title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: At this time both Danubian Principalities came under the suzerainty of the Ottoman Empire, and a number of Sephardim living in Istanbul migrated to Wallachia, while Jews from Poland and the Holy Roman Empire settled in Moldavia. Although they took an important part in Ottoman government and formed a large part of a community of foreign creditors and traders, Jews were harassed by the "hospodars" of the two Principalities. Moldavia's Prince Stephen IV (1522) deprived the Jewish merchants of almost all the rights given to them by his two predecessors; Petru Rareș confiscated Jewish wealth in 1541, after alleging that Jews in the cattle trade had engaged in tax evasion. Alexandru Lăpușneanu (first rule: 1552–61) persecuted the community alongside other social categories, until he was dethroned by Jacob Heraclides, a Greek Lutheran, who was lenient to his Jewish subjects; Lăpușneanu did not renew his persecutions after his return on the throne in 1564. The role of Ottoman and local Jews in financing various princes increased as Ottoman economic demands were mounting after 1550 (in the 1570s, the influential Jewish Duke of the Archipelago, Joseph Nasi, backed both Heraclides and Lăpușneanu to the throne); several violent incidents throughout the period were instigated by princes unable to repay their debts.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: During the first short reign of Peter the Lame (1574–1579) the Jews of Moldavia, mainly traders from Poland who were competing with locals, were taxed and ultimately expelled. In 1582, he succeeded in regaining his rule over the country with the help of the Jewish physician Benveniste, who was a friend of the influential Solomon Ashkenazi; the latter then exerted his influence with the Prince in favor of his coreligionists.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: In Wallachia, Prince Alexandru II Mircea (1567–1577) engaged as his private secretary and counselor Isaiah ben Joseph, who used his influence on behalf of the Jews. In 1573 Isaiah was dismissed, owing to court intrigues, but he was not harmed any further, and subsequently left for Moldavia (where he entered the service of Muscovy's Grand Prince Ivan the Terrible). Through the efforts of Solomon Ashkenazi, Aron Tiranul was placed on the throne of Moldavia; nevertheless, the new ruler persecuted and executed nineteen Jewish creditors in Iași, who were decapitated without process of law. At around the same time, in Wallachia, the violent repression of creditors peaked under Michael the Brave, who, after killing Turkish creditors in Bucharest (1594), probably engaged in violence against Jews settled south of the Danube during his campaign in Rumelia (while maintaining good relations with Transylvanian Jews).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: In 1623, the Jews in Transylvania were awarded certain privileges by Prince Gabriel Bethlen, who aimed to attract entrepreneurs from Ottoman lands into his country; the grants were curtailed during following decades, when Jews were only allowed to settle in Gyulafehérvár (Alba Iulia). Among the privileges granted was one allowing Jews to wear traditional dress; eventually, the authorities in Gyulafehérvár decided (in 1650 and 1741) to allow Jews to wear only clothing evidencing their status and ethnicity.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The status of Jews who had converted to Eastern Orthodoxy was established in Wallachia by Matei Basarab's "Pravila de la Govora" and in Moldavia by Vasile Lupu's "Carte românească de învățătură". The latter ruler (1634–1653) treated the Jews with consideration until the appearance of the Cossacks (1648), who marched against the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and who, while crossing the region, killed many Jews; the violence led many Ashkenazi Jews from Poland took refuge in Moldavia and Wallachia, establishing small but stable communities. Massacres and forced conversions by the Cossacks occurred in 1652, when the latter came to Iași on the occasion of the Vasile Lupu's daughter marriage to Timush, the son of Bohdan Khmelnytsky, and during the rule of Gheorghe Ștefan.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: According to Anton Maria Del Chiaro, secretary of the Wallachian princes between 1710 and 1716, the Jewish population of Wallachia was required to respect a certain dresscode. Thus, they were prohibited from wearing clothes of other color than black or violet, or to wear yellow or red boots. Nevertheless, the Romanian scholar Andrei Oișteanu argued that such ethnic and religious social stigma was uncommon in Moldavia and Wallachia, as well as throughout the Eastern Orthodox areas of Europe.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The first blood accusation in Moldavia (and, as such, in Romania) was made April 5, 1710, when the Jews of Târgu Neamț were charged with having killed a Christian child for ritual purposes´. The instigator was a baptized Jew who had helped to carry the body of a child, murdered by Christians, into the courtyard of the synagogue. On the next day five Jews were killed, others were maimed, and every Jewish house was pillaged, while the representatives of the community were imprisoned and tortured. Meanwhile, some influential Jews appealed to Prince Nicholas Mavrocordatos (the first Phanariote ruler) in Iași, who ordered an investigation resulting in the freeing of those arrested. This was the first time that the Orthodox clergy participated in attacks on Jews. It was due to the clergy's instigations that in 1714 a similar charge was brought against the Jews of the city of Romanthe murder by a group of Roman Catholics of a Christian girl-servant to Jewish family was immediately blamed on Jews; every Jewish house was plundered, and two prominent Jews were hanged, before the real criminals were discovered by the authorities.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Under Constantin Brâncoveanu, Wallachian Jews were recognized as a special guild in Bucharest, led by a "starost". Jews in both Wallachia and Moldavia were subject to the "Hakham Bashi" in Iași, but soon the Bucharest "starost" assumed several religious duties. Overtaxed and persecuted under Ștefan Cantacuzino (1714–1716), Wallachian Jews obtained valuable privileges during Nicholas Mavrocordatos' rule (1716–1730) in that country (the Prince notably employed the Jewish savant Daniel de Fonseca at his court). Another anti-Jewish riot occurred in Bucharest in the 1760s, and was encouraged by the visit of Ephram II, Patriarch of Jerusalem.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: In 1726, in the Moldavian borough of Onițcani, four Jews were accused of having kidnapped a five-year-old child, of killing him on Easter and of collecting his blood in a barrel. They were tried at Iași under the supervision of Moldavian Prince Mihai Racoviță, and eventually acquitted following diplomatic protests. The event was echoed in several contemporary chronicles and documents — for example, the French ambassador to the Porte, Jean-Baptiste Louis Picon, remarked that such an accusation was no longer accepted in "civilized countries". The most obvious effects on the condition of the Jewish inhabitants of Moldavia were witnessed during the reign of John Mavrocordatos (1744–1747): a Jewish farmer in the vicinity of Suceava reported the prince to the Porte for allegedly using his house to rape a number of kidnapped Jewish women; Mavrocordatos had his accuser hanged. This act aroused the anger of Mahmud I's "kapucu" in Moldavia, and the prince paid the penalty with the loss of his throne.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: During the Russo-Turkish War of 1768-1774, Jews in the Danubian Principalities endured great hardships. Massacres and pillages were perpetrated in almost every town and village in the country. When peace was restored, both princes, Alexander Mavrocordatos of Moldavia and Nicholas Mavrogheni of Wallachia, pledged their special protection to Jews, whose condition remained favorable until 1787, when both Janissaries and the Imperial Russian Army took part in pogroms.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The community was also subject to persecutions by the locals. Jewish children were seized and forcibly baptized. Ritual-murder accusations became widespread, with one made at Galați in 1797 leading to exceptionally severe resultswith Jews being attacked by a large mob, driven from their homes, robbed, waylaid on the streets, and many killed on the spot, while some were forced into the Danube and drowned, and others who took refuge in the synagogue were burned to death in the building; a few escaped after being given protection and refuge by a priest. In 1803, shortly before his death, the Wallachian Metropolitan Iacob Stamati instigated attacks on the Bucharest community by publishing his "Înfruntarea jidovilor" ("Facing the Jews"), which pretended to be the confession of a former rabbi; however, Jews were offered refuge by Stamati's replacement, Veniamin Costachi. A seminal event occurred in 1804, when ruler Constantine Ypsilanti dismissed accusations of ritual murder as "the unfounded opinion" of "stupid people", and ordered that their condemnation be read in churches throughout Wallachia; the allegations no longer surfaced during the following period.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: During the Russo-Turkish War of 1806-1812, the Russian invasion was again accompanied by massacres of Jews. Kalmyk irregular soldiers in Ottoman service, who appeared in Bucharest at the close of the Russo-Turkish War, terrorised the city's Jewish population. At around the same time, a conflict emerged in Wallachia between Jews under foreign protection ("sudiți") and local ones ("hrisovoliți"), after the latter tried to impose a single administration for the community, a matter which was finally settled in favor of the "hrisovoliți" by Prince Jean Georges Caradja (1813).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: In Habsburg-ruled Transylvania, the reforms carried out by Joseph II allowed Jews to settle in towns directly subject to the Hungarian Crown. However, pressure placed on the community remained stringent for the following decades.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: By 1825, the Jewish population in Wallachia was estimated at between 5,000 and 10,000 people, almost all Sephardi. Of these, the larger part resided in Bucharest (probably as many as 7,000 in 1839); and at around the same time, Moldavia was home to about 12,000 Jews. In parallel, the Jewish population in Bukovina rose from 526 in 1774 to 11,600 in 1848. In the early 19th century, Jews who sought refuge from Osman Pazvantoğlu's campaign in the Balkans established communities in Wallachian-ruled Oltenia. In Moldavia, Scarlat Callimachi's "Code" (1817) allowed Jews to purchase urban property, but prevented them from settling in the countryside (while purchasing town property became increasingly difficult due to popular prejudice).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: During the Greek War of Independence, which signaled the Wallachian uprising of 1821 and the Danubian Principalities' occupation by Filiki Eteria troops under Alexander Ypsilantis, Jews were victims of pogroms and persecutions in places such as Fălticeni, Hertsa, Piatra Neamț, the Secu Monastery, Târgoviște, and Târgu Frumos. Jews in Galați managed to escape over the Prut River with assistance from Austrian diplomats. Weakened by the clash between Ypsilantis and Tudor Vladimirescu, the Eterists were massacred by the Ottoman intervention armies, and during this episode, Jewish communities engaged in reprisals in Secu and Slatina.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Following the 1829 Treaty of Adrianople (which allowed the two principalities to freely engage in foreign trade), Moldavia, where commercial niches had been largely left unoccupied, became a target for migration of Ashkenazi Jews persecuted in Imperial Russia and the Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria. By 1838, their number seems to have reached 80,000, and over 195,000, or almost 12% of the country's population, in 1859 (with an additional 50,000 passing through to Wallachia between the two estimates).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Despite initial interdictions under the Russian occupation of 1829 (when it was first regulated that non-Christians were not to be regarded as citizens), many of the new immigrants became leaseholders of estates and tavern-keepers, serving to increase both the revenue and demands of boyars, and leading in turn to an increase in economic pressures over those working the land or buying products (usual prejudice against Jews accused tavern-keepers of encouraging alcoholism). At the same time, several Jews rose to prominence and high social status, with most families involved in Moldavian banking around the 1850s being of Jewish origin. After 1832, following adoption of the "Organic Statute", Jewish children were accepted in schools in the two Principalities only if they wore the same clothing as others. In Moldavia, the 1847 decree of Prince Mihail Sturdza compelled Jews to abandon the traditional dress code.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Before the Revolutions of 1848, which found their parallel in the Wallachian revolution, many restrictive laws against Jews were enacted; although they had some destructive effects, they were never strictly enforced. In various ways, Jews took part in the Wallachian revolt; for example, Constantin Daniel Rosenthal, the painter, distinguished himself in the revolutionary cause, and paid for his activity with his life (being tortured to death in Budapest by Austrian authorities). The major document to be codified by the 1848 Wallachian revolutionaries, the "Islaz Proclamation", called for "the emancipation of Israelites and political rights for all compatriots of different faiths".


