title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The 15th century was characterized by the rapacity of these and other local noble houses (among others, the Moscosos in western Galicia, the Andrades in the North, the Soutomaiors and the Estradas in the South and West, and the Ulloas in central Galicia) each one directed by the heir of the lineage, not unusually a woman. The houses, and their minor knights and squires, tried to acquire every type of economic and jurisdictional title (usually as "encomendeiros", that is, protectors) over towns and cities, monasteries, bishoprics, and even over royal properties, towns and territories. Castles and mottes were used all over Galicia to hold and keep the noblemen's armies, and as raiding outposts. The noblemen frequently fought each other for the possession of these strongholds.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Similar conflicts were frequent between the city councils and the Church, even occasioning the deaths of the bishop of Lugo in 1403 and the bishop of Ourense in 1419. All these wars, together with rampant banditry, created a climate of violence and insecurity throughout Galicia. The remoteness of the King was partly to blame: during the 15th century no monarch ever come to visit Galicia, except for the Catholic Monarchs in 1486. This absence on the one hand transformed the King into a remote ideal of Justice, whilst on the other affirmed the sensation of impunity and defencelessness among the inhabitants of the Kingdom.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The remoteness of the monarch also resulted in Galicia losing its vote in the "Cortes" (Parliament) sometime during the late 14th or early 15th centuries. In 1423, in the absence of the Galician cities, the city of Zamora (located in León, but historically linked to Galicia) asked to be treated as the capital of the Kingdom of Galicia, which was granted, with their deputies sitting next to the monarch at his right. Zamora represented the Kingdom of Galicia in the "Cortes" until 1640, usually against the will and the advice of the Galician cities.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Under these difficult circumstances, with constant wars and a broken judicial system, the cities of Galicia, which progressively acquired a leading role during this century, engaged in a tax revolt between 1430 and 1460. They refused to pay certain taxes to John II and Henry IV, citing the many and onerous services the Kingdom rendered to the King; the lack of effective law enforcement, which had led to the economic destruction of the Kingdom; and the absence of Galician deputies in the Parliament.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: During the 15th century, a time of social and economic crisis in Europe, a series of insurrections roiled the Kingdom, the result the brutal behavior of the bishops and the noblemen toward the churchmen, artisans and peasants. The insurgents were generally organized in "irmandades" ('brotherhoods'), groups of men who, in exceptional circumstances, and allegedly with the king's approval, armed themselves to act as policemen in defence of peace and justice.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: One of these brotherhoods, established in Compostela in 1418, took advantage of the temporary absence of the archbishop, and violently overthrew the city council in 1422. Another one, called "Fusquenlla" or 'The Mad Brotherhood', rose up in the north of the kingdom against the House of Andrade. The armies of the brotherhood, directed by the lesser nobleman Roi Xordo, were finally defeated by the Andrades' armies by the gates of Compostela in 1431. Later, in 1453, the troops of the bishop of Ourense and that of the council of the city fought fiercely for the possession of the local castles, even using "tronos" (cannons; lit., 'thunders'), and forcing the bishop into exile. In 1458 a brotherhood was established among some important noblemen (the House of Moscoso, the House of Estrada, and Sueiro Gomes de Soutomaior among others) and the cities and towns of Compostela, Noia, and Muros, against the archbishop of Santiago, who was taken prisoner, kept and paraded in a cage for two years, and then banished for ten years after his supporters paid a large ransom. Similar revolts were occurring all over the kingdom, in Betanzos, Viveiro, Lugo and Allariz. All of these Galician brotherhoods acted autonomously, sometimes even against King's will and direct orders.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1465 the Crown of Castile was again in crisis, with King Henry IV under siege by Castilian noblemen who were supporting an aristocratic candidate to the throne. Henry sent letters all around the realm, calling for the establishment of brotherhoods to defend the "status quo". From 1465 to 1467 local brotherhoods were organized all over Galicia, gaining the allegiance of churchmen, artisans, peasants, and some noblemen.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In the spring of 1467 a General Council of the Kingdom of Galicia ("Junta General do Reyno de Galizia") was held in Melide. After an angry debate it was decided that noblemen should deliver all of their strongholds and castles to the officials of the "Irmandade", resulting in the flight of many lesser nobles, while others resisted the armies of the "Irmandiños" ('little brothers'), only to be slowly beaten back into Castile and Portugal; as described by a contemporary, 'the sparrows pursued the falcons'. For the rest of the year the armies of the Brotherhood marched all over Galicia, fighting the lords and demolishing tens of strongholds.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: From 1467 to 1469 the Kingdom of Galicia was governed by the "Irmandade", directed by the city dwellers, whilst its armies—composed mostly of armed peasants—were commanded by sympathizing noblemen, as the veteran soldiers they were. General Councils of the Kingdom were later held in Betanzos and Santiago de Compostela in 1467, in Lugo in 1468, and in Ourense in 1469. But in autumn of 1469 the exiled noblemen, joining forces, marched into Galicia: Pedro Alvares de Soutomaior entered from Portugal with gunmen and mercenaries; the archbishop Fonseca of Compostela from Zamora; and the Count of Lemos from Ponferrada. Meanwhile, other noblemen who had resisted inside the Kingdom also pushed forward. In 1469 and 1470 the "Irmandiño" armies were defeated all over the Country, except in some well defended cities such as A Coruña.