title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: A new manager, Frank Connor took charge in early 1986, bringing many new faces onto the team which resulted in promotion on goal difference after a 4–1 win against Stranraer (while Ayr United lost to Stirling Albion) on the last day of the season.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: Raith reverted to being a full-time side again for the season of 1991–92 which was soon followed by winning the First Division title in the season of 1992–93. This was to start the most successful period in the club's history – which saw the team's first foray into the Scottish Premier Division (now the Premiership).


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: On 27 November 1994, Raith, managed by Jimmy Nicholl, surprisingly beat Celtic 6–5 on penalties to win the Coca-Cola Cup, after a 2–2 draw. Future Raith manager, Gordon Dalziel, scored the equalising goal for Raith in the dying minutes of regulation time. The same season, Raith were again promoted to the Premier Division after winning the First Division title.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: As a result of the Cup win, Raith qualified for Europe (UEFA Cup) for the first time in their history. After eliminating both the Faroese and Icelandic champions (Gøtu Ítróttarfelag and Íþróttabandalag Akraness respectively) in the first two rounds, the club finally succumbed to eventual UEFA Cup winners Bayern Munich. They were beaten 2–0 by the German side in the 1st leg, which was not played at their home ground but at Easter Road, home of Hibernian. In the 2nd leg, at the Olympiastadion they led 1–0 at half time against all odds, eventually losing 2–1. This was the first time a Scottish team had qualified for a major European competition while playing outside the top league. The same season, Raith finished sixth in the Premier League.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: Winning the Coca-Cola Cup, selling Steve McAnespie and playing in the UEFA Cup generated the money needed to redevelop Stark's Park as an all-seater ground with North and South Stands. It was completed in time for the 1995–96 season, and Bayern Munich were invited to play a friendly in the first match in the redeveloped ground, with Raith securing a narrow 1–0 win.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: After the club were relegated from the Premier Division, they also struggled to succeed in the First Division. For the 2001–02 season they were relegated to the Second Division for the first time since 1987. The club returned to the First Division (with the lowest winning total, to date, for champions of 59 points), under the leadership of Antonio Calderón in 2002–03 season.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: At the start of the 2004–05 season, Claude Anelka (brother of French striker Nicolas) offered £300,000 to any team who would offer him a manager's job and was subsequently appointed the manager of Raith Rovers, with Antonio Calderón refusing the offer of a coaching role and leaving the club. Anelka signed a team of (mostly) continental players from the lower leagues in France. A disastrous season followed, despite Anelka resigning halfway through the season (replaced by Gordon Dalziel) and his signings either leaving, or having their contracts terminated, and Raith were relegated to the Second Division after finishing bottom of the First Division with just 16 points in the season.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: During 2005–06, the future of the club looked doubtful after the club and its traditional home of Stark's Park were both placed under threat by previous owners Colin McGowan and Alex Short. The Glasgow based property developers had repeatedly threatened to sell Stark's Park for housing in a bid to find a buyer for their 50% stake in the club and after months of legal and financial wrangling a deal was struck with their company, West City Development.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: Former chairman Turnbull Hutton and director Mario Caira, who were part of West City retained their investment and were joined by major investor John Sim, a Thailand-based senior financial figure with liquidator KPMG.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: The "Reclaim the Rovers" fans' campaign, which was launched in a bid to secure a local future for the club, also secured a place for a Supporters' Representative on the new-look board after raising £100,000 towards the final figure.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: On 30 December 2005, Raith Rovers' future was secured after a £1.2 million community buy-out (The New Raith Rovers Limited consortium) (assisted by the then Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown who later became Prime Minister, a fan and shareholder of the club). Previous chairman David Sinton also completed work on the takeover.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: On 2 May 2009, Raith secured the Second Division title with a 1–0 win at the home of Scottish football, Hampden Park, with a travelling support of over 1500. They lifted the trophy in front of almost 5000 the following week following a 0–0 draw with Arbroath.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: On 6 April 2014, Raith won the 2014 Scottish Challenge Cup Final 1–0 against Rangers after extra time.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: In early 2022 the club signed David Goodwillie. Days later, after an outcry regarding the rape ruling against him, chairman John Sim announced Goodwillie will not play for Raith Rovers and the club would review his contract. Raith's women's teams had moved to sever ties with the club. Goodwillie was released from his contract in September, no details being given by the club.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: Raith's kit consists of dark blue tops with light blue detailing, with white shorts and dark blue socks. The away kit consists of a white shirt with red detailing with red shorts and socks. Raith's current badge has been used since 1998, replacing the previous lion and shield motif used in different colour combinations (including being framed in a shield shape from 1995 to 1998) since 1985.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: There are four other SPFL clubs in Fife: East Fife around 8 miles to the east, with Cowdenbeath, Kelty Hearts and Dunfermline Athletic 9, 13 and 14 miles respectively to the west. Raith's traditional derby is with East Fife though the biggest rivalry is against Dunfermline Athletic, with the encounter at East End Park in April 2011 attracting a crowd of over 11,000.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: In addition to former Prime Minister Gordon Brown, fans include author Ian Rankin, Coldplay bassist Guy Berryman and writer Harry Ritchie. Author Val McDermid is a former director but in February 2022 cancelled her sponsorship and ended her lifelong support of the club in protest at the signing of David Goodwillie to the playing squad. Former Scotland and Hearts manager Craig Levein has supported the team since boyhood.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: The team is often mentioned in Ian Rankin's Inspector Rebus novels, Rankin stating that Rebus is a supporter. In Giles Foden's novel "The Last King of Scotland" the protagonist, Nicholas Garrigan, is a Raith Rovers fan.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: Also involved in the squad were Scott Thomson, Julian Broddle, David Sinclair, Ally Graham, Brian Potter, Jason Rowbotham and Ian Redford.


title: Raith Rovers F.C.

text: Raith Rovers Ladies and Girls F.C. was the oldest affiliated women's team in Scotland. In February 2022, the team resolved to cut ties with Raith Rovers due to the controversy over the signing of David Goodwillie, who was ruled to have raped a woman. The women’s team renamed themselves McDermid Ladies, after the writer Val McDermid.


title: Main course

text: A main course is the featured or primary dish in a meal consisting of several courses. It usually follows the entrée ("entry") course.


title: Main course

text: Typically, the main course is the meal that is the heaviest, heartiest, and most intricate or substantial on the menu. Typically, meat or fish is the main component; but, in vegetarian meals, the main dish will occasionally make an effort to resemble a meat course.


title: Main course

text: In the United States and Canada (except Quebec), the main course is traditionally called an "entrée". English-speaking Québécois follow the modern French use of the term entrée to refer to a dish served before the main course.


title: Main course

text: According to linguist Dan Jurafsky, North American usage ("entrée") retains the original French meaning of a substantial meat course.


title: Tiara

text: A tiara (from , from ) is a jeweled head ornament. Its origins date back to ancient Greece and Rome. In the late 18th century, the tiara came into fashion in Europe as a prestigious piece of jewelry to be worn by women at formal occasions. The basic shape of the modern tiara is a (semi-)circle, usually made of silver, gold or platinum, and richly decorated with precious stones, pearls or cameos.


title: Tiara

text: Tiaras were extremely popular during the late 19th century and were worn at events where the dress code was white tie. After World War I, wearing a tiara gradually fell out of fashion, except for official occasions at a royal court. Interest in tiaras has increased again since the beginning of the 21st century. The word "tiara" is often used interchangeably with the word "diadem".


title: Tiara

text: The basic shape of the modern tiara is a (semi-)circle, usually made of silver, gold or platinum. Tiaras have also been made from tortoiseshell, coral and quartz, and in the 20th century unusual materials such as horn and aluminum were experimented with.


title: Tiara

text: Tiaras are usually richly decorated with precious stones, pearls or cameos, often arranged in symmetrical patterns. Common elements in these patterns are arcs, garlands, circles, stars, and stylised flowers or leaves. Occasionally, flowers, ears of corn, dragonflies or butterflies are depicted more or less 'true to life' by using gemstones in different colours. A tiara can contain hundreds to thousands of gemstones of different sizes and cuts; almost always, tiaras incorporate a large number of diamonds. This puts tiaras among the most expensive and spectacular pieces of jewelry.


title: Tiara

text: Tiaras are worn on the head, but also around the forehead; this depends on the model of the tiara and the fashion of the day. Wearing a tiara can lead to headaches. To make it more comfortable to wear, a large tiara is often attached to a supporting frame that is cushioned by wrapping it with velvet ribbons.


title: Tiara

text: Some tiaras can be disassembled into elements that can be worn individually as a necklace or brooch. Tiaras are sometimes part of a parure: a matching set of, for example, tiara, necklace, earrings, brooches and bracelets.


title: Tiara

text: It is sometimes thought that only titled women are allowed to wear a tiara; that is not true. Any woman can wear a tiara to events where the dress code 'white tie' applies. On such occasions, women are expected to wear a formal evening gown, preferably one that leaves shoulders and cleavage somewhat exposed, and large, striking jewelry. However, etiquette dictated that tiaras should not be worn if a white tie event took place in a hotel.


title: Tiara

text: Traditionally, young women do not wear a tiara until they are married. On their wedding day, they would wear a tiara owned by their birth family. Once a woman was married, she should only wear tiaras that were owned by her husband's family, or her own personal property. There was an exception for unmarried princesses who were allowed to wear tiaras from the age of eighteen. In the 21st century, these rules are no longer strictly applied.


title: Tiara

text: There are special black tiaras made of jet, onyx, glass or steel to be worn with mourning clothes. For the later stages of mourning (second mourning and half mourning), tiaras with purple stones (amethyst), white stones (diamond and moonstone) or pearls were also considered appropriate.


title: Tiara

text: The words tiara and diadem both come from head ornaments worn in ancient time by men and women to denote high status. As Geoffrey Munn notes, "The word 'tiara' is actually Persian in origin—the name first denoted the high-peaked head-dresses of Persian kings, which were encircled by 'diadems' (bands of purple and white decoration). Now, it is used to describe almost every form of decorative head ornament." Ancient Greeks and Romans used gold to make wreath-shaped head ornaments, while the Scythians' resembled a stiff halo that would serve as the inspiration for later Russian kokoshniks. The use of tiaras and diadems declined along with the fall of the Roman Empire and the rise of Christianity.