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: After the end of the Crimean War, the struggle for the union of the two principalities began. Both parties, Unionists and anti-Unionists sought support of Jews, with each promising full equality; and proclamations to this effect were issued between 1857 and 1858. In 1857, the community published its first magazine, "Israelitul Român", edited by the Romanian radical Iuliu Barasch. This process of gradual integration resulted in the creation of an informal Jewish Romanian identity, while conversion to Christianity, despite encouragement by the authorities, remained confined to exceptional cases.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: From the beginning of the reign of Alexandru Ioan Cuza (1859–1866), the first ruler ("Domnitor") of the united principalities, the Jews became a prominent factor in the politics of the country. This period was, however, inaugurated by another riot motivated by blood libel accusations, begun during Easter 1859 in Galați.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Regulations on clothing were confirmed inside Moldavia by two orders of Mihail Kogălniceanu, Minister of Internal Affairs (issues in 1859 and 1860 respectively). Following adoption of the 1859 regulation, soldiers and civilians would walk the streets of Iași and some other Moldavian towns, assaulting Jews, using scissors to shred their clothing, but also to cut their beards or their sidelocks; drastic measures applied by the Army Headquarters put a stop to such turmoil.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: In 1864, Prince Cuza, owing to difficulties between his government and the general assembly, dissolved the latter and decided to submit a draft of a constitution granting universal suffrage. He proposed creating two chambers (of senators and deputies respectively), to extend the franchise to all citizens, and to emancipate the peasants from forced labor (expecting to nullify the remaining influence of the landownersno longer boyars after the land reform). In the process, Cuza also expected financial support from both the Jews and the Armeniansit appears that he kept the latter demand reduced, asking for only 40,000 Austrian florins (the standard gold coins; about US$ 90,000 at the exchange rate of the time) from the two groups. The Armenians discussed the matter with the Jews, but they were not able to come to a satisfactory agreement in the matter.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: While Cuza was pressing in his demands, the Jewish community debated the method of assessment. The rich Jews, for unclear reasons, refused to advance the money, and the middle class argued that the sum would not lead to tangible enough results; Religious Jews insisted that such rights would only interfere with the exercise of their religion. Cuza, on being informed that the Jews hesitated to pay their share, inserted in his draft of a constitution a clause excluding from the right of suffrage all who did not profess Christianity.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: When Charles von Hohenzollern succeeded Cuza in 1866 as Carol I of Romania, the first event that confronted him in the capital was a riot against the Jews. A draft of a constitution was then submitted by the government, Article 6 of which declared that "religion is no obstacle to citizenship"; but, "with regard to the Jews, a special law will have to be framed in order to regulate their admission to naturalization and also to civil rights". On June 30, 1866, the Bucharest Synagogue was desecrated and demolished (it was rebuilt in the same year, then restored in 1932 and 1945). Many Jews were beaten, maimed, and robbed. As a result, Article 6 was withdrawn and Article 7 was added to the 1866 Constitution; it read that "only such aliens as are of the Christian faith may obtain citizenship".


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: For the following decades, the issue of Jewish rights occupied the forefront of the Regat's political scene. With few notable exceptions (including some of "Junimea" affiliates — Petre P. Carp, George Panu, and I.L. Caragiale), most Romanian intellectuals began professing antisemitism; its most virulent form was the one present with advocates of Liberalism (in contradiction to their 1848 political roots), especially Moldavians, who argued that Jewish immigration had prevented the rise of an ethnic Romanian middle class. The first examples of modern prejudice were the Moldavian "Fracțiunea liberă și independentă" (later blended into the National Liberal Party, PNL) and the Bucharest group formed around Cezar Bolliac. Their discourse saw Jews as non-assimilated and perpetually foreignthis claim was, however, challenged by some contemporary sources, and by the eventual acceptance of all immigrants other than Jews.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Antisemitism was carried into the PNL's mainstream, and was officially enforced under the premierships of Ion Brătianu. During his first years in office, Brătianu reinforced and applied old discrimination laws, insisting that Jews were not allowed to settle in the countryside (and relocating those that had done so), while declaring many Jewish urban inhabitants to be vagrants and expelling them from the country. According to the 1905 "Jewish Encyclopedia": "A number of such Jews who proved their Romanian birth were forced across the Danube, and when [the Ottoman Empire] refused to receive them, were thrown into the river and drowned. Almost every country in Europe was shocked at these barbarities. The Romanian government was warned by the powers; and Brătianu was subsequently dismissed from office". Cabinets formed by the Conservative Party, although including "Junimea"'s leaders, did not do much to improve the Jews' conditionmainly due to PNL opposition.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Nonetheless, during this same era, Romania was the cradle of Yiddish theatre. The Russian-born Abraham Goldfaden started the first professional Yiddish theatre company in Iași in 1876 and for several years, especially during the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878 Romania was the home of Yiddish theatre. While its center of gravity would move first to Russia, then London, then New York City, both Bucharest and Iași would continue to figure prominently in its history over the next century.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: When Brătianu resumed leadership, Romania faced the emerging conflict in the Balkans, and saw its chance to declare independence from Ottoman suzerainty by dispatching its troops on the Russian side in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Berlin (1878), which stipulated (Article 44) that the non-Christians in Romania (including both Jews and Muslims in the newly acquired region of Northern Dobruja) should receive full citizenship. After a prolonged debate at home and diplomatic negotiations abroad, the Romanian government ultimately agreed (1879) to abrogate Article 7 of its constitution. This was, however, reformulated to make procedures very difficult: "the naturalization of aliens not under foreign protection should in every individual case be decided by Parliament" (the action involved, among others, a ten-year term before the applicant was given an evaluation). The gesture was doubled by a show of compliance883 Jews, participants in the war, were naturalized in a body by a vote of both chambers.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Fifty-seven persons voted upon as individuals were naturalized in 1880; 6, in 1881; 2, in 1882; 2, in 1883; and 18, from 1886 to 1900; in all, 85 Jews in twenty-one years, 27 of whom in the meantime died; c. 4,000 people had obtained citizenship by 1912. Various laws were passed until the pursuit of virtually all careers was made dependent on the possession of political rights, which only Romanians could exercise; more than 40% of Jewish working men, including manual labourers, were forced into unemployment by such legislation. Similar laws were passed in regard to Jews exercising liberal professions.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: In 1893, a piece of legislation was voted to deprive Jewish children of the right to be educated in the public schoolsthey were to be received only if and where children of citizens had been provided for, and their parents were required to pay preferential tuition fees. In 1898, it was passed into law that Jews were to be excluded from secondary schools and the universities. Another notable measure was the expulsion of vocal Jewish activists as "objectionable aliens" (under the provisions of an 1881 law), including those of Moses Gaster and Elias Schwarzfeld.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The courts exacted the oath "more judaico" in its most offensive formit was only abolished in 1904, following criticism in the French press. In 1892, when the United States addressed a note to the signatory powers of the Berlin treaty on the matter, it was attacked by the Romanian press. The Lascăr Catargiu government was, however, concernedthe issue was debated among ministers, and, as a result, the Romanian government issued pamphlets in French, reiterating its accusations against the Jews and maintaining that persecutions were deserved and came as retribution for the community's alleged exploitation of the rural population.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The emigration of Romanian Jews on a larger scale commenced soon after 1878; numbers rose and fell, with a major wave of Bessarabian Jews after the Kishinev pogrom in Imperial Russia (1905). The "Jewish Encyclopedia" wrote in 1905, shortly before the pogrom, "It is admitted that at least 70 per cent would leave the country at any time if the necessary traveling expenses were furnished". There are no official statistics of emigration; but it is safe to place the minimum number of Jewish emigrants from 1898 to 1904 at 70,000. By 1900 there were 250,000 Romanian Jews: 3.3% of the population, 14.6% of the city dwellers, 32% of the Moldavian urban population and 42% of Iași.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Land issues and Jewish presence among estate leaseholders accounted for the 1907 Romanian Peasants' Revolt, partly antisemitic in message. During the same period, the anti-Jewish message first expanded beyond its National Liberal base (where it was soon an insignificant attitude), to cover the succession of more radical and Moldavian-based organizations founded by A.C. Cuza (his Democratic Nationalist Party, created in 1910, had the first antisemitic program in Romanian political history). No longer present in the PNL's ideology by the 1920s, antisemitism also tended to surface in on the left-wing of the political spectrum, in currents originating in "Poporanism"which favoured the claim that peasants were being systematically exploited by Jews.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: World War I, during which 882 Jewish soldiers died defending Romania (825 were decorated), brought about the creation of Greater Romania after the 1919 Paris Peace Conference and subsequent treaties. The enlarged state had an increased Jewish population, corresponding with the addition of communities in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and Transylvania. On signing the treaties, Romania agreed to change its policy towards the Jews, promising to award them both citizenship and minority rights, the effective emancipation of Jews. The 1923 Constitution of Romania sanctioned these requirements, meeting opposition from Cuza's National-Christian Defense League and rioting by far right students in Iași; the land reform carried out by the Ion I. C. Brătianu cabinet also settled problems connected with land tenancy.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Political representation for the Jewish community in the inter-war period was divided between the Jewish Party and the Federation of Jewish Communities of Romania (the latter was re-established after 1989). During the same period, a division in ritual became apparent between Reform Jews in Transylvania and usually Orthodox ones in the rest of the country (while Bessarabia was the most open to Zionism and especially the socialist Labor Zionism).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The popularity of anti-Jewish messages was, nevertheless, on the rise, and merged itself with the appeal of fascism in the late 1920sboth contributed to the creation and success of Corneliu Zelea Codreanu's Iron Guard and the appearance of new types of anti-Semitic discourses ("Trăirism" and "Gândirism"). The idea of a "Jewish quota" in higher education became highly popular among Romanian students and teachers. According to Andrei Oișteanu's analysis, a relevant number of right-wing intellectuals refused to adopt overt anti-Semitism, which was ill-reputed through its association with A. C. Cuza's violent discourse; nevertheless, a few years later, such cautions were cast aside, and anti-Semitism became displayed as "spiritual health".