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1470, after the defeat of the Brotherhood, the noblemen, regaining their states and granting themselves sonorous titles ordered the reconstructions of a number of strongholds, usually using the rebels as labour force. This same year, the noblemen assigned a pact of mutual assistance, signaling the beginning of a long war against the archbishop of Santiago—among which were Pedro Alvarez de Soutomaior, called Pedro "Madruga", designated as leader of the nobility.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: At the death of Henry IV in 1474 civil war broke out between his daughter Joanna and his half-sister Isabella. Isabella had married her cousin, Fernando II of Aragon, and was supported by the Aragonese and Catalans, while Joanna married the king of Portugal, Afonso V, thereby obtaining his country's support. In Galicia, Archbishop Fonseca sided with Isabella, while Pedro Álvarez de Soutomaior, who had large interests in Portugal and in southern Galicia, sided with Joanna, and was accordingly rewarded by the king of Portugal with the title of Count of Caminha. Notwithstanding, most noblemen behaved cautiously, waiting to join the winner's side.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In October 1476 Fonseca unsuccessfully attacked the well-defended city of Pontevedra, held by Pedro "Madruga", with an army composed of 200 lancers and 5000 infantrymen, while a Basque navy commanded by Ladrón de Guevara took Baiona and assaulted Viveiro; but Pedro's tenacity resulted in a draw. In 1479, the armies of Fonseca moved south again against Pedro Madruga, and, after a series of battles, forced the Count of Caminha into Portugal, although Tui, Salvaterra de Miño and other towns and strongholds were still held by his people and their Portuguese allies. In 1480, a peace treaty recognised Isabella and Fernando, the Catholic Monarchs, as queen and king. Under the terms of the peace treaty with Portugal and Juana, all the enemies of Isabel, including Pedro "Madruga", were granted pardons.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: This same year, and against the advice of the Galician nobility, the Catholic monarchs sent a Castilian police and military corps, the "Santa Hermandad", to Galicia. It was soon criticised not only as an institution composed mostly of foreigners, but also as a heavy burden on the local economy, costing more than 6 million maravedi per year—-by comparison, the budget of Columbus' first journey to America was just 2 million maravedi-—but also due to its arbitrariness and rudeness with the local inhabitants.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: This corps, reinforced with mercenary troops and under the pretension of pacifying the country and getting rid of adventurers and thieves, was also used as field army at the service of the policies of the monarchs. As personal representatives, the Catholic Monarchs also sent a new plenipotentiary Governor of the Kingdom of Galicia—an office first established in 1475—and a "Justiçia Mayor" (Attorney general), together with a series of other officials and collection agents. They also appointed royal aldermen in some of the cities and towns.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: From 1480 to 1485, the "Santa Hermandad" and the new official, endorsed by local supporters, worked jointly in harassing the largely-rebellious nobility, both economically and militarily. However, the resistance was ended with the death of its leader, the Count of Lemos, and the wars against Marshal Pardo de Cela and Count Pedro "Madruga" concluded around the same time; de Cela was beheaded in Mondoñedo in 1483, whilst Pedro was deposed in 1485 by his own son, Álvaro--a desperate attempt to save the lineage of Soutomaior.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The establishment in 1500 of the "Real Audiencia del Reino de Galicia" (a permanent royal tribunal), and later the forced reformation and submission of the Galician monasteries to the Castilian ones, represented the integration "de facto" of the Kingdom of Galicia under the Crown of Castile.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The "Junta", "Junta General", "Juntas", or "Cortes" of the Kingdom of Galicia was the representative assembly of the Kingdom from the 15th century, when it originated as a general assembly of all the powers of Galicia aimed at the constitution of "hermandades" (brotherhood), and until 1834, when the Kingdom and its General Assembly were officially disbanded by a Royal decree.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Initially the "Juntas Generales" was an assembly where representatives of the three states of the Kingdom (noblemen, churchmen, and the commoners) met, but it soon followed the evolution prompted by the King in other representative institutions, such as the Cortes of Castile, becoming the assembly monopolized by the bourgeoisie and lesser nobility ("fidalgos"), who controlled most of the local councils of the cities and towns of the Kingdom, and at the expenses of Church and nobility. From 1599 the composition of the assembly became fixed and reduced to just seven deputies, each one representing one of the Kingdom's provinces, and appointed by the local council of the province's capital —Santiago de Compostela, A Coruña, Betanzos, Lugo, Mondoñedo, Ourense, and Tui— from among its members. Other towns, namely Viveiro and Pontevedra, tried during the 17th and 18th centuries to regain their seats in the assembly, to no effect.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The "Junta" had no direct role in law making, and was permitted little control in the Royal administration, but it could nevertheless rise armies, ships and taxes, conceding or denying the King's petitions on behalf of the local powers of the Kingdom, and it could also petition the King directly, being recognized as the voice and representative of the Kingdom and the depositary of its will, traditions and rights ("foros"). Notwithstanding, the King never consented on the petition of the assembly to meet at will, and from 1637 he decreed that the meetings of the assembly could only take place when in presence of a representative of the monarch, with voice, usually the Governor-Captain General of the Kingdom, in an attempt to maintain a tighter grip on the institution and its agreements.