title: Tiara

text: From the early Middle Ages onwards, European princesses and queens were known to wear crowns, and brides wore special bridal crowns on their wedding day. In the 17th and 18th centuries, reigning queens began to wear head ornaments to indicate their special status. This custom did not catch on widely, partly because the enormous ladies' hairstyles of the eighteenth century made wearing a tiara difficult.


title: Tiara

text: In the late 18th century, Neoclassicism gave rise to a revival of tiaras, but this time it was a solely female adornment. Jewelers taking inspiration from Ancient Greece and Rome created new wreaths made from precious gemstones. Napoleon and his wife Joséphine de Beauharnais are credited with popularizing tiaras along with the new Empire style. Napoleon wanted the French court to be the grandest in Europe and gave his wife many parures which included tiaras. A number of tiaras made for Napoleon's first wife Joséphine are still in the possession of European royal houses, such as the Swedish cameo tiara.


title: Tiara

text: In the 19th century, the tiara quickly became popular among royal and noble women as a way of expressing status and attracting attention. The tiara became an essential part of women's attire for court ceremonies, balls, dinners and other gala occasions. Often, a bride received a tiara as a gift from her husband or father on her wedding day.


title: Tiara

text: The height of the tiara's popularity lay between 1890 and 1914. Women from the highest - and richest - social classes often had several tiaras to choose from. Wearing a tiara was no longer something just for the nobility. In the United States, too, tiaras were common at gala occasions, especially in New York upper social circles. Great jewelry houses like Garrard, Fabergé, Chaumet, Cartier and Van Cleef & Arpels all produced tiaras for their clientele.


title: Tiara

text: With the advent of Jugendstil and Art Nouveau, the line between jewellery and art became blurred. Artists such as René Lalique and the British architect and jewellery designer Henry Wilson created artistic tiaras that could not easily be worn in real life.


title: Tiara

text: After the First World War, it became less fashionable to wear a tiara. This was due to social and economic changes (ostentatious display of wealth was considered less acceptable) but also to the fact that women cut their hair short and - after the introduction of shampoo - washed their hair more often. Clean hair is smooth and soft, offering less 'grip' for a tiara. During the Art Deco period between World War I and World War II, tiaras were made using the rigid geometric patterns associated with this style; these were also often designed to be easy to wear with short hair. In the 1960s, the tiara briefly reappeared when the high-cropped beehive hairstyle became popular.


title: Tiara

text: Since the end of the twentieth century, tiaras are worn almosty exclusively at state banquets, royal weddings and coronations. At 'white-tie' occasions a tiara is no longer required. However, tiaras are still being made and some auction houses and jewellers are seeing an increased interest in tiaras since the beginning of the 21st century. Fashion designer Versace made a tiara which was worn by pop star Madonna. The Danish royal family has a tiara on loan that was designed in 2009 for an exhibition of classic and modern tiaras.


title: Tiara

text: Queen Elizabeth II is said to have had the largest and most valuable collection of tiaras in the world, many of which are heirlooms of the British royal family. She was often seen wearing them on state occasions. The Queen inherited many of them, especially from Queen Alexandra. She also inherited a number of tiaras designed by Prince Albert for Queen Victoria. Queen Mary purchased the Grand Duchess Vladimir tiara in the 1920s. It consists of numerous interlocking diamond circles. Pearl drops or emeralds can be attached inside the circles. Queen Mary had a tiara made for the Delhi Durbar held in 1911 in India. It is now on loan for wearing by Camilla, Queen Consort of the United Kingdom, wife of King Charles III. Queen Elizabeth II commissioned a ruby and diamond tiara. A gift of aquamarines she received as a present from the people of Brazil were added to diamonds to make a new tiara.


title: Tiara

text: Other queens, empresses, and princesses regularly wear tiaras at formal evening occasions. The Swedish Royal Family have a collection as do the Danish, the Dutch, and Spanish monarchies. Many of the Danish royal jewels originally came into the collection when Princess Louise of Sweden married the future King Frederick VIII of Denmark. The Romanov dynasty had a collection up until the revolution of 1917. The Iranian royal family also had a large collection of tiaras. Since the Iranian Revolution, they are housed at the National Jewelry Museum in Tehran.


title: Tiara

text: On rare occasions, usually when the actual tiara is exceptionally old and valuable due to its history and gemstones, realistic copies may be made and worn in place of the original due to insurance considerations.


title: Tiara

text: Tiaras made of plastic, rhinestones, Swarovski crystals, or any other non-precious material are considered costume jewelry. They are worn by women on special occasions such as homecoming or prom and at their quinceañera (fifteenth birthday) or wedding. They are also worn by the winners of beauty pageants and children dressing up as Disney princesses.


title: Tiara

text: Tiaras are often worn by actresses in film, plays, and television. In 2013, Cartier created a replica of the ruby and diamond tiara they had originally made in 1956 for Princess Grace of Monaco for the film "Grace of Monaco", starring Nicole Kidman.


title: Indira Gandhi Canal

text: The Indira Gandhi Canal (originally, Rajasthan Canal) is the longest canal in India. It starts at the Harike Barrage near Harike, a few kilometers downriver from the confluence of the Satluj and Beas rivers in Punjab state, and ends in irrigation facilities in the Thar Desert in the northwest of Rajasthan state. Previously known as the Rajasthan Canal, it was renamed the Indira Gandhi Canal on 2 November 1984 following the assassination of Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.


title: Indira Gandhi Canal

text: The canal consists of the Rajasthan feeder canal with the first in Punjab and Haryana state and a further in Rajasthan. This is followed by the of the Rajasthan main canal, which is entirely within Rajasthan. The canal enters Haryana from Punjab near Lohgarh and runs through the western part of the Sirsa district before entering Rajasthan near Kharakhera village in the Tibbi tehsil of the Hanumangarh district.


title: Indira Gandhi Canal

text: It traverses seven districts of Rajasthan: Barmer, Bikaner, Churu, Hanumangarh, Jaisalmer, Jodhpur, and Sriganganagar. The main canal is long, which is 1458 RD (reduced distance). From 1458 RD, a long branch starts, known as the Sagar Mal Gopa Branch or the SMGS. From the end point of SMGS, another 92-kilometer-long sub-branch starts, the last of the Baba Ramdev sub-branch. It ends near Gunjangarh village in Jaisalmer district.


title: Indira Gandhi Canal

text: The idea of bringing the waters from the Himalayan Rivers flowing through Punjab and into Pakistan was conceived by hydraulic engineer Kanwar Sain in the late 1940s. Sain estimated that of desert land in Bikaner and the northwest corner of Jaisalmer could be irrigated by the stored waters of Punjab rivers.


title: Indira Gandhi Canal

text: In 1960, the Indus Water Treaty was signed between India and Pakistan, which gave India the right to use the water from three rivers: the Satluj, Beas and Ravi. The proposed Rajasthan Canal envisioned use of of water.


title: Indira Gandhi Canal

text: The initial plan was to build the canal in two stages. Stage I consisted of a feeder canal from Harike barrage, Firozpur, Punjab to Masitawali (Hanumangarh) with the main canal of from Masitawali (Hanumangarh) to Pugal, (Bikaner) in Rajasthan. Stage I also included constructing a distributary canal system of about in length. Stage II involved constructing a long main canal from Pugal (Bikaner) to Mohangarh (Jaisalmer) along with a distributary canal network of . The main canal was planned to be wide at the top and wide at the bottom with a water depth of . It was scheduled to be completed by 1971.


title: Indira Gandhi Canal

text: The canal faced severe financial constraints, neglect and corruption. In 1970 the plan was revised and it was decided that the entire canal would be lined with concrete tiles. Five more lift schemes were added and the flow command of Stage II was increased by . With increased requirements, the total length of main, feeder and distribution canals was about . Stage I was completed in 1983 around 20 years behind the completion schedule.


title: Indira Gandhi Canal

text: After the construction of the Indira Gandhi Canal, irrigation facilities were available over an area of in Jaisalmer district and in Barmer district. Irrigation had already been provided in an area of in Jaisalmer district. Mustard, cotton, and wheat now grow in this semi-arid northwestern region, replacing the soil there previously. However, many dispute the success of this canal in arid regions and question whether it has achieved its goals.


title: Bryan Lee O'Malley

text: Bryan Lee O'Malley (born February 21, 1979) is a Canadian cartoonist, best known for the "Scott Pilgrim" series. He also performs as a musician under the alias Kupek.


title: Bryan Lee O'Malley

text: Bryan Lee O'Malley attended St. Thomas Aquinas Catholic Secondary School in London, Ontario, Canada. He went on to start in Film Studies at the University of Western Ontario, but dropped out before completing.


title: Bryan Lee O'Malley

text: Prior to having his own material published, O'Malley illustrated the Oni Press miniseries "Hopeless Savages: Ground Zero", written by Jen Van Meter. He also lettered many Oni comics, including the majority of Chynna Clugston's output between 2002 and 2005.


title: Bryan Lee O'Malley

text: His first original graphic novel was "Lost at Sea", released by Oni Press in 2003. "Lost at Sea" is a coming-of-age story about a shy 18-year-old girl named Raleigh, who believes her soul was stolen by a cat, and the road trip she takes across the United States with several teens from her school that she barely knows.


title: Bryan Lee O'Malley

text: From 2004 to 2010, O'Malley worked on the six-volume "Scott Pilgrim" series, published by Oni Press in digest size black and white books. The series was a critical and commercial success, spawning a full-color re-release, a 2010 film adaptation, "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World", a , and a number of official soundtracks.


title: Bryan Lee O'Malley

text: O'Malley created the cover art work for the 2012 video game "Fez". In July 2014, his graphic novel "Seconds" was released by Ballantine Books. In mid 2016, O'Malley revealed the title of his next major graphic novel "Worst World", which currently has no release date. He is also the co-creator of the ongoing comic book "Snotgirl" with Leslie Hung. He is officially billed as its writer.


title: Bryan Lee O'Malley

text: O'Malley is half Korean and half French-Canadian. In 2004, O'Malley married fellow cartoonist Hope Larson. They lived together in Toronto in 2004, Halifax in 2005, North Carolina from 2008 to 2010, and Los Angeles. They divorced in 2014.


title: Bryan Lee O'Malley

text: O'Malley is also a songwriter and musician (as Kupek) and was formerly in several short-lived Toronto bands such as Imperial Otter and Honey Dear.


