film began production during the same month and was titled "Mayavan", with K. S. G. Venkatesh also signed on to play a pivotal role. Santhosh Narayanan was revealed to be the film's music composer and the launch event was attended by a few of the producer's close friends. The film was later delayed and subsequently shelved.


title: Maayavan

text: C. V. Kumar began working on the film again during September 2015, when it was announced that Sundeep Kishan would replace Naveen in the lead role, while Kumar would produce the film alongside the studio, Studio Green. Kumar revealed that he had also approached Vijay Sethupathi to essay the lead role, but his unavailability prompted him to sign on Sundeep. The team initially tried to sign actress Lavanya Tripathi to play the lead female role, but her busy schedule meant that the team went on to hold unsuccessful negotiations with actresses Keerthy Suresh and Amyra Dastur for the role. Taapsee Pannu then signed on to appear in the leading female role, while Kumar worked on the script alongside Nalan Kumarasamy, who wrote the venture's dialogues and screenplay. However, the film became delayed further and evaded its starting date in October.


title: Maayavan

text: Lavanya Tripathi later became available and signed on to play the leading female role after Taapsee became busy with her commitments in Hindi films during February 2016. The film was officially launched in mid February 2016, with Mohamaad Ghibran announced as the film's composer and Gopi Amarnath as the cinematographer Daniel Balaji, Jayaprakash, Bagavathi Perumal, and Mime Gopi were also added to the cast, as the film began production in Chennai.


title: Maayavan

text: There are three songs, excluding the theme music, as follows. The music is composed by Ghibran and includes the playback debut by North American singers Shweta Subram and Abby V in "Mella Mella".


title: Maayavan

text: After some unavoidable slight delays, film finally slated to release on 14th Dec 2017. It was dubbed and released in Hindi with the same title in 2019. The satellite rights of the Hindi version was sold to Star India.


title: Maayavan

text: The film received positive reviews from critics. M. Suganth of "The Times of India" gave 3.5 stars out of 5 stating, "One of the best things about Maayavan is how it manages to keep us guessing until it reveals the killer". Baradwaj Rangan of Film Companion wrote "CV Kumar has terrific instincts as a producer — he single-handedly created a parallel economy from sensible, stylish, low-budget cinema. But as a filmmaker, he’s functional at best."


title: Leander-class frigate

text: The "Leander"-class, or Type 12I (Improved) frigates, comprising twenty-six vessels, was among the most numerous and long-lived classes of frigate in the Royal Navy's modern history. The class was built in three batches between 1959 and 1973. It had an unusually high public profile, due to the popular BBC television drama series "Warship". The "Leander" silhouette became synonymous with the Royal Navy through the 1960s until the 1980s.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: The policy adopted by the Royal Navy during the 1950s of acquiring separate types of frigates designed for specialised roles (i.e. anti-submarine, anti-aircraft and aircraft direction) had proved unsatisfactory. Although the designs themselves had proved successful, the lack of standardisation between the different classes led to increased costs during construction and also in maintenance once the ships became operational. Furthermore, it was not always possible to have the ships with the required capabilities available for a specific task. The first move towards creating a truly general-purpose frigate came with the Type 81 Tribal class which was initially ordered in 1956. The 24-knot speed of the Tribals was considered the maximum possible for tracking submarines with the new medium-range sonars, entering service. The type 81 gas turbine saw the frigates underway quickly, without taking hours flashing up steam turbines, and the provision of a helicopter for long-range attack were considered essential in the nuclear age. These ships were mainly intended to operate in the tropics but lacked the speed and armament required for the priority fleet carrier escort role East of Suez, where fast radar picket capability was important, as much as anti-submarine capability. So the new frigates would combine the roles of the T12 and T61. The fully air-conditioned Royal New Zealand Navy "Rothesay" class variant, , which gave all the crew a bunk and cafeteria messing and a RNZN commissioned design study for a more fully capable Type 12 frigate, which also assessed whether the Type 12 could carry 2 of the larger Wessex AS helicopters, was used as the basis of the RN Leander Improved Type 12 design.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: On 7 March 1960, the Civil Lord of the Admiralty C. Ian Orr-Ewing stated that the "Type 12 "Whitby"-class anti-submarine frigates are proving particularly successful ... and we have decided to exploit their good qualities in an improved and more versatile ship. This improved Type 12 will be known as the "Leander" class. The hull and steam turbine machinery will be substantially the same as for the "Whitby"s. The main new features planned are a long-range air warning radar, the Seacat anti-aircraft guided missile, improved anti-submarine detection equipment and a light-weight helicopter armed with homing torpedoes. We shall also introduce air conditioning and better living conditions." The 1963 edition of "Jane's Fighting Ships" described it as a "mainly anti-submarine but flexible and all-purpose type".


title: Leander-class frigate

text: The difference between the "Leander"s (Type 12I) and the "Whitby"s (Type 12) was most obviously that the stepped quarterdeck of the Type 12 had been done away with, resulting in a flush deck, with the exception of the raised forecastle. The superstructure had been combined into a single block amidships and a new bridge design gave improved visibility. A hangar and flight deck were provided aft for the Westland Wasp light anti-submarine helicopter, which was still at the prototype stage when the first ships were ordered. The ship was air conditioned throughout and there were no portholes in order to improve nuclear, biological and chemical defence. The ships were all given names which had previously been given to Royal Navy cruisers, mostly of characters from classical mythology, the exceptions being "Cleopatra" and "Sirius".


