title: History of radar

text: Researchers at other Japanese universities and institutions also started projects in magnetron development, leading to improvements in the split-anode device. These included Kiyoshi Morita at the Tokyo Institute of Technology, and Tsuneo Ito at Tokoku University.


title: History of radar

text: Shigeru Nakajima at Japan Radio Company (JRC) saw a commercial potential of these devices and began the further development and subsequent very profitable production of magnetrons for the medical dielectric heating (diathermy) market. The only military interest in magnetrons was shown by Yoji Ito at the Naval Technical Research Institute (NTRI).


title: History of radar

text: The NTRI was formed in 1922, and became fully operational in 1930. Located at Meguro, Tokyo, near the Tokyo Institute of Technology, first-rate scientists, engineers, and technicians were engaged in activities ranging from designing giant submarines to building new radio tubes. Included were all of the precursors of radar, but this did not mean that the heads of the Imperial Navy accepted these accomplishments.


title: History of radar

text: In 1936, Tsuneo Ito (no relationship to Yoji Ito) developed an 8-split-anode magnetron that produced about 10 W at 10 cm (3 GHz). Based on its appearance, it was named "Tachibana" (or Mandarin, an orange citrus fruit). Tsuneo Ito also joined the NTRI and continued his research on magnetrons in association with Yoji Ito. In 1937, they developed the technique of coupling adjacent segments (called push-pull), resulting in frequency stability, an extremely important magnetron breakthrough.


title: History of radar

text: By early 1939, NTRI/JRC had jointly developed a 10-cm (3-GHz), stable-frequency Mandarin-type magnetron (No. M3) that, with water cooling, could produce 500-W power. In the same time period, magnetrons were built with 10 and 12 cavities operating as low as 0.7 cm (40 GHz). The configuration of the M3 magnetron was essentially the same as that used later in the magnetron developed by Boot and Randall at Birmingham University in early 1940, including the improvement of strapped cavities. Unlike the high-power magnetron in Britain, however, the initial device from the NTRI generated only a few hundred watts.


title: History of radar

text: In general, there was no lack of scientific and engineering capabilities in Japan; their warships and aircraft clearly showed high levels of technical competency. They were ahead of Britain in the development of magnetrons, and their Yagi antenna was the world standard for VHF systems. It was simply that the top military leaders failed to recognize how the application of radio in detection and ranging – what was often called the Radio Range Finder (RRF) – could be of value, particularly in any defensive role; offense not defense, totally dominated their thinking.


title: History of radar

text: In 1938, engineers from the Research Office of Nippon Electric Company (NEC) were making coverage tests on high-frequency transmitters when rapid fading of the signal was observed. This occurred whenever an aircraft passed over the line between the transmitter and receiving meter. Masatsugu Kobayashi, the Manager of NEC's Tube Department, recognized that this was due to the beat-frequency interference of the direct signal and the Doppler-shifted signal reflected from the aircraft.


title: History of radar

text: Kobayashi suggested to the Army Science Research Institute that this phenomenon might be used as an aircraft warning method. Although the Army had rejected earlier proposals for using radio-detection techniques, this one had appeal because it was based on an easily understandable method and would require little developmental cost and risk to prove its military value. NEC assigned Kinji Satake of their Research Institute to develop a system called the Bi-static Doppler Interference Detector (BDID).


title: History of radar

text: For testing the prototype system, it was set up on an area recently occupied by Japan along the coast of China. The system operated between 4.0–7.5 MHz (75–40 m) and involved a number of widely spaced stations; this formed a radio screen that could detect the presence (but nothing more) of an aircraft at distances up to . The BDID was the Imperial Army's first deployed radio-based detection system, placed into operation in early 1941.


title: History of radar

text: A similar system was developed by Satake for the Japanese homeland. Information centers received oral warnings from the operators at BDID stations, usually spaced between 65 and 240 km (40 and 150 mi). To reduce homing vulnerability – a great fear of the military – the transmitters operated with only a few watts power. Although originally intended to be temporary until better systems were available, they remained in operation throughout the war. It was not until after the start of war that the Imperial Army had equipment that could be called radar.


title: History of radar

text: In the mid-1930s, some of the technical specialists in the Imperial Navy became interested in the possibility of using radio to detect aircraft. For consultation, they turned to Professor Yagi who was the Director of the Radio Research Laboratory at Osaka Imperial University. Yagi suggested that this might be done by examining the Doppler frequency-shift in a reflected signal.


title: History of radar

text: Funding was provided to the Osaka Laboratory for experimental investigation of this technique. Kinjiro Okabe, the inventor of the split-anode magnetron and who had followed Yagi to Osaka, led the effort. Theoretical analyses indicated that the reflections would be greater if the wavelength was approximately the same as the size of aircraft structures. Thus, a VHF transmitter and receiver with Yagi antennas separated some distance were used for the experiment.


title: History of radar

text: In 1936, Okabe successfully detected a passing aircraft by the Doppler-interference method; this was the first recorded demonstration in Japan of aircraft detection by radio. With this success, Okabe's research interest switched from magnetrons to VHF equipment for target detection. This, however, did not lead to any significant funding. The top levels of the Imperial Navy believed that any advantage of using radio for this purpose were greatly outweighed by enemy intercept and disclosure of the sender's presence.


title: History of radar

text: Historically, warships in formation used lights and horns to avoid collision at night or when in fog. Newer techniques of VHF radio communications and direction-finding might also be used, but all of these methods were highly vulnerable to enemy interception. At the NTRI, Yoji Ito proposed that the UHF signal from a magnetron might be used to generate a very narrow beam that would have a greatly reduced chance of enemy detection.


title: History of radar

text: Development of microwave system for collision avoidance started in 1939, when funding was provided by the Imperial Navy to JRC for preliminary experiments. In a cooperative effort involving Yoji Ito of the NTRI and Shigeru Nakajima of JRC, an apparatus using a 3-cm (10-GHz) magnetron with frequency modulation was designed and built. The equipment was used in an attempt to detect reflections from tall structures a few kilometers away. This experiment gave poor results, attributed to the very low power from the magnetron.


title: History of radar

text: The initial magnetron was replaced by one operating at 16 cm (1.9 GHz) and with considerably higher power. The results were then much better, and in October 1940, the equipment obtained clear echoes from a ship in Tokyo Bay at a distance of about . There was still no commitment by top Japanese naval officials for using this technology aboard warships. Nothing more was done at this time, but late in 1941, the system was adopted for limited use.


title: History of radar

text: In late 1940, Japan arranged for two technical missions to visit Germany and exchange information about their developments in military technology. Commander Yoji Ito represented the Navy's interest in radio applications, and Lieutenant Colonel Kinji Satake did the same for the Army. During a visit of several months, they exchanged significant general information, as well as limited secret materials in some technologies, but little directly concerning radio-detection techniques. Neither side even mentioned magnetrons, but the Germans did apparently disclose their use of pulsed techniques.


title: History of radar

text: After receiving the reports from the technical exchange in Germany, as well as intelligence reports concerning the success of Britain with firing using RDF, the Naval General Staff reversed itself and tentatively accepted pulse-transmission technology. On August 2, 1941, even before Yoji Ito returned to Japan, funds were allocated for the initial development of pulse-modulated radars. Commander Chuji Hashimoto of the NTRI was responsible for initiating this activity.


title: History of radar

text: A prototype set operating at 4.2 m (71 MHz) and producing about 5 kW was completed on a crash basis. With the NTRI in the lead, the firm NEC and the Research Laboratory of Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK) made major contributions to the effort. Kenjiro Takayanagi, Chief Engineer of NHK's experimental television station and called "the father of Japanese television", was especially helpful in rapidly developing the pulse-forming and timing circuits, as well as the receiver display. In early September 1941, the prototype set was first tested; it detected a single bomber at and a flight of aircraft at .


title: History of radar

text: The system, Japan's first full Radio Range Finder (RRF – radar), was designated Mark 1 Model 1. Contracts were given to three firms for serial production; NEC built the transmitters and pulse modulators, Japan Victor the receivers and associated displays, and Fuji Electrical the antennas and their servo drives. The system operated at 3.0 m (100 MHz) with a peak-power of 40 kW. Dipole arrays with matte+-type reflectors were used in separate antennas for transmitting and receiving.


title: History of radar

text: In November 1941, the first manufactured RRF was placed into service as a land-based early-warning system at Katsuura, Chiba, a town on the Pacific coast about from Tokyo. A large system, it weighed close to 8,700 kg (19,000 lb). The detection range was about for single aircraft and for groups.


title: History of radar

text: Early radio-based detection in the Netherlands was along two independent lines: one a microwave system at the firm Philips and the other a VHF system at a laboratory of the Armed Forces.


title: History of radar

text: The Philips Company in Eindhoven, Netherlands, operated "Natuurkundig Laboratorium" (NatLab) for fundamental research related to its products. NatLab researcher developed a magnetron split into four elements.


title: History of radar

text: In developing a communication system using this magnetron, C.H.J.A. Staal was testing the transmission by using parabolic transmitting and receiving antennas set side-by-side, both aimed at a large plate some distance away. To overcome frequency instability of the magnetron, pulse modulation was used. It was found that the plate reflected a strong signal.


title: History of radar

text: Recognizing the potential importance of this as a detection device, NatLab arranged a demonstration for the "Koninklijke Marine" (Royal Netherlands Navy). This was conducted in 1937 across the entrance to the main naval port at Marsdiep. Reflections from sea waves obscured the return from the target ship, but the Navy was sufficiently impressed to initiate sponsorship of the research. In 1939, an improved set was demonstrated at Wijk aan Zee, detecting a vessel at a distance of .


title: History of radar

text: A prototype system was built by Philips, and plans were started by the firm Nederlandse Seintoestellen Fabriek (a Philips subsidiary) for building a chain of warning stations to protect the primary ports. Some field testing of the prototype was conducted, but the project was discontinued when Germany invaded the Netherlands on May 10, 1940. Within the NatLab, however, the work was continued in great secrecy until 1942.


