title: Matt Bentley

text: Bentley joined TNA in 2003. He competed in the X Division, quickly winning the X Division Championship in the first ever Ultimate X match. Later in 2003, Bentley formed a stable with Shane Douglas and Traci known as "The New Franchise". In January 2004 he lost the title to Chris Sabin in Ultimate X2. The New Franchise disbanded in April 2004 when Bentley turned on Douglas. Traci ended up staying with Bentley as a valet. In June, A.J. Styles returned to the X Division and won the championship from Kazarian. In an effort to eliminate Styles from the X Division, Bentley and Traci formed a tag team with Kazarian (informally known by the portmanteau of their last names, Shazarian). On July 28, 2004, Bentley and Kazarian defeated Styles in an Ultimate X match when they both pulled down the championship. Surprisingly, the duo was declared co-champions, a first for the X-Division Championship. They lost the title in a Gauntlet for the Gold match two weeks later. Shazarian split up in early 2005 when Kazarian left TNA and signed with WWE.


title: Matt Bentley

text: Traci quietly left Bentley in 2005 to become an assistant for TNA Director of Authority Dusty Rhodes, and later joined with Chris Sabin. In turn, Trinity became Bentley's valet. At Hard Justice, however, in a match between Bentley and Trinity and Sabin and Traci, Bentley and Traci turned on their partners and reunited. In July 2005, Bentley was forced to refrain from using the "Michael Shane" alias, which he had used for his entire career, following threats of legal action from World Wrestling Entertainment, the employers of Mike Shane, who had trademarked his name, something which Bentley had neglected to do. After going simply by the name Michael, Bentley decided to go by his real name. All TNA DVD releases featuring matches with Bentley as "Michael Shane" have had the on-screen graphics altered and commentary completely replaced to reflect the name change. One such DVD is the pay-per-view Lockdown (2005), included in the "TNA Anthology: The Epic Set" box set, in which you can still see the name "Michael Shane" on the entrance video playing in the background when he makes his entrance.


title: Matt Bentley

text: After a disappearance from television due to contract renegotiations and a few matches in the X Division, Bentley and Traci turned into fan favorites, largely because of the crowd, which was doing the "Bentley Bounce" at the time. On a February 2006 edition of "Xplosion", Bentley and his partner Lance Hoyt had some miscommunication during their tag team against The Diamonds in the Rough. After the match, Bentley snapped and attacked Hoyt, thus turning him into a villain. The next week on "Impact!" in an interview Bentley announced he was a "Maverick", and thus became "Maverick Matt". He continued feuding with Hoyt, and lost to him at Destination X. He would then wrestle a few more matches, most being 6-man tag team matches, losing every time. Bentley did not appear on TNA television for the next four months. He returned on the July 20 edition of "Impact!", teaming with former partner Frankie Kazarian, who had returned earlier in the week, in a loss against The Naturals. Traci did not return with Bentley, instead becoming Ms. Brooks, Robert Roode's new valet.


title: Matt Bentley

text: On the October 26 edition of "Impact!", Bentley appeared in the "Raven's Perch" section of the Impact Zone bleachers, debuting a goth look. Weeks later, Bentley and Kazarian, along with Johnny Devine, formed the stable Serotonin, with Raven as their leader. As part of the new group Bentley's name was changed to Martyr, who along with Kaz and Havok (Devine) portrayed a strange rocker type look and would not win a lot of matches - as a matter of fact, even if they won, Raven would come out, make them get on their knees and beat them with a Kendo stick (as part of a system dubbed "torture breeds success"). In August 2007, Bentley's TNA contract expired and was not renewed.


title: Matt Bentley

text: On April 4, 2008, Bentley made an appearance on "Friday Night SmackDown" in a squash match, losing to the debuting Vladimir Kozlov. Following his WWE appearance, Bentley temporarily left wrestling in order to create a band named "Lost in Chaos" with his friends. They are currently located in Orlando and participating in numerous gigs. The band was nominated for Florida's Best Band on a local rock station website in 2009.


title: Matt Bentley

text: On June 27, 2011, Bentley made a one night return to TNA at the tapings of the June 30 edition of "Impact Wrestling", losing an opportunity at earning a TNA contract when Low Ki pinned Jimmy Yang in a three–way first round match of an X-Division tournament, where the winner of the tournament would receive a TNA contract. On January 12, 2013, Bentley took part in the taping of TNA's One Night Only: X-Travaganza special (aired on April 5, 2013), competing in a seven-man Xscape match, which was won by Christian York.


title: Matt Bentley

text: On September 5, 2015, Bentley made his Global Force Wrestling debut defeating Kevin Matthews and Mark Sterling in a three-Way match as part of the GFW Grand Slam Tour.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: Dauwalter was raised in Hopkins, Minnesota and competed in track, cross-country, and nordic skiing in high school. She was a four-time Minnesota state champion in nordic skiing during her high school career. She attended the University of Denver on a cross-country skiing scholarship, and then earned a master's degree in teaching from the University of Mississippi in 2010 while participating in the Mississippi Teacher Corps.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: Dauwalter worked as a middle and high-school teacher in the Denver area before becoming a full-time professional runner in 2017.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: In 2016, Dauwalter set a course record at the Javelina Jundred 100K and won the Run Rabbit Run 100-mile race, finishing 75 minutes ahead of second place. She also won the 2017 Run Rabbit Run while battling temporary blindness when running the final 12 miles.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: Dauwalter won the 2017 edition of the Moab 240 race in 2 days, 9 hours, and 59 minutes, finishing first overall and beating the second-place finisher by more than 10 hours.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: In 2018, Dauwalter won the Western States Endurance Run, a 100-mile race, with a finishing time of 17h27m. This was the second-fastest time by a woman in the race. Dauwalter competed in the Big's Backyard Ultra in 2018, finishing second overall and completing a total of 67 laps, setting the women's course record at 279.268 miles. She also placed second in the Tahoe 200, beating the previous women's course record by over 18 hours.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: Dauwalter was named Ultra Runner of the Year in 2018 by Ultrarunning Magazine after winning 9 of the 12 races that she entered, including two where she finished first overall.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: In 2019, Dauwalter won the Ultra-Trail du Mont-Blanc in a time of 24 h 34 min 26 sec, coming in 21st overall. She also competed in the 2019 edition of the Western states, but dropped after 77 miles. Dauwalter competed for the United States at the IAU 24 Hour World Championship in Brive-la-Gaillarde, France in October 2019, finishing 12th.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: In 2020, Dauwalter won the American section of Big Dog's Ultra. She ran 68 laps for 283.3 miles for a finish time of 56 hours, 52 minutes, and 29 seconds. She set the record for the longest distance recorded by a female runner in the race.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: Dauwalter is sponsored by Salomon. She is known for wearing looser shirts and baggy basketball-style shorts while running, which is uncommon among elite ultramarathoners.


title: Courtney Dauwalter

text: In 2020, Dauwalter received the George Mallory Award for pushing the boundaries of physical human achievement.


title: Nature reserve

text: A nature reserve (also known as a wildlife refuge, wildlife sanctuary, biosphere reserve or bioreserve, natural or nature preserve, or nature conservation area) is a protected area of importance for flora, fauna, or features of geological or other special interest, which is reserved and managed for purposes of conservation and to provide special opportunities for study or research. They may be designated by government institutions in some countries, or by private landowners, such as charities and research institutions. Nature reserves fall into different IUCN categories depending on the level of protection afforded by local laws. Normally it is more strictly protected than a nature park. Various jurisdictions may use other terminology, such as ecological protection area or private protected area in legislation and in official titles of the reserves.


title: Nature reserve

text: Cultural practices that roughly equate to the establishment and maintenance of reserved areas for animals date back to antiquity, with King Tissa of Ceylon establishing one of the world's earliest wildlife sanctuaries in the 3rd century BC. Early reservations often had a religious underpinning, such as the 'evil forest' areas of West Africa which were forbidden to humans, who were threatened with spiritual attack if they went there. Sacred areas taboo from human entry to fishing and hunting are known by many ancient cultures worldwide.


title: Nature reserve

text: The world's first modern nature reserve was established in 1821 by the naturalist and explorer Charles Waterton around his estate in Walton Hall, West Yorkshire. He spent £9000 on the construction of a three-mile long, 9 ft tall wall to enclose his park against poachers. He tried to encourage bird life by planting trees and hollowing out trunks for owls to nest in.


title: Nature reserve

text: Waterton invented artificial nest boxes to house starlings, western jackdaws and sand martins; and unsuccessfully attempted to introduce little owls from Italy. Waterton allowed local people access to his reserve and was described by David Attenborough as "one of the first people anywhere to recognise not only that the natural world was of great importance but that it needed protection as humanity made more and more demands on it".


title: Nature reserve

text: Drachenfels (Siebengebirge) was protected as the first state-designated nature reserve in modern-day Germany; the site was bought by the Prussian State in 1836 to protect it from further quarrying.


title: Nature reserve

text: The first major nature reserve was Yellowstone National Park in Wyoming, United States, followed by the Royal National Park near Sydney, Australia and the Barguzin Nature Reserve of Imperial Russia, the first of "zapovedniks" set up by a federal government entirely for the scientific study of nature.


title: Nature reserve

text: There are several national and international organizations that oversee the numerous non-profit animal sanctuaries and refuges in order to provide a general system for sanctuaries to follow. Among them, the American Sanctuary Association monitors and aids in various facilities to care for exotic wildlife. The number of sanctuaries has substantially increased over the past few years.


title: Nature reserve

text: In Australia, a nature reserve is the title of a type of protected area used in the jurisdictions of the Australian Capital Territory, New South Wales, Tasmania and Western Australia. The term "nature reserve" is defined in the relevant statutes used in those states and territories rather than by a single national statute. As of 2016, 1767 out of a total of 11044 protected areas listed within the Australian National Reserve System used the term "nature reserve" in their names.


title: Nature reserve

text: In Brazil, nature reserves are classified by the National System of Conservation Units as ecological stations () or biological reserves (). Their main objectives are preserving fauna and flora and other natural attributes, excluding direct human interference. Visits are allowed only with permission, and only for educational or scientific purposes. Changes to the ecosystems in both types of reserve are allowed to restore and preserve the natural balance, biological diversity and natural ecological processes. Ecological stations are also allowed to change the environment within strictly defined limits (e.g. affecting no more than three percent of the area or , whichever is less) for the purpose of scientific research.