title: Leander-class frigate

text: The Y160 boiler variant used on the Batch 3 "Leander"s (such as ) also incorporated steam atomisation equipment on the fuel supply so the diesel fuel entering the boilers "via" the three main burners was atomised into a fine spray for better flame efficiency. Some ships with Y100 Boilers were also converted to steam atomisation, HMS "Cleopatra" being one of them. The superheat temperature of the Y160 was controlled manually by the boiler room petty officer of the watch between and the steam supplied to the main turbines was at a pressure of . The "Leander"-class frigates did have Babcock & Wilcox boilers but of a more conventional two-drum design, one water drum and one steam drum, much like a Yarrow boiler without the second water drum. The water drum was offset to one side and below the furnace and steam drum. The two boilers fitted were 'handed' with the water drum inboard on both. Many "Leander"s had six-burner furnaces (known as Five and a Half Boilers) and the output was varied by altering the number of burners in use.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: The entire class were designed for a standard weapons fit when built, with a twin 4.5-inch Mark 6 gun mount, GWS-22 Seacat missile system and Limbo anti-submarine mortar, though the first seven entered service fitted with two single 40 mm Bofors guns on the hangar roof instead of Seacat, with the SAM system fitted later. All but one of the ships had Seacat GWS-22; the exception was "Naiad", which had Seacat GWS-20. However, advances in weapons systems led to a number of different conversions being undertaken on various members of the class. This saw the class grouped into four broad batches:


title: Leander-class frigate

text: Eight of the first ten "Leander"s were given the so-called "Batch 1" or "Ikara" conversion, which saw the Ikara anti-submarine warfare missile installed in place of the 4.5-inch gun, plus an additional Seacat system, and the removal of the Type 965 radar and its AKE(1) aerial. The internal space previously used by the Type 965 was used for the ADAWS needed for Ikara.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: Two of the "Leander"s with Y-100 machinery, and five out of the six with Y-136 machinery, were given the so-called "Batch 2" or "Exocet" conversion. This conversion gave them Exocet anti-shipping missiles in place of the 4.5-inch gun mount, 2 additional Seacat systems, and the ability to operate the Lynx helicopter.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: "Juno", commissioned 18 July 1967, was converted to serve as a navigational training ship. Work at Rosyth began in January 1982 and completed in February 1985. This conversion involved the removal of the Type 965 radar and all of her armament. The flight deck was extended by plating over the mortar well; the STWS 1 torpedo system and two 20 mm guns were installed. "Juno" replaced in the training role, as well as serving as the trials ship for the Type 2050 sonar.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: The Seawolf conversion gave the broad-beamed "Leander"s Exocet anti-shipping missiles in place of the 4.5-inch mounting, a Seawolf missile system in place of Seacat, Sonar 2016, and the ability to operate the Lynx helicopter. All the radar systems were removed and replaced by Type 967, 968, 1006 and 910 radars. Only five of the broad-beamed "Leander"s were converted to carry Seawolf due to costs (£70 million for each refit) and, as a lesser consideration, to retain some ships capable of naval gunfire support.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: In 1981 the Admiralty said that they intended to devote "substantial resources to improving the effectiveness of the sensors and anti-submarine weapons ... This includes the new passive towed array system that we hope to introduce into service next year."


title: Leander-class frigate

text: The former destroyer and the frigate were used for testing prototypes in 1978–1981. It was planned to install them on "Rothesay" conversions, but this was not possible due to industrial strikes. Scheduling then made it easier to fit them onboard four of the Batch II "Leander"s. "Compensation for the additional 70 tons of top weight included lowering the Exocet launchers. This interesting quartet was to have been followed by five Batch III "Leander"s, but the latter fell foul of the Nott cancellations. A fifth "Leander", the Ikara-carrying HMS "Arethusa", was fitted with a towed array in 1985, the year the towed-array trials ship "Lowestoft" was withdrawn from service."


title: Leander-class frigate

text: Admiral Sir Julian Oswald said to the Defence Committee in 1989, "in order to capitalise on the really very exciting and important development of towed arrays, we had to get them to sea as soon as we could. The only sensible, cost-effective option open to us was to take some relatively older ships - the "Leanders" - and convert them quickly to the towed array. We have done that with great success, and the peacetime patrols have achieved some remarkable results, but there has been a price to pay because of the age of those ships."


title: Leander-class frigate

text: In general, "as a ship gets older it tends to get noisier - the hull and also the propulsion system". At the same Defence Committee meeting, Oswald spoke "to counter the presumption that older ships get noisier. That is not necessarily true and it is not true, in my experience, in the case of the "Leander"s because understanding of ship-generated noise is improving all the time and our techniques for countering it are improving - our noise monitoring and so on - so, despite the fact that these ships are getting older, they are in many cases managing to improve their performance with regard to ship noise." Captain Geoffrey Biggs said "the "Leander"s are remarkably quiet in operation and our experience has been that they have made excellent towed-array platforms despite the rather short notice of actually getting the towed-array programme together to start with. They actually perform very well."


title: Leander-class frigate

text: Five ships were converted to use Waverley Type 2031(I) towed array (passive search very low frequency). They were as follows:


title: Leander-class frigate

text: During their lengthy service with the Royal Navy "Leander"s were employed during the Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation in 1963-1966. The 1973 and 1975-1976 Cod Wars in the latter of which HMS "Diomede" suffered severe damage with a 30 feet gash in its hull after being rammed by an Icelandic Coast Guard gunboat. The frigates with their thin hulls being much less suited to this duty than the later offshore patrol vessels.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: Four members of the class saw action during the 1982 Falklands War, three Batch Two conversions, HMS "Argonaut", HMS "Minerva" and HMS "Penelope" "Argonaut" experienced 15 air attacks in San Carlos Sound and was hit by a number of bombs and cannon fire; it was stranded for six days, with two bombs lodged in the forward Seacat magazine and boiler room. The first Seawolf conversion HMS "Andromeda", was one of only three Seawolf fitted frigates available with the Royal Navy's newest missile in the war and served during the war as the critical "goalkeeper"- the last line of defence for the carrier HMS "Invincible" during the war. The five unconverted, gun-armed, broad-beam "Leanders", arrived in the war zone in the last week of the conflict and immediately after it to serve with the post-war task force led by the brand new carrier HMS "Illustrious". An Argentine naval dive team planned to place limpet mines on HMS "Ariadne" at Gibraltar during the conflict (Operation Algeciras). The last "Leander" commissioned in 1973, like the two built for Chile, carried special electronic warfare systems, for countering Exocet missiles, and the Argentine services may have anticipated the "Ariadne" was scheduled for service in the Total Exclusion Zone, which in fact did not happen until after the end of the war.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: The ships performed excellently in Royal Navy service, with relatively low noise levels giving the 2031(I) towed sonar a range of more than 100 miles, better than that of the more advanced 2031(Z) sonar when fitted in the Type 22 frigates. However, all "Leander"s in Royal Navy service were decommissioned by the early 1990s due to the ships' ageing design and the high number of crew. "Scylla" was sunk on 27 March 2004 as an artificial reef off Cornwall, eleven years after her decommissioning in 1993.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: "Leander"-class frigates were also successfully exported to serve in the Royal New Zealand Navy and Chilean Navy; in the latter they were designated as the . Further frigates were modelled on the "Leander"-class frigates and were built under licence in Australia as the for the Royal Australian Navy, India as the and the Netherlands as the . Royal Navy ships were sold to the navies of Chile, Ecuador, New Zealand ( becoming and becoming HMNZS "Southland"), India and Pakistan.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: Starting in 1986, the six "Van Speijk"-class ships were sold to the Indonesian Navy and renamed the , five of which are still in service. Pakistan decommissioned the last of its "Leander"-class frigates, "Zulfiqar", in January 2007, India decommissioned her last "Leander" class on 24 May 2012.


title: Leander-class frigate

text: , the last steam-turbine driven "Leander"-class frigate in the Royal New Zealand Navy, was decommissioned in Auckland on 31 March 2005 after 33 years operational service. In 2006 it was announced that the ship was to be sunk as a dive attraction in the Bay of Islands, and this was carried out on 3 November 2007 at Deep Water Cove. She lies near her sister ship .