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The first motion to exclude Jews from professional associations came on May 16, 1937, when the Confederation of the Associations of Professional Intellectuals ("Confederația Asociațiilor de Profesioniști Intelectuali din România") voted to exclude all Jewish members from its affiliated bodies, calling for the state to withdraw their licenses and reassess their citizenship. Although illegal, the measure was popular and it was commented that, in its case, legality had been supplanted by a "heroic decision". According to Oișteanu, the initiative had a direct influence on antisemitic regulations passed during the following year.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The threat posed by the Iron Guard, the emergence of Nazi Germany as a European power, and his own fascist sympathies , made King Carol II, who was still largely identified as a philo-Semite, adopt racial discrimination as the norm. In the recent election, over 25% of the electorate had voted for explicitly antisemitic groups (either the Goga-Cuza alliance (9%) or the Iron Guard's political mouthpiece, TPT(16.5%)), and as a result, Carol was forced to let one of the two into his cabinet- he instantly chose the Goga-Cuza alliance over the rabid fascism of the Iron Guard (according to modern historian of the Balkans, Misha Glenny, he also thought that this would "take the sting out of the Guard's tail"). On January 21, 1938, Carol's executive (led by Cuza and Octavian Goga) passed a law aimed at reviewing criteria for citizenship (after it cast allegations that previous cabinets had allowed Ukrainian Jews to obtain it illegally), and requiring all Jews who had received citizenship in 1918–1919 to reapply for it (while providing a very short term in which this could be achieved20 days);


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: However, Carol II himself was highly hostile to antisemitism . His lover, Elena Lupescu, was Jewish , as were a number of his friends in government , and he soon reverted to his original policies (that is, fiercely opposing the antisemites and fascists), but with a newly violent sting. On February 12, 1938, he used the rising violence between political groups as context to seize absolute power (a move which was tacitly supported by the liberals who had come to view him as a lesser evil in comparison to Codreanu's fascist movement). As an authentic Romanian nationalist (albeit, one who had a view of a Westernized, forcefully industrialized Romania at the expense of the peasants whom he viewed with disdain; making him completely the antithesis of the views of Codreanu ), Carol was determined that Romania should not fall into the near-absolute economic and political control that many of its neighbors already had, and moved to theatrical resistance against Nazi ideology .


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The King then arrested the entire leadership of the Iron Guard, on the grounds that they were in the pay of the Nazis, and began using the same accusation against various political opponents, both to solidify his absolute control of the country as well as negatively stigmatize Germany. In November, the fourteen most important fascist leaders (the first of which being Codreanu) were "rinsed" in acid.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: However, Carol's policy was doomed by the reluctance of France and Britain to fight wars with the totalitarian powers of Germany, Italy and the Soviet Union. The Soviet Union attacked Romania and declared the annexation of Bukovina and Bessarabia (which was to be renamed Moldova), and when Carol turned to the only possible hopethat is, assistance from the former "eternal foe", Nazi Germanyhe was angrily rejected by Hitler personally, who did not have to try hard to remember how Carol had previously humiliated the cause of his ideology. Carol was forced to acknowledge the annexation, leading directly to his overthrow in a coup led by Ion Antonescu.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: In 1940, the Ion Gigurtu cabinet adopted Romania's equivalent to the Nuremberg Laws, forbidding Jewish-Christian intermarriage, and defining Jews after racial criteria (a person was Jewish if he or she had a Jewish grandparent on one side of the family).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Romania allied itself with Nazi Germany from 1940 to 1944. Under the dictatorship of Ion Antonescu, 380,000–400,000 Jews were murdered in the Holocaust in Romanian-controlled areas such as Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transnistria.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Between the establishment of the National Legionary State and 1942, 80 anti-Jewish regulations were passed. Starting at the end of October, 1940, the Iron Guard began a massive antisemitic campaign, torturing and beating Jews and looting their shops ("see Dorohoi Pogrom"), culminating in the failed coup and a pogrom in Bucharest, in which 120 Jews were killed. Antonescu eventually stopped the violence and chaos created by the Iron Guard by brutally suppressing the rebellion, but continued the policy of oppression and massacre of Jews, and, to a lesser extent, of Roma.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: After Romania entered the war at the start of Operation Barbarossa atrocities against the Jews became common, starting with the Iași pogrom – on June 27, 1941, Romanian dictator Ion Antonescu telephoned Col. Constantin Lupu, commander of the Iași garrison, telling him formally to "cleanse Iași of its Jewish population", though plans for the pogrom had been laid even earlier – 13,266 Jews, according to Romanian authorities, were killed in July 1941.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: In July–August 1941, the yellow badge was imposed by local initiatives in several cities (Iași, Bacău, Cernăuți). A similar measure imposed by the national government lasted only five days (between September 3 and September 8, 1941), before being annulled on Antonescu's order. However, on local initiative, the badge was still worn especially in the towns of Moldavia, Bessarabia and Bukovina (Bacău, Iași, Câmpulung, Botoșani, Cernăuți, etc.).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: In 1941, following the advancing Romanian Army during Operation Barbarossa, and, according to Antonescu propaganda, alleged "attacks by Jews", who were considered en masse "Communist agents" by the official propaganda, Antonescu ordered the deportation to Transnistria, of all Jews of Bessarabia and Bukovina. "Deportation" however was a euphemism, as part of the process involved mass killing of Jews before deporting the rest in the "trains of death" (in reality long exhausting marches on foot) to the East. It is estimated that, in July–September 1941, the number of Jews killed, in Bukovina and Bessarabia, by the Romanian Army and the Romanian Gendarmerie in cooperation with the German Army and the Einsatzgruppen, is more than 45,000 people but probably closer to 60,000. Of those who escaped the initial ethnic cleansing in Bukovina and Bessarabia, only very few managed to survive "trains" and the concentration camps set up in the Transnistria Governorate. In 1941–1942, the total number of deportees from Bessarabia, Bukovina, Dorohoi and the Regat was between 154,449 and 170,737 people.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Further killings perpetrated by Antonescu's death squads (documents prove his direct orders) in collaboration with the German Einsatzkommando, the SS squads of local Ukrainian Germans (Sonderkommando Russland and Selbstschutz), and the Ukrainian militia targeted the local Jewish population that the Romanian Army managed to round up when occupying Transnistria. Over one hundred thousand of these were killed in massacres staged in such places as Odessa (see Odessa massacre), Bogdanovka, Akmechetka, Pechora in 1941 and 1942.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Antonescu's government also made plans for mass deportations of the Romanian Jews community from the rest of the country (the Regat and southern Transylvania), numbering 292,149 people (according to a May 1942 census), to Transnistria region, or, in collaboration with the German government, to the Belzec extermination camp, but these had never been carried out.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The change in policy toward the Jews began in October 1942, and by March–April 1943, Antonescu permanently stopped all deportations despite German pressure, as he began to seek peace with the Allies, although at the same time he levied heavy taxes and forced labor on the remaining Jewish communities. Also, sometimes with the encouragement of Antonescu's regime, thirteen boats left Romania for the British Mandate of Palestine during the war, carrying 13,000 Jews (two of these ships were sunk by the Soviets (see Struma disaster), and the effort was discontinued after German pressure was applied).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Discussions regarding the repatriation of deported Jews followed, and in January 1943, the leader of the Romanian-Jewish community Wilhelm Filderman began talks with the Romanian government in order to start repatriating Romanian Jews deported to Transnistria. On November 15, 1943, an official report of the Romanian government indicated that 49,927 Romanian Jews were alive in Transnistria (of which 6,425 were originally from the Regat). In December 1943, partial repatriation began, and in March 1944, Antonescu government ordered general repatriation for all Romanian Jews deportees from Transnistria. Between December 20, 1943, and March 30, 1944, almost 11,000 people (including orphans) were repatriated from different camps and ghettos in Transnistria. However, the decision came too late to organize the repatriation of the last large number of deportees, and the fate of tens of thousands of deportees remaining in Transnistria became unknown.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Historical and political situations have determined the destinies of the Romanian Jews in different ways, depending on the regions in which they were living, and proximity to the front being the most important variable. The total number of deaths is not certain, but even the lowest respectable estimates run to about 250,000 Jews (plus 25,000 deported Romani, of which approximately 11,000 were murdered).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: According to the Wiesel Commission report released by the Romanian government in 2004, between 280,000 and 380,000 Jews were murdered or died in various forms on Romanian soil, in the war zones of Bessarabia, Bukovina, and in the occupied Soviet territories under Romanian's control (Transnistria Governorate).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: At least 15,000 Jews from the Regat were murdered in the Iași pogrom and as a result of other anti-Jewish measures. Half of the estimated 270,000 to 320,000 Jews living in Bessarabia, Bukovina, and the former Dorohoi County in Romania were murdered or died between June 1941 and November 1943. Between 45,000 and 60,000 Jews were killed in Bessarabia and Bukovina by Romanian and German troops in 1941. Between 104,522 and 120,810 deported Romanian Jews died as a result of the expulsions to Transnistria. After a wave of random initial killings, Jews in Moldavia were subject to pogroms, while those in Bessarabia, Bukovina and Dorohoi were concentrated into ghettos from which they were deported to concentration camps in the Transnistria Governorate, including camps built and run by Romanians. Romanian soldiers and gendarmes also worked with the German Einsatzkommando, the Ukrainian militia, and the SS squads of local Ukrainian Germans to massacre Jews in conquered territories east of the Romania's 1940 border. In Transnistria, between 115,000 and 180,000 indigenous Ukrainian Jews were murdered, especially in Odessa and the counties of Golta and Berezovka.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: At the same time, 135,000 Jews living under Hungarian control in Northern Transylvania were deported to and died in concentration and extermination camps. In addition, 5,000 Romanian Jews were murdered in the Holocaust in other countries.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: A majority of the Romanian Jews living within the 1940 borders did survive the war. The change in the Romanian government policy during 1942-1943 led to the survival of at least 290,000 Romanian Jews (although they were subject to a wide range of harsh conditions, including forced labor, financial penalties, and discriminatory laws), and to the subsequent repatriation of thousands of people. Also, thousands of Romanian Jews living abroad were able to survive thanks to renewed Romanian diplomatic protection. However, the total number of victims makes Romania count as first, according to the Wiesel Commission, "Of all the allies of Nazi Germany, [responsible] for the deaths of more Jews than any country other than Germany itself".