title: History of radar

text: During the early 1930s, there were widespread rumours of a "death ray" being developed. The Dutch Parliament set up a Committee for the Applications of Physics in Weaponry under G.J. Elias to examine this potential, but the Committee quickly discounted death rays. The Committee did, however, establish the "Laboratorium voor Fysieke Ontwikkeling" (LFO, Laboratory for Physical Development), dedicated to supporting the Netherlands Armed Forces.


title: History of radar

text: Operating in great secrecy, the LFO opened a facility called the "Meetgebouw" (Measurements Building) located on the Plain of Waalsdorp. In 1934, J.L.W.C. von Weiler joined the LFO and, with S.G. Gratama, began research on a 1.25-m (240-MHz) communication system to be used in artillery spotting.


title: History of radar

text: In 1937, while tests were being conducted on this system, a passing flock of birds disturbed the signal. Realizing that this might be a potential method for detecting aircraft, the Minister of War ordered continuation of the experiments. Weiler and Gratama set about developing a system for directing searchlights and aiming anti-aircraft guns.


title: History of radar

text: The experimental "electrical listening device" operated at 70 cm (430 MHz) and used pulsed transmission at an RPF of 10 kHz. A transmit-receive blocking circuit was developed to allow a common antenna. The received signal was displayed on a CR tube with a circular time base. This set was demonstrated to the Army in April 1938 and detected an aircraft at a range of . The set was rejected, however, because it could not withstand the harsh environment of Army combat conditions.


title: History of radar

text: The Navy was more receptive. Funding was provided for final development, and Max Staal was added to the team. To maintain secrecy, they divided the development into parts. The transmitter was built at the Delft Technical College and the receiver at the University of Leiden. Ten sets would be assembled under the personal supervision of J.J.A. Schagen van Leeuwen, head of the firm Hazemeijer Fabriek van Signaalapparaten.


title: History of radar

text: The prototype had a peak-power of 1 kW, and used a pulse length of 2 to 3 μs with a 10- to 20 kHz PRF. The receiver was a super-heterodyne type using Acorn tubes and a 6 MHz IF stage. The antenna consisted of 4 rows of 16 half-wave dipoles backed by a 3- by 3-meter mesh screen. The operator used a bicycle-type drive to rotate the antenna, and the elevation could be changed using a hand crank.


title: History of radar

text: Several sets were completed, and one was put into operation on the Malieveld in The Hague just before the Netherlands fell to Germany in May 1940. The set worked well, spotting enemy aircraft during the first days of fighting. To prevent capture, operating units and plans for the system were destroyed. Von Weiler and Max Staal fled to England aboard one of the last ships able to leave, carrying two disassembled sets with them. Later, Gratama and van Leeuwen also escaped to England.


title: History of radar

text: In 1927, French physicists Camille Gutton and Emile Pierret experimented with magnetrons and other devices generating wavelengths going down to 16 cm. Camille's son, Henri Gutton, was with the Compagnie générale de la télégraphie sans fil (CSF) where he and Robert Warneck improved his father's magnetrons.


title: History of radar

text: In 1934, following systematic studies on the magnetron, the research branch of the CSF, headed by Maurice Ponte, submitted a patent application for a device designed to detect obstacles using continuous radiation of ultra-short wavelengths produced by a magnetron. These were still CW systems and depended on Doppler interference for detection. However, as most modern radars, antennas were collocated. The device was measuring distance and azimuth but not directly as in the later "radar" on a screen (1939). Still, this was the first patent of an operational radio-detection apparatus using centimetric wavelengths.


title: History of radar

text: The system was tested in late 1934 aboard the cargo ship "Oregon", with two transmitters working at 80 cm and 16 cm wavelengths. Coastlines and boats were detected from a range of 10–12 nautical miles. The shortest wavelength was chosen for the final design, which equipped the liner as early as mid-1935 for operational use.


title: History of radar

text: In late 1937, Maurice Elie at SFR developed a means of pulse-modulating transmitter tubes. This led to a new 16-cm system with a peak power near 500 W and a pulse width of 6 μs. French and U.S. patents were filed in December 1939. The system was planned to be sea-tested aboard the "Normandie", but this was cancelled at the outbreak of war.


title: History of radar

text: At the same time, Pierre David at the "Laboratoire National de Radioélectricité" (National Laboratory of Radioelectricity, LNR) experimented with reflected radio signals at about a meter wavelength. Starting in 1931, he observed that aircraft caused interference to the signals. The LNR then initiated research on a detection technique called "barrage électromagnétique" (electromagnetic curtain). While this could indicate the general location of penetration, precise determination of direction and speed was not possible.


title: History of radar

text: In 1936, the "Défense Aérienne du Territoire" (Defence of Air Territory), ran tests on David's electromagnetic curtain. In the tests, the system detected most of the entering aircraft, but too many were missed. As the war grew closer, the need for an aircraft detection was critical. David realized the advantages of a pulsed system, and in October 1938 he designed a 50 MHz, pulse-modulated system with a peak-pulse power of 12 kW. This was built by the firm SADIR.


title: History of radar

text: France declared war on Germany on September 1, 1939, and there was a great need for an early-warning detection system. The SADIR system was taken to near Toulon, and detected and measured the range of invading aircraft as far as . The SFR pulsed system was set up near Paris where it detected aircraft at ranges up to . However, the German advance was overwhelming and emergency measures had to be taken; it was too late for France to develop radars alone and it was decided that her breakthroughs would be shared with her allies.


title: History of radar

text: In mid-1940, Maurice Ponte, from the laboratories of CSF in Paris, presented a cavity magnetron designed by Henri Gutton at SFR (see above) to the GEC laboratories at Wembley, Britain. This magnetron was designed for pulsed operation at a wavelength of 16 cm. Unlike other magnetron designs to that day, such as the Boots and Randall magnetron (see British contributions above), this tube used an oxide-coated cathode with a peak power output of 1 kW, demonstrating that oxide cathodes were the solution for producing high-power pulses at short wavelengths, a problem which had eluded British and American researchers for years. The significance this event was underlined by Eric Megaw, in a 1946 review of early radar developments: "This was the starting point of the use of the oxide cathode in practically all our subsequent pulsed transmitting waves and as such was a significant contribution to British radar. The date was the 8th May 1940". A tweaked version of this magnetron reached a peak output of 10 kW by August 1940. It was that model which, in turn, was handed to the Americans as a token of good faith during the negotiations made by the Tizard delegation in 1940 to obtain from the U.S. the resources necessary for Britain to exploit the full military potential of her research and development work.


title: History of radar

text: Guglielmo Marconi initiated the research in Italy on radio-based detection technology. In 1933, while participating with his Italian firm in experiments with a 600 MHz communications link across Rome, he noted transmission disturbances caused by moving objects adjacent to its path. This led to the development at his laboratory at Cornegliano of a 330-MHz (0.91-m) CW Doppler detection system that he called "radioecometro". Barkhausen–Kurz tubes were used in both the transmitter and receiver.


title: History of radar

text: In May 1935, Marconi demonstrated his system to the Fascist dictator Benito Mussolini and members of the military General Staff; however the output power was insufficient for military use. While Marconi's demonstration raised considerable interest, little more was done with his apparatus.


title: History of radar

text: Mussolini directed that radio-based detection technology be further developed, and it was assigned to the "Regio Istituto Elettrotecnico e delle Comunicazioni" (RIEC, Royal Institute for Electro-technics and Communications). The RIEC had been established in 1916 on the campus of the Italian Naval Academy in Livorno. Lieutenant Ugo Tiberio, a physics and radio-technology instructor at the Academy, was assigned to head the project on a part-time basis.


title: History of radar

text: Tiberio prepared a report on developing an experimental apparatus that he called "telemetro radiofonico del rivelatore" (RDT, Radio-Detector Telemetry). The report, submitted in mid-1936, included what was later known as the radar range equation. When the work got underway, Nello Carrara, a civilian physics instructor who had been doing research at the RIEC in microwaves, was added to be responsible for developing the RDT transmitter.


title: History of radar

text: Before the end of 1936, Tiberio and Carrara had demonstrated the EC-1, the first Italian RDT system. This had an FM transmitter operating at 200 MHz (1.5 m) with a single parabolic cylinder antenna. It detected by mixing the transmitted and the Doppler-shifted reflected signals, resulting in an audible tone.


title: History of radar

text: The EC-1 did not provide a range measurement; to add this capability, development of a pulsed system was initiated in 1937. Captain Alfeo Brandimarte joined the group and primarily designed the first pulsed system, the EC-2. This operated at 175 MHz (1.7 m) and used a single antenna made with a number of equi-phased dipoles. The detected signal was intended to be displayed on an oscilloscope. There were many problems, and the system never reached the testing stage.


title: History of radar

text: Work then turned to developing higher power and operating frequencies. Carrara, in cooperation with the firm FIVRE, developed a magnetron-like device. This was composed of a pair of triodes connected to a resonate cavity and produced 10 kW at 425 MHz (70 cm). It was used in designing two versions of the EC-3, one for shipboard and the other for coastal defense.


title: History of radar

text: Italy, joining Germany, entered WWII in June 1940 without an operational RDT. A breadboard of the EC-3 was built and tested from atop a building at the Academy, but most RDT work was stopped as direct support of the war took priority.


title: History of radar

text: In early 1939, the British Government invited representatives from the most technically advanced Commonwealth Nations to visit England for briefings and demonstrations on the highly secret RDF (radar) technology. Based on this, RDF developments were started in Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and South Africa by September 1939. In addition, this technology was independently developed in Hungary early in the war period.


title: History of radar

text: In Australia, the Radiophysics Laboratory was established at Sydney University under the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research; John H. Piddington was responsible for RDF development. The first project was a 200-MHz (1.5-m) shore-defense system for the Australian Army. Designated ShD, this was first tested in September 1941, and eventually installed at 17 ports. Following the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, the Royal Australian Air Force urgently needed an air-warning system, and Piddington's team, using the ShD as a basis, put the AW Mark I together in five days. It was being installed in Darwin, Northern Territory, when Australia received the first Japanese attack on February 19, 1942. A short time later, it was converted to a light-weight transportable version, the LW-AW Mark II; this was used by the Australian forces, as well as the U.S. Army, in early island landings in the South Pacific.