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: As a reaction of the abdication of King Ferdinand VII in favour of Napoleon, the "Junta" declared itself the sovereign and supreme authority of the Kingdom on June 18, 1808, during the Peninsular war, thereby becoming the legitimate and "de facto" government of the Kingdom until Galicia was conquered by Napoleon in 1809. In an effort to broaden its representation, it briefly admitted churchmen ("viz.", the bishop of Ourense) and titled nobility.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1556, Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, abdicated the throne and divided his realm between his brother Ferdinand I of Habsburg, and his son Philip II. In practice this resulted in the disappearance of the European empire of the Habsburgs and the idea of a universal Catholic monarchy. Ferdinand was declared Holy Roman Emperor and king of Hungary and Bohemia, while Philip inherited the Netherlands, Naples and Sicily, the Crown of Aragon and Castile, including the Kingdom of Galicia.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The 42-year reign of Philip II was characterized from the beginning by wars of expansion—against the Netherlands, France, England, Portugal and the Ottoman Empire. Stretching across the Atlantic and northern Europe these wars had disastrous consequences for Galicia's society and economy.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: With his private crusade against the Lutherans, the Catholic monarch prevented the participation of the Kingdom of Galicia in the three most important revolutionary processes of the age: the Reformation, the opening up of the New World, and the Scientific revolution. In 1562, Philip II deployed the Holy Office, via the Spanish Inquisition, in the Kingdom of Galicia, after the failure of Charles V's attempts to do so due to the opposition of the Galician clergy.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The Inquisition was an instrument of cultural and religious repression without precedent, which began operating in Portugal from 1575, led by the Castilian Inquisitor Quijano del Mercado. The Inquisition's stated aim was to prevent the "contamination" of the Kingdom of Galicia by the reformist ideas of the Lutherans, which arrived in Galicia via English, Dutch and French traders. This situation also had serious commercial consequences, as merchant ships could not dock without the Inquisition's approval, and sailors believed to be heretics could be burned at the stake. The Inquisition even went as far as proposing the closure of all Galician seaports to avoid religious contamination. Such measures eventually exceeded the patience of the inhabitants of cities like A Coruña, which requested the end of inquisitorial activity at the seaport in 1589 due to the effect on maritime traffic.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Philip II's reign saw the continuation of the expulsion of the Jews begun on May 30, 1492, linguistic persecution (from 1566 the adoption of Castilian was enforced, and the use of Arabic was punished by the Crown), and religious persecutions effectively constituted ethnic cleansing. For example, in Alpujarra in the Kingdom of Granada in 1568, led by self-proclaimed king Muhammad ibn Umayya, Philip ordered the forced dispersal of 80,000 Granadian Muslims throughout the realm, and the introduction of Christians in their place. Thousands of Galician families were sent to Granada for that purpose between the years 1572–77, with many of them dying in the process.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Although Spain generally militarized in order to conduct its war against the Netherlands—used primarily to garner support for the Crown—Galicia was left relatively undefended, a result of the prior dismantling of the Galician strongholds. Thus, in 1580 the Board of the Kingdom of Galicia requested troops from Philip in order to defend the coast, just months after a recruitment drive had taken place. However, although Phillip assented, these troops were not used to protect Galicia, but instead to attack Portugal, in an attempt to add it to Phillip's empire.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Despite claims to the contrary, the military campaign against Portugal was not carried out by professional soldiers billeted at A Coruña, Ferrol, or Baiona, and was not paid for by the crown, but was rather conducted by ill-equipped peasant troops, and paid for by Galician nobles such as Pedro Fernandes de Castro II, the Count of Monterrei, Gaspar de Zúñiga e Azevedo, and others. The war against England (1585–1604), motivated by the traditional English support of Portugal and Holland, also had disastrous consequences for the Kingdom of Galicia. This was due to both the disruption of trade relations with northern Europe, which since the Middle Ages had provided enormous wealth to the kingdom, and to England's constant operations in the region, staged in order to end Phillip's maritime expeditions, such as the Spanish Armada in 1588.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The outcome of all this was the complete ruin of Galician villages such as Ferrol, where the civilians were driven from their homes by Philip's soldiers, who seized all their crops and property, and drove the fishermen into forced labor. Towns like A Coruña also suffered constant attacks by the English fleet, such as that led by Francis Drake in 1589, with the cities being protected by civilian troops and folk heroes, such as María Pita.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The death of Philip II in 1598 failed to effect a dramatic improvement in Galicia's fortunes. Although the reign of Philip III of Spain (1598–1621) was marked by a more conciliatory foreign policy and was more peaceful than that of his father, throughout the rest of the 17th century ("viz.", the reigns of Philip IV and Charles II) witnessed a series of wars between the Habsburgs and Holland, England, France and especially Portugal, which collectively had a remarkable social and economic impact in Galicia.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Thus, while conflicts against the Ottomans resulted in a devastating battle in the Rias Baixas in 1617, the unpopular war against Portugal (1640–1668) and the decades-long war against the Netherlands, both took a heavy toll on Galician peasants, sent to various fronts from the Atlantic seaports. Fray Felipe de la Gandara, official chronicler of the kingdom of Galicia, complained that during 25 years (1624–1659), "the kingdom of Galicia has served for now during the glorious reign of His Majesty [Philip IV] until the year 1659 with more than 68,000 men and 18,001,000 ducats".