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Alcohol dehydrogenases (ADH) () are a group of dehydrogenase enzymes that occur in many organisms and facilitate the interconversion between alcohols and aldehydes or ketones with the reduction of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) to NADH. In humans and many other animals, they serve to break down alcohols that otherwise are toxic, and they also participate in generation of useful aldehyde, ketone, or alcohol groups during biosynthesis of various metabolites. In yeast, plants, and many bacteria, some alcohol dehydrogenases catalyze the opposite reaction as part of fermentation to ensure a constant supply of NAD.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Genetic evidence from comparisons of multiple organisms showed that a glutathione-dependent formaldehyde dehydrogenase, identical to a class III alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH-3/ADH5), is presumed to be the ancestral enzyme for the entire ADH family. Early on in evolution, an effective method for eliminating both endogenous and exogenous formaldehyde was important and this capacity has conserved the ancestral ADH-3 through time. Gene duplication of ADH-3, followed by series of mutations, led to the evolution of other ADHs.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: The ability to produce ethanol from sugar (which is the basis of how alcoholic beverages are made) is believed to have initially evolved in yeast. Though this feature is not adaptive from an energy point of view, by making alcohol in such high concentrations so that they would be toxic to other organisms, yeast cells could effectively eliminate their competition. Since rotting fruit can contain more than 4% of ethanol, animals eating the fruit needed a system to metabolize exogenous ethanol. This was thought to explain the conservation of ethanol active ADH in species other than yeast, though ADH-3 is now known to also have a major role in nitric oxide signaling.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: In humans, sequencing of the ADH1B gene (responsible for production of an alcohol dehydrogenase polypeptide) shows several functional variants. In one, there is a SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) that leads to either a Histidine or an Arginine residue at position 47 in the mature polypeptide. In the Histidine variant, the enzyme is much more effective at the aforementioned conversion. The enzyme responsible for the conversion of acetaldehyde to acetate, however, remains unaffected, which leads to differential rates of substrate catalysis and causes a buildup of toxic acetaldehyde, causing cell damage. This provides some protection against excessive alcohol consumption and alcohol dependence (alcoholism). Various haplotypes arising from this mutation are more concentrated in regions near Eastern China, a region also known for its low alcohol tolerance and dependence.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: A study was conducted in order to find a correlation between allelic distribution and alcoholism, and the results suggest that the allelic distribution arose along with rice cultivation in the region between 12,000 and 6,000 years ago. In regions where rice was cultivated, rice was also fermented into ethanol. This led to speculation that increased alcohol availability led to alcoholism and abuse, resulting in lower reproductive fitness. Those with the variant allele have little tolerance for alcohol, thus lowering chance of dependence and abuse. The hypothesis posits that those individuals with the Histidine variant enzyme were sensitive enough to the effects of alcohol that differential reproductive success arose and the corresponding alleles were passed through the generations. Classical Darwinian evolution would act to select against the detrimental form of the enzyme (Arg variant) because of the lowered reproductive success of individuals carrying the allele. The result would be a higher frequency of the allele responsible for the His-variant enzyme in regions that had been under selective pressure the longest. The distribution and frequency of the His variant follows the spread of rice cultivation to inland regions of Asia, with higher frequencies of the His variant in regions that have cultivated rice the longest. The geographic distribution of the alleles seems to therefore be a result of natural selection against individuals with lower reproductive success, namely, those who carried the Arg variant allele and were more susceptible to alcoholism. However, the persistence of the Arg variant in other populations argues that the effect could not be strong.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: The first-ever isolated alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) was purified in 1937 from "Saccharomyces cerevisiae" (brewer's yeast). Many aspects of the catalytic mechanism for the horse liver ADH enzyme were investigated by Hugo Theorell and coworkers. ADH was also one of the first oligomeric enzymes that had its amino acid sequence and three-dimensional structure determined.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: The alcohol dehydrogenases comprise a group of several isozymes that catalyse the oxidation of primary and secondary alcohols to aldehydes and ketones, respectively, and also can catalyse the reverse reaction. In mammals this is a redox (reduction/oxidation) reaction involving the coenzyme nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD).


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: The mechanism in yeast and bacteria is the reverse of this reaction. These steps are supported through kinetic studies.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: The substrate is coordinated to the zinc and this enzyme has two zinc atoms per subunit. One is the active site, which is involved in catalysis. In the active site, the ligands are Cys-46, Cys-174, His-67, and one water molecule. The other subunit is involved with structure. In this mechanism, the hydride from the alcohol goes to NAD. Crystal structures indicate that the His-51 deprotonates the nicotinamide ribose, which deprotonates Ser-48. Finally, Ser-48 deprotonates the alcohol, making it an aldehyde. From a mechanistic perspective, if the enzyme adds hydride to the re face of NAD, the resulting hydrogen is incorporated into the pro-R position. Enzymes that add hydride to the re face are deemed Class A dehydrogenases.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: The active site of human ADH1 (PDB:1HSO) consists of a zinc atom, His-67, Cys-174, Cys-46, Thr-48, His-51, Ile-269, Val-292, Ala-317, and Phe-319. In the commonly studied horse liver isoform, Thr-48 is a Ser, and Leu-319 is a Phe. The zinc coordinates the substrate (alcohol). The zinc is coordinated by Cys-46, Cys-174, and His-67. Leu-319, Ala-317, His-51, Ile-269 and Val-292 stabilize NAD by forming hydrogen bonds. His-51 and Ile-269 form hydrogen bonds with the alcohols on nicotinamide ribose. Phe-319, Ala-317 and Val-292 form hydrogen bonds with the amide on NAD.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Mammalian alcohol dehydrogenases also have a structural zinc site. This Zn ion plays a structural role and is crucial for protein stability. The structures of the catalytic and structural zinc sites in horse liver alcohol dehydrogenase (HLADH) as revealed in crystallographic structures, which has been studied computationally with quantum chemistry as well as with classical molecular dynamics methods. The structural zinc site is composed of four closely spaced cysteine ligands (Cys97, Cys100, Cys103, and Cys111 in the amino acid sequence) positioned in an almost symmetric tetrahedron around the Zn ion. A recent study showed that the interaction between zinc and cysteine is governed by primarily an electrostatic contribution with an additional covalent contribution to the binding.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: In humans, ADH exists in multiple forms as a dimer and is encoded by at least seven different genes. There are five classes (I-V) of alcohol dehydrogenase, but the hepatic forms that are used primarily in humans are class 1. Class 1 consists of α, β, and γ subunits that are encoded by the genes ADH1A, ADH1B, and ADH1C. The enzyme is present at high levels in the liver and the lining of the stomach. It catalyzes the oxidation of ethanol to acetaldehyde (ethanal):