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: During the postwar period, the history of the Holocaust was distorted or simply ignored by East European communist regimes. The trials of war criminals began in 1945 and continued until the early 1950s, but they received public attention only for a short period of time. In postcommunist Romania, Holocaust denial has been a diffuse phenomenon, and until 2004, when researchers made numerous documents publicly available, many in Romania denied knowledge that their country participated in the Holocaust. The Romanian government has recognized that a Holocaust took place on its territory and held its first Holocaust Day in 2004. In memory of the victims of the Holocaust and particularly to reflecting on Romania's role in the Holocaust, the Romanian government decided to make October 9 the National Day of Commemorating the Holocaust.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Decades after the Holocaust, especially during the Communist era in Romania, educating and learning about the Holocaust was considered taboo. Textbooks did mention the Holocaust in passing, but it failed to acknowledge the role of the Romanian government in the systematic murder of the Jewish and Romani people. Holocaust denial is still prevalent in Romanian society.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: During the Communist era from 1945 to 1989, the government influenced every part of society, including history education. When World War Two was mentioned, textbooks said that Romania was fighting against Hitler, and when the textbooks mentioned that Romania collaborated with the Nazis, it says that Romania actually lost their national independence and was occupied by Germany not that they willingly helped the Nazis and supported them. When the textbooks mentioned the killings of the Jewish people, which was not common during the time since any mention of the Holocaust was ignored and omitted, they were glossed, diminished, or distorted. When the Holocaust was mentioned, it was painted as just another broader casualty of the War in short passing and hid any responsibility of the nation while mentioning Romania's exceptional standing in Europe. Instead, the textbooks painted the Communists as the main victim of the Nazis.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Holocaust education took a long time to be implemented in post-Communist Romania. Democratization in Romania started in December 1989, but it took 10 years, until 1999, for Holocaust education to be raised as an issue and for a law to pass. Although Holocaust education was accepted in 1999, it took months for the government to solidify their curriculum to show the atrocities of the Holocaust and their role in it.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: As of 2021, Romania has made strides to rid itself from the past of Holocaust denial. It has joined the International Holocaust Remembrance alliance in 2004, and took over chairmanship in 2016, as well as constantly organizing and sponsoring events surrounding Holocaust education. In 2021, the first sentence over Holocaust denial was made in the country. The accused was Vasile Zărnescu, a former Romanian Intelligence Service (SRI) member who published several articles and a book against the veracity of the Holocaust.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: According to the Wiesel Commission, "... at least 290,000 Romanian Jews survived". Howard M. Sachar estimated that 360,000 Romanian Jews were still alive at the end of World War II. According to statistics from the end of the war, 355,972 Romanian Jews lived on the territory of Romania.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Mass emigration to Israel ensued ("see Bricha and Aliyah"). According to Sachar, for the first two post-war years, tens of thousands of Romanian Jews left for Mandatory Palestine; the Romanian government did not try to stop them, especially due to its desire to reduce its historically suspect and now impoverished Jewish minority. Afterwards, Jewish emigration began to encounter obstacles. In 1948, the year of Israeli independence, Zionism came under renewed suspicion, and the government began a campaign of liquidation against Zionist funds and training farms. However, emigration was not completely banned; Romanian Foreign Minister Ana Pauker, herself a Jew with a father and brother in Israel, negotiated an agreement with Israeli ambassador Reuven Rubin, who himself was a Romanian Jewish immigrant to Israel, under which the Romanian government would allow 4,000 Jews a month to emigrate to Israel; this decision was at least partially influenced by a large Jewish Agency bribe to the Romanian government. This agreement applied mainly to ruined businessmen and other economically "redundant" Jews. Around this time, Israel also secured another agreement with the Romanian government, under which Romania issued 100,000 exit visas for Jews and Israel supplied Romania with oil drills and pipes to aid the struggling Romanian oil industry. By December 1951, about 115,000 Romanian Jews had emigrated to Israel.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: During the period of transition towards a communist regime in Romania, following Soviet occupation ("see Soviet occupation of Romania"), Jewish society and culture were subject to the same increasingly tight control by the authorities. The community leader Wilhelm Filderman had been arrested already in 1945 and had to flee the country in 1948. Antonescu, after a brief detention in the Soviet Union, was shot in June 1946 for war crimes. On April 22, 1946, Gheorghe Gheorghiu-Dej attended a meeting of Jewish organizations and called for the creation of a new body, the "Jewish Democratic Committee", which was in reality a section of the Romanian Communist Party PCR.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: After the proclamation of the People's Republic of Romania on December 30, 1947, the government formed by the PCR outlawed all Jewish organizations at a meeting on June 10–June 11, 1948, stating that "the party must take a stand on every question concerning the Jews of Romania and fight vigorously against reactionary nationalist Jewish currents (that is, Zionism)". Between 1952 and 1953 the Stalinist antisemitic charges of "rootless cosmopolitanism" brought about the purging of the party's own leadership (including Jewish ex-premier and foreign minister Ana Pauker); the charges were then inflicted upon the larger part of the Jewish community, beginning with a trial engineered by Iosif Chișinevschi. Jews who were perceived as Zionists were given harsh labour sentences in communist prisons such as Pitești (where they were subject to torture and brainwashing experiments; a few of them died in detention). The 1952 trial of the engineers made responsible for the failure of the Danube-Black Sea Canal project also involved allegations of Zionism (notably aimed at Aurel Rozei-Rozenberg, who was eventually executed).


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: During the Cold War, Romania was the only communist country not to break its diplomatic relations with Israel. Throughout the period of Communist rule, Romania allowed limited numbers of Jews to emigrate to Israel, in exchange for much-needed Israeli economic aid. By 1965, Israel was funding agricultural and industrial projects throughout Romania, and in exchange, Romania allowed a trickle of Jewish emigration to Israel.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: When Nicolae Ceaușescu came to power in 1965, he initially ended the trade in deference to the Eastern bloc's Arab allies. However, Romania was the only Warsaw Pact nation not to break diplomatic relations with Israel after the Six-Day War of 1967, and by 1969, Ceaușescu decided to exchange Jews for cash from Israel. He wanted economic independence from the Soviet Union, which was content to keep Romania a backwater and as nothing more than a supplier of raw materials, but to fund economic projects, he needed hard cash. As a result, from then until the Ceaușescu regime fell in 1989, about 1,500 Jews a year were granted exit visas to Israel in exchange for a payment of cash for every Jew allowed to leave, in addition to other Israeli aid. The exact payments were determined by the age, education, profession, employment, and family status of the emigrant. Israel paid a minimum of $2,000 per head for every emigrant, and paid prices in the range of $25,000 for doctors or scientists. In addition to these payments, Israel also secured loans for Romania and paid off the interest itself, and supplied the Romanian Army with military equipment.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: As a result of aliyah, the Romanian-Jewish community was gradually depleted. By 1987, just 23,000 Jews were left in Romania, half of whom were over 65 years old. Romanian Jews became in the 1980s Israel's second largest ethnic community, outnumbered only by the Moroccans.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Nevertheless, Romania still has a small Jewish community with some active synagogues, and the oldest uninterrupted Yiddish-language theater in the world. With the fall of communism in Romania, Jewish cultural, social, and religious life has been undergoing a revival. Acts of antisemitism, such destruction of cemetery gravestones, continue to take place, but they are very rare. In 2016, the Romanian Jewish population was estimated as ranging between 9,300 and 17,000. There are also 3,000 Israeli-born people living in Romania. In Romania there is also a small number of Jewish immigrants from the other parts of the world. Every year, tens of Romanian Jewish families from Israel return to their native country.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: Hasidic Judaism and Haredi Judaism are also present in the country. Chabad has the Yeshua Tova Synagogue, a kosher restaurant, a Jewish kindergarten, a Jewish school and a youth organization, all of them located in Bucharest. The group also has 2 community centers: one in Voluntari and one in Cluj. Satmar also has plans to build a community in Romania. In 2021, a synagogue was inaugurated in Sighetu Marmației; a hotel, a kosher restaurant and a Jewish school are under construction in Sighetu Marmației, all of them under Aaron Teitelbaum's organization.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The Federation of the Jewish Communities in Romania Party has one seat in the Chamber of Deputies, the lower house of the Romanian Parliament.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: After the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, 140 Jewish orphans have fled from Ukraine to Romania and Republic of Moldova.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: The 1930 census was the only one to cover Greater Romania. Censuses in 1948, 1956, 1966, 1977, 1992, 2002 and 2011 covered Romania's present-day territory. All but the 1948 census, which asked about mother tongue, had a question on ethnicity. Moldavia and Wallachia each held a census in 1859. The Romanian Old Kingdom (Regat) conducted statistical estimates in 1884, 1889 and 1894, and held censuses in 1899 and 1912. Ion Antonescu's regime also held two: a general one in April 1941, and one for those with "Jewish blood" in May 1942.