title: Nature reserve

text: A wildlife reserve in Brazil is also protected, and hunting is not allowed, but products and by-products from research may be sold.


title: Nature reserve

text: Wildlife refuges in Brazil have as their objective the protection of natural flora and fauna where conditions are assured for the existence and reproduction of species or communities of the local flora and the resident or migratory fauna. The refuges can consist of privately owned land, as long as the objectives of the unit are compatible with the landowners' usage of the land and natural resources. Public visits are subject to the conditions and restrictions established by the management plan of the unit and are subject to authorisation by and regulations of the main administrative and scientific research body.


title: Nature reserve

text: In Canada, UNESCO has recognized 18 nature reserves, mostly along the Niagara Escarpment and St. Lawrence River in Ontario.


title: Nature reserve

text: Federally, Canada recognizes 55 National Wildlife Areas across the country, containing species of ecological significance. The relevant Ministry is known as Environment and Climate Change Canada, which protects these areas under legislation known as the Canada Wildlife Act. The areas comprise approximately of habitat, half of which is marine habitat, for the purpose of conservation and research.


title: Nature reserve

text: Many conservation groups protect nature reserves in Canada as well, including Nature Conservancy Canada, Ducks Unlimited, and Escarpment Biosphere Conservancy. These charities operate to protect wilderness on privately owned lands, including through Canada's Ecological Gifts Program.


title: Nature reserve

text: There are 30 nature reserves in Egypt which cover 12% of Egyptian land. Those nature reserves were built according to the laws no. 102/1983 and 4/1994 for protection of the Egyptian nature reserve. Egypt announced a plan from to build 40 nature reserves from 1997 to 2017, to help protect the natural resources and the culture and history of those areas. The largest nature reserve in Egypt is Gebel Elba () in the southeast, on the Red Sea coast.


title: Nature reserve

text: Denmark has three national parks and several nature reserves, some of them inside the national park areas. The largest single reserve is Hanstholm Nature Reserve, which covers and is part of Thy National Park.


title: Nature reserve

text: In Sweden, there are 30 national parks. The first of them was established in 1909. In fact, Sweden was the first European country that established 9 national parks. There are almost 4,000 nature reserves in Sweden. They comprise about 85% of the surface that is protected by the Swedish Environmental Code.


title: Nature reserve

text: In Estonia, there are 5 national parks, more than 100 nature reserves, and around 130 landscape protection areas. The largest nature reserve in Estonia is Alam-Pedja Nature Reserve, which covers .


title: Nature reserve

text: In 1995 Germany had 5,314 nature reserves () covering , the largest total areas being in Bavaria with and Lower Saxony with .


title: Nature reserve

text: In Hungary, there are 10 national parks, more than 15 nature reserves and more than 250 protected areas.


title: Nature reserve

text: Hortobágy National Park is the largest continuous natural grassland in Europe and the oldest national park in Hungary. It is situated on the eastern part of Hungary, on the plain of the Alföld. It was established in 1972. There are alkaline grasslands interrupted by marshes. They have a sizable importance because there are the fishponds. One of the most spectacular sights of the park is the autumn migration of cranes. Some famous Hungarian animal species live in Hortobágy National Park, such as the grey cattle, racka long-wool sheep living only in Hungary, Hungarian horses and buffalo. Hortobágy National Park has been a UNESCO World Heritage Site since 1 December 1999.


title: Nature reserve

text: Nature reserves are one of the 11 types of protected areas in Portugal. As of 2012, Portugal had a total of 46 protected areas, which represented of land and of marine surfaces. Among the protected areas, nine are classified as nature reserve ().


title: Nature reserve

text: About 5.18% of the area of Romania has a protected status (), including the Danube Delta, which makes up half of this area (2.43% of Romania's total area).


title: Nature reserve

text: There are 15 National Parks, and around 90 Natural Parks in Spain. Spain is the country with the most sites listed in the World Network of Biosphere Reserves.


title: Nature reserve

text: The Swiss National Park, created in 1914, was one of the earliest national parks in Europe. In addition to the Swiss National Park, Switzerland also has sixteen regional nature parks.


title: Nature reserve

text: The environmental organization Pro Natura takes care of about 650 nature reserves of various sizes throughout Switzerland ().


title: Nature reserve

text: The biosphere reserves of Iran has a total land area of 1.64 million km. The "reserves" support more than 8,000 recorded species of plants (almost 2,421 are endemic), 502 species of birds, 164 species of mammals, 209 species of reptiles, and 375 species of butterflies.


title: Nature reserve

text: India's 18 biospheres extend over a total of and protect larger areas than typical national parks in other countries. The first national reserve of India was established in 1986.


title: Nature reserve

text: Israel's national parks are declared historic sites or nature reserves, which are mostly operated and maintained by the National Nature and Parks Authority. As of 2019, Israel maintains more than 490 nature reserves that protect 2,500 species of indigenous wild plants, 20 species of fish, 530 species of birds and 70 species of mammals. In total, they cover of nature reserves, approximately 28% of the country's land area. In 1984, the two areas with the highest number of nature reserves were the South (15.2%) and Samaria (the Shomron, 13.5%).


title: Nature reserve

text: Under the Nature Conservation Law, places can be designated as 'wilderness areas', 'nature conservation areas' and 'prefectural nature conservation areas'. In 1995, when the Japanese Government published its information in English, there were 5 wildernesses, 10 nature conservation areas and 516 prefectural nature conservation areas.


title: Nature reserve

text: There are seven nature reserves in Jordan. In 1966 the organization that would later start Jordan's nature reserves, the Royal Society for the Conservation of Nature, was founded. RSCN's first efforts involved bringing back severely endangered species. In 1973, RSCN was given the right to issue hunting licenses, giving RSCN an upper hand in preventing extinction. The first step was the founding of Jordan's first nature reserve, Shaumari Wildlife Reserve, in 1975. The primary purpose was to create means to breed endangered species, specifically: the Arabian oryx, gazelles, ostriches, and Persian onagers in their natural environment.


title: Nature reserve

text: By the end of 2009 there were 10 nature reserves (, ) in Kyrgyzstan covering or about three percent of the total area of the country.


title: Nature reserve

text: New Zealand has a variety of types of reserve, including national parks, various types of conservation areas (including stewardship land that is yet to be officially classified), and seven specific types of "reserve", each of which prioritize various degrees of protection to different amenities such as scenery, recreation, flora and fauna, scientific value, or history. Land is often sub-categorised beneath its general classification, as defined in law between the "Reserves Act of 1977", the "National Parks Act of 1980", and the "Conservation Act of 1987". Under these classifications, the Department of Conservation administers more than —nearly 30% of the nation's total area—with at least some degree of protection. This land is composed of 14 National Parks, 30 Conservation Parks, and approximately 8,900 discrete areas of land in total.


title: Nature reserve

text: Although the most public land is strongly protected for natural preservation, the term "nature reserve" is specifically defined in the Reserves Act to mean a reserve that prioritizes the protection of rare flora and fauna, to the extent that public access is by permit only. Some of these reserves include Ecological Islands, a comparatively new concept in wildlife preservation, pioneered in New Zealand to help rebuild the populations of nearly extinct birds, and other species that are heavily threatened by introduced predators.


title: Nature reserve

text: In Nicaragua, the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources (MARENA) is in charge of environmental protection and of the study, planning, and management of Nicaragua's natural resources. Nearly one-fifth of the territory is designated as protected areas like national parks, nature reserves (including the Bosawás Biosphere Reserve), and biological reserves. Nicaragua has 78 protected areas that cover , about 17.3% of the nation's landmass. Private nature reserves exist with land excluded from private land trusts and maintained at the sole cost of the proprietor. For example, O Parks, WildLife, and Recreation, Or El_Ostional Private Wildlife Reserve, was established within the Mesoamerican Biological Corridor by retired FDNY firefighter Kevin Michael Shea, who purchased of land for the purpose of restoring the ecological system of a dry tropical forest, ravaged during the Nicaraguan Revolution. The park provides a private nature reserve, wildlife corridor and verified carbon credits.


title: Nature reserve

text: There are around 100 nature reserves (, "zapovednik") in Russia, covering some , or about 1.4% of the country's total area. A few of them predate the October Revolution of 1917, but most have been created during the Soviet Union era. There are also natural protected areas where only certain species are protected, or only certain activities are prohibited; those are known as "zakaznik" ().


title: Nature reserve

text: Unofficial sanctuaries can also occur as a result of human accidents; the Chernobyl Exclusion Zone has in practice become a wildlife refuge since very few people live in the area. Wildlife has flourished in the zone since the Chernobyl nuclear accident in 1986.


title: Nature reserve

text: South Africa is well known for its many nature reserves. The oldest nature reserve in the country (and oldest conservation area in the world) is the Groenkloof Nature Reserve that was established in 1892 in the capital city Pretoria in the old South African Republic and current Republic of South Africa. The country has many national parks but the best-known is the Kruger National Park, which was announced in 1898, and is the largest, at nearly . The Kruger Park and Table Mountain National Park are two of South Africa's most visited tourist attractions. South Africa also has a number of World Heritage Sites and provincial game reserves including Shamwari, Londolozi, Sanbona and Lalibela. The country currently has 20 national parks covering , about 3% of the total area of South Africa.


title: Nature reserve

text: The area around Mihintale, Sri Lanka, was a sanctuary for wildlife, probably the first of its generation in the ancient world. According to stone inscriptions found in the vicinity, the king commanded the people not to harm animals or destroy trees within the area.


title: Nature reserve

text: There are 4 biosphere reserves (two of them are dated 1927 and 1874) and 17 nature reserves in Ukraine, covering . Ukraine administers 40 national parks, 2632 habitat management areas, 3025 nature monuments, and 1430 other preservations.


title: Nature reserve

text: There are some differences between the regulations for England, Northern Ireland, Scotland and Wales, which are separately managed.


title: Nature reserve

text: At the end of March 2004, there were 215 national nature reserves in England with a total area of . The reserves are scattered through England, from Lindisfarne in Northumberland to The Lizard in Cornwall. Nearly every rural county has at least one. Many national nature reserves contain nationally important populations of rare flowers, ferns and mosses, butterflies and other insects, and nesting and wintering birds. Examples include unique alpine plants at Upper Teesdale and the field of snake's head fritillaries at North Meadow, Cricklade, Wiltshire.