title: Friedman doctrine

text: The Friedman doctrine, also called shareholder theory is a normative theory of business ethics advanced by economist Milton Friedman which holds that the social responsibility of business is to increase its profits. This shareholder primacy approach views shareholders as the economic engine of the organization and the only group to which the firm is socially responsible. As such, the goal of the firm is to increase its profits and maximize returns to shareholders. Friedman argues that the shareholders can then decide for themselves what social initiatives to take part in, rather than have an executive whom the shareholders appointed explicitly for business purposes decide such matters for them. The Friedman doctrine has been very influential in the corporate world from the 1980s to the 2000s, but has attracted criticism, particularly since the financial crisis of 2007–2008 (caused by various financial institutions which engaged in excessive risk for profit maximization, causing the bubble and collapse of the American real estate market that triggered the crisis throughout the wider global economy).


title: Friedman doctrine

text: Friedman introduced the theory in a 1970 essay for "The New York Times" titled "A Friedman Doctrine: The Social Responsibility of Business is to Increase Its Profits". In it, he argued that a company has no social responsibility to the public or society; its only responsibility is to its shareholders. He justified this view by considering to whom a company and its executives are beholden:


title: Friedman doctrine

text: Friedman argued that an executive spending company money on social causes is, in effect, spending somebody else's money for their own purposes:


title: Friedman doctrine

text: He argued that the appropriate agents of social causes are individuals—"The stockholders or the customers or the employees could separately spend their own money on the particular action if they wished to do so." He concluded by quoting from his 1962 book "Capitalism and Freedom": "there is one and only one social responsibility of business—to use its resources and engage in activities designed to increase its profits so long as it stays within the rules of the game, which is to say, engages in open and free competition without deception or fraud."


title: Friedman doctrine

text: In "Capitalism and Freedom", Friedman had argued that when companies concern themselves with the community rather than profit it leads to totalitarianism, consistent with his statement in the first paragraph of the 1970 essay that "businessmen" with a social conscience "are unwitting puppets of the intellectual forces that have been undermining the basis of a free society".


title: Friedman doctrine

text: The Friedman doctrine was amplified after the publication of an influential 1976 business paper by finance professors William Meckling and Michael C. Jensen, "Theory of the Firm: Managerial Behavior, Agency Costs and Ownership Structure", which provided a quantitative economic rationale for maximizing shareholder value.


title: Friedman doctrine

text: Shareholder theory has had a significant impact in the corporate world. In 2017, Harvard Business School professors Joseph L. Bower and Lynn S. Paine stated that maximizing shareholder value "is now pervasive in the financial community and much of the business world. It has led to a set of behaviors by many actors on a wide range of topics, from performance measurement and executive compensation to shareholder rights, the role of directors, and corporate responsibility." In 2016, "The Economist" called shareholder theory "the biggest idea in business", stating "today shareholder value rules business".


title: Friedman doctrine

text: Shareholder theory has led to a marked rise in stock-based compensation, particularly to CEOs, in an attempt to align the financial interests of employees with those of shareholders.


title: Friedman doctrine

text: In September 2020, fifty years after publishing "A Friedman Doctrine", "The New York Times" published 22 short responses to Friedman's essay written by 25 prominent people. In November 2020, the Stigler Center of the University of Chicago Booth School of Business published a compendium of 28 articles on the legacy of Milton Friedman. Finance professor Alex Edmans compared Friedman's article to the Modigliani–Miller theorem, arguing that Friedman's conclusion is incorrect but that the article is instructive because it highlights the assumptions required for it to be true. Accordingly, Stigler Center director Luigi Zingales argued that the Friedman doctrine should be considered a theorem, not a doctrine.


title: Friedman doctrine

text: The Friedman doctrine is controversial, with critics variously saying it is wrong on financial, economic, legal, social, or moral grounds.


title: Friedman doctrine

text: Shareholder theory has been criticized by proponents of stakeholder theory, who believe the Friedman doctrine is inconsistent with the idea of corporate social responsibility to a variety of stakeholders. They argue it is morally imperative a business takes into account all of the people who are affected by its decisions. They also argue that taking into account the interests of stakeholders can benefit the company and its shareholders; for example, a company donating services or goods to help those hurt in a natural disaster is not acting in the direct interest of its shareholders, but in doing so builds community allegiance to the company, ultimately benefitting the company and its shareholders. In 2019, influential business groups such as the World Economic Forum and the Business Roundtable updated their mission statement, leaving behind the Friedman doctrine in favor of "stakeholder capitalism" (at least on paper if not in widespread practice).


title: Friedman doctrine

text: Left-wing social activist Naomi Klein argued in her 2007 book "The Shock Doctrine" that adherence to the Friedman doctrine has impoverished most citizens while enriching corporate elites.


title: Friedman doctrine

text: Other scholars argue that it is unhealthy and counterproductive to the companies that practice it. Harvard Business School professors Joseph L. Bower and Lynn S. Paine said in 2017 that the Friedman doctrine is "distracting companies and their leaders from the innovation, strategic renewal, and investment in the future that require their attention", puts companies at risk of "activist shareholder attack", and puts "managers ... under increasing pressure to deliver ever faster and more predictable returns and to curtail riskier investments aimed at meeting future needs." "The Economist" said in 2016 that a focus on short-term shareholder value has become "a license for bad conduct, including skimping on investment, exorbitant pay, high leverage, silly takeovers, accounting shenanigans and a craze for share buy-backs, which are running at $600 billion a year in America".


title: Friedman doctrine

text: In 2019, Jerry Useem writing in "The Atlantic" and prominent Democratic Senators Chuck Schumer and Bernie Sanders writing in "The New York Times" argued that shareholder theory, which promoted a rise in stock-based compensation, has led executives to enrich themselves by implementing stock buybacks—often to the detriment of the companies they work for. The critics argued this diverts company funds away from potentially more profitable or socially valuable avenues, like research and design, reduces productivity, and increases inequality by delivering money to higher-paid employees who receive stock-based compensation and not to lower-paid employees who do not.


title: Friedman doctrine

text: Friedman's characterization of moral responsibility has been questioned. Ronald Duska, in a 1997 article in the "Journal of Business Ethics" and in his 2007 book "Contemporary Reflections on Business Ethics", argued that Friedman failed to differentiate two very different aspects of business: (1) the "motive" of individuals, who are often motivated by profit to participate in business, and (2) the socially sanctioned "purpose" of business, or the reason why people allow businesses to exist, which is to provide goods and services to people. Duska said of a hypothetical businessperson's belief that there is no business ethics beyond making a profit: "Does that mean [the businessperson] is likely to give you a faulty product if he can get away with it and make more profit? If he really believes what he says, aren't you a fool to do business with him?" John Friedman (no relation to Milton Friedman), writing in the "Huffington Post" in 2013, said: "Mr. Friedman argues that a corporation, unlike a person, cannot have responsibility. No one would engage in a business contract with a corporation if they thought for one minute that a corporation was not responsible to pay its bills, for example. So clearly, therefore, a corporation can have legal, but also moral responsibilities."


title: Friedman doctrine

text: In January 2022, billionaire hedge fund manager and investor Paul Tudor Jones attributed the opioid epidemic in the United States as a product of the Friedman doctrine. Notably, the theory of corporations having the only objective of profit maximization (without any consideration of other stakeholders), led Purdue Pharma and the Sackler family to engage in unethical corporate practices of increasing revenue, by abetting doctors to dispense prescription opioids, without any legitimate medical purpose. The opioid epidemic resulted in at least 400,000 adult deaths by prescription drug overdose within the United States, most of which would have been part of the workforce within the economy of the United States.


title: Friedman doctrine

text: Lawrence Mishel, distinguished fellow of the Economic Policy Institute, argued that wages have been kept low in the United States because of the Friedman doctrine, namely the adoption of corporate practices and economic policies (or the blocking of reforms) at the behest of business and the wealthy elite, which resulted in the systematic disempowerment of workers. He argues that the lack of worker power caused wage suppression, increased wage inequality, and exacerbated racial disparities. Notably, mechanisms such as excessive unemployment, globalization, eroded labor standards (and their lack of enforcement), weakened collective bargaining, and corporate structure changes that disadvantage workers, all collectively functioned to keep wages low. From 1979 to 2019, while economy-wide productivity rose 61.8 percent, hourly compensation for production and non-supervisory workers increased only 17.5 percent, whilst the earnings of the top 1 percent and 0.1 percent increased 158 percent and 341 percent, respectively.


title: Melisa Döngel

text: Melisa Döngel (born 18 September 1999) is a Turkish actress and model best known for her role as Deniz Çelik in the drama series "Bizim Hikaye".


title: Melisa Döngel

text: Melisa Döngel was born on 18 September 1999. She completed her education at Osman Yağmurdereli Art Academy. She started her acting career with the "Elif" series, which premiered in 2014. In 2016, she played the character of Sevtap in the TV series "Hangimiz Sevmedik". In the same year, she played the character of Nil in the TV series "Arka Sokaklar". In 2018, she appeared as Deniz Çelik in the drama series "Bizim Hikaye" in which she gained acclaim for portraying the character. In the series "Sen Çal Kapımı", which started to be broadcast on FOX in 2020, she portrays the character of Ceren Başar. Döngel was forced to withdraw from the series for a few episodes due to a problem in her intestines.


title: Melisa Döngel

text: In July 2021, it was revealed that Döngel was involved in a legal battle against her father over the custody of her younger sister. She had been molested by her father as a child and he was later imprisoned.


title: Carl Betz

text: Carl Lawrence Betz (March 9, 1921 – January 18, 1978) was an American stage, film, and television actor. He appeared in a variety of television series, including the CBS soap opera "Love of Life"; he is best remembered for playing Donna Reed's television husband, Dr. Alex Stone, from 1958 to 1966 in the ABC sitcom "The Donna Reed Show". Then between 1967 and 1969, Betz played defense attorney Clinton Judd in ABC's courtroom drama "Judd, for the Defense", winning an Emmy Award in 1969 for his work on that series.


title: Carl Betz

text: Born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, in 1921, Betz was the oldest of four children—two sons and two daughters—of Carl W. and Mary Leona Betz. His siblings (from oldest to youngest) were Mary Louise Betz, Leona Ruth Betz and William Harlow Betz. His father was a native of Missouri; and according to the federal census of 1930, he was then the "chief chemist" at a local laboratory and later, by 1940, for Allegheny County.