title: History of the Jews in Romania

text: YIVO provides somewhat different population figures for Romania's Jewish population, specifically 400,000 in 1945, 280,000 in 1951, 200,000 in 1960, 70,000 in 1970, 33,000 in 1980, 17,000 in 1990, and 11,000 in 2000.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal ( Watermelon Days) is a 2019 Indian Malayalam-language coming-of-age comedy-drama film co-written and directed by Girish A.D, and jointly produced by Jomon T. John, Shebin Backer, and Shameer Muhammed. The film stars Mathew Thomas, Vineeth Sreenivasan and Anaswara Rajan. The music was composed by Justin Varghese. The film follows Jaison, a teenager, has a crush on Keerthy, but she does not reciprocate his feelings. To make things worse, he gets in trouble with Ravi, the new teacher who is liked by everyone, especially Keerthy.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: The film was released on 26 July 2019 and met with a positive critical response and performed well at the box office too, becoming the third-highest-grossing Malayalam film of the year.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: The film follows the life of a cynical yet honest eleventh-grade student Jaison (Mathew Thomas). He changes to the science batch from humanities as he is very ambitious and aims to be the best in his class. However, after failing ridiculously in a class test, he becomes clear that ambition alone was not enough. He maintains a social circle around him through being a regular at a juice and snack shop with his batch-mates. Meanwhile, he starts to have a crush on his classmate Keerthy (Anaswara Rajan), who does not reciprocate his feelings. This makes him extremely aggravated and annoyed.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: A new Malayalam teacher, Ravi Padmanabhan (Vineeth Sreenivasan) joins the school. During their first class, Jaison rubs him up the wrong way. This does not sit very well with Ravi who is both a narcissist and someone who loves attention. Hence, Ravi often snubs Jaison. Ravi's influence on everyone irritates Jaison and he openly complains about Ravi being a fraud. They enter the twelfth grade. To forget Keerthy he woos Stephy (Gopika Ramesh) a new eleventh-grade student. He calls her frequently but realizes that it is not working. He later breaks up with Stephy and realizes that Keerthy is his love. This meanwhile had enraged Basil (Midhun Gopinath) another student at the school who wanted to woo Stephy as well, therefore, getting into a fight with Jaison for her. Jaison in his own way finally woos Keerthy and she reciprocates his feelings. Ravi finds out their relationship and calls in Jaison. Ravi says that he knows that Jaison does not like him and is speaking ill of him. Hence, he would make Jaison's life harder at school. Ravi is then suddenly called into Principal's (Irshad) office. He is revealed to be a fake teacher with fake qualifications and is later found to be a thief. Ravi is chased around the school grounds by the police and finally caught. Jaison does not wait in celebrating his victory over Ravi.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: Meanwhile, Keerthy is caught by her mother talking to Jaison. She is mercilessly grounded by her parents. She manages to call Jaison and tells that she is going to Chennai for her studies and asks him to meet her the next day after the exam. After disconnecting the call Jaison is threatened by Basil. This provokes Jaison so he and his friends beat him up. The next day he fails to meet Keerthy as he is called by the principal for the problem he had created. But he does manage to catch Keerthy's bus, he then grabs her and they run away. Jaison urges Keerthy to elope, but she says that's not possible as it's not realistic to deal with the problem and promises that she will never leave him. Keerthy goes to Chennai. A few months later, Jaison and his friends are at the temple. It is revealed that Keerthy is set to return from Chennai. Jaison wonders who may have stolen Keerthy's power bank, which went missing during a class trip. It is then revealed that it was Ravi who stole it, and he is seen teaching in a Kannada school in a new makeover and with more prowess than he displayed at Jaison's school.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: The film's music was composed by Justin Varghese and the lyrics were penned by Suhail Koya. The song "Jaathikkathottam" sung by Soumya Ramakrishnan and Devadutt Bijibal, garnered popular acclaim upon release. The song Shyamavarna Roopini released on 24 July was inspired from a traditional song of the same title.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: Being a low budget film the film had a limited release. It had its initial release in Kerala and few other centers outside the state on 26 July. The film was released in Qatar, Oman, Kuwait, Bahrain, UAE, and New Zealand on 8 August 2019. A day later, the film got its theatrical release in United Kingdom, Australia and Ireland. The film was released in United States on 14 July 2019.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: The film grossed $915,450 dollars from 40 screens in the opening weekend (8 – 11 August) in the United Arab Emirates—best opening of that weekend—and a total of $1,086,048 in five weeks. It collected 15,327 in two weeks from New Zealand and 2,612 in the opening weekend in the United Kingdom. The amount from Australia in the opening weekend was 1204.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: The film grossed ₹50 crore from 20 days at the box office, of which ₹27 crore collected from Kerala box office.


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal received positive response from critics. Deepa Soman of The Times of India rated the film with three stars out of five. She praised the performances of Mathew Thomas and Anaswara Rajan while applauding Vineeth Sreenivasan for his portrayal of a different avatar he hasn't tried so far. According to Soman", "Tales that take one back in time, especially to the formative years of school days, can almost always be a winner. But, to make it a movie-long memorable affair, it takes enough of clever, relatable fun elements and smart storytelling. Thanneermathan is a story that succeeded in presenting them all, for most parts.""


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: Sajin Srijith of "The New Indian Express" called the film a 'high-school drama done right'. He said: "Not many of us still have vivid memories of our school days, which surely had both pleasant and embarrassing moments that shaped our formative years. However that doesn't seem to be the case with writer-director Girish A.D. who, in his directional debut, manages to evoke with perfect clarity, a lot of situations that look strikingly familiar even if some of them may not have actually happened to you."


title: Thanneer Mathan Dinangal

text: S. R. Praveen of "The Hindu" praised the film calling it a school story which actually shows what kids do at school, which is not something that can be said about many other school films. He said that the film is "School, as it is".


title: Sunk Costs (Better Call Saul)

text: "Sunk Costs" is the third episode of the third season of the AMC television series "Better Call Saul", the spinoff series of "Breaking Bad". The episode aired on April 24, 2017 on AMC in the United States. Outside of the United States, the episode premiered on streaming service Netflix in several countries. The title of the episode is a reference to sunk costs.


title: Sunk Costs (Better Call Saul)

text: After following his planted tracking device's signal to an empty stretch of highway, Mike Ehrmantraut finds it left in the middle of the road along with a ringing cell phone. He answers, agrees to the caller's request that no guns be displayed, and is told to wait. Two cars approach from opposite directions, Gus Fring exits one, and he and Mike discuss their concerns about Hector Salamanca. They agree that Gus will no longer track Mike, and Mike will no longer try to kill Hector. Gus is amenable to Mike's continued disruption of Hector's drug business, and Mike suggests a way to draw police attention to Hector without killing him.


title: Sunk Costs (Better Call Saul)

text: Mike acquires cocaine from Barry Goodman, stows it in a sneaker, ties the sneaker to its mate, then throws the pair over a power line that spans part of a road in Mexico he knows Hector's trucks use. When the next truck comes, the drivers stop to stash their weapons prior to being searched at the border crossing. Using a rifle with a scope, Mike fires a few rounds into the air to give the drivers the impression that there is a hunter or target shooter nearby. As the truck pulls away, Mike fires at the sneaker holding the cocaine, which causes the powder to spill onto the back of the truck. At the border crossing, drug-sniffing dogs discover the cocaine, and the drivers are taken into custody.


title: Sunk Costs (Better Call Saul)

text: Jimmy McGill is arrested for breaking into Chuck McGill's house. Jimmy goes against Kim Wexler's advice and represents himself, pleads not guilty, and posts bail. He later tells her she should work on Mesa Verde business while he takes care of his own legal battle, to which she flatly agrees.


title: Sunk Costs (Better Call Saul)

text: Kyra Hay, the prosecutor in Jimmy's case, meets with Chuck and tells him she does not plan to let Jimmy off easy. Chuck describes his wish to see a "better solution for everyone". Jimmy informs Kim he can avoid jail time if he confesses to the break-in and submits his confession to the New Mexico Bar Association, which will likely result in disbarment. Kim changes her mind and persuades Jimmy to let her help defend him.


title: Sunk Costs (Better Call Saul)

text: The episode received critical acclaim, on Rotten Tomatoes, the episode holds a 100% rating with an average score of 8.09/10, based on 13 reviews. The site's consensus reads, '"Sunk Costs" edges Better Call Saul toward a narrative crossroads, foreshadowing events familiar to Breaking Bad fans while serving up gripping drama in its own right'.


title: Sunk Costs (Better Call Saul)

text: Terri Schwartz of IGN gave the episode an 8.0 rating, writing "Whose storyline is going to come crashing down around them first: Jimmy or Mike?"


title: Sunk Costs (Better Call Saul)

text: For his work on this episode, Thomas Golubić was nominated for Outstanding Music Supervision at the 69th Primetime Creative Arts Emmy Awards.