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: This allows the consumption of alcoholic beverages, but its evolutionary purpose is probably the breakdown of alcohols naturally contained in foods or produced by bacteria in the digestive tract.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Another evolutionary purpose is reversible metabolism of retinol (vitamin A), an alcohol, to retinaldehyde, also known as retinal, which is then irreversibly converted into retinoic acid, which regulates expression of hundreds of genes.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Alcohol dehydrogenase is also involved in the toxicity of other types of alcohol: For instance, it oxidizes methanol to produce formaldehyde and ultimately formic acid. Humans have at least six slightly different alcohol dehydrogenases. Each is a dimer (i.e., consists of two polypeptides), with each dimer containing two zinc ions Zn. One of those ions is crucial for the operation of the enzyme: It is located at the catalytic site and holds the hydroxyl group of the alcohol in place.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Alcohol dehydrogenase activity varies between men and women, between young and old, and among populations from different areas of the world. For example, young women are unable to process alcohol at the same rate as young men because they do not express the alcohol dehydrogenase as highly, although the inverse is true among the middle-aged. The level of activity may not be dependent only on level of expression but also on allelic diversity among the population.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: The human genes that encode class II, III, IV, and V alcohol dehydrogenases are ADH4, ADH5, ADH7, and ADH6, respectively.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Unlike humans, yeast and bacteria (except lactic acid bacteria, and "E. coli" in certain conditions) do not ferment glucose to lactate. Instead, they ferment it to ethanol and . The overall reaction can be seen below:


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: In yeast and many bacteria, alcohol dehydrogenase plays an important part in fermentation: Pyruvate resulting from glycolysis is converted to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, and the acetaldehyde is then reduced to ethanol by an alcohol dehydrogenase called ADH1. The purpose of this latter step is the regeneration of NAD, so that the energy-generating glycolysis can continue. Humans exploit this process to produce alcoholic beverages, by letting yeast ferment various fruits or grains. Yeast can produce and consume their own alcohol.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: The main alcohol dehydrogenase in yeast is larger than the human one, consisting of four rather than just two subunits. It also contains zinc at its catalytic site. Together with the zinc-containing alcohol dehydrogenases of animals and humans, these enzymes from yeasts and many bacteria form the family of "long-chain"-alcohol dehydrogenases.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Brewer's yeast also has another alcohol dehydrogenase, ADH2, which evolved out of a duplicate version of the chromosome containing the ADH1 gene. ADH2 is used by the yeast to convert ethanol back into acetaldehyde, and it is expressed only when sugar concentration is low. Having these two enzymes allows yeast to produce alcohol when sugar is plentiful (and this alcohol then kills off competing microbes), and then continue with the oxidation of the alcohol once the sugar, and competition, is gone.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: In plants, ADH catalyses the same reaction as in yeast and bacteria to ensure that there is a constant supply of NAD. Maize has two versions of ADH - ADH1 and ADH2, "Arabidopsis thaliana" contains only one ADH gene. The structure of "Arabidopsis" ADH is 47%-conserved, relative to ADH from horse liver. Structurally and functionally important residues, such as the seven residues that provide ligands for the catalytic and noncatalytic zinc atoms, however, are conserved, suggesting that the enzymes have a similar structure. ADH is constitutively expressed at low levels in the roots of young plants grown on agar. If the roots lack oxygen, the expression of "ADH" increases significantly. Its expression is also increased in response to dehydration, to low temperatures, and to abscisic acid, and it plays an important role in fruit ripening, seedlings development, and pollen development. Differences in the sequences of "ADH" in different species have been used to create phylogenies showing how closely related different species of plants are. It is an ideal gene to use due to its convenient size (2–3 kb in length with a ≈1000 nucleotide coding sequence) and low copy number.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: A third family of alcohol dehydrogenases, unrelated to the above two, are iron-containing ones. They occur in bacteria and fungi. In comparison to enzymes the above families, these enzymes are oxygen-sensitive.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: A further class of alcohol dehydrogenases belongs to quinoenzymes and requires quinoid cofactors (e.g., pyrroloquinoline quinone, PQQ) as enzyme-bound electron acceptors. A typical example for this type of enzyme is methanol dehydrogenase of methylotrophic bacteria.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: In biotransformation, alcohol dehydrogenases are often used for the synthesis of enantiomerically pure stereoisomers of chiral alcohols. Often, high chemo- and enantioselectivity can be achieved. One example is the alcohol dehydrogenase from "Lactobacillus brevis" ("Lb"ADH), which is described to be a versatile biocatalyst. The high chemospecificity has been confirmed also in the case of substrates presenting two potential redox sites. For instance cinnamaldehyde presents both aliphatic double bond and aldehyde function. Unlike conventional catalysts, alcohol dehydrogenases are able to selectively act only on the latter, yielding exclusively cinnamyl alcohol.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: In fuel cells, alcohol dehydrogenases can be used to catalyze the breakdown of fuel for an ethanol fuel cell. Scientists at Saint Louis University have used carbon-supported alcohol dehydrogenase with poly(methylene green) as an anode, with a nafion membrane, to achieve about 50 μA/cm.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: In 1949, E. Racker defined one unit of alcohol dehydrogenase activity as the amount that causes a change in optical density of 0.001 per minute under the standard conditions of assay. Recently, the international definition of enzymatic unit (E.U.) has been more common: one unit of Alcohol Dehydrogenase will convert 1.0 μmole of ethanol to acetaldehyde per minute at pH 8.8 at 25 °C.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: There have been studies showing that variations in ADH that influence ethanol metabolism have an impact on the risk of alcohol dependence. The strongest effect is due to variations in ADH1B that increase the rate at which alcohol is converted to acetaldehyde. One such variant is most common in individuals from East Asia and the Middle East, another is most common in individuals from Africa. Both variants reduce the risk for alcoholism, but individuals can become alcoholic despite that. Researchers have tentatively detected a few other genes to be associated with alcoholism, and know that there must be many more remaining to be found. Research continues in order to identify the genes and their influence on alcoholism.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Drug dependence is another problem associated with ADH, which researchers think might be linked to alcoholism. One particular study suggests that drug dependence has seven ADH genes associated with it, however, more research is necessary. Alcohol dependence and other drug dependence may share some risk factors, but because alcohol dependence is often comorbid with other drug dependences, the association of ADH with the other drug dependencies may not be causal.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: Fomepizole, a drug that competitively inhibits alcohol dehydrogenase, can be used in the setting of acute methanol or ethylene glycol toxicity. This prevents the conversion of the methanol or ethylene glycol to its toxic metabolites (such as formic acid, formaldehyde, or glycolate). The same effect is also sometimes achieved with ethanol, again by competitive inhibition of ADH.