title: Carl Betz

text: Growing up in the Pittsburgh suburbs of Crafton and Mt. Lebanon, Betz began his amateur acting career very early, at the age of 10, when he formed a theatrical company with six friends who performed plays in his grandmother's basement. After graduating from Mount St. Charles Academy in Rhode Island, he won a scholarship to Duquesne University.


title: Carl Betz

text: After the war, Betz returned to Carnegie Tech and earned a degree in drama. After graduation, he worked as a radio announcer and disk jockey before moving to New York City. Betz continued working in summer and winter stock companies and also worked for a while as a doorman at Radio City Music Hall.


title: Carl Betz

text: Betz made his Broadway debut in 1952 in "The Long Watch", and toured with Veronica Lake in the summer stock play, "The Voice of the Turtle". He then appeared for 18 months as Collie Jordan on "Love of Life". Prior to his eight-year run on "The Donna Reed Show", Betz made guest appearances on such television series as "Sheriff of Cochise", "Perry Mason", "Gunsmoke" (as “Nate Timble & Ned Glass”, an outlaw trying to go straight under an assumed name in the 1957 episode “Gone Straight”), "The Millionaire", and "Alfred Hitchcock Presents".


title: Carl Betz

text: In 1958, Betz was cast as pediatrician Dr. Alex Stone in ABC sitcom "The Donna Reed Show". The show revolves around the home and school problems of a middle-class American family in the late 1950s and mid 1960s. Alex was often called upon to rescue wife Donna Stone (Reed) from awkward situations and to monitor the behavior of their children, Mary (Shelley Fabares) and Jeff (Paul Petersen). Jeff Stone introduced the sentimental hit song "My Dad" in a 1962 episode, specifically singing the tune to Betz. The series was a hit for ABC and aired for eight seasons from September 1958 to March 1966. During the run of the series, Betz continued acting in stage roles during the show's hiatus. In 1964, he appeared as Reverend T. Lawrence Shannon in a limited stage run of "The Night of the Iguana", for which he earned excellent reviews.


title: Carl Betz

text: After "The Donna Reed Show" was cancelled, Betz returned to television roles and stage work. In 1967, producer Paul Monash offered Betz the role of defense lawyer Clinton Judd in the legal drama "Judd, for the Defense". Monash had seen Betz's performance in "Night of the Iguana" in 1964 and was impressed with his acting. Betz initially thought the role was for a guest spot, but soon realized Monash had proposed that he star in a new series. Betz initially had misgivings, stating "I did not want to do another series, you get bored", but eventually relented, because he liked the scripts. The series, which premiered on ABC in September 1967, was praised by critics but struggled in the ratings. Shortly after ABC canceled the series in 1969, Betz won the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Continued Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role in a Dramatic Series for his work on the series. He also made many guest appearances on a variety of popular television shows such as "", "The Mod Squad", "Love, American Style", and "Starsky & Hutch". One of his last roles was as General Douglas MacArthur in the one-man stage play "I Shall Return".


title: Carl Betz

text: Betz was married twice and had one child. In June 1952 he married actress Lois Harmon with whom he had a son, Richard. The couple separated in May 1960 and divorced in 1961. In December 1963, Betz married Gloria Stone Martin, sister of actress Nita Talbot. Through his marriage to Martin, Betz had a stepdaughter, Rio. He and Gloria remained together for 15 years, until Carl's death.


title: Carl Betz

text: In 1977, Betz was diagnosed with terminal and inoperable lung cancer. He kept his diagnosis private so he could keep working. On November 29, 1977, Betz entered Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles. He died seven weeks later, on January 18, 1978. His remains were cremated.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Mutaz Essa Barshim (; born 24 June 1991) is a Qatari track and field athlete who competes in the high jump and is the current Olympic Champion (2020). He is also the current World Champion and second best jumper of all-time with a personal best of 2.43. He won gold at the 2017 World Championships in London and at the 2019 World Championships in Doha. At the Olympics, Barshim won bronze at the London 2012 Summer Olympics, silver at the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio and shared gold at the 2020 Summer Olympics Tokyo. He was the Asian Indoor and World Junior champion in 2010, and won the high jump gold medals at the 2011 Asian Athletics Championships and 2011 Military World Games. He holds the Asian record in high jump. In 2021, his bronze in the 2012 Summer Olympics was promoted to silver due to the disqualification of the original gold medalist.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Mutaz jumps off his left foot, using the Fosbury Flop technique, with a pronounced backwards arch over the bar, he achieves this by looking over the landing mat. One of his brothers, Muamer, is also a high jumper.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Barshim was born in Doha in a Sudanese family. He has five brothers and a sister. His father was also a track and field athlete, which is why almost all of the Barshim children became active in this sport, except for Meshaal Barsham who later became a football goalkeeper. Barshim tried running and long jumping in his youth. He said in an IAAF interview, "I grew up, nothing special, like any kid in Qatar. I joined a club because my father was going to the club training so sometimes he used to take me there with him. I knew athletics because of my father." He attended an Arabic school in Doha, where he learned to speak English. At age of 15, he switched to high jump because it looked more fun. He began training in Doha at the Aspire Academy. He finished training at ASPIRE in 2009, when his personal best was 2.14 m. In September 2009, he met his new (and current) coach from Poland/Sweden who started to train him in Doha. He has been his coach since and as Barshim said, ""He is more than a coach, we are like father and son"." During the summer season in Europe, they spent time at Szczyrba's home in Warsaw, Poland, and they also trained in Sweden so that Barshim did not have to waste time flying to and from Qatar between competitions.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Barshim enjoyed his first international successes in 2010. He set an indoor Qatari record in Gothenburg in early February with a jump of 2.25 m, and then went on to take the gold medal at the 2010 Asian Indoor Athletics Championships, winning with a clearance of 2.20 m. He was selected to represent Qatar at the 2010 IAAF World Indoor Championships in Doha and his performance of 2.23 m left him in fourteenth place in the qualifying round. These feats made him the first ever graduate of the ASPIRE Academy competing at the World Championships as well as holding the national record in an Olympic sport. In May 2010, Barshim won the Arab Athletics Championships for Juniors in Cairo, clearing an outdoor best of 2.23 m, and then went on to secure the continental junior title at the 2010 Asian Junior Athletics Championships. His winning mark at the competition (2.31 m) was a national record and a world-leading mark for junior athletes – and it was also the best jump by a junior since Huang Haiqiang cleared 2.32 m in 2006. He went on to win at the 2010 World Junior Championships in Athletics in Moncton, winning with a height of 2.30 m.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: He won gold in the Asian Athletics Championships in Kobe after clearing a height of 2.35 m, a new national and championship record. He continued his good form and won a gold medal at the Military World Games in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil with a 2.28 m clearance. He made his debut on the global senior stage at the 2011 World Athletics Championships in Daegu and reached the final, missing a medal on count-back and ranking seventh overall. He became high-jump champion at the Gulf Council Championships and the Arab Championships before capping off his year with yet another international gold medal at the 2011 Pan Arab Games held on home soil in Doha.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: At the 2012 indoor Asian Championships, held in Hangzhou, China, on 19 February 2012, Barshim won the gold medal and established a new personal best (and national record) of 2.37 m (7'9.25"), breaking the previous championship record of 2.34: it was also the highest indoor jump in the world, to date in 2012. He began jumping at 2.10 and had first try clearances at 2.15, 2.20 and 2.24, before missing once at 2.28, temporarily falling to second place when Chinese jumper Zhang Guowei cleared on his first try. Zhang then failed at 2.31, while Barshim resumed his flawless jumping with first try clears at 2.31, 2.34 and 2.37. He then failed in three attempts at 2.40.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: At the 2012 Olympic Games, held in London, United Kingdom, on 7 August, Barshim won the bronze medal with a jump of 2.29, finishing in a 3-way tie for third place with Derek Drouin from Canada and Robert Grabarz from Great Britain.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Barshim suffered a back injury in early 2012 and (later) said he was not healthy at the London Olympics. The problem was found to be a stress fracture in the fifth (L5) Lumbar vertebrae. In an interview for the IAAF in April 2013, Barshim said: ""It started hurting bad before the (2012) World Indoor Championships and then I had to stop for a bit. Before the Olympics, I had to stop again, but we have a really good sports center in Doha and I also received treatment in Warsaw.""


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Barshim began his 2013 season indoors, in Sweden, in mid-January. He entered six competitions in Europe in 3 and a-half weeks, always jumping 2.30 or better and winning five out of the six competitions, before his back injury forced an early end. His season-best of 2.37 matched his career indoor best and was the highest in the world indoors in 2013.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: He started with two "smaller" competitions in Sweden, jumping 2.30 on 13 January, and then an (early) world-leading 2.33 (7' 7 3/4") in Växjö on 20 January. He then competed in the invitation-only Moravia High Jump Tour, finishing 2nd (on misses) behind Olympic champion Ivan Ukhov as both jumped 2.30 in Hustopece on 26 January. Then Barshim won the second leg at Trinec on 29 January, tying the meet the record of 2.34. On 3 February, he won the Russian Winter Games in Moscow with yet another world-leading jump of 2.37 – which also tied his Asian indoor record from 2012 – ending that competition with a narrow miss at 2.40. He then flew to the Europa SC High Jump competition in Banska Bystrica, Slovak Republic, where his aching back restricted his jumps. In one of the strongest fields of the year, five jumpers cleared 2.30. Barshim began at 2.15, next cleared 2.30, then passed until 2.36 where his 3rd attempt clearance (only his fifth jump overall) gave him the win.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Barshim ended his indoor season on 6 February, as he did not want to risk further injury, hoping to be able to thrill his hometown fans when the IAAF's Diamond League opens its 2013 outdoor season in Doha on 10 May.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Mutaz started his outdoor season on 10 April 2013 with an "appearance" at the GCC Athletics Championships held at Doha's Khalifa International Stadium. He took only two jumps, casually running in from almost half the distance of his usual approach to clear 2.19 meters with his first attempt and then improving to 2.25 with his second. Having clinched the win, he quit to avoid hurting his back. His younger brother Muamer took second place with a jump of 2.16.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: At the Prefontaine Classic Diamond League Meet in Eugene, Oregon (1 June 2013), Barshim won, being one of 3 men to clear 2.36 (7'8 3/4"), a new met record. Barshim was in the lead with no misses. After everyone missed their attempts at 2.39, Barshim, jumping last, saved his final (third) attempt for one try at new personal best of 2.40 (7' 10") and made it. He became the 8th man in history to have cleared 2.40 outdoors, and the first since 2000. His best result in 2013 was a silver medal at the 2013 IAAF World Championships in Athletics in Moscow, Russia.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Barshim jumped sparingly during the 2014 Indoor season because of chronic back pain. Nonetheless, he entered the 2014 IAAF World Indoor Championships in Sopot, Poland on 8 and 9 March as favorite to medal, behind heavily favored Russian jumper Ivan Ukhov. In the Finals on Sunday 9 March, Barshim was sensational, clearing 7 consecutive heights on his first attempt, including a new Asian indoor record of 2.38m (7' 9-3/4"). Ukhov required 3 attempts to clear that height and when both men failed at 2.40m, Barshim won the gold medal, while Ukhov took silver based on the tie-breaking count-back (misses). The 22-year-old Qatari has now won a medal at the last 3 major competitions: bronze at the 2012 London Olympics, silver at the 2013 World Championships in Moscow, and gold at the 2014 World Indoor Championships in Sopot.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: In early May, when the IAAF Diamond League came to his home, he had to watch as Ukhov not only bested him but moved up to equal the third highest jump ever 2.41m, while Mutaz was relegated to fourth behind Derek Drouin and Erik Kynard. On 5 June in Rome, he reversed that result, joining the group equal to third best ever at 2.41 while Ukhov finished in fifth behind the same athletes and Bohdan Bondarenko (who is also part of the group from 2013).