title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels

text: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels is an American reality television dating game show. It stars Bret Michaels, the lead singer from the band Poison. The show closely resembles the show "Flavor of Love". The first season featured 25 women competing to be Michaels' girlfriend. Each week, the women face challenges, the winner of which gets to go on a date with Michaels. Some of the challenges were based on situations that they might encounter if chosen to be Michaels' girlfriend. The first season winner was 24-year-old Jes Rickleff from Naperville, Illinois. At the reunion, she revealed that she did not have romantic feelings for Michaels, and that she thought that he should have chosen the runner-up, Heather.


title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels

text: The second season featured another set of 20 women. This time around, Michaels chose 37-year-old Ambre Lake from Los Angeles, California. After the show, the two maintained a relationship, but parted ways after just a few months.


title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels

text: The third season premiered on January 4, 2009. The season finale was a series high for VH1, and Michaels chose Penthouse Pet Taya Parker as the winner.


title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels

text: A fourth season was offered to Michaels, but it was announced in May 2010 that he would be appearing in a new show entitled "", based around his everyday life.


title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels

text: In April 2008 a breach-of-contract lawsuit was filed against both Michaels and the show's producers by the owner of the mansion, Ray Sahranavard. He claimed that about $380,000 worth of damage was done to the mansion, and that the producers failed to get insurance they had promised to buy for the house. Sahranavard said there were multiple holes in the walls and ceilings, the doors had been removed, that almost the entire interior had been repainted, and that most of the landscaping was dead or dying.


title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels

text: A crew member from 51 Minds Entertainment was involved in an auto accident on Interstate 57 in southern Illinois during production of "Rock Of Love Bus". The crew member, who is not an associate of Michaels or part of his tour staff, was traveling alone to the next location for the series. The accident resulted in two fatalities in one car and injuries to two passengers in another vehicle. The crew member survived and was released from the hospital.


title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels

text: The theme song for the "Rock of Love" series is "Go That Far", which is the first single from the Bret Michaels album "Rock My World", the soundtrack to the "Rock of Love" series. "Rock My World" is the fifth music album by Bret Michaels. This album is a greatest hits compilation featuring songs from his last two studio albums and also features three new tracks plus a remixed track. All the music heard during the "Rock of Love" series is on the album. The album charted at #40 on The Billboard 200, #4 on the Top Independent Albums, #4 on the Top Hard Rock Albums and #16 on the Top Rock Albums chart.


title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels

text: Season 1 has been released in the US, but it is censored. All three seasons have been released uncensored in Australia by Shock Records. A Box Set containing all 3 seasons was released in 2011.


title: Rock of Love with Bret Michaels

text: The show can be seen playing on a television in the third episode of the American reality competition television series "Whodunnit?".


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Jeb Stuart Magruder (November 5, 1934May 11, 2014) was an American businessman and high-level political operative in the Republican Party who served time in prison for his role in the Watergate scandal.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: He served President Richard Nixon in various capacities, including acting as deputy director of the president's 1972 re-election campaign, Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CRP). In August 1973, Magruder pleaded guilty to one count of conspiracy to wiretap, obstruct justice and defraud the United States. He served seven months in federal prison.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder later attended Princeton Theological Seminary and was ordained as a Presbyterian minister. He spoke publicly about ethics and his role in the Watergate scandal. In the 1990s and early 2000s, he gave interviews in which he changed his accounts of actions by various participants in the Watergate coverup, including claiming that President Richard Nixon ordered the break-ins.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Jeb Stuart Magruder was born and grew up on Staten Island, New York. His father, a Civil War buff, named him for Confederate general J.E.B. Stuart. His great-grandfather smuggled shoes for the Civil War Confederate States of America. His grandfather was convicted of bank fraud related to the construction of WWI cargo ships. He was an honor student at Curtis High School. Magruder was an excellent junior tennis player and swimmer, among the best in the greater New York area.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: After two years at Williams College, he served in the U.S. Army, but was kicked out of Officer Candidate School of the United States Army, only weeks before graduation, going AWOL, by not going to class so as to take the daughter of a colonel out in a new Chevrolet.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder started at IBM after college, but dropped out of its training program after only a few days. He went to California and married a Berkeley student, Gail Barnes Nicholas, then took a job with the Crown Zellerbach, selling paper goods in Kansas City. Later, he started his own consumer products company. Later, he earned a Master of Business Administration degree from the University of Chicago.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: He married Gail Barnes Nicholas on October 17, 1959, in Brentwood, California. The couple had four children.<ref name="nytimes/1973/01/20/magruder"></ref> They were divorced in 1984.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder married Patricia Newton on February 28, 1987, in Columbus, Ohio, and adopted her two children. They were divorced in May 2003.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: In the late 1950s, Magruder moved to Kansas City with Jewel Tea, in a transfer for work. He became involved there as a campaign manager for the Republican Party during the 1960 election campaign, working as chairman of an urban ward.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder moved to Chicago for his MBA studies. Afterward he shifted from IBM to the consulting firm Booz Allen Hamilton.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: In Chicago, he again, was involved with the Republican Party. Magruder was a ward chairman, for Donald Rumsfelds 1962 Illinois's 13th congressional district United States House of Representatives Republican primary campaign. Rumsfeld won the primary and the seat in Congress.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: In 1962 Magruder moved from Booz Allen Hamilton to Jewel, a regional grocery firm. During his nearly four years with them, he was promoted to merchandise manager.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder became involved with the Illinois organization of the Barry Goldwater presidential campaign in late 1963, but became disillusioned with Goldwater's political views. He worked briefly as campaign manager for Richard Ogilvie's 1966 campaign for president of the Cook County Board of Supervisors. The political workload, combined with work pressures, caused Magruder to end employment with Jewel.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: In mid-1966, he returned to California, to begin a job with the Broadway Stores. In mid-1967, he served as Southern California coordinator for the Richard Nixon presidential campaign. He left early in 1968 due to internal organizational problems.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder entered partnership during early 1969 with two other entrepreneurs to start two new businesses, and became president and chief executive officer of these firms.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder was appointed to the White House staff in 1969, as special assistant to the president, and moved with his family to Washington, D.C. He worked for Nixon operatives H.R. Haldeman and Herbert G. Klein, communications director for the Executive Branch. Magruder's formal title was deputy director of White House Communications.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder served in the White House until the spring of 1971, when he left to manage the Committee for the Re-Election of the President (CRP, also known as CREEP), first as director. By early 1972 in the election year, Attorney General John N. Mitchell took over as director of CREEP and Magruder acted as his deputy. As Mitchell became preoccupied with a scandal involving the ITT Corporation and by his efforts to restrain his outspoken wife Martha, Magruder took on more of the management of the CREEP.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: The 1972 campaign to re-elect the President won 49 of 50 states. Nixon lost only Massachusetts and the District of Columbia to Democrat George McGovern. The final tally of Nixon's victory was 520 to 17 electoral votes, the second largest Electoral College (United States) margin in history up until then, after Franklin D. Roosevelt's 1936 victory over Alf Landon, (523 to 8).


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder worked as inaugural director from October 1972 to arrange Richard Nixon's United States presidential inauguration ceremony and celebration in January 1973. In March 1973, he began a job as director of policy planning with the United States Department of Commerce. He resigned soon afterward, as the Watergate scandal began to heat up and become scrutinized again by media following James McCord's disclosures of perjury during the original Watergate trial of the five burglars; the former Watergate burglar wrote about this to the "Washington Star."