title: Alcohol dehydrogenase

text: The drug hydroxyzine is broken into its active metabolite cetirizine by alcohol dehydrogenase. Other drugs with alcohol groups may be metabolized in a similar way as long as steric hindrance does not prevent the alcohol from reaching the active site.


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: Turn On the Bright Lights is the debut studio album by American rock band Interpol. It was released in the United Kingdom on August 19, 2002, and in the United States the following day, through independent record label Matador Records. The album was recorded in November 2001 at Tarquin Studios in Connecticut, and was co-produced, mixed and engineered by Peter Katis and Gareth Jones. Its title is taken from a repeated line in the song "NYC".


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: Upon release, the record peaked at number 101 on the UK Albums Chart. It reached number 158 on the "Billboard" 200 in the United States, as well as spending 73 weeks on the "Billboard" Independent Albums chart, peaking at number five. The songs "PDA", "Obstacle 1" and the double a-side single "Say Hello to the Angels" / "NYC" were released as singles, with music videos being shot for all except "Say Hello to the Angels".


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: In a brief interview about the fifteenth anniversary of "Turn On the Bright Lights", guitarist Daniel Kessler stated the album's opening track, "Untitled" was written specifically to open the band's live shows. This leads into why the song is named "Untitled" because the band see the song as the intro song. Lead singer Paul Banks described the riff from the song as "signature Daniel".


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: The release of "Turn On the Bright Lights" was preceded by the marketing of the band's self-titled EP "Interpol" in June 2002, their first release for Matador. The EP contained three tracks: radio single "PDA", future single "NYC", and "Specialist". All three tracks later appeared on the album, with "Specialist" included as a bonus track in Australian and Japanese editions. Further promotion continued at the beginning of the following year, when the band played the 2003 "NME" Awards Tour alongside the Datsuns, the Polyphonic Spree and the Thrills. The song "PDA" is featured as a playable track in 2008 video game "Rock Band 2".


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: In 2012 a remastered version of the album was released in to commemorate its tenth anniversary. It featured additional material including demo recordings of several tracks, the bonus songs previously available on international releases and a DVD of live performances and music videos. Many of the demo recording tracks had been previously released however the 10th Anniversary Edition also contains five unreleased demo tracks from what is dubbed "Third Demo".


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: "Turn On the Bright Lights" was released to critical acclaim. The album holds a score of 81 out of 100 from the aggregate site Metacritic based on 21 reviews, indicating "universal acclaim". Contemporary reviews of the album often noted Interpol's influences and drew comparisons to several other acts. Michael Chamy of "The Austin Chronicle" cited "melodic Peter Hook-like basslines; the divine shoegazer textures of My Bloody Valentine and Ride; a peppy, Strokes-like bounce; and a singer who's a dead ringer for Ian Curtis." "It's almost as if Ian Curtis never hanged himself," began "Blender"s review, with critic Jonah Weiner adding that Paul Banks' vocals channeled Curtis' "gloomy moan." "NME"s Victoria Segal called Joy Division comparisons "obvious and unmistakable, airbourne in the ashen atmospherics," while praising Interpol's take on the "grey-skinned British past". "Billboard" wrote that Interpol had created an "homage to their particular vision of the '80s that stands proudly alongside the best of its idols." Scott Seward, writing in "The Village Voice", remarked: "If I like them because they remind me of eating bad bathtub mescaline in the woods and listening to Cure singles, well, that'll do. You might like them for completely different reasons."


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: Noel Murray of "The A.V. Club" opined that Interpol's virtue "lies in the way its music unfurls from pinched openings to wide-open codas", while Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" wrote that their "sleek, melancholy sound is a thing of glacial beauty". Eric Carr of "Pitchfork" argued that the band had forged their own distinct sound, "a grander, more theatrical atmosphere with lush production that counters their frustrated bombast", praising "Turn On the Bright Lights" as "one of the most strikingly passionate records I've heard this year." However, "The Village Voice"s Robert Christgau, naming it "Dud of the Month" in his "Consumer Guide" column, felt that Interpol "exemplify and counsel disengagement, self-seeking, a luxurious cynicism," downplaying Joy Division comparisons as "too kind". "Q"s lukewarm assessment of the album described it as "predictably claustrophobic listening".


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: At the end of the year, "Turn On the Bright Lights" featured on several publications' lists of the best albums of 2002, including those of "Pitchfork", who named it the year's best album, "NME", who ranked it at number ten, and "Stylus Magazine", who ranked it at number five. The album placed at number 15 on "The Village Voice"s year-end Pazz & Jop critics' poll.