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: A week and a half later, at the Adidas Grand Prix, Icahn Stadium, New York City, Barshim and Bondarenko were locked in a tight competition. On his first attempt at 2.42m, Barshim cleared and improved his personal best and his own Asian Continental record, while setting the Diamond League record with a 2014 world-leading leap equaling Patrick Sjöberg's former world record from 1987 as the second best outdoor jump in history. Moments later Bondarenko equaled Barshim's jump, also on his first attempt. Ukhov and Carlo Thränhardt (1988) have also jumped that height under the more controlled conditions indoors. Barshim then missed his first attempt at 2.44m. Ahead on misses, Bondarenko decided to pass at 2.44m and as a result, Barshim also passed on his remaining jumps at 2.44m and the bar was then raised to 2.46m, one centimeter above the existing world record height of 2.45m set on 27 July 1993, by Javier Sotomayor of Cuba. Both jumpers took combined five attempts at the world record height with Barshim coming closest to clearing the height on his first attempt.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Bondarenko and Barshim's jumps are the best in the world since Javier Sotomayor of Cuba cleared 2.42m in Seville on 5 June 1994. Only Sotomayor, on four occasions, has jumped higher than these two men. The two men also made multiple attempts at the record in the final Diamond League meet of the 2014 season in Brussels. Barshim again coming closest in his final attempt, clipping the bar with his heel. He won the competition with a PB of 2.43 giving him the status of being the second highest jumper of all time, behind Sotomayor's two record jumps of 2.44 and 2.45.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: In the same year Mutaz also won at the 2014 Asian Indoor Athletics Championships in Hangzou, China and the 2014 Asian Games in Incheon, South Korea.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: In 2015, Barshim won the IAAF Diamond League in Eugene, Oregon which is also known as the Prefontaine Classic.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Barshim again competed for Qatar in the Olympic Games, and earned a silver medal in high jump. That year he also won the IAAF Diamond League stops in Lausanne, Switzerland and Birmingham.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Barshim competed for Qatar in the IAAF World Championships, and won the gold medal in high jump. The defending World and Olympic Champion, Derek Drouin of Canada was injured and did not participate. Additionally, he also won the IAAF Diamond League stops in Zurich, Birmingham, Paris and Shanghai in 2017.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: In February, at the 24th Banska Bystricia High-Jump Meet his winning streak ended after 12 first places, where he landed in second place. At the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Birmingham, UK he placed second as well. In the same year he won the IAAF Diamond League stops in Oslo and Eugene as well as the 8th Asian Indoor Athletics Championships in Tehran, Iran.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: In October, Barshim became the first man to defend the World high jump title when he won in his home city of Doha with a world leading jump of 2.37m.


title: Mutaz Essa Barshim

text: Barshim won the Olympic gold medal at the 2020 Summer Olympics in the high jump event, the first gold medal for Qatar in athletics (and second in any sport, after weightlifter Fares El-Bakh, who won gold in the 96 kg just one day before Barshim). He is a joint gold medal winner, as he and Italian Gianmarco Tamberi cleared a height of 2.37 m in their first attempt and subsequently failed to clear 2.39 m. Both Tamberi and Barshim agreed to share the gold medal in a rare instance in Olympic history where the athletes of different nations had agreed to share the same medal. Barshim in particular was quoted for his post match presentation, asking "Can we have two golds?" and when hearing the answer was yes, embracing Tamberi saying "History, my friend".


title: Lester Speight

text: Lester Speight (born August 28, 1963), also known as Rasta, is a former American football player who has had subsequent careers as a professional wrestler and then actor. He achieved significant recognition for his portrayal of "" in a series of Reebok commercials that debuted during Super Bowl XXXVII, and received further recognition for his portrayal of Augustus Cole in the "Gears of War" series of video games.


title: Lester Speight

text: Lester Speight was born in Baltimore, Maryland, the son of Gussie Watson and Walter Speight. He graduated from Old Mill High School in Millersville, Maryland in 1981, where he is in its Hall of Fame for three sports: football, track, and basketball.


title: Lester Speight

text: After graduating college in 1985, he attempted to play in the NFL but did not. He tried out for the United States Football League (USFL) the same year. During tryouts, he ran the 40-yard dash in 4.3 seconds, which received attention of the Baltimore Stars. Speight and business manager/cousin Butch Groover negotiated a two-year deal with the Stars for more than $200,000. However, the USFL folded before he even played one season.


title: Lester Speight

text: Speight moved on to professional wrestling working for Global Wrestling Federation and Catch Wrestling Association as Rasta the Voodoo Man. However, by 1997 he quit wrestling to pursue an acting career.


title: Lester Speight

text: Speight began his acting career in minor roles in many films including the football film "Any Given Sunday", "13 Moons" and as the club doorman in "Cradle 2 the Grave". He has also appeared in many television shows such as "Malcolm in the Middle", "Walker, Texas Ranger", "NYPD Blue", "Arli$$", "My Wife and Kids", and "".


title: Lester Speight

text: In 2003, Speight starred in the ad for Reebok that became an immediate pop-culture phenomenon and is considered among the funniest and most memorable Super Bowl commercials of all time. The exposure from the popular spot opened the door to further opportunities in film, television and video games.


title: Lester Speight

text: Following the success of Terry Tate, Speight had a recurring role on Damon Wayans' ABC series "My Wife and Kids" as Calvin Scott, the father of Vanessa Scott. Speight guest-starred as prison inmate Banks on the show "Prison Break". Speight appeared in an episode of ESPN's "Mayne Street" comedy short. In the 2008 TV film "Ring of Death", Speight played convict "Milton Kennedy", a feared and revered gang boss (nicknamed "The President"), and undefeated champion of an underground fighting tournament in a notorious prison. In 2009, Speight appeared in an episode of "Bones", "Double Trouble in the Panhandle", where he played the Traveling Circus' strongman, Magnum.


title: Lester Speight

text: Speight had a small role in the film "Bachelor Party Vegas", as Gold Tooth, a prison rapist in 2006, before joining the Eddie Murphy motion picture "Norbit" as Blue, one of the three brothers of Rasputia, in 2007. The next year, he appeared in "Harold & Kumar Escape from Guantanamo Bay", as a character who is interrogated using racist methods. In 2011, Speight played "Hardcore" Eddie in the Michael Bay blockbuster .


title: Lester Speight

text: For the 2006 Xbox 360 game "Gears of War", Speight voiced the role of former "Thrashball" player Augustus Cole (a.k.a. Cole Train), humorously re-using some of his characteristic lines. He won the G-Phoria '07 award for Best Voiceover. Speight later reprised the role for "Gears of War 2" (2008), "Gears of War 3" (2011), "" (2013), "Gears of War 4" (2016), "Gears 5" (2019), and "Gears Tactics" (2020).


title: Polynomial long division

text: In algebra, polynomial long division is an algorithm for dividing a polynomial by another polynomial of the same or lower degree, a generalized version of the familiar arithmetic technique called long division. It can be done easily by hand, because it separates an otherwise complex division problem into smaller ones. Sometimes using a shorthand version called synthetic division is faster, with less writing and fewer calculations. Another abbreviated method is polynomial short division (Blomqvist's method).


title: Polynomial long division

text: Polynomial long division is an algorithm that implements the Euclidean division of polynomials, which starting from two polynomials "A" (the "dividend") and "B" (the "divisor") produces, if "B" is not zero, a "quotient" "Q" and a "remainder" "R" such that


title: Polynomial long division

text: and either "R" = 0 or the degree of "R" is lower than the degree of "B". These conditions uniquely define "Q" and "R", which means that "Q" and "R" do not depend on the method used to compute them.


title: Polynomial long division

text: The result "R" = 0 occurs if and only if the polynomial "A" has "B" as a factor. Thus long division is a means for testing whether one polynomial has another as a factor, and, if it does, for factoring it out. For example, if a root "r" of "A" is known, it can be factored out by dividing "A" by ("x" – "r").


title: Polynomial long division

text: Find the quotient and the remainder of the division of formula_1 the "dividend", by formula_2 the "divisor".


title: Polynomial long division

text: The polynomial above the bar is the quotient "q"("x"), and the number left over (5) is the remainder "r"("x").


title: Polynomial long division

text: The long division algorithm for arithmetic is very similar to the above algorithm, in which the variable "x" is replaced (in base 10) by the specific number 10.


title: Polynomial long division

text: Blomqvist's method is an abbreviated version of the long division above. This pen-and-paper method uses the same algorithm as polynomial long division, but mental calculation is used to determine remainders. This requires less writing, and can therefore be a faster method once mastered.


title: Polynomial long division

text: The division is at first written in a similar way as long multiplication with the dividend at the top, and the divisor below it. The quotient is to be written below the bar from left to right.


title: Polynomial long division

text: Divide the first term of the dividend by the highest term of the divisor ("x" ÷ "x" = "x"). Place the result below the bar. "x" has been divided leaving no remainder, and can therefore be marked as used with a backslash. The result "x" is then multiplied by the second term in the divisor −3 = −3"x". Determine the partial remainder by subtracting −2"x" − (−3"x") = "x". Mark −2"x" as used and place the new remainder "x" above it.