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder, in his role with CREEP, was involved with the Watergate matters from an early stage, including its planning, execution, and cover-up.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder met with White House Counsel John Dean and John N. Mitchell (Attorney General of the United States and director of CREEP) on January 27 and February 4, 1972, to review preliminary plans by G. Gordon Liddy (Counsel to CREEP) for intelligence gathering ideas for the 1972 campaign. The Watergate burglaries would evolve from those meetings. From the day they met in December 1971, Magruder and Liddy (who had been hired by Mitchell and Dean) had a conflicted personal relationship.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: During April 1973, Magruder began cooperating with federal prosecutors. In exchange, Magruder was allowed to plead guilty in August 1973 to a one-count indictment of conspiracy to obstruct justice, to defraud the United States, and to illegally eavesdrop on the Democratic Party's national headquarters at the Watergate Hotel. On May 21, 1974, Magruder was sentenced by Judge John Sirica to ten months to four years for his role in the failed burglary of Watergate and the following cover-up. After his sentencing, Magruder said, "I am confident that this country will survive its Watergates and its Jeb Magruders." In the end, he served three months of his sentence at a Federal minimum security prison in Allenwood, Pennsylvania, and was moved for the remaining four months (before Sirica's pardon) to a "safe house prison" at the Fort Holabird Base in Baltimore Harbor, along with Chuck Colson, John Dean and Herb Kalmbach, due to threats on the four by inmates at Allenwood.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder originally testified that he knew nothing to indicate that President Nixon had any prior knowledge of the Watergate burglary.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: I know nothing to indicate that Nixon was aware in advance of the plan to break into the Democratic headquarters. It is possible that Mitchell or Haldeman told him in advance, but I think it's likelier that they would not have mentioned it unless the operation had produced some results of interest to him. This book was published before Magruder's sentencing on May 21, and before Nixon resigned as the president.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder had testified that he thought that he was helping establish a legal intelligence-gathering operation. In his book Magruder wrote about former attorney general John Mitchell and Fred LaRue meeting in late March 1972 in Key Biscayne, Florida. He wrote that Mitchell approved the plan to eavesdrop on the Watergate complex soon after this meeting.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: After his prison term, Magruder began a speaking tour on college campuses and in other public spaces, inspiring some critics to suggest he had profited from the scandal and his decision to turn state's evidence. He published a Christian-oriented memoir, "From Power to Peace" in 1976. He earned a Master of Divinity (M.Div.) degree from Princeton Theological Seminary in 1981 and became ordained as a Presbyterian minister. He served as associate minister at the First Presbyterian Church in Burlingame, California and First Community Church of Columbus, Ohio. (While there, Magruder chaired that city's Commission on Ethics and Values for a time.) In May 1983, President Ronald Reagan denied a request from Magruder for a presidential pardon.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: In 1990 Magruder was called as senior pastor at the First Presbyterian Church of Lexington, Kentucky. In 1995, Kentucky Governor Brereton Jones reinstated Magruder's right to campaign for public office in the state.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: In 1990 Magruder consented to interviews with authors Len Colodny and Robert Gettlin while the two were conducting research for their 1991 book "Silent Coup: The Removal of a President" (St. Martin's Press). Magruder admitted that he had lied to prosecutors, to the Senate's Watergate Committee, and in his 1974 book "An American Life: One Man's Road to Watergate", concerning aspects of the early cover-up.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: To Colodny and Gettlin, he said that he had called John Dean several hours after the (second) Watergate break-in was discovered, and that Dean set in motion several cover-up strategies. This version of events tallied closely with that of Gordon Liddy, as set out in his 1980 book "Will". Books published earlier by others, however, such as Magruder's in 1974 and Dean's "Blind Ambition" (1976), had become the accepted 'truth' of the cover-up. These versions had very profound and damaging effects on the reputations of senior figures such as H.R. Haldeman, John Ehrlichman, and John N. Mitchell.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: To Colodny and Gettlin, Magruder admitted specifically instructing Liddy on the second Watergate break-in, something which he had earlier denied. At the time these interviews were conducted, Magruder was a Presbyterian minister in Columbus, Ohio.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: In 2003 Magruder was interviewed again, by PBS researchers and the Associated Press. According to his account in a PBS documentary, "Watergate Plus 30: Shadow of History", and in an interview with the Associated Press, he asserted that Nixon knew about the Watergate burglary early in the process, and well before the scandal broke. During the 2003 interviews, Magruder said that he had attended a meeting with Mitchell on March 30, 1972, at which he heard Nixon tell Mitchell by telephone to begin the Watergate plan. This account, however, has been contested by Fred LaRue. LaRue, who was the only other person present at the meeting in which the alleged telephone call from Nixon to Mitchell occurred, has said that no telephone call from Nixon to Mitchell took place during this meeting. Magruder is the only direct participant of the scandal to claim that President Nixon had specific prior knowledge of the Watergate burglary, and that Nixon directed Mitchell to proceed with the burglary. These statements contradict Magruder's earlier accounts that the cover-up had reached no higher in the Administration than Mitchell.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: In his 1974 book, Magruder had said that the only telephone call from the White House during this meeting came from H.R. Haldeman's aide, Gordon C. Strachan. Sixteen years later, in the August 7, 1990 interview with Colodny and Gettlin, Magruder changed his account, claiming that the telephone call from the White House came from Haldeman himself. In 2003, Magruder changed his account again, saying that President Nixon had telephoned Mitchell at the Key Biscayne meeting.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder retired first to Colorado Springs and later to the Short North area of Columbus Ohio. On July 23, 2007, Magruder was hospitalized after crashing his car into a motorcycle and a truck on State Route 315 in Columbus Ohio. It was reported that Magruder had suffered a stroke while driving. He was charged with failure to maintain an assured clear distance and failure to stop after an accident or collision. Magruder pleaded guilty in January 2008 to a charge of reckless operation stemming from the crashes with two vehicles in July. His license was suspended and he was fined $300.


title: Jeb Stuart Magruder

text: Magruder moved to be near family in Danbury, Connecticut in 2012, and died at age 79 on May 11, 2014, due to complications from a stroke.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: The United States Navy occupational rating of boatswain's mate (abbreviated as BM) is a designation given by the Bureau of Naval Personnel (BUPERS) to enlisted members who were rated or "striking" for the rating as a deck seaman. The colloquial form of address for a boatswain's mate is "Boats".


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: The rating of Boatswain's Mate dates from the American Revolutionary War and was one of the oldest U.S. Navy ratings in continuous existence from 1775 to present. For a period of three months at the end of 2016, the rating (along with all ratings in the Navy) was scheduled for elimination, but the proposed change was unpopular with both sailors and Navy veterans and was reversed in December of that year.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: Boatswain's mates train, direct, and supervise personnel in ship's maintenance duties in all activities relating to marlinspike, deck, boat seamanship, painting, upkeep of ship's external structure, rigging, deck equipment, and boats. Boatswain's mates take charge of working parties; perform seamanship tasks; act as petty officer-in-charge of picketboats, self-propelled barges, tugs, and other yard and district craft. They serve in, or take charge of damage control parties. BMs also operate and maintain equipment used in loading and unloading cargo, ammunition, fuel, and general stores. BMs take charge of and supervise UNREP (Underway Replenishment) procedures and equipment. They are integral to ship's navigation and serve as ship's Helmsman and the ship's Lee Helmsman. In addition they also serve as RHIB (rigid-hulled inflatable boat) coxswains.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: Boatswain's mates enjoy a normal path of advancement to Chief Warrant Officer and limited duty officer. Candidates must not have a speech impediment. Candidates need not meet any special citizenship or security requirements.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: Boatswain's mates also stand watch on ship's bridges, passing information relating to routine and special activities to the crew with the distinctive boatswain's call or boatswain's pipe. On the ancient row-galleys, the boatswain used his pipe to "call the stroke". Later, because its shrill tune could be heard above most of the activity on board, it was used to signal various happenings such as pipe down, and the Side or Away Galley (the boarding or debarking of officials). So essential was this signaling device to the well-being of the ship, that it became a badge of office and honor in the British and U.S. navies.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: Boatswain's mates duties cover a large spectrum and range widely depending on the capacity and mission of the vessel or shore installation to which BMs are assigned. They act as landing signalmen enlisted (LSE, guiding helicopters to the designated flight deck of a ship) on air-capable ships. They act as or supervise lookouts of Navy ships, searching the sea for enemy vessels and hazards to navigation. They conduct Search and Rescue (SAR) operations and can respond to other military and civilian ships that request assistance. Ashore, they provide armed security for either their assigned vessel or for their assigned Naval installation.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: Boatswains' mates are also a source rating for the Navy's mobile amphibious community. These duties include assault boat coxswain and Craftmaster, navigating specialized assault or working vessels during amphibious operations, salvage work, or inshore work. They are also a recognized source rating for the U.S. Navy's Special Warfare and Special Operations communities. Should a Boatswain's Mate meet eligibility requirements, he can elect to become an SO (formerly SEAL), SB (formerly SWCC), ND (Navy Diver), or EOD (Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technician).


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: In the U.S. Navy, the ship's Boatswain is a Warrant Officer who serves as a subject matter expert and assists the first lieutenant by supervising the deck force in the execution of major seamanship functions and the maintenance of topside gear. The ship's Boatswain supervises cargo handling and inspects and maintains rigging and deck gear. His duties also include supervising anchoring, mooring, fueling, towing, transferring of personnel and cargo, and the operation and maintenance of ship's boats. The ship's Boatswain is in charge of what the Navy deems "unusual" seamanship operations such as retrieving target drones, and also schedules training for Deck department or Deck division personnel. Another key duty of the ships' Boatswain is supervision of the maintenance of abandon-ship equipment and instruction in abandon-ship techniques.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: The word boatswain has existed in one form or another longer than Modern English has (Modern English only dates back to the beginning of the Renaissance). It is derived from late Old English "batswegen", from "bat" ("boat") + Old Norse "sveinn" ("swain"), meaning a young man, a follower, retainer, or servant. Various phonetic spellings (such as ""bosun"" and ""Bos'n"") have also been in use through the centuries.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: Originally, on board sailing ships the boatswain was in charge of a ship's anchors, cordage, colors, deck crew, and the ship's boats. The boatswain would also be in charge of the rigging while the ship was in dock. The boatswain's technical tasks have been modernized with the advent of steam engines and subsequent mechanisation.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: The rank of boatswain was until recently the oldest active rank in Great Britain's Royal Navy, and its origins can be traced back to the year 1040. The Royal Navy's last official boatswain, Commander E W Andrew OBE, retired in 1990.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: In 1040 when five English ports began furnishing warships to King Edward the Confessor in exchange for certain privileges, they also furnished crews whose officers were the master, boatswain, carpenter and cook. Later these officers were "warranted" by the British Admiralty. They maintained and sailed the ships and were the standing officers of the navy. Soldiers commanded by captains would be on board the ships to do the fighting, but they had nothing to do with sailing the ships. The word "soldiering" came about as a seaman's term of contempt for the soldiers and anyone else who avoided shipboard duties.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: The warranted officers were often the permanent members of the ships' companies. They stayed with the ships in port between voyages as caretakers, supervising repairs and refitting. Other crewmen and soldiers might change with each voyage. Early in the fourteenth century, the purser joined the warrant officers. He was originally "the clerk of burser." During the following centuries the gunner, surgeon, chaplain, master-at-arms, schoolmaster and others signed on.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: In the Royal Navy the task of disciplining the crew fell to the Boat Goatss and Boatswain's mates. This was done using a rattan boatswain's cane on the boys and a rope's end on adult sailors. Punishment could lawfully be inflicted on an officer's instruction or at his own will, or more formally on deck on the captain's or a court martial's orders. Birching or use of the cat o' nine tails would have been typical in the latter case. In a large crew he could delegate this to the boatswain's mates, who might alternate after each dozen lashes.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: A number of boatswain's mates have achieved notable careers in the military. Carl Brashear, the first black American master diver, whose life was the inspiration for the movie "Men of Honor", retired as a master chief boatswain's mate. James E. Williams a Medal of Honor recipient, also known as the most decorated enlisted sailor in U.S. Navy history for his actions during the Vietnam War, Reuben James and William Wiley famous for their heroism in the Barbary Wars and namesakes of the ships and were all U.S. Navy boatswain's mates. Cesar Romero achieved the rating of chief boatswain's mate aboard the Coast Guard manned assault transport . Medal of Honor recipients Francis P. Hammerberg, and George Robert Cholister were U.S. Navy boatswain's mates, as was Navy Cross recipient Stephen Bass. is an , named for BM1 James E. Williams, who was awarded the Medal of Honor while serving in the "brown-water navy" in Vietnam.