title: History of radar

text: The early RDF developments in Canada were at the Radio Section of the National Research Council of Canada. Using commercial components and with essentially no further assistance from Britain, John Tasker Henderson led a team in developing the Night Watchman, a surface-warning system for the Royal Canadian Navy to protect the entrance to the Halifax Harbour. Successfully tested in July 1940, this set operated at 200 MHz (1.5 m), had a 1 kW output with a pulse length of 0.5 μs, and used a relatively small, fixed antenna. This was followed by a ship-borne set designated Surface Warning 1st Canadian (SW1C) with the antenna hand-rotated through the use of a Chevrolet steering wheel in the operator's compartment. The SW1C was first tested at sea in mid-May 1941, but the performance was so poor compared to the Royal Navy's Model 271 ship-borne radar that the Royal Canadian Navy eventually adopted the British 271 in place of the SW1C.


title: History of radar

text: For coastal defense by the Canadian Army, a 200 MHz set with a transmitter similar to the Night Watchman was developed. Designated CD, it used a large, rotating antenna atop a wooden tower. The CD was put into operation in January 1942.


title: History of radar

text: Ernest Marsden represented New Zealand at the briefings in England, and then established two facilities for RDF development – one in Wellington at the Radio Section of the Central NZ Post Office, and another at Canterbury University College in Christchurch. Charles N. Watson-Munro led the development of land-based and airborne sets at Wellington, while Frederick W. G. White led the development of shipboard sets at Christchurch.


title: History of radar

text: Before the end of 1939, the Wellington group had converted an existing 180-MHz (1.6-m), 1 kW transmitter to produce 2-μs pulses and tested it to detect large vessels at up to 30 km; this was designated CW (Coastal Watching). A similar set, designated CD (Coast Defense) used a CRT for display and had lobe-switching on the receiving antenna; this was deployed in Wellington in late 1940. A partially completed ASV 200 MHz set was brought from Britain by Marsden, and another group at Wellington built this into an aircraft set for the Royal New Zealand Air Force; this was first flown in early 1940. At Christchurch, there was a smaller staff and work went slower, but by July 1940, a 430-MHz (70-cm), 5 kW set was tested. Two types, designated SW (Ship Warning) and SWG (Ship Warning, Gunnery), were placed into service by the Royal New Zealand Navy starting in August 1941. In all some 44 types were developed in New Zealand during WWII.


title: History of radar

text: South Africa did not have a representative at the 1939 meetings in England, but in mid-September, as Ernest Marsden was returning by ship to New Zealand, Basil F. J. Schonland came aboard and received three days of briefings. Schonland, a world authority on lightning and Director of the Bernard Price Institute of Geophysics at Witwatersrand University, immediately started an RDF development using amateur radio components and Institute's lightning-monitoring equipment. Designated JB (for Johannesburg), the 90-MHz (3.3-m), 500-W mobile system was tested in November 1939, just two months after its start. The prototype was operated in Durban before the end of 1939, detecting ships and aircraft at distances up to 80 km, and by the next March a system was fielded by anti-aircraft brigades of the South African Defence Force.


title: History of radar

text: In Hungary, Zoltán Lajos Bay was a Professor of Physics at the Technical University of Budapest as well as the Research Director of Egyesült Izzolampa (IZZO), a radio and electrical manufacturing firm. In late 1942, IZZO was directed by the Minister of Defense to develop a radio-location ("rádiólokáció", radar) system. Using journal papers on ionospheric measurements for information on pulsed transmission, Bay developed a system called "Sas" (Eagle) around existing communications hardware.


title: History of radar

text: The "Sas" operated at 120 MHz (2.5 m) and was in a cabin with separate transmitting and receiving dipole arrays attached; the assembly was all on a rotatable platform. According to published records, the system was tested in 1944 atop Mount János and had a range of "better than 500 km". A second "Sas" was installed at another location. There is no indication that either "Sas" installation was ever in regular service. After the war, Bay used a modified "Sas" to successfully bounce a signal off the moon.


title: History of radar

text: At the start of World War II in September 1939, both the United Kingdom and Germany knew of each other's ongoing efforts in radio navigation and its countermeasures – the "Battle of the beams". Also, both nations were generally aware of, and intensely interested in, the other's developments in radio-based detection and tracking, and engaged in an active campaign of espionage and false leaks about their respective equipment. By the time of the Battle of Britain, both sides were deploying range and direction-finding units (radars) and control stations as part of integrated air defense capability. However, the German "Funkmessgerät" (radio measuring device) systems could not assist in an offensive role and was thus not supported by Adolf Hitler. Also, the "Luftwaffe" did not sufficiently appreciate the importance of British Range and Direction Finding (RDF) stations as part of RAF's air defense capability, contributing to their failure.


title: History of radar

text: While the United Kingdom and Germany led in pre-war advances in the use of radio for detection and tracking of aircraft, there were also developments in the United States, the Soviet Union, and Japan. Wartime systems in all of these nations will be summarized. The acronym RADAR (for RAdio Detection And Ranging) was coined by the U.S. Navy in 1940, and the subsequent name "radar" was soon widely used. The XAF and CXAM search radars were designed by the Naval Research Laboratory, and were the first operational radars in the US fleet, produced by RCA.


title: History of radar

text: When France had just fallen to the Nazis and Britain had no money to develop the magnetron on a massive scale, Churchill agreed that Sir Henry Tizard should offer the magnetron to the Americans in exchange for their financial and industrial help (the Tizard Mission). An early 6 kW version, built in England by the General Electric Company Research Laboratories, Wembley, London (not to be confused with the similarly named American company General Electric), was given to the US government in September 1940. The British magnetron was a thousand times more powerful than the best American transmitter at the time and produced accurate pulses. At the time the most powerful equivalent microwave producer available in the US (a klystron) had a power of only ten watts. The cavity magnetron was widely used during World War II in microwave radar equipment and is often credited with giving Allied radar a considerable performance advantage over German and Japanese radars, thus directly influencing the outcome of the war. It was later described by noted Historian James Phinney Baxter III as "The most valuable cargo ever brought to our shores".


title: History of radar

text: The Bell Telephone Laboratories made a producible version from the magnetron delivered to America by the Tizard Mission, and before the end of 1940, the Radiation Laboratory had been set up on the campus of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology to develop various types of radar using the magnetron. By early 1941, portable centimetric airborne radars were being tested in American and British aircraft. In late 1941, the Telecommunications Research Establishment in Great Britain used the magnetron to develop a revolutionary airborne, ground-mapping radar codenamed H2S. The H2S radar was in part developed by Alan Blumlein and Bernard Lovell. The magnetron radars used by the US and Britain could spot the periscope of a U-boat.


title: History of radar

text: World War II, which gave impetus to the great surge in radar development, ended between the Allies and Germany in May 1945, followed by Japan in August. With this, radar activities in Germany and Japan ceased for a number of years. In other countries, particularly the United States, Britain, and the USSR, the politically unstable post-war years saw continued radar improvements for military applications. In fact, these three nations all made significant efforts in bringing scientists and engineers from Germany to work in their weapon programs; in the U.S., this was under Operation Paperclip.


title: History of radar

text: Even before the end of the war, various projects directed toward non-military applications of radar and closely related technologies were initiated. The US Army Air Forces and the British RAF had made wartime advances in using radar for handling aircraft landing, and this was rapidly expanded into the civil sector. The field of radio astronomy was one of the related technologies; although discovered before the war, it immediately flourished in the late 1940s with many scientists around the world establishing new careers based on their radar experience.


title: History of radar

text: Four techniques, highly important in post-war radars, were matured in the late 1940s-early 1950s: pulse Doppler, monopulse, phased array, and synthetic aperture; the first three were known and even used during wartime developments, but were matured later.


title: History of radar

text: One of the early applications of digital computers was in switching the signal phase in elements of large phased-array antennas. As smaller computers came into being, these were quickly applied to digital signal processing using algorithms for improving radar performance.


title: History of radar

text: Other advances in radar systems and applications in the decades following WWII are far too many to be included herein. The following sections are intended to provide representative samples.


title: History of radar

text: In the United States, the Rad Lab at MIT officially closed at the end of 1945. The Naval Research Laboratory (NRL) and the Army's Evans Signal Laboratory continued with new activities in centimeter radar development. The United States Air Force (USAF) – separated from the Army in 1946 – concentrated radar research at their Cambridge Research Center (CRC) at Hanscom Field, Massachusetts. In 1951, MIT opened the Lincoln Laboratory for joint developments with the CRC. While the Bell Telephone Laboratories embarked on major communications upgrades, they continued with the Army in radar for their ongoing Nike air-defense program


title: History of radar

text: In Britain, the RAF's Telecommunications Research Establishment (TRE) and the Army's Radar Research and Development Establishment (RRDE) both continued at reduced levels at Malvern, Worcestershire, then in 1953 were combined to form the Radar Research Establishment. In 1948, all of the Royal Navy's radio and radar R&D activities were combined to form the Admiralty Signal and Radar Establishment, located near Portsmouth, Hampshire. The USSR, although devastated by the war, immediately embarked on the development of new weapons, including radars.


title: History of radar

text: During the Cold War period following WWII, the primary "axis" of combat shifted to lie between the United States and the Soviet Union. By 1949, both sides had nuclear weapons carried by bombers. To provide early warning of an attack, both deployed huge radar networks of increasing sophistication at ever-more remote locations. In the West, the first such system was the Pinetree Line, deployed across Canada in the early 1950s, backed up with radar pickets on ships and oil platforms off the east and west coasts.


title: History of radar

text: The Pinetree Line initially used vintage pulsed radars and was soon supplemented with the Mid-Canada Line (MCL). Soviet technology improvements made these Lines inadequate and, in a construction project involving 25,000 persons, the Distant Early Warning Line (DEW Line) was completed in 1957. Stretching from Alaska to Baffin Island and covering over , the DEW Line consisted of 63 stations with AN/FPS-19 high-power, pulsed, L-Band radars, most augmented by AN/FPS-23 pulse-Doppler systems. The Soviet Unit tested its first Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM) in August 1957, and in a few years the early-warning role was passed almost entirely to the more capable DEW Line.