title: Polynomial long division

text: Divide the highest term of the remainder by the highest term of the divisor ("x" ÷ "x" = "x"). Place the result (+x) below the bar. "x" has been divided leaving no remainder, and can therefore be marked as used. The result "x" is then multiplied by the second term in the divisor −3 = −3"x". Determine the partial remainder by subtracting 0"x" − (−3"x") = 3"x". Mark 0"x" as used and place the new remainder 3"x" above it.


title: Polynomial long division

text: Divide the highest term of the remainder by the highest term of the divisor (3x ÷ "x" = 3). Place the result (+3) below the bar. 3x has been divided leaving no remainder, and can therefore be marked as used. The result 3 is then multiplied by the second term in the divisor −3 = −9. Determine the partial remainder by subtracting −4 − (−9) = 5. Mark −4 as used and place the new remainder 5 above it.


title: Polynomial long division

text: The polynomial below the bar is the quotient "q"("x"), and the number left over (5) is the remainder "r"("x").


title: Polynomial long division

text: The algorithm can be represented in pseudocode as follows, where +, −, and × represent polynomial arithmetic, and / represents simple division of two terms:


title: Polynomial long division

text: Note that this works equally well when degree("n") < degree("d"); in that case the result is just the trivial (0, "n").


title: Polynomial long division

text: This algorithm describes exactly the above paper and pencil method: is written on the left of the ")"; is written, term after term, above the horizontal line, the last term being the value of ; the region under the horizontal line is used to compute and write down the successive values of .


title: Polynomial long division

text: For every pair of polynomials ("A", "B") such that "B" ≠ 0, polynomial division provides a "quotient" "Q" and a "remainder" "R" such that


title: Polynomial long division

text: and either "R"=0 or degree("R") < degree("B"). Moreover ("Q", "R") is the unique pair of polynomials having this property.


title: Polynomial long division

text: The process of getting the uniquely defined polynomials "Q" and "R" from "A" and "B" is called "Euclidean division" (sometimes "division transformation"). Polynomial long division is thus an algorithm for Euclidean division.


title: Polynomial long division

text: Sometimes one or more roots of a polynomial are known, perhaps having been found using the rational root theorem. If one root "r" of a polynomial "P"("x") of degree "n" is known then polynomial long division can be used to factor "P"("x") into the form where "Q"("x") is a polynomial of degree "n" − 1. "Q"("x") is simply the quotient obtained from the division process; since "r" is known to be a root of "P"("x"), it is known that the remainder must be zero.


title: Polynomial long division

text: Likewise, if more than one root is known, a linear factor in one of them ("r") can be divided out to obtain "Q"("x"), and then a linear term in another root, "s", can be divided out of "Q"("x"), etc. Alternatively, they can all be divided out at once: for example the linear factors and can be multiplied together to obtain the quadratic factor which can then be divided into the original polynomial "P"("x") to obtain a quotient of degree


title: Polynomial long division

text: In this way, sometimes all the roots of a polynomial of degree greater than four can be obtained, even though that is not always possible. For example, if the rational root theorem can be used to obtain a single (rational) root of a quintic polynomial, it can be factored out to obtain a quartic (fourth degree) quotient; the explicit formula for the roots of a quartic polynomial can then be used to find the other four roots of the quintic.


title: Polynomial long division

text: Polynomial long division can be used to find the equation of the line that is tangent to the graph of the function defined by the polynomial "P"("x") at a particular point If "R"("x") is the remainder of the division of "P"("x") by then the equation of the tangent line at to the graph of the function is regardless of whether or not "r" is a root of the polynomial.


title: Polynomial long division

text: A cyclic redundancy check uses the remainder of polynomial division to detect errors in transmitted messages.


title: Kompot

text: Kompot or compote is a non-alcoholic sweet beverage that may be served hot or cold, depending on tradition and season. It is obtained by cooking fruit such as strawberries, apricots, peaches, apples, raspberries, rhubarb, plums, or sour cherries in a large volume of water, often together with sugar or raisins as additional sweeteners. Sometimes different spices such as vanilla or cinnamon are added for additional flavour, especially in winter when kompot is usually served hot. Kompot is popular in Central and Eastern European countries as well as in Southern Europe.


title: Kompot

text: Kompot is part of the culinary cultures of many countries in Central, Eastern, Southern Europe and Middle East, such as Bulgaria, Armenia, Albania, Azerbaijan, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Russia, Poland, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Hungary, Slovakia, Slovenia, Croatia, North Macedonia, Serbia, Montenegro, Moldova and Romania (where it is known as "compot"), Austria, the Czech Republic, Greece, Georgia, Cyprus and Turkey. Kompot ("компот" in: Bulgarian, Russian, Serbian, Bosnian, Macedonian and Ukrainian; "Komposto" in Turkish) was a widely used way of preserving fruit for the winter season in Southern and Eastern European countries. In 1885, Lucyna Ćwierczakiewiczowa wrote in a recipe book that kompot preserved fruit so well it seemed fresh. Kompot was still popular in the 1970s. It is also popular in many Central Asian countries, such as Uzbekistan and Kyrgyzstan.


title: Kompot

text: The consumption of kompot has been declining since the 1980s. With the end of food preservation in many countries of South and Eastern Europe, kompot has been supplanted by fruit juice, soft drinks and mineral water.


title: Kompot

text: Uzvar or vzvar is a similar drink, prepared from various dried fruit and sometimes berries, sweetened with honey or sugar.


title: History of surgery

text: Surgery is the branch of medicine that deals with the physical manipulation of a bodily structure to diagnose, prevent, or cure an ailment. Ambroise Paré, a 16th-century French surgeon, stated that to perform surgery is, "To eliminate that which is superfluous, restore that which has been dislocated, separate that which has been united, join that which has been divided and repair the defects of nature."


title: History of surgery

text: Since humans first learned how to make and handle tools, they have employed their talents to develop surgical techniques, each time more sophisticated than the last; however, until the industrial revolution, surgeons were incapable of overcoming the three principal obstacles which had plagued the medical profession from its infancy — bleeding, pain and infection. Advances in these fields have transformed surgery from a risky "art" into a scientific discipline capable of treating many diseases and conditions.


title: History of surgery

text: The first surgical techniques were developed to treat injuries and traumas. A combination of archaeological and anthropological studies offer insight into much earlier techniques for suturing lacerations, amputating unsalvageable limbs, and draining and cauterizing open wounds. Many examples exist: some Asian tribes used a mix of saltpeter and sulfur that was placed onto wounds and lit on fire to cauterize wounds; the Dakota people used the quill of a feather attached to an animal bladder to suck out purulent material; the discovery of needles from the Stone Age seems to suggest they were used in the suturing of cuts (the Maasai used needles of acacia for the same purpose); and tribes in India and South America developed an ingenious method of sealing minor injuries by applying termites or scarabs who bit the edges of the wound and then twisted the insects' neck, leaving their heads rigidly attached like staples.


title: History of surgery

text: The oldest operation for which evidence exists is trepanation (also known as trepanning, trephination, trephining or burr hole from Greek "τρύπανον" and "τρυπανισμός"), in which a hole is drilled or scraped into the skull for exposing the dura mater to treat health problems related to intracranial pressure and other diseases. In the case of head wounds, surgical intervention was implemented for investigating and diagnosing the nature of the wound and the extent of the impact while bone splinters were removed preferably by scraping followed by post operation procedures and treatments for avoiding infection and aiding in the healing process. Evidence has been found in prehistoric human remains from Proto-Neolithic and Neolithic times, in cave paintings, and the procedure continued in use well into recorded history (being described by ancient Greek writers such as Hippocrates). Out of 120 prehistoric skulls found at one burial site in France dated to 6500 BCE, 40 had trepanation holes. Folke Henschen, a Swedish doctor and historian, asserts that Soviet excavations of the banks of the Dnieper River in the 1970s show the existence of trepanation in Mesolithic times dated to approximately 12000 BCE. The remains suggest a belief that trepanning could cure epileptic seizures, migraines, and certain mental disorders.


title: History of surgery

text: There is significant evidence of healing of the bones of the skull in prehistoric skeletons, suggesting that many of those that proceeded with the surgery survived their operation. In some studies, the rate of survival surpassed 50%.


title: History of surgery

text: The oldest known surgical amputation was carried out in Borneo about 31,000 years ago. The operation involved the removal of the distal third of the left lower leg. The person survived the operation and lived for another 6 to 9 years. This is the only known surgical amputation carried out before the Neolithic farming transition. The next oldest known amputation was carried out about 7000 years ago on a farmer in France whose left forearm had been surgically removed.


title: History of surgery

text: Examples of healed fractures in prehistoric human bones, suggesting setting and splinting have been found in the archeological record.


title: History of surgery

text: Among some treatments used by the Aztecs, according to Spanish texts during the conquest of Mexico, was the reduction of fractured bones: "...the broken bone had to be splinted, extended and adjusted, and if this was not sufficient an incision was made at the end of the bone, and a branch of fir was inserted into the cavity of the medulla..." Modern medicine developed a technique similar to this in the 20th century known as medullary fixation.


title: History of surgery

text: Bloodletting is one of the oldest medical practices, having been practiced among diverse ancient peoples, including the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians, the Greeks, the Mayans, and the Aztecs. In Greece, bloodletting was in use around the time of Hippocrates, who mentions bloodletting but in general relied on dietary techniques. Erasistratus, however, theorized that many diseases were caused by plethoras, or overabundances, in the blood, and advised that these plethoras be treated, initially, by exercise, sweating, reduced food intake, and vomiting. Herophilus advocated bloodletting. Archagathus, one of the first Greek physicians to practice in Rome, practiced bloodletting extensively. The art of bloodletting became very popular in the West, and during the Renaissance one could find bloodletting calendars that recommended appropriate times to bloodlet during the year and books that claimed bloodletting would cure inflammation, infections, strokes, manic psychosis and more.


title: History of surgery

text: The Sumerians saw sickness as a divine punishment imposed by different demons when an individual broke a rule. For this reason, to be a physician, one had to learn to identify approximately 6,000 possible demons that might cause health problems. To do this, the Sumerians employed divining techniques based on the flight of birds, position of the stars and the livers of certain animals. In this way, medicine was intimately linked to priests, relegating surgery to a second-class medical specialty.