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: Hailed as a seminal album of the 2000s, "Turn On the Bright Lights" has been cited as an influence on many indie rock bands, including the Killers, Editors, the xx, the Organ, She Wants Revenge, and others to the extent that many of these bands have been disparagingly referred to as "Interpol clones". Closely associated with 9/11-era New York City, the album has been seen as helping define 2000s indie rock, and Interpol have been cited as helping usher in the New York-born post-punk revival scene, along with contemporaries such as the Strokes, Yeah Yeah Yeahs, and TV on the Radio. Summing up the album's impact in a review of its 2012 re-issue, Matt LeMay of "Pitchfork" wrote: "Suggesting that this album is simply a product of its time and place is no less naive than suggesting that anyone who has ever been in love could easily write, arrange and record an amazing love song. There were a lot of good bands in New York in 2002, but only one band made this record." In 2017, the band embarked on a worldwide tour to celebrate its 15th anniversary.


title: Turn On the Bright Lights

text: In a 2018 interview with Vice, Paul Banks stated: "as far as ease of making it, we had years to write these songs. The longest writing period of any of your records is your debut. We formed in 1997, so it’s five years, and three-and-a-half/four of playing shows and trying out that material. So it went down smoothly in the studio, and then you have all the excitement of it being your first album. It was a good time in our lives." Drummer Sam Fogarino reflected on the album by saying: "we were very naïve, we didn’t know how to make a record together, and we were lucky to have a good snapshot taken of who we were at the time. And we got a little more confident with every record."


title: Faf de Klerk

text: Francois "Faf" de Klerk (born 19 October 1991) is a South African professional rugby union player who plays as a scrum-half for Japan Rugby League One club Yokohama Canon Eagles and the South Africa national team. He was a member of the South Africa team that won the 2019 Rugby World Cup.


title: Faf de Klerk

text: De Klerk was included in the squad for the 2014 Super Rugby season and made his debut in a 21–20 victory over the in Bloemfontein.


title: Faf de Klerk

text: He joined English Premiership side Sale Sharks prior to the 2017–18 season on a three-year contract. In December 2018, the club announced that De Klerk signed a contract extension until 2023.


title: Faf de Klerk

text: After four seasons with the Sharks, de Klerk announced in June 2022 that he would be departing the club at the end of the 2021-22 season to join Yokohama Canon Eagles in Japan Rugby League One.


title: Faf de Klerk

text: De Klerk was rewarded for his Super Rugby form when he was selected by the then recently appointed Springbok coach Allister Coetzee in 's 31-man squad for their 2016 three-test match series against and made his test debut as the starting scrum-half in the opening test at Newlands Stadium. In a tightly-fought series, Ireland won the first test 26−20, but the Springboks fought back to clinch the series, winning 32−26 in Johannesburg and 19−13 in Port Elizabeth.


title: Faf de Klerk

text: After signing for Sale Sharks in 2017, De Klerk was ineligible to represent the Springboks due to having fewer than 30 caps. However, after this selection criterion was abolished in 2018, new Springbok coach Rassie Erasmus recalled De Klerk to the team for the 2018 three-test match series against .


title: Faf de Klerk

text: He was a member of South Africa's victorious 2019 Rugby Championship campaign and was duly selected for the 2019 Rugby World Cup. In their 20 October quarter-final match against Japan, he was named Player of the Match. He was a key player for South Africa's World Cup victory, being named as the starting scrum-half in two of their pool matches, as well as all their play-off games. He scored a try in their quarter-final win over .


title: Faf de Klerk

text: De Klerk was once again included as the starting scrum-half against England in the 2019 Rugby World Cup Final, which saw South Africa beating England 32−12 to secure a third Webb Ellis Cup lift.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: In physics, black hole thermodynamics is the area of study that seeks to reconcile the laws of thermodynamics with the existence of black hole event horizons. As the study of the statistical mechanics of black-body radiation led to the development of the theory of quantum mechanics, the effort to understand the statistical mechanics of black holes has had a deep impact upon the understanding of quantum gravity, leading to the formulation of the holographic principle.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The second law of thermodynamics requires that black holes have entropy. If black holes carried no entropy, it would be possible to violate the second law by throwing mass into the black hole. The increase of the entropy of the black hole more than compensates for the decrease of the entropy carried by the object that was swallowed.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: In 1972, Jacob Bekenstein conjectured that black holes should have an entropy, where by the same year, he proposed no-hair theorems.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: In 1973 Bekenstein suggested formula_1 as the constant of proportionality, asserting that if the constant was not exactly this, it must be very close to it. The next year, in 1974, Stephen Hawking showed that black holes emit thermal Hawking radiation corresponding to a certain temperature (Hawking temperature). Using the thermodynamic relationship between energy, temperature and entropy, Hawking was able to confirm Bekenstein's conjecture and fix the constant of proportionality at formula_2:


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: where formula_4 is the area of the event horizon, formula_5 is the Boltzmann constant, and formula_6 is the Planck length. This is often referred to as the Bekenstein–Hawking formula. The subscript BH either stands for "black hole" or "Bekenstein–Hawking". The black hole entropy is proportional to the area of its event horizon formula_4. The fact that the black hole entropy is also the maximal entropy that can be obtained by the Bekenstein bound (wherein the Bekenstein bound becomes an equality) was the main observation that led to the holographic principle. This area relationship was generalized to arbitrary regions via the Ryu–Takayanagi formula, which relates the entanglement entropy of a boundary conformal field theory to a specific surface in its dual gravitational theory.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: Although Hawking's calculations gave further thermodynamic evidence for black hole entropy, until 1995 no one was able to make a controlled calculation of black hole entropy based on statistical mechanics, which associates entropy with a large number of microstates. In fact, so called "no-hair" theorems appeared to suggest that black holes could have only a single microstate. The situation changed in 1995 when Andrew Strominger and Cumrun Vafa calculated the right Bekenstein–Hawking entropy of a supersymmetric black hole in string theory, using methods based on D-branes and string duality. Their calculation was followed by many similar computations of entropy of large classes of other extremal and near-extremal black holes, and the result always agreed with the Bekenstein–Hawking formula. However, for the Schwarzschild black hole, viewed as the most far-from-extremal black hole, the relationship between micro- and macrostates has not been characterized. Efforts to develop an adequate answer within the framework of string theory continue.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: In loop quantum gravity (LQG) it is possible to associate a geometrical interpretation with the microstates: these are the quantum geometries of the horizon. LQG offers a geometric explanation of the finiteness of the entropy and of the proportionality of the area of the horizon. It is possible to derive, from the covariant formulation of full quantum theory (spinfoam) the correct relation between energy and area (1st law), the Unruh temperature and the distribution that yields Hawking entropy. The calculation makes use of the notion of dynamical horizon and is done for non-extremal black holes. There seems to be also discussed the calculation of Bekenstein–Hawking entropy from the point of view of loop quantum gravity. The current accepted microstate ensemble for black holes is the microcanonical ensemble. The partition function for black holes results in a negative heat capacity. In canonical ensembles, there is limitation for a positive heat capacity, whereas microcanonical ensembles can exist at a negative heat capacity.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The four laws of black hole mechanics are physical properties that black holes are believed to satisfy. The laws, analogous to the laws of thermodynamics, were discovered by Jacob Bekenstein, Brandon Carter, and James Bardeen. Further considerations were made by Stephen Hawking.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: For perturbations of stationary black holes, the change of energy is related to change of area, angular momentum, and electric charge by