title: History of radar

text: Both the U.S. and the Soviet Union then had ICBMs with nuclear warheads, and each began the development of a major anti-ballistic missile (ABM) system. In the USSR, this was the Fakel V-1000, and for this they developed powerful radar systems. This was eventually deployed around Moscow as the A-35 anti-ballistic missile system, supported by radars designated by NATO as the Cat House, Dog House, and Hen House.


title: History of radar

text: In 1957, the U.S. Army initiated an ABM system first called Nike-X; this passed through several names, eventually becoming the Safeguard Program. For this, there was a long-range Perimeter Acquisition Radar (PAR) and a shorter-range, more precise Missile Site Radar (MSR).


title: History of radar

text: The PAR was housed in a -high nuclear-hardened building with one face sloping 25 degrees facing north. This contained 6,888 antenna elements separated in transmitting and receiving phased arrays. The L-Band transmitter used 128 long-life traveling-wave tubes (TWTs), having a combined power in the megawatt range The PAR could detect incoming missiles outside the atmosphere at distances up to .


title: History of radar

text: The MSR had an , truncated pyramid structure, with each face holding a phased-array antenna in diameter and containing 5,001 array elements used for both transmitting and receiving. Operating in the S-Band, the transmitter used two klystrons functioning in parallel, each with megawatt-level power. The MSR could search for targets from all directions, acquiring them at up to range.


title: History of radar

text: One Safeguard site, intended to defend Minuteman ICBM missile silos near the Grand Forks AFB in North Dakota, was finally completed in October 1975, but the U.S. Congress withdrew all funding after it was operational but a single day. During the following decades, the U.S. Army and the U.S. Air Force developed a variety of large radar systems, but the long-serving BTL gave up military development work in the 1970s.


title: History of radar

text: A modern radar developed by of the U.S. Navy is the AN/SPY-1. First fielded in 1973, this S-Band, 6 MW system has gone through a number of variants and is a major component of the Aegis Combat System. An automatic detect-and-track system, it is computer controlled using four complementary three-dimensional passive electronically scanned array antennas to provide hemispherical coverage.


title: History of radar

text: Radar signals, traveling with line-of-sight propagation, normally have a range to ground targets limited by the visible horizon, or less than about . Airborne targets can be detected by ground-level radars at greater ranges, but, at best, several hundred miles. Since the beginning of radio, it had been known that signals of appropriate frequencies (3 to 30 MHz) could be "bounced" from the ionosphere and received at considerable distances. As long-range bombers and missiles came into being, there was a need to have radars give early warnings at great ranges. In the early 1950s, a team at the Naval Research Laboratory came up with the Over-the-Horizon (OTH) radar for this purpose.


title: History of radar

text: To distinguish targets from other reflections, it was necessary to use a phase-Doppler system. Very sensitive receivers with low-noise amplifiers had to be developed. Since the signal going to the target and returning had a propagation loss proportional to the range raised to the fourth power, a powerful transmitter and large antennas were required. A digital computer with considerable capability (new at that time) was necessary for analyzing the data. In 1950, their first experimental system was able to detect rocket launches away at Cape Canaveral, and the cloud from a nuclear explosion in Nevada distant.


title: History of radar

text: In the early 1970s, a joint American-British project, code named Cobra Mist, used a 10-MW OTH radar at Orfordness (the birthplace of British radar), England, in an attempt to detect aircraft and missile launchings over the Western USSR. Because of US-USSR ABM agreements, this was abandoned within two years. In the same time period, the Soviets were developing a similar system; this successfully detected a missile launch at . By 1976, this had matured into an operational system named "Duga" ("Arc" in English), but known to western intelligence as Steel Yard and called Woodpecker by radio amateurs and others who suffered from its interference – the transmitter was estimated to have a power of 10 MW. Australia, Canada, and France also developed OTH radar systems.


title: History of radar

text: With the advent of satellites with early-warning capabilities, the military lost most of its interest in OTH radars. However, in recent years, this technology has been reactivated for detecting and tracking ocean shipping in applications such as maritime reconnaissance and drug enforcement.


title: History of radar

text: Systems using an alternate technology have also been developed for over-the-horizon detection. Due to diffraction, electromagnetic surface waves are scattered to the rear of objects, and these signals can be detected in a direction opposite from high-powered transmissions. Called OTH-SW (SW for Surface Wave), Russia is using such a system to monitor the Sea of Japan, and Canada has a system for coastal surveillance.


title: History of radar

text: The post-war years saw the beginning of a revolutionary development in Air Traffic Control (ATC) – the introduction of radar. In 1946, the Civil Aeronautics Administration (CAA) unveiled an experimental radar-equipped tower for control of civil flights. By 1952, the CAA had begun its first routine use of radar for approach and departure control. Four years later, it placed a large order for long-range radars for use in "en route" ATC; these had the capability, at higher altitudes, to see aircraft within 200 nautical miles (370 km). In 1960, it became required for aircraft flying in certain areas to carry a radar transponder that identified the aircraft and helped improve radar performance. Since 1966, the responsible agency has been called the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA).


title: History of radar

text: A Terminal Radar Approach Control (TRACON) is an ATC facility usually located within the vicinity of a large airport. In the US Air Force it is known as RAPCON (Radar Approach Control), and in the US Navy as a RATCF (Radar Air Traffic Control Facility). Typically, the TRACON controls aircraft within a 30 to 50 nautical mile (56 to 93 km) radius of the airport at an altitude between 10,000 and 15,000 feet (3,000 to 4,600 m). This uses one or more Airport Surveillance Radars (ASR-8, 9 and 11, ASR-7 is obsolete), sweeping the sky once every few seconds. These Primary ASR radars are typically paired with secondary radars (Air Traffic Radar Beacon Interrogators, or ATCBI) of the ATCBI-5, Mode S or MSSR types. Unlike primary radar, secondary radar relies upon an aircraft based transponder, which receives an interrogation from the ground and replies with an appropriate digital code which includes the aircraft id and reports the aircraft's altitude. The principle is similar to the military IFF Identification friend or foe. The secondary radar antenna array rides atop the primary radar dish at the radar site, with both rotating at approximately 12 revolutions per minute.


title: History of radar

text: The Digital Airport Surveillance Radar (DASR) is a newer TRACON radar system, replacing the old analog systems with digital technology. The civilian nomenclature for these radars is the ASR-9 and the ASR-11, and AN/GPN-30 is used by the military.


title: History of radar

text: In the ASR-11, two radar systems are included. The primary is an S-Band (~2.8 GHz) system with 25 kW pulse power. It provides 3-D tracking of target aircraft and also measures rainfall intensity. The secondary is a P-Band (~1.05 GHz) system with a peak-power of about 25 kW. It uses a transponder set to interrogate aircraft and receive operational data. The antennas for both systems rotate atop a tall tower.


title: History of radar

text: During World War II, military radar operators noticed noise in returned echoes due to weather elements like rain, snow, and sleet. Just after the war, military scientists returned to civilian life or continued in the Armed Forces and pursued their work in developing a use for those echoes. In the United States, David Atlas, for the Air Force group at first, and later for MIT, developed the first operational weather radars. In Canada, J.S. Marshall and R.H. Douglas formed the "Stormy Weather Group " in Montreal. Marshall and his doctoral student Walter Palmer are well known for their work on the drop size distribution in mid-latitude rain that led to understanding of the Z-R relation, which correlates a given radar reflectivity with the rate at which water is falling on the ground. In the United Kingdom, research continued to study the radar echo patterns and weather elements such as stratiform rain and convective clouds, and experiments were done to evaluate the potential of different wavelengths from 1 to 10 centimetres.


title: History of radar

text: Between 1950 and 1980, reflectivity radars, which measure position and intensity of precipitation, were built by weather services around the world. In United States, the U.S. Weather Bureau, established in 1870 with the specific mission of to provide meteorological observations and giving notice of approaching storms, developed the WSR-1 (Weather Surveillance Radar-1), one of the first weather radars. This was a modified version of the AN/APS-2F radar, which the Weather Bureau acquired from the Navy. The WSR-1A, WSR-3, and WSR-4 were also variants of this radar. This was followed by the WSR-57 (Weather Surveillance Radar – 1957) was the first weather radar designed specifically for a national warning network. Using WWII technology based on vacuum tubes, it gave only coarse reflectivity data and no velocity information. Operating at 2.89 GHz (S-Band), it had a peak-power of 410 kW and a maximum range of about . AN/FPS-41 was the military designation for the WSR-57.


title: History of radar

text: The early meteorologists had to watch a cathode ray tube. During the 1970s, radars began to be standardized and organized into larger networks. The next significant change in the United States was the WSR-74 series, beginning operations in 1974. There were two types: the WSR-74S, for replacements and filling gaps in the WSR-57 national network, and the WSR-74C, primarily for local use. Both were transistor-based, and their primary technical difference was indicated by the letter, S band (better suited for long range) and C band, respectively. Until the 1990s, there were 128 of the WSR-57 and WSR-74 model radars were spread across that country.


title: History of radar

text: The first devices to capture radar images were developed during the same period. The number of scanned angles was increased to get a three-dimensional view of the precipitation, so that horizontal cross-sections (CAPPI) and vertical ones could be performed. Studies of the organization of thunderstorms were then possible for the Alberta Hail Project in Canada and National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) in the US in particular. The NSSL, created in 1964, began experimentation on dual polarization signals and on Doppler effect uses. In May 1973, a tornado devastated Union City, Oklahoma, just west of Oklahoma City. For the first time, a Dopplerized 10-cm wavelength radar from NSSL documented the entire life cycle of the tornado. The researchers discovered a mesoscale rotation in the cloud aloft before the tornado touched the ground : the tornadic vortex signature. NSSL's research helped convince the National Weather Service that Doppler radar was a crucial forecasting tool.