title: Nature reserve

text: There are now over 1,050 local nature reserves in England. They range from windswept coastal headlands, ancient woodlands and flower-rich meadows to former inner-city railways, long-abandoned landfill sites and industrial areas now re-colonized by wildlife. In total, they cover almost —an impressive natural resource which makes an important contribution to England's biodiversity. A good example is Rye Harbour Nature Reserve in East Sussex, where a network of footpaths enables visitors to explore shingle, saltmarsh, saline lagoon, reedbed, and grazing marsh habitats.


title: Nature reserve

text: Through the Natural Heritage (Scotland) Act 1991 the Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) was established in 1992 as a government body, responsible to the Scottish Government Ministers and through them to the Scottish Parliament. At 31 March 2008, there were 65 Scottish national nature reserves with a total area of approximately . Section 21 of the National Parks and Access to the Countryside Act 1949 gives local authorities the exclusive statutory power to establish a local nature reserve in consultation with the SNH.


title: Nature reserve

text: In the United States, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, managed by the Secretary of the Interior, is responsible for managing many of the federal nature reserves including the National Wildlife Refuge System. The National Wildlife Refuge System includes areas administered for the protection and conservation of fish and wildlife that are threatened with extinction, as well as wildlife ranges, game ranges, wildlife management areas, and waterfowl production areas.


title: Nature reserve

text: The first North American wildlife refuge, Lake Merritt Wildlife sanctuary at Lake Merritt, was established by Samuel Merritt and enacted in California state law in 1870 as the first government owned refuge. The first federally owned refuge in the United States is Pelican Island National Wildlife Refuge and was established by Theodore Roosevelt in 1903 as part of his Square Deal campaign to improve the country. At the time, setting aside land for wildlife was not a constitutional right of the president. In 2006, a bi-partisan group of US House of Representatives members established the Congressional Wildlife Refuge Caucus to further support the needs of the National Wildlife Refuge System in Congress.


title: Nature reserve

text: There are also state-level administered State Nature Reserves found throughout the country, as well as smaller reserves operated by local governments, private trusts, or even funded through public donations. Private nature reserves also exist, with land excluded from private land trusts and maintained at the sole cost of the proprietor, such as the Wilbur Hot Springs.


title: Asher

text: Asher ( "’Āšēr"), in the Book of Genesis, was the last of the two sons of Jacob and Zilpah (Jacob's eighth son) and the founder of the Israelite Tribe of Asher.


title: Asher

text: The text of the Torah states that the name of "Asher" means "happy" or "blessing", implying a derivation from the Hebrew term "osher" in two variations—"beoshri" (meaning "in my good fortune"), and "ishsheruni", which some textual scholars who embrace the JEDP hypothesis attribute to different sources—one to the Yahwist and the other to the Elohist. The Bible states that at his birth Leah exclaimed, "Happy am I! for the daughters will call me happy: so she called his name Asher", meaning "happy" (Genesis 30:13). Some scholars argue that the name of "Asher" may have to do with a deity originally worshipped by the tribe, either Asherah, or Ashur, the chief Assyrian deity; the latter possibility is cognate with Asher.


title: Asher

text: Asher and his four sons and daughter settled in Canaan. On his deathbed, Jacob blesses Asher by saying that "his bread shall be fat, and he shall yield royal dainties" (Gen. 49:20).


title: Asher

text: Moses said of Asher: "May Asher be blessed above other sons; may he be esteemed by his brothers; may he bathe his feet in olive oil." (Deuteronomy 33:24).


title: Asher

text: Asher is represented as the younger brother of Gad; these two being the sons of Zilpah, the handmaid of Leah (Genesis 35:26). The Biblical account shows Zilpah's status as a handmaid change to an actual wife of Jacob (Genesis 30:9). Her handmaid status is regarded by some biblical scholars as indicating that the authors saw the tribe of Asher as being not of entirely Israelite origin; scholars believe that Asher consisted of certain clans affiliated with portions of the Israelite tribal confederation, but which were never incorporated into the body politic.


title: Asher

text: The Torah states that Asher had four sons and one daughter, who were born in Canaan and migrated with him to Egypt, with their descendants remaining there until the Exodus; this seems to be partly contradicted by Egyptian records (assuming a late Exodus date), according to which a group named "Aseru", a name from which Asher is probably derived, were, in the 14th century BC, living in a similar region to Asher's traditional territory, in Canaan.


title: Asher

text: Asher's daughter, Serah (also transliterated as Serach), is the only granddaughter of Jacob mentioned in the Torah (Gen. 46:17).


title: Asher

text: Her mother is not named. According to classical rabbinical literature, Serach's mother was named "Hadurah", and was a descendant of Eber. Although Hadurah was a wife of Asher, it was her second marriage, and Serach's father was actually Hadurah's first husband, who had died. In classical rabbinical literature, Hadurah's marriage to Asher was his second marriage as well, his first having been to "Adon", who was a descendant of Ishmael. The Book of Jubilees contradicts this, arguing instead that Asher's wife was named "Ijon" (which probably means "dove").


title: Asher

text: Asher was the very one whose endeavor it had always been to reconcile the brothers, especially when they disputed as to who among them was destined to be the ancestor of the priests (Sifre, Deut. 355). In the Test. Patr., Asher, 5, Asher is regarded as the example of a virtuous man who with singlemindedness strives only for the general good. According to classical rabbinical literature, Asher had informed his brothers about Reuben's incest with Bilhah. As a result Asher came to be on bad terms with his brothers. Once Reuben confessed, the brothers realised they had been unjust towards Asher. Asher's motivation is described, by classical rabbinical sources, as being entirely innocent of evil intent, and always in search of harmony between his brothers.


title: Asher

text: Asher was born on 20 Shevat 2199 (1562 BCE). According to some accounts 2 Shevat is the date of his death.


title: Asher

text: Asher married twice. His first wife was Adon, a great-granddaughter of Ishmael; his second, Hadurah, a granddaughter of Eber and a widow. By her first marriage Hadurah had a daughter Serah, whom Asher treated as affectionately as if she had been of his own flesh and blood, so that the Bible itself speaks of Serah as Asher's daughter. According to the Book of Jubilees (34:20), Asher's wife was named "Iyon" (probably, "dove").


title: Asher

text: Asher's descendants in more than one regard deserved their name ("Asher" meaning "happiness"). The tribe of Asher was the one most blessed with male children; and its women were so beautiful that priests and princes sought them in marriage. The abundance of oil in the land possessed by Asher so enriched the tribe that none of them needed to hire a habitation. The soil was so fertile that in times of scarcity, and especially in the Sabbatical year, Asher provided all Israel with olive-oil. The Asherites were also renowned for wisdom.


title: Asher

text: A number of scholars have proposed that the tribe of Asher actually originated as the Weshesh group of Sea Peoples—the name "Weshesh" (or rather "Uashesh"/"Ueshesh"—for easy pronunciation, this is usually transcribed into English as "Weshesh") can be decomposed as "men of Uash" in Hebrew, and hence possibly a corruption of "Asher".


title: Asher

text: A Samaritan tradition recorded in the late 19th century considered Neby Toba near Tubas to be the burial place of Asher.


title: Harley-Davidson Milwaukee-Eight engine

text: The Harley-Davidson Milwaukee-Eight engine is the ninth generation of "big twin" engines developed by the company, but only Harley's third all-new Big Twin in 80 years, first introduced in 2016. These engines differ from the traditional Harley Big Twin engines in that there are four valves per cylinder, totaling eight valves, hence the name. It also marked a return to the single-camshaft configuration as used on previous Harley Big Twin Engines from 1936 to 1999. In addition, the engines all have internal counterbalancers, whereas Twin Cams were counterbalanced only on Softail models, where the engine was rigidly mounted.


title: Harley-Davidson Milwaukee-Eight engine

text: All engines have eight valves in two cylinders in the traditional V-twin configuration at 45°, are combination of air-cooled and oil-cooled, and activate valves with push-rods. The model with a claimed is standard on all models, with the version making a claimed remaining as an option on some softails and all touring and trike models, and the is standard on CVO models with a claimed and rear wheel power of @ 4,870 rpm and @ 3,400 rpm.


title: Harley-Davidson Milwaukee-Eight engine

text: In 2016, the Milwaukee-Eight engines became available on Touring and Trike models of the 2017 model year. The Softail models started using the Milwaukee-Eight the following year. The most significant change from the Twin Cam are the two extra valves per cylinder head which produce 10 percent more torque. The exhaust and intake flow capacity is increased by 50 percent over the Twin Cam models. Although weighing the same as its predecessor, both models of the Milwaukee-Eight increase in acceleration by 10% (0-60 for the 107 vs the 103) and 8% (0-60 for the 114 vs. the 110). Fuel economy is also increased, with percentages varying for engine and model.


title: Harley-Davidson Milwaukee-Eight engine

text: Harley conducted interviews in seven cities; over 1,000 people were asked to outline what they would like to see in the next line of touring bikes. These interviews resulted in the new Milwaukee-Eight engine. The biggest improvements people wanted to see were more power, less heat, and less vibration. Harley was able to increase the power while also keeping the range and consumption similar and in some cases making it even better. To deal with the heat issue, Harley reduced the exhaust gas temperature by 100°F (55.6 C), allowing for a more comfortable ride. They were able to make this possible by relocating the hot catalytic converters further from the cockpit, as well as introducing a better water cooling solution. Finally, Harley looked at the vibration issues and decided to reduce the vibrations by 75%, in order to affect a balance between hardcore fans and new Harley owners.


title: Harley-Davidson Milwaukee-Eight engine

text: "Cycle World", like many other motorcycle magazines, was given the opportunity to test ride and review the Milwaukee-Eight engine. The reviews have been positive, and report a better ride quality, while still keeping the Harley feel. Cycle World's reviewer reported a noticeable reduction in the heat output from the engine, enabling the reviewer to ride more comfortably. The review concludes that the changes make this engine an improvement over its predecessor.