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The war also affected the Galician economy. Trade was paralysed, as Galicia's traditional commercial partners were now enemy powers: England, France, Flanders, and its main customer, Portugal, whose border had been closed for over three decades.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The provisions of the Spanish monarchs against trading timber in the kingdom also deepened the crisis. With the imposition a new (and controversial) administrative figure, the "juez de plantíos y dehesas" ("judge of forests and plantings"), the Castilian Council reclaimed its rights to the Galician forests for the construction of warships. This led to the perverse situation of locals being arrested for collecting firewood to heat their houses, leading in turn to resentment against the Galician "junta".


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Since the reign of King John II of Castile, the kingdom of Galicia was no longer on the Crown Council, and from about 1476 Zamora in León acted on behalf of Galicia in the assembly. However, in 1518 the Galician cities and towns began to demand their legitimate positions in the Council of Castile, and to protest the Zamoran leaders speaking for them.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The recovery of their voting rights at the Council of Castile was a goal shared by the Galician aristocracy and oligarchs. In 1520 the Archbishop of Santiago, Afonso III da Fonseca, and the Counts of Benavente and Andrade complained about it during a celebration of the Castilian Council in the Galician capital, Compostela, but to no avail. These elites organized an assembly, headed by Alfonso and consisting of nobles and prelates, in the town of Melide in central Galicia on December 4, 1520. They sent a new demand to Emperor Charles V on the subject of the vote, but he again refused to give Galicia an independent voice.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: A year after the emperor's refusal, the Galician city councils tried another tack, resulting in a 1557 proposal to offer 20,000 ducats in exchange for restoring Galicia's vote in the Castilian Council. This proposal was put to successive meetings of the Galician assembly, until in 1599 the assembly accepted it and agreed to take the lead on negotiations. Two delegations were chosen to go to Madrid, but the new offer was rejected like the rest.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: However, in 1621, circumstances turned in favor of Galicia. The Empire needed the political and financial cooperation of its kingdoms in order to wage another war, following the end of a twelve-year truce. The oligarchy and the Galician city councils were able to seize this opportunity, and, despite the resistance of Zamora and other cities with exclusionary voting at the Courts, the Crown bowed to military necessity, and in 1623 the kingdom of Galicia regained its Council vote, dependent upon paying 100,000 ducats to build a navy to defend its own coastline. The influence of Diego Sarmiento de Acuña, Count Gondomar, was crucial to the success of this effort, and Philip IV signed the resolution on October 13, 1623.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1700, Charles II of Habsburg died without an heir. This caused a war between those who supported the French Philip V of Bourbon as the successor (mainly the crown of Castile and France) and those who supported the Austrian Archduke Charles VI of Habsburg (the Crown of Aragon, England and Holland among others). In fact the struggle between these two suitors was also basically a struggle between two political conceptions: on the one hand the absolutist centralism of Philip V, and on the other the federalism of Charles VI of Habsburg. In the ensuing war (1701–1714) between the crown of Castile and the Crown of Aragon, the kingdom of Galicia could not avail itself of an independent policy due to being controlled strongly since 1486 by Castile, and Galicia was forced to provide military support to the suitor supported by the Castilian Crown, Philip V of Bourbon, who eventually won the war.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The political result of this war was the establishment of a monarchy based in Castile, from where it attempted to impose uniform governance on the region. The culmination of this policy was the "Nueva Planta Decrees" (1707–1716), designed to punish the Crown of Aragon by eliminating its political bodies and imposing an "Audiencia" similar to that in Galicia 200 years before. Once the old crowns -Castile and Aragon- were dissolved in 1715, the "Crown of Spain", governed solely by the Castilian government—notably by the Council of Castile—replaced them. In addition, the Bourbons established a "provincial Intendance" on their territories according to the French model, including the kingdom of Galicia, under the command of a General Captain.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: There was also a firm Bourbon policy aimed at standardizing culture and language within their Spanish territories. Explicit and stringent laws were designed to end linguistic diversity in Bourbon territories with non-Castilian native languages:


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: "Finally, I command that the teaching of the first letters, Latin and rhetoric will only in Castilian language, taking care this compliance the Audiencias and the respective Courts. May 23, 1768". Charles III of Bourbon.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The Age of Enlightenment arose during the 18th century in Europe, representing new interests in empirical ideas, in philosophy, political economy, and sciences such as physics, chemistry, and biology. Thus began a renewal of interest in the historical personality, as well as the cultural and economic diversity, of the Kingdom of Galicia, attributable to important local writers who knew Galicia as a distinct polity with particular needs.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In the vast task of modernizing the kingdom to best leverage its human and natural resources, Galician societies and academies played a prominent role, such as the "Academy of Agriculture of the Kingdom of Galicia" (inaugurated on January 20, 1765), "The Economic Society of Friends of the Kingdom of Galicia" (February 15, 1784), and the "Societies of Friends of the Country to Santiago de Compostela" (1784) and "Lugo" (1785), as well as ambitious proposals such as the "Royal Fishermen's Pawnshop of the Kingdom of Galicia" (1775).


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The Enlightenment writers were the first to denounce the Kingdom's contemporary problems, most of them arising from the harmful policies of the Catholic Monarchs and the Habsburgs. These writers began reporting on the state of roads, the unnecessary imports, the mass emigration, the linguistic acculturation polities, and the economic marginalization of the kingdom. Due to their demands, they achieved, "inter alia", the constitution of a "Maritime and Land Consulate" in A Coruña, allowing Galicia to trade with the American colonies.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Two ecclesiastics, Benito Jerónimo Feijóo y Montenegro and Martín Sarmiento, stood out for their enormous contributions to the language and culture of the kingdom. Montenegro was the first to denounce the misery of the Galician peasants, proposing changes in the administration of the kingdom. Sarmiento, with extensive knowledge of botany and natural medicines, devoted himself to philology; and was a great defender of the Galician language, composing the "Catalogue of voices and phrases of the Galician language" (1745–1755). Economic themes were highlighted by other Galician aristocrats, such as Joseph Cornide Saavedra, Pedro Antonio Sánchez, and Lucas Labrada, as well as ecclesiastics like Francisco de Castro, and merchants like Antonio Raimundo Ibáñez. They were all authors of many works of vital importance to economic development, such as the "Report on sardine fishing off the coast of Galicia" (1774), and the "Economic description of the Kingdom of Galicia" (1804).