title: History of radar

text: Between 1980 and 2000, weather radar networks became the norm in North America, Europe, Japan and other developed countries. Conventional radars were replaced by Doppler radars, which in addition to position and intensity of could track the relative velocity of the particles in the air. In the United States, the construction of a network consisting of wavelength radars, called NEXRAD or WSR-88D (Weather Service Radar 1988 Doppler), was started in 1988 following NSSL's research. In Canada, Environment Canada constructed the King City station, with a five centimeter research Doppler radar, by 1985; McGill University dopplerized its radar (J. S. Marshall Radar Observatory) in 1993. This led to a complete Canadian Doppler network between 1998 and 2004. France and other European countries switched to Doppler network by the end of the 1990s to early 2000s. Meanwhile, rapid advances in computer technology led to algorithms to detect signs of severe weather and a plethora of "products" for media outlets and researchers.


title: History of radar

text: After 2000, research on dual polarization technology moved into operational use, increasing the amount of information available on precipitation type (e.g. rain vs. snow). "Dual polarization" means that microwave radiation which is polarized both horizontally and vertically (with respect to the ground) is emitted. Wide-scale deployment is expected by the end of the decade in some countries such as the United States, France, and Canada.


title: History of radar

text: Since 2003, the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration has been experimenting with phased-array radar as a replacement for conventional parabolic antenna to provide more time resolution in atmospheric sounding. This would be very important in severe thunderstorms as their evolution can be better evaluated with more timely data.


title: History of radar

text: Also in 2003, the National Science Foundation established the Engineering Research Center for Collaborative Adaptive Sensing of the Atmosphere, "CASA", a multidisciplinary, multi-university collaboration of engineers, computer scientists, meteorologists, and sociologists to conduct fundamental research, develop enabling technology, and deploy prototype engineering systems designed to augment existing radar systems by sampling the generally undersampled lower troposphere with inexpensive, fast scanning, dual polarization, mechanically scanned and phased array radars.


title: History of radar

text: The plan position indicator, dating from the early days of radar and still the most common type of display, provides a map of the targets surrounding the radar location. If the radar antenna on an aircraft is aimed downward, a map of the terrain is generated, and the larger the antenna, the greater the image resolution. After centimeter radar came into being, downward-looking radars – the H2S ( L-Band) and H2X (C-Band) – provided real-time maps used by the U.S. and Britain in bombing runs over Europe at night and through dense clouds.


title: History of radar

text: In 1951, Carl Wiley led a team at Goodyear Aircraft Corporation (later Goodyear Aerospace) in developing a technique for greatly expanding and improving the resolution of radar-generated images. Called synthetic aperture radar (SAR), an ordinary-sized antenna fixed to the side of an aircraft is used with highly complex signal processing to give an image that would otherwise require a much larger, scanning antenna; thus, the name synthetic aperture. As each pulse is emitted, it is radiated over a lateral band onto the terrain. The return is spread in time, due to reflections from features at different distances. Motion of the vehicle along the flight path gives the horizontal increments. The amplitude and phase of returns are combined by the signal processor using Fourier transform techniques in forming the image. The overall technique is closely akin to optical holography.


title: History of radar

text: Through the years, many variations of the SAR have been made with diversified applications resulting. In initial systems, the signal processing was too complex for on-board operation; the signals were recorded and processed later. Processors using optical techniques were then tried for generating real-time images, but advances in high-speed electronics now allow on-board processes for most applications. Early systems gave a resolution in tens of meters, but more recent airborne systems provide resolutions to about 10 cm. Current ultra-wideband systems have resolutions of a few millimeters.


title: History of radar

text: The most widespread radar device today is undoubtedly the radar gun. This is a small, usually hand-held, Doppler radar that is used to detect the speed of objects, especially trucks and automobiles in regulating traffic, as well as pitched baseballs, runners, or other moving objects in sports. This device can also be used to measure the surface speed of water and continuously manufactured materials. A radar gun does not return information regarding the object's position; it uses the Doppler effect to measure the speed of a target. First developed in 1954, most radar guns operate with very low power in the X or Ku Bands. Some use infrared radiation or laser light; these are usually called LIDAR. A related technology for velocity measurements in flowing liquids or gasses is called laser Doppler velocimetry; this technology dates from the mid-1960s.


title: History of radar

text: As pulsed radars were initially being developed, the use of very narrow pulses was examined. The pulse length governs the accuracy of distance measurement by radar – the shorter the pulse, the greater the precision. Also, for a given pulse repetition frequency (PRF), a shorter pulse results in a higher peak power. Harmonic analysis shows that the narrower the pulse, the wider the band of frequencies that contain the energy, leading to such systems also being called wide-band radars. In the early days, the electronics for generating and receiving these pulses was not available; thus, essentially no applications of this were initially made.


title: History of radar

text: By the 1970s, advances in electronics led to renewed interest in what was often called short-pulse radar. With further advances, it became practical to generate pulses having a width on the same order as the period of the RF carrier (T = 1/f). This is now generally called impulse radar.


title: History of radar

text: The first significant application of this technology was in ground-penetrating radar (GPR). Developed in the 1970s, GPR is now used for structural foundation analysis, archeological mapping, treasure hunting, unexploded ordnance identification, and other shallow investigations. This is possible because impulse radar can concisely locate the boundaries between the general media (the soil) and the desired target. The results, however, are non-unique and are highly dependent upon the skill of the operator and the subsequent interpretation of the data.


title: History of radar

text: In dry or otherwise favorable soil and rock, penetration up to is often possible. For distance measurements at these short ranges, the transmitted pulse is usually only one radio-frequency cycle in duration; With a 100 MHz carrier and a PRF of 10 kHz (typical parameters), the pulse duration is only 10 ns (nanosecond). leading to the "impulse" designation. A variety of GPR systems are commercially available in back-pack and wheeled-cart versions with pulse-power up to a kilowatt.


title: History of radar

text: With continued development of electronics, systems with pulse durations measured in picoseconds became possible. Applications are as varied as security and motion sensors, building stud-finders, collision-warning devices, and cardiac-dynamics monitors. Some of these devices are matchbox sized, including a long-life power source.


title: History of radar

text: As radar was being developed, astronomers considered its application in making observations of the Moon and other near-by extraterrestrial objects. In 1944, Zoltán Lajos Bay had this as a major objective as he developed a radar in Hungary. His radar telescope was taken away by the conquering Soviet army and had to be rebuilt, thus delaying the experiment. Under Project Diana conducted by the Army's Evans Signal Laboratory in New Jersey, a modified SCR-271 radar (the fixed-position version of the SCR-270) operating at 110 MHz with 3 kW peak-power, was used in receiving echoes from the Moon on January 10, 1946. Zoltán Bay accomplished this on the following February 6.


title: History of radar

text: Radio astronomy also had its start following WWII, and many scientists involved in radar development then entered this field. A number of radio observatories were constructed during the following years; however, because of the additional cost and complexity of involving transmitters and associated receiving equipment, very few were dedicated to radar astronomy. In fact, essentially all major radar astronomy activities have been conducted as adjuncts to radio astronomy observatories.


title: History of radar

text: The radio telescope at the Arecibo Observatory, opened in 1963, was the largest in the world. Owned by the U.S. National Science Foundation and contractor operated, it was used primarily for radio astronomy, but equipment was available for radar astronomy. This included transmitters operating at 47 MHz, 439 MHz, and 2.38 GHz, all with very-high pulse power. It has a 305-m (1,000-ft) primary reflector fixed in position; the secondary reflector is on tracks to allow precise pointing to different parts of the sky. Many significant scientific discoveries have been made using the Arecibo radar telescope, including mapping of surface roughness of Mars and observations of Saturns and its largest moon, Titan. In 1989, the observatory radar-imaged an asteroid for the first time in history.


title: History of radar

text: After an auxiliary and main cable failure on the telescope in August and November 2020, respectively, the NSF announced the decision that they would decommission the telescope through controlled demolition, but that the other facilities on the Observatory would remain operational in the future. However, before the safe decommission of the telescope could occur, remaining support cables from one tower rapidly failed in the morning of December 1, 2020, causing the instrument platform to crash through the dish, shearing off the tops of the support towers, and partially damaging some of the other buildings, though there were no injuries. NSF has stated that it is still their intention to continue to have the other Observatory facilities operational as soon as possible and are looking at plans to rebuild a new telescope instrument in its place


title: History of radar

text: Several spacecraft orbiting the Moon, Mercury, Venus, Mars, and Saturn have carried radars for surface mapping; a ground-penetration radar was carried on the Mars Express mission. Radar systems on a number of aircraft and orbiting spacecraft have mapped the entire Earth for various purposes; on the Shuttle Radar Topography Mission, the entire planet was mapped at a 30-m resolution.


title: History of radar

text: The Jodrell Bank Observatory, an operation of the University of Manchester in Britain, was originally started by Bernard Lovell to be a radar astronomy facility. It initially used a war-surplus GL-II radar system operating at 71 MHz (4.2 m). The first observations were of ionized trails in the Geminids meteor shower during December 1945. While the facility soon evolved to become the third largest radio observatory in the world, some radar astronomy continued. The largest (250-ft or 76-m in diameter) of their three fully steerable radio telescopes became operational just in time to radar track "Sputnik 1", the first artificial satellite, in October 1957.


title: Chameli (film)

text: Chameli () is a 2004 Indian Hindi-language film. It stars Kareena Kapoor and Rahul Bose, and was directed by Sudhir Mishra. The film was remade as "Jabilamma" (2008) in Telugu with Navneet Kaur and Rajeev Kanakala in the lead roles. This film otherwise marked Rinke Khanna's final film after marriage and subsequent retirement from the industry.


title: Chameli (film)

text: Aman Kapoor (Rahul Bose) is a wealthy investment banker, whose pregnant wife, Neha (Rinkle Khanna) was killed in a car accident more than a decade ago. The incident has left him depressed and lonely. Forced to engage in social events, he reluctantly hosts a party. The stormy weather puts Aman in a pensive mood, and he decides to go home. While driving, his car breaks down on a flooded road and his cell phone battery dies. He takes refuge in an alleyway where he meets Chameli (Kareena Kapoor), a street-smart prostitute.