title: Tsarskoye Selo

text: Tsarskoye Selo (, "Tsar's Village") was the town containing a former residence of the Russian imperial family and visiting nobility, located south from the center of Saint Petersburg. The residence now forms part of the town of Pushkin. Tsarskoye Selo forms one of the World Heritage Site Saint Petersburg and Related Groups of Monuments.


title: Tsarskoye Selo

text: The town bore the name Tsarskoe Selo until 1918, Detskoe Selo () between in the years 1918–1937, then Pushkin () from 1937 onwards.


title: Tsarskoye Selo

text: The area of Tsarskoye Selo, once part of Swedish Ingria, first became a Russian royal/imperial residence in the early 18th century as an estate of the Empress-consort Catherine (later Empress-regnant as Catherine I, ), from whom the Catherine Palace takes its name. The Alexander Palace (built from 1792 onwards) originated as the home of Catherine the Great's grandson, the Grand Duke Alexander Pavlovich, who later became Emperor Alexander I (). After his abdication, Nicholas II and his family, were under house arrest here until 13 August 1917.


title: Tsarskoye Selo

text: The Royal Forestry School, perhaps the first such school in Russia, was founded in Tsarskoye Selo in 1803; it was moved to Saint Petersburg in 1811, to become the Imperial Forestry Institute.


title: Tsarskoye Selo

text: According to Robert K. Massie, "Tsarskoe Selo was a magnificent symbol, a supreme gesture, of the Russian autocracy. At the edge of the great St. Petersburg plain, fifteen miles south of the capital, a succession of Russian tsars and empresses had created an isolated, miniature world, as artificial and fantastic as a precisely ordered mechanical toy. Inside the park, monuments, obelisks and triumphal arches studded eight hundred acres of velvet green lawn. An artificial lake, big enough for small sailboats, could be emptied and filled like a bathtub. At one end of the lake stood a pink Turkish bath; not far off, a dazzling red-and-gold Chinese pagoda crowned an artificial hillock." The two palaces stood five hundred yards apart in the Imperial Park. "Outside the palace gates, Tsarskoe Selo, was an elegant provincial town..." The town included "The mansions of the aristocracy, lining the wide tree-shaded boulevard which led from the railway station to the gates of the Imperial Park..."


title: Tsarskoye Selo

text: In the Soviet Union the nickname "the Tsar's village" came to apply to blocks and small neighborhoods that housed the nomenklatura (Soviet elites). Their stores were better stocked, although they were still affected by Soviet-era shortages. The buildings in the neighborhoods were better designed, constructed and maintained.


title: Tsarskoye Selo

text: One such neighborhood, west of Moscow, contained less industry and more parks than any other neighborhood.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: Magnolia champaca, known in English as champak (), is a large evergreen tree in the family Magnoliaceae. It was previously classified as Michelia champaca. It is known for its fragrant flowers, and its timber used in woodworking.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: Other vernacular names in English include joy perfume tree, yellow jade orchid tree and fragrant Himalayan champaca.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: The tree is native to the Indomalayan realm, consisting of South Asia, Southeast Asia−Indochina, and southern China.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: It is found in Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests ecoregions, at elevations of . It is native to Maldives, Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Nepal, Thailand, and Vietnam. In China it is native to southern Xizang and southern and southwestern Yunnan Provinces. In 2021, an isolated, presumably native population of "M. champaca" was identified in Yemen, making "M. champaca" the only species in the Magnoliaceae known to inhabit the Arabian Peninsula.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: In its native range "Magnolia champaca" grows to or taller. Its trunk can be up to in diameter. The tree has a narrow umbelliform crown.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: It has strongly fragrant flowers in varying shades of cream to yellow-orange which bloom during June to September. The obovoid-ellipsoid carpels produce 2−4 seeds during September to October.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: In Thailand, there are other purported hybrids cultivated with other species, including with "Magnolia liliifera" and "Magnolia coco".


title: Magnolia champaca

text: In Theravada Buddhism, champaca is said to have been used as the tree for achieving enlightenment, or Bodhi, by the fourteenth Buddha called "Aththadassi - අත්ථදස්සි". According to Tibetan beliefs, the Buddha of the next era will find enlightenment under the white flower canopy of the champaca tree.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: The flowers are used in South Asia for several purposes. Especially in India, they are primarily used for worship at temples, whether at home or out, and more generally worn in hair by girls and women as a means of beauty ornament as well as a natural perfume. Flowers are floated in bowls of water to scent the room, as a fragrant decoration for bridal beds, and for garlands.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: ""Magnolia champaca," however, is more rare and has a strong perfume, and is not that commonly or plentifully used - for example in hair it is worn singly or as a small corsage but rarely as a whole garland, and for bridal beds it is most often jasmine and roses while for bowls of water to be placed around rooms usually other, more colourful for visual decoration and less strongly perfumed flowers are used."


title: Magnolia champaca

text: The tree was traditionally used to make fragrant hair and massage oils. Jean Patou’s famous perfume, 'Joy', the second best selling perfume in the world after Chanel No. 5, is derived in part from the essential oils of champaca flowers. The vernacular name "Joy perfume tree" comes from this. Many niche perfumers are now once again using Champaca Absolute as single note fragrances.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: The scent similar to the scent of this plant is said to emit by a civet in Sri Lanka, "Paradoxurus montanus". Because all the other civets are known to emit very unpleasant odours, this species is renowned to emit pleasant odour similar to this plant's scent.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: In its native India and Southeast Asia, champaca is logged for its valuable timber. It has a finely textured, dark brown and olive-colored wood, which is used in furniture making, construction, and cabinetry.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: The species is protected from logging in some states of India, especially in the Southwestern region, where certain groves are considered sacred by Hindus and Buddhists.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: "Magnolia champaca" is cultivated by specialty plant nurseries as an ornamental plant, for its form as an ornamental tree, as a dense screening hedge, and for its fragrant flowers. It is planted in the ground in tropical and in subtropical climate gardens, such as in coastal Southern and Central California. It is planted in containers in cooler temperate climates. It requires full sun and regular watering.


title: Magnolia champaca

text: The fragrant flowers attract butterflies and hummingbirds. Its aril-covered seeds are highly attractive to birds.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Vanessa Fisk (née Marianna) is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. She is married to the crime boss the Kingpin (Wilson Fisk) and is the mother of Richard Fisk, although she herself is not portrayed as a villain, and does not approve of her husband's criminal activities. Vanessa has been featured in a number of stories about the Kingpin, usually in those revolving around the superheroes Daredevil and Spider-Man.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: She has appeared in several media adaptations, including the series "Daredevil" (set in the Marvel Cinematic Universe) in which she was portrayed by Ayelet Zurer, and the 2018 animated film "" in which she was voiced by Lake Bell.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Created by writer Stan Lee and artist John Romita Sr., Fisk first appeared in "The Amazing Spider-Man" #70 (March 1969).


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Little is known about Fisk's personal life and early years other than her maiden name "Marianna". Despite being married to Wilson Fisk, the "Kingpin" of New York's criminal underworld, she did not approve of his criminal activities. At one point their son Richard Fisk became involved in a plot to overthrow his father's criminal syndicate after discovering he was the Kingpin.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: After the Kingpin had a near-death experience, Vanessa gave him an ultimatum; he had twenty-four hours to get out of crime, or she would leave him. The Kingpin was about to kill Spider-Man when the deadline passed, and Vanessa forced him to choose between Spider-Man's life or their life together. He chose Vanessa and spared Spider-Man as a result.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: The two went into retirement in Japan. Kingpin prepared to settle his remaining business with his fellow mobsters by cooperating with the authorities and leaving the world of crime forever. This infuriated one of Kingpin's closest advisors, Lynch, who believed that Vanessa was a liability and had turned the once mighty Kingpin into a henpecked husband. When Kingpin's former lieutenants in New York caught wind of his plans to sell them out in exchange for immunity, they kidnapped Vanessa, who was in town to secure the legal services of Matt Murdock and Foggy Nelson.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Kingpin started a gang war against the mob in New York to rescue Vanessa. The mob bosses attempted to ransom Vanessa in exchange for the evidence against them Kingpin had intended to turn over to the authorities, but during the exchange, Kingpin used a sonic device to stop the criminals, and found Vanessa bound and gagged in a building. However, Lynch fired an explosive at Vanessa, in an attempt to deprive Kingpin of the thing that kept him retired and bring him back as the Kingpin of Crime. She was buried alive in the rubble and presumed dead, although she did not actually die. As planned, this drove Kingpin back into the world of crime, although he found out Lynch was behind the explosion, partially due to a headache he gained, and took revenge by murdering him. He then forced the remaining mob leaders to confess to hiring the assassin Bullseye to kill several of Kingpin's men.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Weeks later, Matt Murdock's alter ego, Daredevil, found Vanessa in the sewers. Being buried alive had left Vanessa amnesiac and mentally unstable, and she ended up taken in by a mutant who lived in the sewers. Daredevil ultimately used her as leverage to force Kingpin to order his puppet Randolph Cherryh, newly elected to the office of Mayor, to resign and to confirm to the media that he was indeed a mob puppet. After reuniting with her Kingpin had Vanessa, now-catatonic, sent to a sanitarium in Europe to have her regain her sanity. This would take years, and Kingpin's organized crime empire would fall and be rebuilt during the period that Vanessa was institutionalized.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Ultimately Vanessa recovered, and she remained in Europe. When Kingpin was the victim of an assassination attempt orchestrated by her son, Vanessa arranged for Kingpin to be shipped out of the country to recover from his injuries, and cut a deal with his fellow mob bosses to divide up his recently rebuilt crime syndicate in exchange for a truce. Vanessa then murdered her son, who admitted to Vanessa that his motivation was to rid the family of his father, who he blamed for his family's troubles.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Murdering her son had a physical toll on Vanessa, causing her to lose the will to live, which along with the injuries she sustained when she was buried alive, resulted in terminal organ failure. Blaming both Kingpin and Murdock, who had recently been revealed to be Daredevil, for the cycle of violence that had consumed her family, Vanessa faked the death of Foggy in an attempt to provoke Murdock into killing Kingpin while they were both in prison. When that failed, she manipulated the superhero Iron Fist into posing as Daredevil, which ultimately drove Murdock to break out of prison to find Foggy's murderer and the identity of the man impersonating him, culminating in her confronting Murdock with an offer to clear his name in exchange for him clearing Kingpin, so they would be free to try and kill each other anew.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Though Daredevil refused this deal, Vanessa went ahead and arranged for the murder of Leland Drummond, the corrupt FBI director who outed Matt in order to advance his own career within the FBI. To discredit his outing of Daredevil, the murder was made to look like a suicide and a false suicide note was planted at the scene, claiming that Drummond took his own life after it became apparent that his scheme to frame Matt Murdock was about to be exposed. Shortly afterwards, Vanessa died and Murdock was guilted into serving as the Kingpin's lawyer, getting the charges dropped on the grounds that the evidence was too tainted to bring him to court. Daredevil forced the crime boss to renounce his American citizenship and leave the country forever in exchange for his legal services, stating that any attempt to continue their vendetta would be an insult to the memory of Vanessa.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Kingpin is later seen at her grave where he breaks down emotionally. She has since been talking to him as a ghostly vision taunting him that he will never regain his former glory, an indication that her death still greatly affects him.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: The Arbiters bring Vanessa back as a revenant as a part of a test intended to gauge the Kingpin's worth as the head of the Hand. Reluctant to combat her, Fisk tries to appeal to whatever humanity that she may still have left in her, and kills her when she still flings her weapons at him, unaware that she was aiming at the assassin approaching him from behind.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: The Jackal "reanimates" Vanessa in an attempt to coerce the Kingpin into allying with him in "". The Kingpin responds by killing Vanessa while declaring, "That wasn't my wife. That was an abomination".