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: where formula_9 is the energy, formula_10 is the surface gravity, formula_4 is the horizon area, formula_12 is the angular velocity, formula_13 is the angular momentum, formula_14 is the electrostatic potential and formula_15 is the electric charge.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: This "law" was superseded by Hawking's discovery that black holes radiate, which causes both the black hole's mass and the area of its horizon to decrease over time.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: It is not possible to form a black hole with vanishing surface gravity. That is, formula_17 cannot be achieved.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The zeroth law is analogous to the zeroth law of thermodynamics, which states that the temperature is constant throughout a body in thermal equilibrium. It suggests that the surface gravity is analogous to temperature. "T" constant for thermal equilibrium for a normal system is analogous to formula_10 constant over the horizon of a stationary black hole.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The left side, formula_19, is the change in energy (proportional to mass). Although the first term does not have an immediately obvious physical interpretation, the second and third terms on the right side represent changes in energy due to rotation and electromagnetism. Analogously, the first law of thermodynamics is a statement of energy conservation, which contains on its right side the term formula_20.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The second law is the statement of Hawking's area theorem. Analogously, the second law of thermodynamics states that the change in entropy in an isolated system will be greater than or equal to 0 for a spontaneous process, suggesting a link between entropy and the area of a black hole horizon. However, this version violates the second law of thermodynamics by matter losing (its) entropy as it falls in, giving a decrease in entropy. However, generalizing the second law as the sum of black hole entropy and outside entropy, shows that the second law of thermodynamics is not violated in a system including the universe beyond the horizon.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The generalized second law of thermodynamics (GSL) was needed to present the second law of thermodynamics as valid. This is because the second law of thermodynamics, as a result of the disappearance of entropy near the exterior of black holes, is not useful. The GSL allows for the application of the law because now the measurement of interior, common entropy is possible. The validity of the GSL can be established by studying an example, such as looking at a system having entropy that falls into a bigger, non-moving black hole, and establishing upper and lower entropy bounds for the increase in the black hole entropy and entropy of the system, respectively. One should also note that the GSL will hold for theories of gravity such as Einstein gravity, Lovelock gravity, or Braneworld gravity, because the conditions to use GSL for these can be met.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: However, on the topic of black hole formation, the question becomes whether or not the generalized second law of thermodynamics will be valid, and if it is, it will have been proved valid for all situations. Because a black hole formation is not stationary, but instead moving, proving that the GSL holds is difficult. Proving the GSL is generally valid would require using quantum-statistical mechanics, because the GSL is both a quantum and statistical law. This discipline does not exist so the GSL can be assumed to be useful in general, as well as for prediction. For example, one can use the GSL to predict that, for a cold, non-rotating assembly of formula_21 nucleons, formula_22, where formula_23 is the entropy of a black hole and formula_24 is the sum of the ordinary entropy.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: Extremal black holes have vanishing surface gravity. Stating that formula_10 cannot go to zero is analogous to the third law of thermodynamics, which states that the entropy of a system at absolute zero is a well defined constant. This is because a system at zero temperature exists in its ground state. Furthermore, formula_26 will reach zero at zero temperature, but formula_24 itself will also reach zero, at least for perfect crystalline substances. No experimentally verified violations of the laws of thermodynamics are known yet.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The four laws of black hole mechanics suggest that one should identify the surface gravity of a black hole with temperature and the area of the event horizon with entropy, at least up to some multiplicative constants. If one only considers black holes classically, then they have zero temperature and, by the no-hair theorem, zero entropy, and the laws of black hole mechanics remain an analogy. However, when quantum-mechanical effects are taken into account, one finds that black holes emit thermal radiation (Hawking radiation) at a temperature


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: From the first law of black hole mechanics, this determines the multiplicative constant of the Bekenstein–Hawking entropy, which is (in geometrized units)


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: which is the entropy of the black hole in Einstein's general relativity. Quantum field theory in curved spacetime can be utilized to calculate the entropy for a black hole in any covariant theory for gravity, known as the Wald entropy.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The Hawking formula for the entropy receives corrections as soon as quantum effects are taken into account. Any UV finite theory of quantum gravity should reduce at low energy to General Relativity. Works pioneered by Barvinsky and Vilkovisky suggest as a starting point up to second order in curvature the following action, consisting of local and non-local terms:


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: where formula_31 is an energy scale. The exact values of the coefficients formula_32 are unknown, as they depend on the nature of the ultra-violet theory of quantum gravity. formula_33 is an operator with the integral representation


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: The new additional terms in the action modify the classical Einstein equations of motion. This implies that a given classical metric receives quantum corrections, which in turn shift the classical position of the event horizon. When computing the Wald entropy, one then takes the shifted position formula_35 of the event horizon into account:


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: Here, formula_37 is the Lagrangian density of the theory, formula_38, formula_39 is the Riemann tensor and formula_40 is an antisymmetric tensor normalised as formula_41


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: This method was applied in 2021 by Calmet et al. for Schwarzschild black holes. The Schwarzschild metric does not receive quantum corrections at second order in curvature and the entropy is


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: A generalisation for charged (Reissner-Nordström) black holes was subsequently carried out by Campos Delgado.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: While black hole thermodynamics (BHT) has been regarded as one of the deepest clues to a quantum theory of gravity, there remained some philosophical criticisms that it “is often based on a kind of caricature of thermodynamics” and "it’s unclear what the systems in BHT are supposed to be", leading to the conclusion -- "the analogy is not nearly as good as is commonly supposed".