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The Kingdom of Galicia and the Junta continued to formally exist until the State Liberal Reform of 1833, at the time of the provincial division under the regency of Maria Christina of the Two Sicilies. Galicia regained its territorial unity for twenty-four days by the constitution of the "Junta de Gobierno de Galicia" following a liberal armed uprising in 1846, the Mártires de Carral, but never regained the status of a kingdom.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Due to myths surrounding Galicia's history (especially during the era of the kingdom), the Kingdom has been referred to as "Terra Meiga" (land of the witches) or "Reino Meiga" (kingdom of the witches).


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The custom of painting symbols, such as the heraldic shields of war, was forged in the battlefields of Europe after the middle decades of the 12th century, due to a confluence of different circumstances. One was the need to differentiate between allies and adversaries on the battlefield, as facial protection in medieval helmets tended to obscure the combatants' faces, but also due to the high ornamental value of decorated shields with bright, crisp, and alternate shapes in the context of chivalrous society.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The first heraldic signs were used by kings as personal marks to identify themselves. Shortly after, they began to be shared by the upper social levels close to the royalty, and finally were used to represent the territory in which they exercised their jurisdiction, the kingdom.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: One of the first kings in Europe to make use of a heraldic emblem was the Leonese king, Alphonse VII. At the beginning of the 12th century he began timidly using a purple lion in accordance with its ancient symbolism, as "Leo Fortis", the "strong lion", symbolized power and primacy of the monarch, but would also have represented a punning reference to the name of his kingdom, León. The emblem was developed with his son Ferdinand II, and was finally established by Alphonse IX.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Parallel to the process of development and consolidation of European royal emblems from the late 13th century, collections of them, the "Armorials", displayed lists of kingdoms and their royal symbols. In the case of Galicia, the prominence which the Kingdom had had for centuries saw it included in the early European armorials. However, the absence of an exclusive symbol for Galician kings, who were also kings of León since the 12th century, forced the medieval heraldists to use Canting arms, a symbol derived from the phonetics of the name.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: An English armorial named "Segar's Roll", produced in 1282, was the first Armorial which assigned the chalice as the Coat of Arms for the King and Kingdom of Galicia ("Roy de Galice"), probably coming directly from the Anglo-Norman word for Galicia, "Galyce", which was very close to the word "Calice" (chalice). Following that time, different European armorials began to use the chalice as the emblem of the Kingdom of Galicia. In the mid-15th century, this symbol came to Galicia, where it was easily and readily accepted, as the Holy Grail was already a symbol widely spread over Europe and already present in Galician history and its deepest beliefs.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Thereafter, the purple lion of the former Galician-Leonese monarchy lost its representative character in favor of the better known canting arms, being then adopted exclusively by the Kingdom of León, whilst in Galicia the chalice would develop into the modern coat-of-arms of Galicia.


title: Lola Astanova

text: Lola Astanova (; born on 3 July 1982 in Tashkent, USSR) is a Russian-American pianist noted for her visual performance and piano transcriptions.


title: Lola Astanova

text: Born in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, at the age of six Astanova entered the "V. Uspensky Specialized School of Music for Gifted Children", studying under professor Tamara Popovich and frequently visiting Moscow for lessons with professor Lev Naumov.


title: Lola Astanova

text: Astanova started touring as a concert pianist at the age of eight. In 1996, she became a laureate of the International Chopin Competition. In 1998, she was featured in the UNESCO documentary "Prodigies of the 20th Century". In 2003, she emigrated to the United States and continued her career in America.


title: Lola Astanova

text: Astanova was featured in the 2007 Classical Superstars Fantasy Concert hosted by ABC's television host Regis Philbin. The concert was featured in the 100th anniversary issue of the Neiman Marcus Christmas Book and offered for $1.6 million. In August 2008, The National September 11 Memorial & Museum announced Ms. Astanova's performance on the famed Steinway concert piano of Vladimir Horowitz at the "Notes of Hope" benefit hosted by Mayor Michael Bloomberg and Senator Hillary Clinton. The performance raised funds for the National September 11 Memorial & Museum in New York City.