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: After Mayor Fisk starts planning to have Peter Parker killed, as he is the roommate of Fred Myers who is blackmailing him, the mysterious undead entity Kindred appears in his cabinet. He kills Fisk's associates using supernatural abilities and forces him to back off Parker after revealing he is in possession of Vanessa's soul.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Mayor Fisk planned to revive Vanessa by obtaining the Tablet of Life and Destiny and its sister counterpart the Tablet of Death and Entropy. Upon getting his hands on both tablets, Fisk uses its abilities to revive Richard Fisk as Kingpin realized that Vanessa would not be pleased with her resurrection. He did this as an act of redemption for Vanessa and even himself.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: In the Marvel/DC crossover book " #1", Vanessa is infected with terminal cancer by Ra's al Ghul, who offers the Kingpin the cure for it in exchange for his help in a plot that will destroy New York. Disgruntled under Ra's, the Kingpin forms an alliance with Spider-Man and Batman and succeeds in defeating Ra's, only to be denied the cure for Vanessa's cancer by the beaten eco-terrorist. Vanessa is cured near the end of the storyline by an antidote provided by Ra's al Ghul's daughter Talia al Ghul, who recognizes Vanessa as a kindred spirit, as both of them loved men that society would regard as monsters.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: In the alternate universe of "Marvel Zombies 3", it is revealed that she was not infected or eaten when the zombies took over the world, but has been secretly kept alive by the zombified Kingpin, who is able to control his hunger for human flesh when she is around, but when the Kingpin's clone factory is destroyed by Machine Man and Jocasta, he consumes Vanessa.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Vanessa Fisk appears as an important background character in "Ultimate Spider-Man". The Kingpin seeks the Tablet of Time, as it alleged to have powers that Kingpin hopes may awaken Vanessa from a coma, but it is stolen by the Black Cat. Later, after Kingpin sets fire to Daredevil's law office, Daredevil breaks into his home and threatens to murder the comatose Vanessa, but is stopped by Spider-Man. Kingpin orders Vanessa to be taken out of the country before he is arrested himself over the attempted murder of Moon Knight.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: In the "Punisher Max" series, set in Marvel's MAX universe, Vanessa is married to the Kingpin, but their marriage collapses as Wilson Fisk's takeover of the mob causes the death of their eight-year-old son Richard. Vanessa blames Wilson for not preventing Richard's death, and after she attempts unsuccessfully to kill him for this, he evicts her from their home. Later, in order to protect himself from the Punisher, Kingpin hires Elektra as a bodyguard. It is revealed that Elektra was actually hired by Vanessa, who is plotting the Kingpin's downfall, and that the two women are lovers. After the Kingpin is killed by the Punisher in issue #21, Vanessa has his body cremated and flushes his ashes down a toilet. She appears ready to take charge of her husband's former empire, as her chauffeur calls her "Madam Kingpin", but in issue #22, she is ambushed and killed by Nick Fury.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Vanessa Fisk appears in "", voiced by Lake Bell. This version never knew about her husband's criminal activities, until she and Richard Fisk witnessed him fighting Spider-Man, and fled in horror. While driving away, Vanessa and Richard were hit by an oncoming truck and killed. This motivated Wilson to create a particle accelerator in order to find alternate versions of his family in other universes.


title: Vanessa Fisk

text: Vanessa Fisk appears in the novel "Spider-Man: Forever Young", written by Stefan Petrucha. She is featured in a retelling of the "Tablet" storyline that introduced the villain Silvermane. The novel is set two years after the events of the original storyline, with Vanessa approaching Spider-Man to help her steal the Tablet from Silvermane so that she can use it to cure her husband - currently in a trauma-induced coma - offering in return to use her family's resources to assist a seriously ill May Parker (aware that Peter Parker and Spider-Man are connected without knowing that they are the same man). However, Vanessa later abandons the idea of using the tablet after witnessing what it has done to Silvermane, who is constantly aging back and forth from childhood to old age due to the mystical powers of the Tablet. Nevertheless, she covers May's medical bills as agreed, leaving a message for Peter explaining that he lived up to his end of their arrangement, and acknowledges that he is not at fault that the nature of the Tablet meant that it was far too risky to use its power on her husband.


title: Transfinite number

text: In mathematics, transfinite numbers are numbers that are "infinite" in the sense that they are larger than all finite numbers, yet not necessarily absolutely infinite. These include the transfinite cardinals, which are cardinal numbers used to quantify the size of infinite sets, and the transfinite ordinals, which are ordinal numbers used to provide an ordering of infinite sets. The term "transfinite" was coined by Georg Cantor in 1895, who wished to avoid some of the implications of the word "infinite" in connection with these objects, which were, nevertheless, not "finite". Few contemporary writers share these qualms; it is now accepted usage to refer to transfinite cardinals and ordinals as infinite numbers. Nevertheless, the term "transfinite" also remains in use.


title: Transfinite number

text: Any finite natural number can be used in at least two ways: as an ordinal and as a cardinal. Cardinal numbers specify the size of sets (e.g., a bag of five marbles), whereas ordinal numbers specify the order of a member within an ordered set (e.g., "the third man from the left" or "the twenty-seventh day of January"). When extended to transfinite numbers, these two concepts become distinct. A transfinite cardinal number is used to describe the size of an infinitely large set, while a transfinite ordinal is used to describe the location within an infinitely large set that is ordered. The most notable ordinal and cardinal numbers are, respectively:


title: Transfinite number

text: The continuum hypothesis is the proposition that there are no intermediate cardinal numbers between formula_4 and the cardinality of the continuum (the cardinality of the set of real numbers): or equivalently that formula_5 is the cardinality of the set of real numbers. In Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, neither the continuum hypothesis nor its negation can be proven.


title: Transfinite number

text: Some authors, including P. Suppes and J. Rubin, use the term "transfinite cardinal" to refer to the cardinality of a Dedekind-infinite set in contexts where this may not be equivalent to "infinite cardinal"; that is, in contexts where the axiom of countable choice is not assumed or is not known to hold. Given this definition, the following are all equivalent:


title: Transfinite number

text: Although transfinite ordinals and cardinals both generalize only the natural numbers, other systems of numbers, including the hyperreal numbers and surreal numbers, provide generalizations of the real numbers.


title: Transfinite number

text: In Cantor's theory of ordinal numbers, every integer number must have a successor. The next integer after all the regular ones, that is the first infinite integer, is named formula_1. In this context, formula_15 is larger than formula_1, and formula_17, formula_18 and formula_19 are larger still. Arithmetic expressions containing formula_1 specify an ordinal number, and can be thought of as the set of all integers up to that number. A given number generally has multiple expressions that represent it, however, there is a unique Cantor normal form that represents it, essentially a finite sequence of digits that give coefficients of descending powers of formula_1.


title: Transfinite number

text: Not all infinite integers can be represented by a Cantor normal form however, and the first one that cannot is given by the limit formula_22 and is termed formula_23. formula_23 is the smallest solution to formula_25, and the following solutions formula_26 give larger ordinals still, and can be followed until one reaches the limit formula_27, which is the first solution to formula_28. This means that in order to be able to specify all transfinite integers, one must think up an infinite sequence of names: because if one were to specify a single largest integer, one would then always be able to mention its larger successor. But as noted by Cantor, even this only allows one to reach the lowest class of transfinite numbers: those whose size of sets correspond to the cardinal number formula_29.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: Peter Edward Clarke (born 21 August 1957), known professionally as Budgie, is an English drummer best known as the drummer in Siouxsie and the Banshees. He is also the co-founder of the Creatures.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: He was the drummer of the Slits in 1979. He was then a member of the band Siouxsie and the Banshees from 1979 to 1996. Budgie worked with other musicians including John Cale, Leonard Eto (formerly of the Kodo Drummers), John Grant and Anohni with Hercules and Love Affair.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: "Spin" rated him at No. 28 in their list of "The 100 Greatest Drummers of Alternative Music", writing: "Post-punk introduced a lot of amazing drummers, but none more influential than Budgie. With the Banshees, Budgie didn't just play rhythms—he played hooks and leads, brilliant parts that set the songs on fire. His tom-tom-intensive approach, [was] enlightened by his awareness of world music". "Spin" considered his "most booming moment" to be "Into the Light", from 1981's "Juju", saying: "Budgie drums up a marvel of kinetic syncopation and invention".