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: These criticisms triggered a fellow skeptic to reexamine "the case for regarding black holes as thermodynamic systems", with particular attention paid to "the central role of Hawking radiation in permitting black holes to be in thermal contact with one another" and "the interpretation of Hawking radiation close to the black hole as a gravitationally bound thermal atmosphere", ending with the opposite conclusion -- "stationary black holes are not "analogous" to thermodynamic systems: they "are" thermodynamic systems, in the fullest sense."


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: Gary Gibbons and Hawking have shown that black hole thermodynamics is more general than black holes—that cosmological event horizons also have an entropy and temperature.


title: Black hole thermodynamics

text: More fundamentally, 't Hooft and Susskind used the laws of black hole thermodynamics to argue for a general holographic principle of nature, which asserts that consistent theories of gravity and quantum mechanics must be lower-dimensional. Though not yet fully understood in general, the holographic principle is central to theories like the AdS/CFT correspondence.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: Kenyan Drake (born January 26, 1994) is an American football running back and kick returner for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Alabama. Drake was drafted by the Miami Dolphins in the third round of the 2016 NFL Draft.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: Drake attended Hillgrove High School in Powder Springs, Georgia. He played football at Hillgrove. As a senior, he rushed for 1,610 yards with 18 touchdowns and was named the Gatorade Football Player of the Year for Georgia. He was rated as a four-star recruit by Rivals.com. He received offers from Alabama, Georgia, and Georgia Tech. He committed to the University of Alabama to play college football.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: Drake attended and played college football for the University of Alabama from 2012–2015 under head coach Nick Saban.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: As a true freshman in 2012, Drake played in 12 games as a backup to Eddie Lacy and T. J. Yeldon. On September 8, against Western Kentucky, he had a 32-yard rushing touchdown. Overall, in the 2012 season, he rushed for 281 yards on 42 carries with five touchdowns.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: As a sophomore in 2013, Drake appeared in 11 games with one start as the backup to Yeldon. On September 28, against Ole Miss, he had 99 rushing yards and a rushing touchdown. On October 12, against Kentucky, he had 106 rushing yards, two rushing touchdowns, and three receptions for 44 yards. He followed that up with 104 rushing yards and two rushing touchdowns against Arkansas. He rushed for 694 yards on 92 carries with eight touchdowns and had 12 receptions for 135 yards and a touchdown.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: In 2014, Drake played in only five games his junior year due to a broken leg suffered against Ole Miss on October 4.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: Drake returned from the injury for his senior year in 2015. As a backup to Derrick Henry, he played in 13 games, missing two due to a broken arm. In the season opener against Wisconsin, he had 77 rushing yards, one rushing touchdown, and 48 receiving yards. In the next game, against Middle Tennessee State, he had 40 rushing yards, 91 receiving yards, and a receiving touchdown. Overall, Drake rushed for 408 yards on 77 carries with one touchdown and had 29 receptions for 276 yards and a touchdown. During Alabama's 45–40 win over Clemson in the 2016 College Football Playoff National Championship, he returned a kickoff 95 yards for a touchdown in the fourth quarter.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: Drake was drafted by the Miami Dolphins in the third round, 73rd overall, in the 2016 NFL Draft. He was the third running back to be selected that year.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: Drake made his NFL debut in the 12–10 loss to the Seattle Seahawks at CenturyLink Field in the season opener. In the next game, against the New England Patriots, he scored his first professional rushing touchdown on a seven-yard rush in the fourth quarter. On November 6, against the New York Jets, he had 96-yard kickoff return for a touchdown in the 27–23 victory. He played in all 16 games as a rookie, rushing for 179 yards and two touchdowns.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: After starting running back Jay Ajayi was traded to the Philadelphia Eagles in 2017 for a fourth round pick, Drake was named the second running back behind Damien Williams for Miami after entering the season third on the depth chart. After an injury to Williams in Week 12, Drake was named the starting running back. In Week 13, he rushed for a season-high 120 yards and a touchdown in a 35–9 win over the Denver Broncos. In Week 14, he totaled 193 yards from scrimmage against the New England Patriots, playing an integral part in the Dolphins' 27–20 upset win. In the aftermath of a scuffle against the Buffalo Bills in Week 17 in which he grabbed and tossed a Bills player's helmet, Drake and teammate Jarvis Landry were ejected from the game. Drake finished the season with 644 yards on the ground and three touchdowns with six starts.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: Through the first six games of the Dolphins' 2018 season, Drake had 210 rushing yards and one rushing touchdown to go with 21 receptions for 145 receiving yards and a receiving touchdown. In Week 8, he recorded a rushing and a receiving touchdown in the loss to the Houston Texans'. In Week 14 against the New England Patriots, Drake was part of the Miracle in Miami. Trailing by five points with seven seconds to go, the Dolphins had the ball at their own 31-yard line. Quarterback Ryan Tannehill threw a pass over the middle that was caught by wide receiver Kenny Stills, who lateraled the ball to the right side of the field that was caught by DeVante Parker at midfield. Parker lateraled the ball to Drake, who ran the ball 52 yards for a touchdown to win the game 34–33. Overall, he finished the 2018 season with 535 rushing yards and four rushing touchdowns to go along with 53 receptions for 477 receiving yards and five receiving touchdowns. This would be his last full season in Miami, as he was traded to the Arizona Cardinals at the trade deadline.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: In six games with the Dolphins in the 2019 season, Drake recorded 47 carries for 174 rushing yards and 22 receptions for 174 receiving yards.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: On October 28, 2019, Drake was traded to the Arizona Cardinals for a conditional sixth-round pick, which became Miami's original fifth-round pick in the 2020 NFL Draft. In his first game with the Cardinals, Drake posted 110 rushing yards with a touchdown against the San Francisco 49ers in Week 9 as the Cardinals lost 25–28. In Week 15 against the Cleveland Browns, Drake rushed 22 times for 137 yards and four touchdowns during the 38–24 win. During Week 16 against the Seattle Seahawks, Drake rushed 24 times for 166 yards and two touchdowns, including an 80-yard touchdown, as the Cardinals won 27–13. Overall, in the 2019 season, Drake recorded 817 rushing yards and eight rushing touchdowns to go along with 50 receptions for 345 receiving yards.


title: Kenyan Drake

text: The Cardinals placed the transition tag on Drake on March 16, 2020. He signed the tender for one-year, $8.483 million on March 27, 2020.