title: Chameli (film)

text: Chameli offers Aman a match for his cigarette, and he is initially repulsed by her after she propositions him. Aman's presence scares off a potential customer, and he offers to pay for her missed wages, which Chameli declines. Soon, two police officers arrive, looking for their bribe. They begin to manhandle Chameli, which aggravates Aman, who is then intimidated by the officers. Chameli defuses the situation, and Aman's attitude towards her softens after the pair begin a conversation about their lives. The discussion is interrupted by Johnny, a young boy selling coffee and cigarettes. Chameli is familiar with him, paying his school fees and looking after his health. He promises to come back with a mechanic to fix Aman's car. Chameli then attends to Raja, an unstable young man who has stolen Rs 50,000 from his father. Raja is in love with Haseena, and is convinced that she has run off to become a prostitute. Chameli consoles and advises him, and then takes him away. Haseena, a hijra/trans-woman, arrives and playfully propositions Aman. Chameli returns and advises Haseena to run away with Raja to another city with the money. Raja's homophobic father turns up to look for them, but he leaves soon when he realises they are not there. Each incident further develops the friendship between Chameli and Aman.


title: Chameli (film)

text: Chameli's pimp, Usman, has rented her out to Naik, a brutish local politician who has a reputation for injuring prostitutes. Naik's henchmen seek Chameli out, and the pair manage to escape and go to a local bar, to talk to Usman. Chameli reveals that she cannot free herself from her pimp because she still owes him money which she borrowed. At the bar, Aman offers to pay off Chameli's debt in exchange for her not having to entertain Naik. At the ATM Usman demands more money, threatening Aman with a knife, and the pimp is stabbed in the ensuing scuffle. Aman and Chameli are picked up by the police, and his temperament causes him to be placed in a holding cell. Chameli convinces the officers to allow Aman to make a call, and he speaks to a friend who has connections with the Assistant Commissioner of Police K.P. Singh. Singh listens to Aman's story and decides to withdraw the police protection over Usman, who previously became an informant after being arrested. Chameli tells Aman that the withdrawal of protection means that Usman and his family are now vulnerable to being killed by other, more dangerous criminals. Singh reluctantly agrees to continue protecting Usman. At the hospital, Singh forces Usman to call Naik, and the ACP threatens him, eventually convincing Naik to leave Chameli alone.


title: Chameli (film)

text: As they leave the hospital, Chameli playfully teases Aman about how his wife will react to the situation. Aman breaks down and tells her about the accident, adding that it is his fault that Neha died since he chose to drive in heavy rains. As dawn breaks on the next day, Aman finally returns home, a changed man. The highly eventful night has altered his outlook on life and allowed him to come to terms with his loss. He reconnects with his father-in-law, whom he had avoided since his wife's death. After some time, he returns to see Chameli, and they meet again.


title: Chameli (film)

text: "Chameli" was first offered to actress Amisha Patel who then refused to do the film and said the role of prostitute won't match her character. Then the role went to Kareena Kapoor, which marked a turning point in her career. The film began production in August of 2003. The director of the film, Anant Balani, died on 28 August 2003. The film was almost shelved when Pritish Nandy, the producer, called Sudhir Mishra to complete the film. Mishra completed the film with a different script.


title: Chameli (film)

text: Anupama Chopra wrote that ", he [Sudhir Mishra] takes the late director Anant Balani's idea of a one-night encounter between a prostitute and an investment banker and creates a poignant portrait of urban lives. Taran Adarsh wrote that "On the whole, "CHAMELI" does not deliver. At the box-office, the film caters to a niche audience but in view of the fact that the film lacks a solid script to keep the viewer hooked, even that segment of viewers may not take to it whole-heartedly". A critic from "Outlook" wrote that "There is a good vibe between Bose and Kareena that makes the movie watchable". A critic from "Deccan Herald" wrote that "But be warned — high expectations will be shattered".


title: Jazz (design)

text: Jazz is a design that is featured on disposable cups. The design was introduced in 1992, and is considered an icon of 1990s culture. Jazz has also become a meme and has gained a cult following. Fans have applied the design to various objects, including automobiles, shirts, and shoes. Cups with the Jazz design were initially manufactured by Sweetheart Cup Company, which was later purchased by Solo Cup Company in 2004. Solo continued production of the disposable cups, and the Jazz design would subsequently become known unofficially as Solo Jazz.


title: Jazz (design)

text: The Jazz design consists of a broad, jagged, crayon-like brushstroke of teal coloring, topped by a finer zig-zagged brushstroke of purple coloring.


title: Jazz (design)

text: Until 2015, the identity of Jazz's designer had remained largely unknown. The popularity of the design led to a Reddit inquiry that year as to who created the design, ultimately revealing Gina Ekiss as the designer. During the same year, Stephanie Miller claimed on Reddit to be the true creator of the Jazz design. Some reports credited Ekiss as the creator but this has not been confirmed by Solo Cup Company.


title: Jazz (design)

text: Kasey Skala, spokesperson for Solo Cup Company, subsequently said that the company did some internal research on the creator of Jazz. However, Skala stated that most of the people who worked on the Jazz project were no longer with Solo following its acquisition of Sweetheart Cup Company. According to Skala, "At this time, our best assumption is that a former employee named Gina created the design, but we are unable to confirm whether this is accurate or not."


title: Jazz (design)

text: Gina Ekiss (then known as Gina Boyd-Burgess) began working at Sweetheart Cup Company in 1987, after graduating from Missouri State University. She was one of approximately 32 artists working for Sweetheart's art department, based in Springfield, Missouri. During the late 1980s, Sweetheart planned to replace its disposable cup design, "Preference," which featured a gray base with a thin red line that formed two leaves. Sweetheart became disappointed with the new designs submitted by external agencies. Dennis Marsh, a manager for the company, said that the design agencies did not understand the specifics of the company's printing process, and that their designs were too complicated to use.


title: Jazz (design)

text: In 1989, a company contest was announced to choose a new stock image for the disposable cups that would have wide appeal, as the company's cups were used in various locations such as hospitals and fast-food restaurants. Marsh was influential in the company's decision to hold the contest. One of the new design's limitations was that it could only have one or two colors, due to the high speed of the printing press. At the time, Sweetheart was transitioning to digital technology, and Ekiss was one of the few workers who was skilled in computer design.


title: Jazz (design)

text: Ekiss submitted three or four design ideas. In 1991, Sweetheart chose Ekiss's design, which utilized her favorite colors: teal and purple. Jazz was based on an earlier image named Razzi that Ekiss had designed while she was in college. The original image was drawn on vellum using charcoal; according to Ekiss, "I think I probably just had some [charcoal] on hand at my desk and was just messing around and I liked what came out." To create Jazz, Ekiss remade her Razzi image digitally by scanning it. Ekiss later recalled that she had no idea what to call her cup design when it was chosen: "I had to come up with a name for it, so we just called it jazz." The name is a variation of her earlier Razzi image.


title: Jazz (design)

text: Ekiss did not receive a bonus payment for her design, and did not receive royalties as Sweetheart took ownership of the design. Full production of the Jazz disposable cups began in early 1992, and the design was also used for disposable bowls and plates. Ekiss worked for Sweetheart until 2002, when the company relocated its art department. At the time, Jazz was the company's top-grossing stock design.


title: Jazz (design)

text: In the late 1980s, Stephanie Miller worked as a graphic designer for Imperial Bondware, a paper and plastic cup manufacturer based in Ohio. According to Miller, Imperial Bondware held a contest for its three graphic designers to create a new cup design. She used paint brushes and ink to create the winning design, and she designed it in a way that it would be easy to print: "The whole idea was that it would be easier to be printed, because the design didn't have to line up at all. You didn't have to worry about edges lining up." Miller later said that she believed her design was titled "Brush Strokes", but she could not remember for sure. According to Miller, officials for Imperial Bondware considered her new design too "forward thinking" and stopped using it after approximately one year. Miller acknowledged she did not have proof that she created the design, although she wrote on Reddit in 2015:


title: Jazz (design)

text: Ekiss denied that she took the design. International Paper, which purchased Imperial Bondware, was unable to find the design in its company archives. Miller said, "I feel frustrated. I know in my heart this thing came straight from my head. […] I am not doing this because I want the money. I want credit for what I designed. This is my work."


title: Jazz (design)

text: The Jazz design is considered an icon of 1990s culture, often being associated with the decade. The design ultimately became a meme, and gained a cult following. It gained popularity among Internet artists in 2010 or 2011. The fan community sold shirts featuring the design, and also created fan pages for Jazz on Facebook and Tumblr to document various instances of the design's expanded usage, including automobiles, shoes, bicycle helmets, tattoos, nail art, and others. The design was also used as the profile image for the Instagram account fuckjerry.


title: Jazz (design)

text: Disposable Jazz cups remained available as of 2015. That year, Ekiss was asked how she felt about having designed something that became part of 1990s culture and that would be remembered for generations; she laughed and responded, "I'm not sure how to answer that. It just seems so insane to me." She was thrilled that the design remained popular, and was surprised by how popular it had become: "I was pretty shocked, to say the least. It just seems like such a random thing to me after all this time." Miller, in 2015, said she did not know why people were interested in the design, and said "I had no idea it would get the crazy cult following that it has now. But I think it's awesome!"


title: Jazz (design)

text: In Oliver Tree's 2018 music video for "All That x Alien Boy", the Jazz design is featured on clothing and a monster truck. Solo was upset with the design's usage in the music video and requested that Tree not use the design in any subsequent videos. In September 2018, the Springfield Cardinals wore jerseys featuring the Jazz design during a game. The jerseys were then auctioned to benefit cancer patients.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: Enhanced Forward Presence (EFP) is a NATO-allied forward-deployed defense and deterrence military force in Central and Northern Europe. This posture in Central Europe through Poland and Northern Europe through Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania, is in place in order to protect and reassure the security of NATO's Central and Northern European member states on NATO's eastern flank.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: Following Russia's invasion of Crimea, NATO's member states agreed at the 2016 Warsaw summit to forward deploy four multinational battalion battle groups to areas most likely to be attacked.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The numbers involved, although a notable supplement to the armed forces of the country being defended, are limited so that they avoid seeming to threaten Russia. The chief value of the force is that it is impossible to invade Poland or the Baltic States without battling the soldiers and firing on the flags of the involved NATO states, giving cause for war. It is believed that the prospect of war with all those countries will deter aggression.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The four multinational battalion battle groups are based in Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, and Poland, and led by the United Kingdom, Canada, Germany, and the United States:


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: With the invasion and ongoing war in Ukraine, NATO has established four more multinational battalion battle groups in Bulgaria, Hungary, Romania, and Slovakia.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The troops serving in the multinational battalion battle groups rotate every six months and train and operate with their host nations' militaries.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The Belgian Army contributes a 269-soldier strong Belgian Land Component armoured infantry company from the Chasseurs Ardennais with support elements and HQ staff officers.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: Additionally the Danish Army will deploy a mechanized force by 2018 at the latest. Three brigade HQ support personnel from the Royal Danish Army and 1 strategic communications civilian from the Icelandic defence forces have also been stationed in Estonia.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The British unit will be supported by a mixed battle group from the French Army's 9th Light Armoured Marine Brigade consisting of a mechanized infantry company from the 2nd Marine Infantry Regiment equipped with VBCI infantry fighting vehicles, artillery from the 11th Marine Artillery Regiment equipped with CAESAR self-propelled howitzers, and combat engineers from the 6th Engineer Regiment, with a company of Leclerc main battle tanks from the 7th Armoured Brigade's 1st Chasseurs Regiment attached for the deployment.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The United Kingdom under Operation Cabrit deployed 800 personnel from the British Army's 20th Armoured Brigade Combat Team:


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The British Army's 5th Battalion, The Rifles battlegroup, rotated back to the United Kingdom in November 2017 and was replaced by a battlegroup formed around the 1st Battalion, Royal Welsh.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: During 2022 between March and June Exercise Spring Storm took place which brought AgustaWestland Apache AH.1's and AgustaWestland Wildcat AH.1's to Estonia and other Eastern European countries.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: As part of Aviation Task Force 3 under Operation Peleda, Chinook HC.5/6s from No. 27 Squadron RAF were deployed to Amari Air Base between 8 July and September 2022, they were supported by the Joint Helicopter Support Squadron, Tactical Supply Wing RAF and 244 Signal Squadron (Air Support) (of 30 Signal Regiment (United Kingdom)|30 Signal Regiment]].


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The Latvian multinational battalion battle group is based at Camp Adazi, near the Latvian capital of Riga, and contains approximately 1,500 personnel.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: Canada provides the core of the NATO battle group in Latvia with approximately 540 mechanized infantry and supporting troops. This contingent is provided by Canada's high-readiness brigade, a task which rotates annually amongst the three Regular Force brigades of the country. Reservists from more than 100 units across Canada have provided several augmentees to each rotation.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: In 2017, the contingent was provided by 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group in Western Canada, which handed over to 2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group in Eastern Canada in 2018. The 2nd Battalion, Royal Canadian Regiment (RCR), based in CFB Gagetown, rotated in to relieve the 1st Battalion, Princess Patricia's Canadian Light Infantry (PPCLI).


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: In June 2018, the 2nd Battalion RCR was replaced by the 1st Battalion RCR, based out of Petawawa, Ontario.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: In January 2019, Canada's French-speaking mechanized brigade from Quebec, (5 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group), took on the task. The commanding officer, Lieutenant-Colonel Sauvé, and most of the soldiers were from the 2nd Battalion of the Royal 22 Régiment (2R22R) or the armoured 12 Régiment blindé du Canada (12 RBC). In accordance with this rotation cycle, they were replaced in July 2019 by the 2nd Battalion PPCLI from the 1st Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: In January 2020, a battle group led by Lord Strathcona's Horse (Royal Canadians), of the 1st Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, rotated in to Latvia, and was replaced by a battle group led by the 2nd Battalion RCR.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: In January 2021, a battle group led by the Royal Canadian Dragoons, of 2 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group, relieved the 2nd Battalion RCR.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: In April 2022, the first part of a force consisting of about 750 Danish soldiers, along with armoured vehicles, arrived in Latvia.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: Italy will provide an Italian Army mechanized Infantry company with Freccia and Dardo infantry fighting vehicles. Recently the Italian Army has reinforced its presence with 8 Ariete main battle tanks.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: Slovenia will deploy an Infantry reconnaissance platoon, Tactical Air Control Party (TACP) team, Contribution to battlegroup headquarters, Support elements of the Slovenian Armed Forces.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: Slovakia will deploy an armored infantry company consisting of 150 troops from 11th Mechanized Battalion starting in second half of 2018. The Slovak force contribution consists of:


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: Spain will dispatch a reinforced armored infantry company consisting of around 350 troops from the 11th Mechanized Infantry Brigade "Extremadura". The Spanish contingent will include 6 Leopard 2E main battle tanks from the I/16th Tank Battalion "Mérida" of the 16th Armored Regiment "Castilla" and 15 Pizarro infantry fighting vehicles from the I/6th Mechanized Infantry Battalion "Cantabria" of the 6th Infantry Regiment "Saboya".


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The Lithuania multinational battalion battle group is under the command of the Mechanised Infantry Brigade Iron Wolf of the Lithuanian Land Forces and based in Rukla. The battalion has a headquarters company, three to four combat companies and various support units. The battle group is led by Germany. Each rotation lasts six months.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The Belgian Army sent a logistic support company, which arrived in Lithuania on 24 January 2017. The 100 men from the 18th Logistics Battalion and 29th Logistics Battalion of the Belgian Land Component with medical and military police units attached arrived by ferry in Klaipėda and contain a small detachment of troops from the Luxembourg Army, which brought with them around ten transport trucks.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: In July 2018, Czechia provided EFP Lithuania the 1st Company Task Force consisting of a mechanized company with Pandur armored vehicles reinforced by an engineer platoon, a logistics unit and a medical element reaching a total of 230 people. After six months, they were replaced by the 2nd Task Force for the next half-year. Both task forces consisted of the 's soldiers. After deployment, the company task force returned to the Czech Republic in July 2019. From then on until 2021, Czech Army sent four electronic warfare task forces. Since July 2021, an anti-aircraft missile battery from the 252nd Anti-Aircraft Missile Section (sub-unit of the ) armed with RBS 70 has been operating in Lithuania.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: Some 200 soldiers from 5th Dragoon Regiment of the French Army have arrived to Rukla on 3 July 2020, staying there for 6 months until the end of December, with a hundred more administration and logistics personnel. The troops form a mechanised infantry company and are reinforced with 5 Leclerc tanks and 14 VBCI IFVs.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The first German Army unit to deploy to Lithuania is the 122nd Mechanized Battalion of the of the 10th Panzer Division. Equipped with Marder infantry fighting vehicles the battalion will be augmented with Leopard 2A6 main battle tanks from the 104th Tank Battalion, PzH 2000 self-propelled artillery from the 131st Artillery Battalion engineers from the 4th Armored Engineer Battalion and troops from the 4th Supply Battalion.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: From January to June 2018 about 30 soldiers deployed from the Intelligence Battalion's long-range reconnaissance patrol squadron.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: From July 2019 troops from the Telemark Battalion and the Armoured Battalion are alternating on deploying an armoured infantry company with IFVs and MBTs consisting of 120-140 soldiers.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: From January 2022 2nd Battalion contributes a mechanized company with a tank capacity of about 140 personnel


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The Norwegian Government said in February 2022 that it will increase its contribution with up to 60 soldiers due to the 2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis. In June 2022 the Government extended Norway's contribution in Lithuania until 2023 due to the war in Ukraine.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: In August 2022 the taskforce was increased by a platoon from Telemark Battalion, bringing the total number of troops up to ca. 200.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The Poland-based multinational battalion Battle Group, known as Battle Group Poland (BGPOL), is currently led by the United States Army's 2nd ("Cougars") Squadron, 2nd Cavalry Regiment (United States) headquartered in Rose Barracks, Germany.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The Battle Group consists of a US combined-arms battalion, a Sabre Squadron from the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards, a Croatian rocket artillery battery, and an ADA company from the Romanian Army.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: The Battle Group is attached to the Polish Army's 15th Mechanized Brigade and based in Orzysz located south of Kaliningrad Oblast and 120 kilometers away from the Suwałki Gap.


title: NATO Enhanced Forward Presence

text: In June 2021, around 30 German soldiers were recalled from service in Lithuania after they were accused of making racist and anti-Semitic remarks and of sexual violence.


title: Can You Feel My Heart

text: "Can You Feel My Heart" is a song by British rock band Bring Me the Horizon. Written by vocalist Oliver Sykes, guitarist Lee Malia and keyboardist Jordan Fish, it was produced by Terry Date and featured on the band's 2013 fourth studio album "Sempiternal". The song was also released as the fourth and final single from the album on 8 October 2013, reaching number five on the UK Rock & Metal Singles Chart.


title: Can You Feel My Heart

text: The song was released in October 2013 as the fourth and final single from "Sempiternal", backed with remixes of the song by Enter Shikari (under their "Shikari Sound System" alias) and electronic producer Jakwob. It was later included as the closing track on the band's first live video album, "Live at Wembley", released in 2015, and is also featured on their second, 2016's "Live at the Royal Albert Hall". In June 2014, "Can You Feel My Heart" was featured on the soundtrack of the video game "EA Sports UFC".