title: Budgie (musician)

text: Stewart Copeland of the Police described Budgie's playing as "very economical and offbeat", adding, "Budgie didn’t play your standard hi-hat–kick–snare; there were a lot of tom-toms and a big throb." Ari Up of the Slits felt that he was "a very sensitive drummer", saying, "He could go from reggae to punk to funk to jazz [...] but still very steady." "NME" readers voted Budgie the best drummer of 1983. Music journalist David Cavanagh commented that "Terry Chambers was, along with Budgie of Siouxsie and the Banshees, the outstanding English drummer of the post-punk era". Ian McCulloch said that Echo & the Bunnymen's drummer "Pete de Freitas loved his drumming", and Larry Mullen Junior of U2 dubbed him "one


title: Budgie (musician)

text: Budgie grew up in St Helens in the north west of England. He then lived in Liverpool in the 1970s, studying at an art school while being part of the local music scene. He rehearsed with other musicians at Eric's Club when there was no concert billed for the evening. He debuted as a drummer with the Spitfire Boys and Big in Japan before playing with the Slits on the 1979 album "Cut". Years later in 2010, Slits singer Ari Up commented:


title: Budgie (musician)

text: In September 1979, he joined Siouxsie and the Banshees on their "Join Hands" tour. Initially he was intended to be a temporary replacement for Kenny Morris, who had left the band two days into a tour, but Budgie remained with the group. He first performed with renowned guitarist John McGeoch on the album "Kaleidoscope": Budgie became a permanent member of the band until they split up in 1996. He released nine studio albums with the Banshees.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: In 1981, he formed a second group with Siouxsie Sioux, named the Creatures. Their music was based more on drums and percussion, with marimba and vibraphone. The 1981 "Wild Things" EP and 1983 full-length "Feast" were their first releases.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: On subsequent Creatures albums, Budgie also played keyboards, guitars and harmonica. He conceived brass arrangements with Peter Thoms on 1983 single "Right Now" and 1989's "Boomerang" album. Budgie married Siouxsie in May 1991. Within the Banshees, he wrote the lyrics of several songs, including "She's Cuckoo", "Silver Waterfalls", "Staring Back", "Sick Child", "Hang Me High" and "Return" (the latter was co-written with Siouxsie). For the Creatures, he wrote the lyrics for several "Boomerang"-era songs, including "Willow", "Morriña" and "Pluto Drive" (the latter was co-written with Siouxsie).


title: Budgie (musician)

text: In August 2002, Budgie first collaborated with Japanese taiko player Leonard Eto (formerly of the Kodo Drummers), recording spontaneous drum-duet improvisations in Tokyo for the fourth Creatures album, "Hái!". The drum performances were then edited, and the rest of the sessions took place in France. Budgie was the sound engineer of the album, and he mixed it near Toulouse before its release in 2003. After recording four studio albums as the Creatures, Budgie's final performance with Siouxsie (featuring Eto and the Millennia Ensemble) was filmed in 2004 at the Royal Festival Hall in London for the DVD "Dreamshow". This was Budgie's last concert and collaboration with Siouxsie; in 2007, the pair publicly announced their divorce.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: Outside the Banshees and Creatures, Budgie played drums and harmonica for a Annie Hogan song called "Vixo", featuring Nick Cave on lead vocals which was recorded in October 1983: the track was released in 1985 on the 12" inch vinyl "Annie Hogan – Plays Kickabye". Budgie also worked with Indigo Girls in 1992 on "Rites of Passage", and briefly toured with them in the US at the end of that year. In 1994, Budgie recorded percussion on Hector Zazou's "Chansons des mers froides", including a song for Jane Siberry. He later played drums for former Velvet Underground member John Cale on a US 1998 tour with The Creatures. Budgie played two sets each night, one with Cale and one with The Creatures. In 2009, he toured Europe with Juno Reactor and moved to Berlin. Later that year, he also recorded drums for Jessie Evans' "Is It Fire?" album.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: In 2010, he teamed up with two other drummers, Eto and Mabi, plus multi-instrumentalist Knox Chandler and guitarist Sugizo, for a programme called "The Butterfly Effect: East-West Percussive Parade." It was described as a "drumming extravaganza, featuring Western kit, Japanese taiko and African drums, that will launch the musicians into a new sonic galaxy!". The programme's world première took place in Hong Kong in November 2010 as part of the New Vision Arts Festival. "The Butterfly Effect" featured improvised solos and ensemble works as well as new pieces and arrangements specially created for the festival, inspired by the pace, rhythm and character of Hong Kong.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: He served as the drummer for Efterklang on their worldwide tour in 2012. They were accompanied by an orchestra. The premiere at the Opera House in Sydney was praised by "Time Out". His last concert with Efterklang took place in Brussels in November. A live album, recorded in Copenhagen, was later issued.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: Budgie and Eto performed live material from "Hái!" in Tokyo, 11 years after conceiving the drum parts in that city. The concert took place at the Studio Coast as part of Juno Reactor's set. He also played drums for CocoRosie at several shows.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: He played drums on John Grant's third solo album, 2015's "Grey Tickles, Black Pressure", playing in November with Grant on the accompanying tour. He performed again with Grant in the UK in 2015 at the latter's March concerts. That year, he also played with tabla player Talvin Singh for the first time since their collaboration on the Siouxsie and the Banshees' 1991-92 "Superstition" tour: Singh and Budgie gave a one-off performance at the "100 Years of Beat" festival in Berlin. In 2020, he played drums for American singer Thomas Truax. He recorded percussion for Peaches for her cover version of Marc Bolan's "Solid Gold Easy Action" in 2020.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: In October 2021, Budgie and Lol Tolhurst launched the "Curious Creatures" podcast, in which they talk about "post punk’s enduring legacy and contemporary relevance". The second season of the "Curious Creatures" podcast started in March 2022, with a new episode uploaded every week.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: On a suggestion of Anohni who admired the percussion work on the Creatures' records, Budgie contributed to Hercules and Love Affair's album "In Amber": they contacted him "to derail some of the arrangements for more impact". "In Amber" was released in June 2022 on vinyl. The lead single "Poisonous Storytelling" featured a collaboration of Budgie with Anohni on lead vocal.


title: Budgie (musician)

text: Budgie has remarried and he is the father of two children: a daughter born in 2012 and a son born in 2014.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: TRAPPIST-1e, also designated as 2MASS J23062928-0502285 e, is a rocky, close-to-Earth-sized exoplanet orbiting within the habitable zone around the ultracool dwarf star TRAPPIST-1 approximately away from Earth in the constellation of Aquarius. Astronomers found the exoplanet by using the transit method, in which the dimming effect that a planet causes as it crosses in front of its star is measured.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: The exoplanet was one of seven new exoplanets discovered orbiting the star using observations from the Spitzer Space Telescope. Three of the seven ("e", "f", and "g") are in the habitable zone. TRAPPIST-1e is similar to Earth's mass, radius, density, gravity, temperature, and stellar flux. It is also confirmed to not have a cloud-free hydrogen-dominated atmosphere, meaning it is more likely to have a compact atmosphere like the terrestrial planets in our solar system.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: In November 2018, researchers determined that of the seven exoplanets in the multi-planetary system, TRAPPIST-1e has the best chance of being an Earth-like ocean planet, and the one most worthy of further study regarding habitability. Furthermore, according to the Habitable Exoplanets Catalog, TRAPPIST-1e is one of the most potentially habitable exoplanets discovered.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: TRAPPIST-1e was detected with the transit method, where the planet blocked a small percentage of its host star's light when passing between it and Earth. This allowed scientists to accurately determine the planet's radius at 0.910 , with a small uncertainty of about . Transit-timing variations and advanced computer simulations helped constrain the planet's mass, which turned out to be 0.772 , or about 5% less massive than Venus. With both the radius and mass of TRAPPIST-1e determined with low error margins, scientists could accurately calculate the planet's density, surface gravity, and composition. TRAPPIST-1e is unusual in its system as it is the only planet with a pure rock-iron composition, and the only one with a higher density than Earth (TRAPPIST-1c also appears to be entirely rock, but it has a thick atmosphere that makes it less dense than TRAPPIST-1e). It has a density of 5.65 g/cm, about 1.024 times Earth's density of 5.51 g/cm. The higher density of TRAPPIST-1e implies an Earth-like composition and a solid rocky surface. This is also unusual among the TRAPPIST-1 planets, as most are completely covered in either a thick steam/hot CO atmosphere, a global liquid ocean, or an ice shell. TRAPPIST-1e has 93% the surface gravity of Earth, the second highest in the system. Its radius and mass are also the third least among the TRAPPIST-1 planets.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: The planet has a calculated equilibrium temperature of given an albedo of 0, also known as its "blackbody" temperature. For a more realistic Earth-like albedo however, this provides an unrealistic picture of the surface temperature of the planet. Earth's equilibrium temperature is 255 K; it is Earth's greenhouse gases that raise its surface temperatures to the levels we experience. If TRAPPIST-1e has a thick atmosphere, its surface could be much warmer than its equilibrium temperature.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: The planet orbits an (late M-type) ultracool dwarf star named TRAPPIST-1. The star has a mass of 0.089 – near the boundary between a brown dwarf and low-mass star – and a radius of 0.121 . It has a temperature of and is 7.6 billion years old. In comparison, the Sun is 4.6 billion years old and has a temperature of . The star is metal-rich, with a metallicity ([Fe/H]) of 0.04, or 109% the solar amount. This is particularly odd as such low-mass stars near the boundary between brown dwarfs and hydrogen-fusing stars should be expected to have considerably less metal content than the Sun. Its luminosity () is 0.0522% of that of the Sun.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: The star's apparent magnitude, or how bright it appears from Earth's perspective, is 18.8. Therefore, it is far too dim to be seen with the naked eye.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: TRAPPIST-1e orbits its host star quite closely. One full revolution around TRAPPIST-1 takes only 6.099 Earth days (~146 hours) to complete. It orbits at a distance of , or just under 3% the separation between Earth and the Sun. For comparison, the closest planet in our Solar System, Mercury, takes 88 days to orbit the Sun at a distance of . Despite its close proximity to its host star, TRAPPIST-1e gets only about 60% the starlight that Earth gets from the Sun due to the low luminosity of its star. The star would cover an angular diameter of about 2.17 degrees from the surface of the planet, and would appear about four times larger than the Sun does from Earth.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: TRAPPIST-1e is confirmed to not have a cloud-free hydrogen-dominated atmosphere, meaning it is more likely to have a compact, hydrogen-free atmosphere like those of our Solar System's rocky planets, further raising the chances of habitability. Hydrogen is a powerful greenhouse gas, so if there was enough to be easily detected, it would mean that the surface of TRAPPIST-1e would be inhospitable. Since such an atmosphere is not present, it raises the chances for the planet to have a more Earth-like atmosphere instead. However, no atmosphere has been detected, and it is still possible that the planet has no atmosphere at all. Additionally, no helium emission from TRAPPIST-1e was detected .