title: History of surgery

text: Nevertheless, the Sumerians developed several important medical techniques: in Ninevah archaeologists have discovered bronze instruments with sharpened obsidian resembling modern day scalpels, knives, trephines, etc. The Code of Hammurabi, one of the earliest Babylonian code of laws, itself contains specific legislation regulating surgeons and medical compensation as well as malpractice and victim's compensation:


title: History of surgery

text: Around 3100 BCE Egyptian civilization began to flourish when Narmer, the first Pharaoh of Egypt, established the capital of Memphis. Just as cuneiform tablets preserved the knowledge of the ancient Sumerians, hieroglyphics preserved the Egyptians'.


title: History of surgery

text: In the first monarchic age (2700 BCE) the first treatise on surgery was written by Imhotep, the vizier of Pharaoh Djoser, priest, astronomer, physician and first notable architect. So much was he famed for his medical skill that he became the Egyptian god of medicine. Other famous physicians from the Ancient Empire (from 2500 to 2100 BCE) were Sachmet, the physician of Pharaoh Sahure and Nesmenau, whose office resembled that of a medical director.


title: History of surgery

text: On one of the doorjambs of the entrance to the Temple of Memphis there is the oldest recorded engraving of a medical procedure: circumcision and engravings in Kom Ombo, Egypt depict surgical tools. Still of all the discoveries made in ancient Egypt, the most important discovery relating to ancient Egyptian knowledge of medicine is the Ebers Papyrus, named after its discoverer Georg Ebers.


title: History of surgery

text: The Ebers Papyrus, conserved at the University of Leipzig, is considered one of the oldest treaties on medicine and the most important medical papyri. The text is dated to about 1550 BCE and measures 20 meters in length. The text includes recipes, a pharmacopoeia and descriptions of numerous diseases as well as cosmetic treatments. It mentions how to surgically treat crocodile bites and serious burns, recommending the drainage of pus-filled inflammation but warns against certain diseased skin.


title: History of surgery

text: The Edwin Smith Papyrus is a lesser known papyrus dating from the 1600 BCE and only 5 meters in length. It is a manual for performing traumatic surgery and gives 48 case histories. The Smith Papyrus describes a treatment for repairing a broken nose, and the use of sutures to close wounds. Infections were treated with honey. For example, it gives instructions for dealing with a dislocated vertebra:


title: History of surgery

text: Analysis of the teeth shows prehistoric people might have attempted curing toothache with drills made from flintheads.


title: History of surgery

text: Sushruta (c. 600 BCE) is considered as the "founding father of surgery". His period is usually placed between the period of 1200 BC - 600 BC. One of the earliest known mention of the name is from the "Bower Manuscript" where Sushruta is listed as one of the ten sages residing in the Himalayas. Texts also suggest that he learned surgery at Kasi from Lord Dhanvantari, the god of medicine in Hindu mythology. He was an early innovator of plastic surgery who taught and practiced surgery on the banks of the Ganges in the area that corresponds to the present day city of Varanasi in Northern India. Much of what is known about Sushruta is in Sanskrit contained in a series of volumes he authored, which are collectively known as the "Sushruta Samhita". It is one of the oldest known surgical texts and it describes in detail the examination, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of numerous ailments, as well as procedures on performing various forms of cosmetic surgery, plastic surgery and rhinoplasty.


title: History of surgery

text: Surgeons are now considered to be specialized physicians, whereas in the early ancient Greek world a trained general physician had to use his hands ("χείρ" in Greek) to carry out all medical and medicinal processes including, for example, the treating of wounds sustained on the battlefield, or the treatment of broken bones (a process called in Greek: "χειρουργείν").


title: History of surgery

text: In "The Iliad" Homer names two doctors, “the two sons of Asklepios, the admirable physicians Podaleirius and Machaon and one acting doctor, Patroclus. Because Machaon is wounded and Podaleirius is in combat Eurypylus asks Patroclus “to cut out this arrow from my thigh, wash off the blood with warm water and spread soothing ointment on the wound."


title: History of surgery

text: The Hippocratic Oath, written in the 5th century BC provides the earliest protocol for professional conduct and ethical behavior a young physician needed to abide by in life and in treating and managing the health and privacy of his patients. The multiple volumes of the Hippocratic corpus and the Hippocratic Oath elevated and separated the standards of proper Hippocratic medical conduct and its fundamental medical and surgical principles from other practitioners of folk medicine often laden with superstitious constructs, and/or of specialists of sorts some of whom would endeavor to carry out invasive body procedures with dubious consequences, such as lithotomy. Works from the Hippocratic corpus include; "On the Articulations or On Joints", "On Fractures", "On the Instruments of Reduction", "The Physician's Establishment or Surgery", "On Injuries of the Head", "On Ulcers", "On Fistulae", and "On Hemorrhoids".


title: History of surgery

text: Herophilus of Chalcedon and Erasistratus of Ceos were two great Alexandrians who laid the foundations for the scientific study of anatomy and physiology. Alexandrian surgeons were responsible for developments in ligature (hemostasis), lithotomy, hernia operations, ophthalmic surgery, plastic surgery, methods of reduction of dislocations and fractures, tracheotomy, and mandrake as anesthesia. Most of what we know of them comes from Celsus and Galen of Pergamum (Greek: "Γαληνός")


title: History of surgery

text: Galen's On the Natural Faculties, Books I, II, and III, is an excellent paradigm of a very accomplished Greek surgeon and physician of the 2nd century Roman era, who carried out very complex surgical operations and added significantly to the corpus of animal and human physiology and the art of surgery. He was one of the first to use ligatures in his experiments on animals. Galen is also known as "The king of the catgut suture"


title: History of surgery

text: Roman medical practices, including surgery, were borrowed from the Greeks, with many Roman surgeons coming from Greece. In the 2nd century CE, Galen, a Greek physician advanced Roman surgical knowledge by combining Greek and Roman medical knowledge. Aulus Cornelius Celsus was another Roman doctor notable for advancing the field of surgery. His work "De Medicina" describes operations such as tonsillectomies and cataract surgery. Alongside these surgeons and doctors, Soranus of Ephesus introduced technology such as the birthing chair. Surgeons were attracted to ancient Rome due to the potential for success and wealth. Doctors learned through private courses from other doctors, their relatives, in the city of Alexandria, or through self-teaching. Charlatans and malpractice were common in ancient Rome, as any individual, regardless of their training or qualifications could practice medicine. This resulted in the general public becoming distrustful of doctors. Higher-quality surgeons often served the upper classes. According to Celsus the perfect surgeon would be a younger man with strong and steady hands, sharp eyes, a strong spirit, and a strong sense of empathy and compassion. Surgery was rare in ancient Rome, it was rare for a patient to recover, and the procedure was dangerous. Most surgical procedures were limited to skin lacerations or amputations.


title: History of surgery

text: Rimini is home to the largest collection of ancient surgerical tools.Domus del Chirurgo or House of surgeon has the largest collection of medical implements ever found in one context.Most of the instruments were made up from iron or bronze and they used organic tools which are made up of wood,bone and leather.Two scalpels also called as ravens were used in opening of scrotum for hernia repair,curved blade were used in tonsilectomy and other small blades are used for eye surgery.Other 40 instruments were used for bone surgeries such as Trepanation and amputation.


title: History of surgery

text: Most of the surgical instruments were used in Pompeii in which some were veterinary instruments.The instruments like chisels,hooks,drills,common pliers,bone forsces, abdominal forsceps etc..It suggest that they also used vaginal speculum which indicates the practice of gynaecology and they also used rectal speculum which is used to examine the rectal speculum of intestine.


title: History of surgery

text: In China, instruments resembling surgical tools have also been found in the archaeological sites of Bronze Age dating from the Shang dynasty, along with seeds likely used for herbalism.


title: History of surgery

text: Hua Tuo (140–208) was a famous Chinese physician during the Eastern Han and Three Kingdoms era. He was the first person to perform surgery with the aid of anesthesia, some 1600 years before the practice was adopted by Europeans. Bian Que (Pien Ch'iao) was a "miracle doctor" described by the Chinese historian Sima Qian in his Shiji who was credited with many skills. Another book, Liezi (Lieh Tzu) describes that Bian Que conducted a two way exchange of hearts between people. This account also credited Bian Que with using general anaesthesia which would place it far before Hua Tuo, but the source in Liezi is questioned and the author may have been compiling stories from other works. Nonetheless, it establishes the concept of heart transplantation back to around 300 CE.


title: History of surgery

text: Trepanation was common among the Inca Surgeons as they are used to treat the head injury of the person who got injured in a combat.This includes removing the scalp tissue and boring the hole in the skull of the patient to allow of reducing of swelling and a draining of fluid.These techniques were so useful that only 17 to 25 percent of Inca patients died compared to 46 to 56 percent during the American civil war.


title: History of surgery

text: Aztecs also used various techniques of surgery ranging from Trepanation to therapeutic arthrocentries and c. They even used tractions and counter traction to reduce fractures and sprains and used splints to immoblize breaks.Aztec Surgeons were even the first to practice intramedullary fixation using wooden pegs as intramedullary rays to reunite the pieces of bone .They also practiced the procedure for therapeutic arthrocentries where human hair and cactus where used as sutures with cactus or bone needle.


title: History of surgery

text: Paul of Aegina's (c. 625 – c. 690 AD) "Pragmateia" or "Compendiem" was highly influential. Abulcasis Al-Zahrawi of the Islamic Golden Age later repeated the material, largely verbatim.


title: History of surgery

text: Hunayn ibn Ishaq (809–873) was an Arab Nestorian Christian physician who translated many Greek medical and scientific texts, including those of Galen, writing the first systematic treatment of ophthalmology. Egypt-born Jewish physician Isaac Israeli ben Solomon (832–892) also left many medical works written in Arabic that were translated and adopted by European universities in the early 13th century.


title: History of surgery

text: The Persian physician Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi (c. 865–925) advanced experimental medicine, pioneering ophthalmology and founding pediatrics. The Persian physician Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (d. 994) worked at the Al-Adudi Hospital in Baghdad, leaving "The Complete Book of the Medical Art", which stressed the need for medical ethics and discussed the anatomy and physiology of the human brain. Persian physician Avicenna (980–1037) wrote "The Canon of Medicine", a synthesis of Greek and Arab medicine that dominated European medicine until the mid-17th century.


title: History of surgery

text: In the 9th century the Medical School of Salerno in southwest Italy was founded, making use of Arabic texts and flourishing through the 13th century.