title: Can You Feel My Heart

text: "Can You Feel My Heart" was one of the first Bring Me the Horizon songs written with keyboardist Jordan Fish, prior to his official addition to the band in 2013. Speaking to Sugarscape.com, bassist Matt Kean recalled that "When we were writing this song it was the first time we kinda realised that Jordan ... was having a big impact on the writing", suggesting that it influenced the band's change in direction on the rest of "Sempiternal". Vocalist Oliver Sykes confirmed this in a track-by-track feature with "Metal Hammer", proclaiming that "This was the turning point; it was the first one that Jordan really got his teeth into, and obviously you can hear that because it’s very heavy on the electronica". The song's lyrics were written by Sykes, who has explained that it is "all about admittance, admitting you have a problem, and admitting something's wrong". "Alternative Press" labelled "Can You Feel My Heart" as an emo song. Writing for "Music Feeds", Mike Hohnen described "Can You Feel My Heart" as a track which combines elements of electronic and hard rock. Further explaining the song, Sykes explained:


title: Can You Feel My Heart

text: The music video for "Can You Feel My Heart", directed by Richard Sidwell and Alistair Legrand, was filmed in Los Angeles, California and released on 16 August 2013. "The Guardian", who premiered the video, described it as "suitably ostentatious" for the song, outlining that it "follows a distressed looking man who is chased by evil beings wearing doctor masks of black Plague". Noisecreep's Amy Sciaretto added that the masked people "[stalk] and then [perform] an exploratory procedure on an unsuspecting young gentleman who bleeds thick, black blood", extracting something from his stomach. In a feature published in April 2015, "Kerrang!" ranked it the fifth best Bring Me the Horizon music video.


title: Can You Feel My Heart

text: As of November 2022, the music video for "Can You Feel My Heart" has over 140 million views on YouTube.


title: Can You Feel My Heart

text: Multiple critics praised "Can You Feel My Heart" as a good illustration of the album, in particular the presence of electronic elements driven by the addition of keyboardist Jordan Fish to the band. Dean Brown of "PopMatters" explained that "Where the swathes of artificial electronica on [previous album] "There Is a Hell..." sounded disengaged from the music, Jordan Fish's contributions here are seamlessly incorporated and audible from the bright beginnings of opener "Can You Feel My Heart"". BBC Music's Mike Diver noted that the track, alongside earlier single "Sleepwalking", "present[s] new, synthetic textures to the forefront of the BMTH mix". Other reviews published by AllMusic, "Alternative Press" and "Exclaim!" identified the "Sempiternal" opener as a highlight of the album. "The Guardian" writer Dom Lawson was less positive, criticising the song's "dubstep swagger and overwrought synths".


title: Can You Feel My Heart

text: "Can You Feel My Heart" has also been included in several commentators' lists of the best Bring Me the Horizon songs – "Alternative Press" included it at number two on their list in May 2015, Loudwire ranked it at number six in May 2014, and AXS named it the seventh best in May 2015. "Metal Hammer" writer Luke Morton ranked it the fifth best song by the band, highlighting it as "the point the metal game changed" due to its use of electronics, which he claimed was "the finest use of electronics ever in a BMTH song". In 2019, "Billboard" ranked the song number eight on their list of the 10 greatest Bring Me the Horizon songs, and in 2022, "Kerrang!" ranked the song number six on their list of the 20 greatest Bring Me the Horizon songs.


title: Can You Feel My Heart

text: "Can You Feel My Heart" debuted on the UK Rock & Metal Singles Chart at number 26 on 7 April 2013, following the release of "Sempiternal". It later reached its peak position in the top five of the chart on 20 October, after it was released as the album's fourth and final single, and spent a total of 12 weeks in the top 40. The song re-entered the chart in January 2021, and climbed back to its peak position on 22 January 2021. In the United States, the single reached number 26 on the "Billboard" Mainstream Rock chart and number 39 on the Hot Rock Songs chart.


title: Can You Feel My Heart

text: In early 2021, the song gained popularity on the video sharing platform TikTok, possibly due to TikTok star Jeris Johnson remixing the song of his own accord and its users using the song for their videos. The song became widely used in various internet memes following its resurgence in popularity, in particular, memes featuring East-German bodybuilder and model Ernest Khalimov (also known as the "Giga Chad") and "ItzMeFraz". As a result, the song was ranked number one on "Billboard"'s Hard Rock Streaming Songs, becoming the first song released after the year 2000 to achieve the feat. Johnson's remix caught the band's attention, with Sykes commenting "Holy shit we love this Jeris. Check ur inbox. Let's do something". The full song was released on 5 March 2021.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: The Battle of Carentan was an engagement in World War II between airborne forces of the United States Army and the German Wehrmacht during the Battle of Normandy. The battle took place between 6 and 13 June 1944, on the approaches to and within the town of Carentan, France.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: The objective of the attacking American forces was consolidation of the U.S. beachheads (Utah Beach and Omaha Beach) and establishment of a continuous defensive line against expected German counterattacks. The defending German force attempted to hold the town long enough to allow reinforcements en route from the south to arrive, prevent or delay the merging of the lodgments, and keep the U.S. First Army from launching an attack towards Lessay-Périers that would cut off the Cotentin Peninsula.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: Carentan was defended by two battalions of Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 6 (6th Parachute Regiment) of the 2nd Fallschirmjäger-Division. The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division, ordered to reinforce Carentan, was delayed by transport shortages and attacks by Allied aircraft. The attacking 101st Airborne Division, landed by parachute on 6 June as part of the American airborne landings in Normandy, was ordered to seize Carentan.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: In the ensuing battle, the 101st forced passage across the causeway into Carentan on 10 and 11 June. A lack of ammunition forced the German forces to withdraw on 12 June. The 17th SS PzG Division counter-attacked the 101st Airborne on 13 June. Initially successful, its attack was thrown back by Combat Command A (CCA) of the U.S. 2nd Armored Division.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: On 6 June 1944, the Allies launched a massive and long-anticipated air and amphibious invasion of Normandy, codenamed Operation Overlord. The 101st Airborne Division paratroopers landed behind Utah Beach with the objective of blocking German reinforcements from attacking the flank of the U.S. VII Corps during its primary mission of seizing the port of Cherbourg. The glider troopers landed by glider and ships on 6 and 7 June.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: Merging the American beachheads at Utah and Omaha Beach was a D-Day objective of the amphibious forces but was not achieved because of heavy German resistance at Omaha. Moreover, Allied intelligence believed that three German divisions were massing to drive a wedge between them. Supreme Allied Commander General Dwight D. Eisenhower inspected Omaha on 7 June and ordered a "concentrated effort" to make the linkup.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: Lieutenant General Omar Bradley, senior American ground commander, ordered the original tactical plan be changed to make the top priority of U.S. operations the joining of the lodgments through Isigny and Carentan. VII Corps received the Carentan assignment and assigned the 101st Airborne Division, closest to the city, "the sole task of capturing Carentan."


title: Battle of Carentan

text: Carentan is a port city located in Normandy, France, in the Douve River valley at the base of the Cotentin Peninsula. At the time of the Second World War, Carentan's civilian population was about four thousand. Four major highways and a railroad converged in the city, from Cherbourg to the northwest, Bayeux and Caen to the east, Saint-Lô to the southeast, and Coutances to the southwest.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: The city is dominated by high ground to the southwest and southeast, all of which was under German control during the battle. Its other three approaches are bordered by watercourses: the Douve River to the west and north, a boat basin to the northeast, and the Vire-Taute Canal to the east. The Germans flooded much of the Douve River floodplain prior to the invasion, resulting in a marshland impassable to vehicles and difficult to cross by infantry, a tactic once used by Napoleon Bonaparte at the same location.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: The highway from Saint Côme-du-Mont crossed the floodplain via a narrow 1 mile (2 km) long causeway having banks rising six to nine feet (2–3 m) above the marsh. Four bridges spanned the Douve and several tributaries along the causeway. Troops in the open under fire could find cover only by digging in on the sloping eastern bank of the causeway. In retreating from Saint Côme-du-Mont, the Germans had blown up Bridge No. 2 on the causeway and a portion of the railroad embankment as well.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: Carentan was defended by two battalions of Fallschirmjäger-Regiment 6 (6th Parachute Regiment) of the 2nd Fallschirmjäger-Division, commanded by Oberst Friedrich von der Heydte, and remnants of 91 Air Landing Division's Grenadier-Regiment 1058. Both had escaped from nearby Saint Côme-du-Mont on 8 June when the village was captured by the 101st Airborne Division. II./FJR6 and III./FJR6 (2nd and 3rd Battalions, 6th Parachute Regiment) were still intact as fighting formations, but III./GR1058 had been nearly destroyed in three days of combat and was no longer effective as a unit.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: The German LXXXIV Corps (84.Korps) reinforced the 6th Parachute Regiment (FJR6) with survivors of Grenadier-Regiment 914 (German 352nd Infantry Division) following its 9 June defeat at Isigny. Army Group B commander Field Marshal Erwin Rommel ordered von der Heydte to defend the town "to the last man."


title: Battle of Carentan

text: The 17th SS Panzergrenadier Division stationed at Thouars, ostensibly a mechanized infantry division of the OKW Mobile Reserve but without tanks or adequate transport, was ordered on 7 June to move to Normandy following the Allied landings. However it was delayed by shortages of trucks and attacks by Allied aircraft that destroyed bridges over the Loire River and interdicted rail movements. Advance elements reached Angers on 9 June and Saint-Lô on 10 June, by which time Rommel's main concern was in preventing an attack westward from Carentan to cut off the Cotentin. The 38th Panzergrenadier Regiment formed a mobile battle group to resist V Corps units south of Isigny, and the 37th PzG-Rgt was sent to Carentan.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: The 101st Airborne Division consolidated its forces in Normandy on 9 June. Its three parachute regiments (501st, 502nd, and 506th PIRs) had been badly scattered during their air drops, losing a significant number of men killed and missing as a result, and had suffered further casualties in taking Saint Côme-du-Mont. Its 327th Glider Infantry Regiment had landed largely at Utah Beach on D+1 (7 June) and except for its third battalion (the attached 1st Battalion, 401st GIR), had yet to engage in serious combat. Several units of the 327 did land by ship on D-Day. The 327 HQ Co Anti-Tank Platoon glided into France.


title: Battle of Carentan

text: The 2nd Armored Division, part of the U.S. V Corps, had advanced off Omaha Beach to support the drive of the 175th Infantry Regiment (29th Division) to Isigny. Its Combat Command A (CCA), consisting of M4 Sherman tanks of the 2nd Battalion, 66th Armored Regiment and mechanized infantry of the 3rd Battalion, 41st Armored Infantry Regiment, was available as an armored force reserve for the 101st Airborne.