title: Boatswain's mate (United States Navy)

text: In 1958 BMCM Sherman Byrd became the first African-American explosive ordnance disposal technician. Don Shipley began his United States Navy career as a Boatswain's Mate in 1978 before going on to become a SEAL in 1984.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Väinämöinen () is a demigod, hero and the central character in Finnish folklore and the main character in the national epic "Kalevala" by Elias Lönnrot. Väinämöinen was described as an old and wise man, and he possessed a potent, magical singing voice.


title: Väinämöinen

text: The first extant mention of Väinämöinen in literature is in a list of Tavastian gods by Mikael Agricola in 1551. He and other writers described Väinämöinen as the god of chants, songs and poetry; in many stories Väinämöinen was the central figure at the birth of the world. The Karelian and Finnish national epic, the "Kalevala", tells of his birth in the course of a creation story in its opening sections. This myth has elements of creation from chaos and from a cosmic egg, as well as of earth diver creation.


title: Väinämöinen

text: At first there were only primal waters and Sky. But Sky also had a daughter named Ilmatar. One day, Ilmatar descended to the waters and became pregnant. She gestated for a very long time in the waters not being able to give birth. One day a goldeneye was seeking a resting place and flew to the knee of Ilmatar, where it laid its eggs. As the bird incubated its eggs Ilmatar's knee grew warmer and warmer. Eventually she was burned by the heat and responded by moving her leg, dislodging the eggs that then fell and shattered in the waters. Land was formed from the lower part of one of the eggshells, while sky formed from the top. The egg whites turned into the moon and stars, and the yolk became the sun.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Ilmatar continued to float in the waters. Her footprints became pools for fish, and by pointing she created contours in the land. In this way she made all that is. Then one day she gave birth to Väinämöinen, the first man. Väinämöinen swam until he found land, but the land was barren. With Sampsa Pellervoinen he spread life over the land.


title: Väinämöinen

text: In the eighteenth century folk tale collected by Cristfried Ganander, Väinämöinen is said to be son of Kaleva and thus brother of Ilmarinen. His name is believed to come from the Finnish word "väinä," meaning "stream pool".


title: Väinämöinen

text: In the nineteenth century, some folklorists, most notably Elias Lönnrot, the writer of "Kalevala", disputed Väinämöinen's mythological background, claiming that he was an ancient hero, or an influential shaman who lived perhaps in the ninth century. Stripping Väinämöinen from his direct godlike characteristics, Lönnrot turned Väinämöinen into the son of the primal goddess Ilmatar, whom Lönnrot had invented himself. In this story, it was she who was floating in the sea when a duck laid eggs on her knee.


title: Väinämöinen

text: He possessed the wisdom of the ages from birth, for he was in his mother's womb for seven hundred and thirty years, while she was floating in the sea and while the earth was formed. It is after praying to the sun, the moon, and the great bear (the stars, referring to Ursa Major) that he is able to leave his mother's womb and dive into the sea.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Väinämöinen is presented as the 'eternal bard', who exerts order over chaos and established the land of Kaleva, and around whom revolve so many of the events in "Kalevala". His search for a wife brings the land of Kaleva into, at first friendly, but later hostile contact with its dark and threatening neighbour in the north, Pohjola. This conflict culminates in the creation and theft of the Sampo, a magical artifact made by Ilmarinen, the subsequent mission to recapture it, and a battle which ends up splintering the Sampo and dispersing its parts around the world to parts unknown.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Väinämöinen also demonstrated his magical voice by sinking the impetuous Joukahainen into a bog by singing. Väinämöinen also slays a great pike and makes a magical kantele from its jawbones.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Väinämöinen's end is a hubristic one. The 50th and final poem of the "Kalevala" tells the story of the maiden Marjatta, who becomes pregnant after eating a berry, giving birth to a baby boy. This child is brought to Väinämöinen to examine and judge. His verdict is that such a strangely born infant needs to be put to death. In reply, the newborn child, mere two weeks old, chides the old sage for his sins and transgressions, such as allowing the maiden Aino, sister of Joukahainen, to drown herself. Following this, the baby is baptized and named king of "Kalevala". Defeated, Väinämöinen goes to the shores of the sea, where he sings for himself a boat of copper, with which he sails away from the mortal realms. In his final words, he promises that there shall be a time when he shall return, when his crafts and might shall once again be needed. Thematically, the 50th poem thus echoes the arrival of Christianity to Finland and the subsequent fading into history of the old pagan beliefs. This is a common theme among epics, for in the tale of King Arthur, Arthur declares a similar promise before departing for Avalon.


title: Väinämöinen

text: In the original 1888 translation of "Kalevala" into English by John Martin Crawford, Väinämöinen's name was anglicised as Wainamoinen.


title: Väinämöinen

text: In the Estonian national epic Kalevipoeg, a similar hero is called Vanemuine. In neighbouring Scandinavia, Odin shares many attributes with Väinämöinen, such as connections to magic and poetry.


title: Väinämöinen

text: The Kalevala has been translated into English and many other languages, in both verse and prose, in complete and abridged forms. For more details see list of Kalevala translations.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Väinämöinen has been identified as a source for Gandalf, the wizard in J. R. R. Tolkien's novel "The Lord of the Rings". Another Tolkienian character with great similarities to Väinämöinen is Tom Bombadil. Like Väinämöinen, he is one of the most powerful beings in his world, and both are ancient and natural beings in their setting. Both Tom Bombadil and Väinämöinen rely on the power of song and lore. Likewise, Treebeard and the Ents in general have been compared to Väinämöinen.


title: Väinämöinen

text: In art (such as the accompanying picture by Akseli Gallen-Kallela), Väinämöinen is described as an old man with a long white beard, which is also a popular appearance for wizards in fantasy literature.


title: Väinämöinen

text: In music, Finnish folk metal band Ensiferum wrote three songs based on/about Väinämöinen, called "Old Man", "Little Dreamer" and "Cold Northland". There is also a direct reference to him in their song "One More Magic Potion", where they have written "Who can shape a kantele from a pike's jaw, like the great One once did?". The band's mascot, who appears on all their albums, also bears a similarity to traditional depictions of Väinämöinen.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Another Finnish metal band named Amorphis released their tenth album The Beginning of Times in 2011. It is a concept album based on the myths and stories of Väinämöinen.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Yet another well-known Finnish metal band, Korpiklaani has released a song about the death of Väinämöinen, Tuonelan Tuvilla, as well as an English version named "At The Huts of the Underworld".


title: Väinämöinen

text: A song on the album "Archipelago" by Scottish electronic jazz collective Hidden Orchestra is also named "Vainamoinen".


title: Väinämöinen

text: Philadelphia based Black metal band Nihilistinen Barbaarisuus released a song about Väinämöinen simply called "Väinämöinen" on their second studio album "The Child Must Die" in 2015.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Väinämöinen is also the theme of a composition for choir and harp by Zoltán Kodály, "Wainamoinen makes music", premiered by David Watkins.


title: Väinämöinen

text: Joan D. Vinge's "The Summer Queen" contains characters named Vanamoinen, Ilmarinen and Kullervo. They are not the characters from the legend though but may have been inspired by them. That book is the sequel to her Hugo Award-winning novel "The Snow Queen".


title: Väinämöinen

text: Väinämöinen is also a major character in The Iron Druid Chronicles novel, "Hammered" by Kevin Hearne. The series follows the Tempe, Arizona-based 2,100-year-old Irish Druid, Atticus O'Sullivan. This particular book in the series' main plot point is the ingress of several characters - the Slavic thunder god Perun, O'Sullivan, a werewolf, a vampire, Finnish folk legend Väinämöinen, and Taoist fangshi Zhang Guolao - into Asgard to kill Norse thunder god Thor, all for their own varied reasons.


title: Väinämöinen

text: There is a Finnish comic strip called "Väinämöisen paluu" (The Return of Väinämöinen) by Petri Hiltunen, where Väinämöinen returns from thousand-year exile to modern Finland to comment on the modern lifestyle with humor.


title: Väinämöinen

text: In the storyline "Love her to Death" of the web-comic Nukees, Gav, having died, arrives to an afterlife populated by gods. Among them is Väinämöinen, who, among other things, complains that one only gets women by playing the electric kantele.


title: Väinämöinen

text: In the Uncle Scrooge comic "The Quest for Kalevala", drawn by Don Rosa, Väinämöinen helps Scrooge and company to reassemble the Sampo (mythical mill that could produce gold from thin air) and then leaves with it back to Kalevala, but not before giving Scrooge its handle as a souvenir.


title: Väinämöinen

text: In the webcomic "Axis Powers Hetalia", the character of Finland was given the human name Tino Väinämöinen.


title: Al Kaline

text: Albert William Kaline ( ; December 19, 1934 – April 6, 2020), nicknamed "Mr. Tiger", was an American professional baseball right fielder who played 22 seasons in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the Detroit Tigers. For most of his career, Kaline played in the outfield, mainly as a right fielder where he won ten Gold Glove Awards and was known for his strong throwing arm. He was selected to 18 All-Star Games, including selections each year between 1955 and 1967. He was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1980, his first time on the ballot.


title: Al Kaline

text: Near the end of his career, Kaline also played as first baseman and, in his last season, was the Tigers' designated hitter. He retired soon after reaching the 3,000 hit milestone. Immediately after retiring from playing, he became the Tigers' TV color commentator, a position he held until 2002. Kaline worked for the Tigers as a front office assistant from 2003 until his death in 2020.


title: Al Kaline

text: Kaline was born and raised in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of Naomi (Morgan) and Nicholas Kaline. His family was poor. Several of his relatives played semi-professional baseball, but no one in the family had graduated from high school. When he was eight years old, Kaline developed osteomyelitis and had two inches of bone removed from his left foot. The surgery left him with scarring and permanent deformity, but he was an outstanding pitcher in youth baseball. Kaline had learned to throw a fastball, changeup and curveball by the age of nine.