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: The exoplanet was announced to be orbiting within the habitable zone of its parent star, the region where, with the correct conditions and atmospheric properties, liquid water may exist on the surface of the planet. TRAPPIST-1e has a radius of around 0.91 , so it is likely a rocky planet. Its host star is a red ultracool dwarf, with only about 8% of the mass of the Sun (close to the boundary between brown dwarfs and hydrogen-fusing stars). As a result, stars like TRAPPIST-1 have the potential to remain stable for up to 12 trillion years, which is over 1,000 times longer than the Sun. Because of this ability to live for such a long period of time, it is likely TRAPPIST-1 will be one of the last remaining stars in the Universe, when the gas needed to form new stars will be exhausted, and the existing stars begin to die off.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: Despite being likely tidally locked – meaning one hemisphere permanently faces the star while the other does not – which may reduce the habitability of the planet, more detailed studies of TRAPPIST-1e and the other TRAPPIST-1 planets released in 2018 determined that the planet is one of the most Earth-sized worlds found, with 91% the radius, 77% the mass, 102.4% the density (5.65 g/cm), and 93% the surface gravity. TRAPPIST-1e is confirmed to be a terrestrial planet with a solid, rocky surface. It is cool enough for liquid water to pool on the surface, but not too cold for it to freeze like on TRAPPIST-1f, g, and h.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: The planet receives a stellar flux 60.4% that of Earth, about a third lower than that of Earth but significantly more than that of Mars. Its equilibrium temperature ranges from to , depending on how much light the planet reflects into space. Both of these are between those of Earth and Mars as well. In addition, its atmosphere is confirmed to not be dense or thick enough to harm the habitability potential as well, according to models by the University of Washington. The atmosphere, if it is strong enough, may also help to transfer additional heat to the dark side of the planet.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: As it is one of the most promising potentially habitable exoplanets known, TRAPPIST-1e will be an early target of the James Webb Space Telescope in a research program led by Nikole Lewis. Launched on 25 December 2021, the telescope will allow more extensive analysis of the planet's atmosphere, facilitating the search for any chemical signs of life, or biosignatures.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: A team of astronomers headed by Michaël Gillon used the TRAPPIST (Transiting Planets and Planetesimals Small Telescope) telescope at the La Silla Observatory in the Atacama desert, Chile, to observe TRAPPIST-1 and search for orbiting planets. By utilising transit photometry, they discovered three Earth-sized planets orbiting the dwarf star; the innermost two are tidally locked to their host star while the outermost appears to lie either within the system's habitable zone or just outside of it. The team made their observations from September–December 2015 and published its findings in the May 2016 issue of the journal "Nature.


title: TRAPPIST-1e

text: The original claim and presumed size of the planet was revised when the full seven-planet system was revealed in 2017:


title: Seigniorage

text: Seigniorage , also spelled seignorage or seigneurage (from the Old French "seigneuriage", "right of the lord ("seigneur") to mint money"), is the difference between the value of money and the cost to produce and distribute it. The term can be applied in two ways:


title: Seigniorage

text: "Monetary seigniorage" is where sovereign-issued securities are exchanged for newly printed banknotes by a central bank, allowing the sovereign to "borrow" without needing to repay. Monetary seigniorage is sovereign revenue obtained through routine debt monetization, including expansion of the money supply during GDP growth and meeting yearly inflation targets.


title: Seigniorage

text: Seigniorage can be a convenient source of revenue for a government. By providing the government with increased purchasing power at the expense of public purchasing power, it imposes what is metaphorically known as an inflation tax on the public.


title: Seigniorage

text: Seigniorage is the positive return, or carry, on issued notes and coins (money in circulation). Demurrage, the opposite, is the cost of holding currency.


title: Seigniorage

text: An example of an exchange of gold for "paper" where no seigniorage occurs is when a person has one ounce of gold, trades it for a government-issued gold certificate (providing for redemption in one ounce of gold), keeps that certificate for a year, and redeems it in gold. That person began with and ends up with exactly one ounce of gold.


title: Seigniorage

text: In another scenario, instead of issuing gold certificates a government converts gold into non-gold standard based currency at the market rate by printing paper notes. A person exchanges one ounce of gold for its value in currency, keeps the currency for one year, and exchanges it for an amount of gold at the new market value. If the value of the currency relative to gold has changed in the interim, the second exchange will yield more (or less) than one ounce of gold (assuming that the value, or purchasing power, of one ounce of gold remains constant through the year). If the value of the currency relative to gold has decreased, the person receives less than one ounce of gold and seigniorage occurred. If the value of the currency relative to gold has increased, the person receives more than one ounce of gold and demurrage occurred; seigniorage did not occur.


title: Seigniorage

text: Ordinarily, seigniorage is an interest-free loan (of gold, for example) to the issuer of the coin or banknote. When the currency is worn out the issuer buys it back at face value, balancing the revenue received when it was put into circulation without any additional amount for the interest value of what the issuer received.


title: Seigniorage

text: Historically, seigniorage was the profit resulting from producing coins. Silver and gold were mixed with base metals to make durable coins. The British pound sterling was 92.5 percent silver; the base metal added (and the pure silver retained by the government mint) was, less costs, the profit – the seigniorage. Before 1933, United States gold coins were 90 percent gold and 10 percent copper. To make up for the lack of gold, the coins were over-weighted. A one-ounce Gold American Eagle will have as much of the alloy as needed to contain a total of one ounce of gold (which will be over one ounce). Seigniorage is earned by selling the coins above the melt value in exchange for guaranteeing the weight of the coin.


title: Seigniorage

text: Under the rules governing the monetary operations of major central banks (including the Federal Reserve), seigniorage on banknotes is the interest payments received by central banks on the total amount of currency issued. This usually takes the form of interest payments on treasury bonds purchased by central banks, putting more money into circulation. If the currency is collected, or is otherwise taken permanently out of circulation, the currency is never returned to the central bank; the issuer of the currency keeps the seigniorage profit by not having to buy back worn-out currency at face value.


title: Seigniorage

text: The solvency constraint of a standard central bank requires that the present discounted value of its net non-monetary liabilities (separate from monetary liabilities accrued through seigniorage attempts) be zero or negative in the long run. Its monetary liabilities are liabilities in name only, since they are irredeemable. The holder of base money cannot insist on the redemption of a given amount into anything other than the same amount of itself, unless the holder of the base money is another central bank reclaiming the value of its original interest-free loan.


title: Seigniorage

text: Economists regard seigniorage as a form of inflation tax, returning resources to the currency issuer. Issuing new currency, rather than collecting taxes paid with existing money, is considered a tax on holders of existing currency. Inflation of the money supply causes a general rise in prices, due to the currency's reduced purchasing power.


title: Seigniorage

text: This is a reason offered in support of free banking, a gold or silver standard, or (at a minimum) the reduction of political control of central banks, which could then ensure currency stability by controlling monetary expansion (limiting inflation). Hard-money advocates argue that central banks have failed to attain a stable currency. Orthodox economists counter that deflation is difficult to control once it sets in, and its effects are more damaging than modest, consistent inflation.


title: Seigniorage

text: Banks (or governments) relying heavily on seigniorage and fractional reserve sources of revenue may find them counterproductive. Rational expectations of inflation take into account a bank's seigniorage strategy, and inflationary expectations can maintain high inflation. Instead of accruing seigniorage from fiat money and credit, most governments opt to raise revenue primarily through formal taxation and other means


title: Seigniorage

text: The 50 State Quarters series of quarters (25-cent coins) began in 1999. The U.S. government thought that many people, collecting each new quarter as it rolled out of the United States Mint, would remove the coins from circulation. Each complete set of quarters (the 50 states, the five inhabited U.S. territories, and the District of Columbia) is worth $14.00. Since it costs the mint about five cents to produce one quarter, the government made a profit when someone collected a coin. The Treasury Department estimates that it earned about $6.3 billion in seigniorage from the quarters during the program.


title: Seigniorage

text: Some countries' national mints report the amount of seigniorage provided to their governments; the Royal Canadian Mint reported that in 2006 it generated $93 million in seigniorage for the government of Canada. The U.S. government, the largest beneficiary of seigniorage, earned about $25 billion in 2000. For coins only, the U.S. Treasury received 45 cents per dollar issued in seigniorage for the 2011 fiscal year.


title: Seigniorage

text: Occasionally, central banks have issued limited quantities of higher-value banknotes in unusual denominations for collecting; the denomination will usually coincide with an anniversary of national significance. The potential seigniorage from such printings has been limited, since the unusual denomination makes the notes more difficult to circulate and only a relatively-small number of people collect higher-value notes.


title: Seigniorage

text: Over half of Zimbabwe's government revenue in 2008 was reportedly seigniorage. The country has experienced hyperinflation ever since, with an annualized rate of about 24,000 percent in July 2008 (prices doubling every 46 days).


title: Seigniorage

text: The international circulation of banknotes is a profitable form of seigniorage. Although the cost of printing banknotes is minimal, the foreign entity must provide goods and services at the note's face value. The banknote is retained as a store of value, since the entity values it more than the local currency. Foreign circulation generally involves large-value banknotes, and can be used for private transactions (some of which are illegal).


title: Seigniorage

text: American currency has been circulating globally for most of the 20th century, and the amount of currency in circulation increased several-fold during World War II. Large-scale printing of the United States one-hundred-dollar bill began when the Soviet Union dissolved in 1991; production quadrupled, with the first trillion-dollar printing of the bill. At the end of 2008, U.S. currency in public circulation amounted to $824 billion and 76 percent of the currency supply was in the form of $100 bills (twenty $100 bills per U.S. citizen). The amount of U.S. currency circulating abroad is controversial. According to Porter and Judson, 53 to 67 percent was overseas during the mid-1990s. Feige estimates that about 40 percent is abroad. In a New York Federal Reserve publication, Goldberg writes that "about 65 percent ($580 billion) of all banknotes are in circulation outside of the country". These figures are largely contradicted by Federal Reserve Board of Governors Flow of Funds statistics, which indicate that $313 billion (36.7 percent) of U.S. currency was held abroad at the end of March 2009. Feige calculates that since 1964, "the cumulative seigniorage earnings accruing to the U.S. by virtue of the currency held by foreigners amounted to $167–$185 billion and over the past two decades seigniorage revenues from foreigners have averaged $6–$7 billion dollars per year".