title: History of surgery

text: Abulcasis (936–1013) (Abu al-Qasim Khalaf ibn al-Abbas Al-Zahrawi) was an Andalusian-Arab physician and scientist who practised in the Zahra suburb of Cordoba. He is considered to be the greatest medieval surgeon, though he added little to Greek surgical practices. His works on surgery were highly influential.


title: History of surgery

text: African-born Italian Benedictine monk (Muslim convert) Constantine the African (died 1099) of Monte Cassino translated many Arabic medical works into Latin.


title: History of surgery

text: Spanish Muslim physician Avenzoar (1094–1162) performed the first tracheotomy on a goat, writing "Book of Simplification on Therapeutics and Diet", which became popular in Europe. Spanish Muslim physician Averroes (1126–1198) was the first to explain the function of the retina and to recognize acquired immunity with smallpox.


title: History of surgery

text: In the late 12th century Rogerius Salernitanus composed his "Chirurgia", laying the foundation for modern Western surgical manuals. Roland of Parma and "Surgery of the Four Masters" were responsible for spreading Roger's work to Italy, France, and England. Roger seems to have been influenced more by the 6th-century Aëtius and Alexander of Tralles, and the 7th-century Paul of Aegina, than by the Arabs. Hugh of Lucca (1150−1257) founded the Bologna School and rejected the theory of "laudable pus".


title: History of surgery

text: In the 13th century in Europe skilled town craftsmen called barber-surgeons performed amputations and set broken bones while suffering lower status than university educated doctors. By 1308 the Worshipful Company of Barbers in London was flourishing. With little or no formal training, they generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a specialty of medicine rather than an accessory field in the 18th-century Age of Enlightenment.


title: History of surgery

text: Guy de Chauliac (1298–1368) was one of the most eminent surgeons of the Middle Ages. His "Chirurgia Magna" or "Great Surgery" (1363) was a standard text for surgeons until well into the seventeenth century."


title: History of surgery

text: In the kingdom of Bunyuro-kitara surgeries like cesarean surgery, cataract surgery were practiced.Firstly they make a precise cut from womens abdomen to the uterus and remove the newborn baby .Bannana alcohol was used as an anesthesia.Bleeding was controlled by a white hot metal rod and the wounds were covered with a soft grass mate,allowing the fluid to drain out of the abdominal cavity .The skin edges were tied together with iron spikes and covered with clean clothes and was removed after 3 to 6 days.Cataract surgery was also performed by using alkaloids plants as anesthesia.


title: History of surgery

text: There were some important advances to the art of surgery during this period. Andreas Vesalius (1514–1564), professor of anatomy at the University of Padua was a pivotal figure in the Renaissance transition from classical medicine and anatomy based on the works of Galen, to an empirical approach of 'hands-on' dissection. His anatomic treatise "De humani corporis fabrica" exposed many anatomical errors in Galen and advocated that all surgeons should train by engaging in practical dissections themselves.


title: History of surgery

text: The second figure of importance in this era was Ambroise Paré (sometimes spelled "Ambrose" (c. 1510 – 1590)), a French army surgeon from the 1530s until his death in 1590. The practice for cauterizing gunshot wounds on the battlefield had been to use boiling oil, an extremely dangerous and painful procedure. Paré began to employ a less irritating emollient, made of egg yolk, rose oil and turpentine. He also described more efficient techniques for the effective ligation of the blood vessels during an amputation. In the same century, Eleno de Céspedes became perhaps the first female surgeon in Spain, and perhaps in Europe.


title: History of surgery

text: Another important early figure was German surgeon Wilhelm Fabry (1540–1634), "the Father of German Surgery", who was the first to recommend amputation above the gangrenous area, and to describe a windlass (twisting stick) tourniquet. His Swiss wife and assistant Marie Colinet (1560–1640) improved the techniques for Caesarean Section, introducing the use of heat for dilating and stimulating the uterus during labor. In 1624 she became the first to use a magnet to remove metal from a patient's eye, although he received the credit.


title: History of surgery

text: The discipline of surgery was put on a sound, scientific footing during the Age of Enlightenment in Europe (1715–89). An important figure in this regard was the Scottish surgical scientist (in London) John Hunter (1728–1793), generally regarded as the father of modern scientific surgery. He brought an empirical and experimental approach to the science and was renowned around Europe for the quality of his research and his written works. Hunter reconstructed surgical knowledge from scratch; refusing to rely on the testimonies of others he conducted his own surgical experiments to determine the truth of the matter. To aid comparative analysis, he built up a collection of over 13,000 specimens of separate organ systems, from the simplest plants and animals to humans.


title: History of surgery

text: Hunter greatly advanced knowledge of venereal disease and introduced many new techniques of surgery, including new methods for repairing damage to the Achilles tendon and a more effective method for applying ligature of the arteries in case of an aneurysm. He was also one of the first to understand the importance of pathology, the danger of the spread of infection and how the problem of inflammation of the wound, bone lesions and even tuberculosis often undid any benefit that was gained from the intervention. He consequently adopted the position that all surgical procedures should be used only as a last resort.


title: History of surgery

text: Hunter's student Benjamin Bell (1749–1806) became the first scientific surgeon in Scotland, advocating the routine use of opium in post-operative recovery, and counseling surgeons to "save skin" to speed healing; his great-grandson Joseph Bell (1837–1911) became the inspiration for Arthur Conan Doyle's literary hero Sherlock Holmes.


title: History of surgery

text: Other important 18th- and early 19th-century surgeons included Percival Pott (1714–1788), who first described tuberculosis of the spine and first demonstrated that a cancer may be caused by an environmental carcinogen after he noticed a connection between chimney sweep's exposure to soot and their high incidence of scrotal cancer. Astley Paston Cooper (1768–1841) first performed a successful ligation of the abdominal aorta. James Syme (1799–1870) pioneered the Symes Amputation for the ankle joint and successfully carried out the first hip disarticulation. Dutch surgeon Antonius Mathijsen invented the Plaster of Paris cast in 1851.


title: History of surgery

text: The European way of modern pain control through anesthesia was discovered in the mid-19th century, however, such practices were common in the 16th century Bunyoro-Kitara kingdom of modern-day Uganda Africa where the Bunyoro physicians used banana wine as an anesthetic agent, therefore, putting the patients into a comatose state before the surgery. Before the advent of anesthesia in Europe, surgery was a traumatically painful procedure and surgeons were encouraged to be as swift as possible to minimize patient suffering. The Bunyoro physician's common use of cesarian section however greatly reduced the painful and deadly danger to the mother thus often leading to full recuperation. Due to this advanced African surgical knowledge not being common around the world because of a platitude of reasons it meant that cesarian operations in Europe were largely restricted to the worst cases.


title: History of surgery

text: Beginning in the 1840s, European surgery began to change dramatically in character with the discovery of effective and practical anesthetic chemicals such as ether, first used by the American surgeon Crawford Long (1815–1878), and chloroform, discovered by James Young Simpson (1811–1870) and later pioneered in England by John Snow (1813–1858), physician to Queen Victoria, who in 1853 administered chloroform to her during childbirth, and in 1854 disproved the miasma theory of contagion by tracing a cholera outbreak in London to an infected water pump. In addition to relieving patient suffering, anaesthesia allowed more intricate operations in the internal regions of the human body. In addition, the discovery of muscle relaxants such as curare allowed for safer applications. American surgeon J. Marion Sims (1813–83) received credit for helping found Gynecology, but later was criticized for failing to use anesthesia on enslaved Black test subjects.


title: History of surgery

text: The introduction of anesthetics encouraged more surgery, which inadvertently caused more dangerous patient post-operative infections. The concept of infection was mostly unknown in Europe until relatively modern times. British medical student, Robert Felkin however learned and later brought knowledge from the 16th century Bunyoro-Kitara kingdoms' medical disinfection practices to Europe, however, due to the prejudices against Africans and their knowledge those medical practices were largely ignored thus resulting in the death of thousands of Europeans. Filkins's travel through the Bunyoro kingdom led him to also witness physicians cleaning women´s abdomen with banana alcohol as well as thoroughly washing their hands and tools with the same solution before the surgeries thus showing these African's knowledge about bacterial infections. The first progress in combating infection in Europe was made in 1847 by the Hungarian doctor Ignaz Semmelweis who noticed that medical students fresh from the dissecting room were causing excess maternal death compared to midwives. Semmelweis, despite ridicule and opposition, introduced compulsory handwashing for everyone entering the maternal wards and was rewarded with a plunge in maternal and fetal deaths, however the Royal Society dismissed his advice.


title: History of surgery

text: Until the pioneering work of British surgeon Joseph Lister in the 1860s, most medical men in Europe believed that chemical damage from exposures to bad air (see "miasma") was responsible for infections in wounds, and facilities for washing hands or a patient's wounds were not available. Lister became aware of the work of French chemist and microbiology pioneer, Louis Pasteur, who showed that rotting and fermentation could occur under anaerobic conditions if micro-organisms were present. Pasteur suggested three methods to eliminate the micro-organisms responsible for gangrene: filtration, exposure to heat, or exposure to chemical solutions. Lister confirmed Pasteur's conclusions with his own experiments and decided to use his findings to develop antiseptic techniques for wounds. As the first two methods suggested by Pasteur were inappropriate for the treatment of human tissue, Lister experimented with the third, spraying carbolic acid on his instruments. He found that this remarkably reduced the incidence of gangrene and he published his results in "The Lancet". Later, on 9 August 1867, he read a paper before the British Medical Association in Dublin, on the "Antiseptic Principle of the Practice of Surgery", which was reprinted in the "British Medical Journal". His work was groundbreaking and laid the foundations for a rapid advance in infection control that saw modern antiseptic operating theatres widely used within 50 years.


title: History of surgery

text: Lister continued to develop improved methods of antisepsis and asepsis when he realised that infection could be better avoided by preventing bacteria from getting into wounds in the first place. This led to the rise of sterile surgery. Lister instructed surgeons under his responsibility to wear clean gloves and wash their hands in 5% carbolic solution before and after operations, and had surgical instruments washed in the same solution. He also introduced the steam steriliser to sterilize equipment. His discoveries paved the way for a dramatic expansion to the capabilities of the surgeon; for his contributions he is often regarded as the father of modern surgery. These three crucial advances - the adoption of a scientific methodology toward surgical operations, the use of anaesthetic and the introduction of sterilised equipment - laid the groundwork for the modern invasive surgical techniques of today.