title: Seigniorage

text: The American $100 bill has competition from the €500 note, which facilitates the transport of larger amounts of money. One million dollars in $100 bills weighs 22 pounds (10 kg), and it is difficult to carry this much money without a briefcase and physical security. The same amount in €500 notes would weigh less than three pounds (1.4 kg), which could be dispersed in clothing and luggage without attracting attention or alerting security devices. In illegal operations, transporting currency is logistically more difficult than transporting cocaine because of its size and weight, and the ease of transporting its banknotes makes the euro attractive to Latin American drug cartels.


title: Seigniorage

text: The Swiss 1,000-franc note, worth slightly more than $1,000, is probably the only other banknote in circulation outside its home country. However, it does not have a significant advantage over the €500 note to the non-Swiss; there are 20 times as many €500 notes in circulation, and they are more widely recognized. As a reserve currency, it makes up about 0.1% of the currency composition of official foreign-exchange reserves.


title: Seigniorage

text: Governments vary in their issuance of large banknotes; in August 2009, the number of Fr. 1,000 notes in circulation was over three times the population of Switzerland. For comparison, the number of circulating £50 banknotes is slightly less than three times the population of the United Kingdom; the Fr. 1,000 franc note is worth about £600. The British government has been wary of large banknotes since the counterfeiting Operation Bernhard during World War II, which caused the Bank of England to withdraw all notes larger than £5 from circulation. The bank did not reintroduce other denominations until the early 1960s (£10), 1970 (£20) and March 20, 1981 (£50).


title: Nano-

text: Nano (symbol n) is a unit prefix meaning "one billionth". Used primarily with the metric system, this prefix denotes a factor of 10 or . It is frequently encountered in science and electronics for prefixing units of time and length.


title: Nano-

text: The prefix derives from the Greek (Latin ), meaning "dwarf". The General Conference on Weights and Measures (CGPM) officially endorsed the usage of "nano" as a standard prefix in 1960.


title: Nano-

text: When used as a prefix for something other than a unit of measure (as for example in words like "nanoscience"), nano refers to nanotechnology, or means "on a scale of nanometres" (nanoscale).


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: The Jacksons: An American Dream is a five-hour American miniseries broadcast in two halves on ABC and originally broadcast on November 15 through November 18, 1992. It is based upon the history of the Jackson family, one of the most successful musical families in show business, and the early and successful years of the popular Motown group The Jackson 5.


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: The miniseries was executive produced by Suzanne de Passe and Stan Margulies, produced by Joyce Eliason, Jermaine Jackson and Margaret Maldonado, and directed by Karen Arthur. The movie was filmed in Los Angeles and Pittsburgh, where director Arthur had previously filmed her feature film "Lady Beware".


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: "The Jacksons: An American Dream" is based on Katherine Jackson's "My Family" autobiography. A critical and commercial success, the program won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Choreography, while the performances of Hilton-Jacobs and Bassett received widespread acclaim. The title alludes to the iconic concept of the "American Dream".


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: The miniseries stars Lawrence Hilton-Jacobs as the Jacksons' patriarch Joseph Jackson, Angela Bassett as the family matriarch Katherine Jackson. Alex Burrall, Jason Weaver and Wylie Draper played Michael Jackson in different eras, while Bumper Robinson and Terrence Howard played Jackie Jackson in different eras, Shakiem Jamar Evans and Angel Vargas played Tito Jackson, Margaret Avery played Katherine's mother, Martha Scruse, Holly Robinson Peete played Diana Ross, Billy Dee Williams played Berry Gordy and Vanessa Williams played Suzanne de Passe. The opening sequence of the film features footage of the real Jacksons rehearsing, performing on stage, a few clips from the "Can You Feel It" music video, album covers, magazine covers, a snippet from their cartoon, and pictures of the family.


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: The film is mostly based on the autobiography written by Katherine Jackson, and issued in 1990, entitled "My Family". The entire mini-series spans a period of about 40 years.


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: Part one of the film is based on young Katherine and Joseph meeting and courting in the 1940s and showing how they managed to start out raising their children in Gary, Indiana in the 1950s and 1960s, how Joseph discovers the children have talent and starts entering them in talent shows, and finally how The Jackson 5 go on to have early fame and face its consequences in the late 1960s.


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: Part two of the film deals with the struggles of young Michael Jackson as he faces his brothers marrying early into The Jackson 5's success, his problems with acne as a teenager, and the group's eventual switch to Epic Records in the 1970s, his eventual solo superstardom based on the success of his albums "Off the Wall" and "Thriller", the commercial mishap that caused his hair to ignite, and his legendary "" performance of "Billie Jean", as well as his difficult relationship with his father in the 1980s. The mini-series concludes with the six Jackson brothers talking about "An American Dream" during their Reunion tour, in the mid-80's.


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: Michael Jackson's voice is heard on: "Beat It", "Human Nature", "Billie Jean", "I Want You Back", "I Wanna Be Where You Are", "I'll Be There", "Rockin' Robin", "ABC", and "Dancing Machine". On all other songs, the Michael Jackson vocal part is performed by Anthony Harrell, Jason Weaver or Kipp Lennon.


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: "The Jacksons: An American Dream" became one of the most popular and successful music-biography miniseries of the 1990s. Part 1 of the miniseries was the third highest-rated program broadcast during the week of November 9–15 with a 21.1 rating. Part 2 of the miniseries was watched by 38.4 million viewers in 22.3 million households becoming the highest-rated program broadcast during the week of November 16–22 posting a 23.9 rating, and 36 share. Overall, the miniseries was watched in 38.3 million households and posted a 22.3 rating and 33 share.


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: The series won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Choreography, and was also nominated for Outstanding Individual Achievement in Hairstyling for a Miniseries or a Special, Outstanding Miniseries, and Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Drama Miniseries or a Special.


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: Bumper Robinson won a Young Artist Award for Best Young Actor in a Television Movie, and Alex Burrall and Jason Weaver both won a special award for Outstanding Young Performers Starring in a Mini-Series. The miniseries was later rebroadcast on VH1 and released to VHS and DVD. The DVD version of the miniseries was released as a two-disc set. The first disc was named "The Early Years" and the second disc was named "The Success Years".


title: The Jacksons: An American Dream

text: The miniseries aired frequently after the death of Michael Jackson. It has been shown on TV One, BET, Centric and VH1.


title: Mukkulathor

text: The Mukkulathor people, who are also collectively known as Thevar, are a community or group of communities native to the central and southern districts of Tamil Nadu, India. They comprise the Agamudayar, Kallar and Maravar communities that share a common myth of origin and claim to have once been members of various ancient South Indian dynasties.


title: Mukkulathor

text: The terms and ' are used synonymously. According to R. Muthulakshmi of Madurai Kamaraj University, ' "literally means celestial beings or divine-natured people" and means "three clans united together". The three constituent communities of Agamudayar, Kallar and Maravar believe themselves to share a common myth of origin formed through being the offspring of a relationship between Indra and a celestial woman. The three groups traditionally each believe themselves to be superior to their fellow Mukkulathors.


title: Mukkulathor

text: While they share a common mythological ancestor, the three communities also claim ancestral differences. Each of the Thevar communities claim descent from an ancient Moovendar dynasty in the Sangam era: Agamudayar consider themselves to be descendants of the Chera dynasty, the Kallars the Cholas and the Maravars the Pandyas. The anthropologist Susan Bayly notes that both the Kallar and Maravar communities are relatively new caste entities. Both names were originally granted to people as titles by poligars (local chieftains) but the holders were not exposed to caste-defining influences such as Brahmanic Hinduism, the concept of varna and practices such as endogamy until the late 18th century. She says that the claims of distinct caste status "were clearly not ancient facts of life in the Tamil Nadu region. Insofar as these people of the turbulent poligar country really did become castes, their bonds of affinity were shaped in the relatively recent past". Thereafter, the evolution as a caste developed as a result of various influences, including increased interaction with other groups as a consequence of jungle clearances, state-building and ideological shifts. Anthropologist Diane P. Mines affirms that the contemporary characterisation of the Thevar community derives from its precolonial past but was reified under the British Raj. For instance, in 1911 the British designated the Thevars a "criminal caste", which Mines surmises arose from the community's precolonial role as village guardians or local chieftains but was precipitated by their resistance to British rule.


title: Mukkulathor

text: In the period following Indian independence, the Mukkulathor or the Thevars have grown into, what Mines calls, a "super-caste" that combines the three previously distinct communities, emphasises their similarities and shared historical roles, and forms a consolidated base of support for the AIADMK political party.


title: Mukkulathor

text: The Mukkulathor communities live mostly in central and southern areas of Tamil Nadu, such as Madurai, Theni, Dindigul, Sivagangai, Pudukottai, Ramanathapuram, Thanjavur, Thiruvarur, Nagapattinam, Tiruchirapalli and Thirunelveli. They have been recorded as practising female infanticide as recently as the 1990s.


title: Mukkulathor

text: Although the Mukkulathor own significant amounts of land, the sociologist Hugo Gorringe noted in 2005 that "their educational and economic achievements have been negligible", with many being small farmers or agricultural labourers. The community has mostly been given the status of Backward Class (BC) by the Government of Tamil Nadu, although some subgroups are omitted. They are mostly listed as Other Backward Classes (OBC) by the National Commission for Backward Classes.


title: Mukkulathor

text: Human Rights Watch has documented allegations that the members of the government of Jayalalitha, including the chief minister herself, favoured the Mukkalathors during the 1990s, leading to them gaining influential positions in the police and in politics. The Mukkalathor community at that time was the most populous of the backward classes in the state but Dalit communities - notably, the Pallars - were becoming increasingly wealthy and aspirational. The improvement of Dalit circumstances, together with a general rise in Dalit activism, led to many clashes with the Mukkulathors in rural areas. These clashes often involved the collusion of the police, who aided detention of so-called Dalit activists, assaults on people (especially women), and forcible displacement from Dalit villages.