title: Lola Astanova

text: On 19 January 2012 Astanova made her Carnegie Hall debut, with the "New York Times" noting that "her taste for drama and her extreme physical abandon end up emphasizing that there isn't a great deal of emotion in her playing". A special "Tribute to Vladimir Horowitz" gala concert hosted by Julie Andrews. Horowitz's student, American pianist Byron Janis, was among the concert's attendees. All proceeds from the performance were donated to the American Cancer Society. In March 2012, Astanova appeared on the cover of Palm Beach Society magazine ahead of her performance with Jahja Ling at the Kravis Center. On 30 May 2012 she performed a duet with Byron Janis during his Lifetime Achievement Award ceremony at the Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts.


title: Lola Astanova

text: Astanova's performance of Gershwin's "Rhapsody in Blue" with Gerard Schwarz and the All-Star Orchestra, was featured in the "Visions of New York" television special on PBS and received the 2016 Emmy Award for Special Event Coverage (Other than News or Sports).


title: Lola Astanova

text: In 2018, Astanova appeared in "The Journey to the Theater of Silence", a documentary about her collaboration with Italian tenor Andrea Bocelli. The film also featured interviews with producer and composer David Foster. During the same year, Astanova's collaboration with Stjepan Hauser of the band 2Cellos came out under the name "Lola and Hauser". The duo released 7 tracks together including the Moonlight Sonata, "Love Story" and QUEEN's We Are the Champions.


title: Lola Astanova

text: Astanova played piano and keyboards on the track El Trato from the El Disco album by Alejandro Sanz. El Disco won the 2020 Grammy for Best Latin Pop Album.


title: Lola Astanova

text: In May of 2020, Sony Music released Astanova's original electronic crossover track titled "Elise Was Here".


title: Lola Astanova

text: Her video clips are strongly imbued with the prosaic erotic charge, i.e. erotic capital, that mostly seeks to seduce post-patriarchal listeners.


title: Lola Astanova

text: Astanova has received attention for her performance style and appearance, often wearing extremely high-heels and tiny mini skirts. She has expressed her love for fashion stating that "some extraordinary artists" work in this field. In June 2012, she was named among Top 10 Style Icons in Classical Music by "Limelight" magazine.


title: Lola Astanova

text: In 2014 Astanova performed at the New York Ball honoring editor-in-chief of Vogue Italia Franca Sozzani, with Donald Trump, Valentino Garavani, Baz Luhrmann, Steven Klein, Zac Posen, Coco Rocha, and Peter Dundas attending the event and Kris Jenner introducing Astanova on stage.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Chicago Red Stars are a professional women's soccer club based in Bridgeview, Illinois, a suburb of Chicago. A founding member of the Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) league, they have played in the National Women's Soccer League (NWSL) since 2013.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: WPS was the NWSL's predecessor as the professional women's soccer league in the United States, and the Red Stars played in the WPS in 2009 and 2010. After leaving the WPS in December 2010 due to the league's financial issues, the club joined the Women's Premier Soccer League (WPSL) for the 2011 season. In 2012, the Red Stars co-founded and played in Women's Premier Soccer League Elite (WPSL-E): a one-year league which bridged the WPS and the NWSL. The club became a founding member of the NWSL, which was financially supported by U.S. Soccer, in 2012.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Red Stars play their home games at SeatGeek Stadium in Bridgeview. In October 2022, they held the record for the longest active playoff streak (2015–2022) in the NWSL.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: In 2006, it was announced that Chicago would field a team in a new women's professional soccer league. The team joined six others (Washington Freedom, Boston Breakers, Los Angeles Sol, FC Gold Pride, Sky Blue FC, and Saint Louis Athletica) in Women's Professional Soccer (WPS) for the league's inaugural season in 2009. Marcia McDermott, former head coach of the Northwestern University women's soccer team and the Women's United Soccer Association's Carolina Courage, was named as the Red Stars' general manager.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: On June 3, 2008, the "Red Stars" name was announced at a Toyota Park ceremony. The name refers to the four six-pointed red stars on the flag of Chicago. Each star represents a landmark event in Chicago history: Fort Dearborn, the Great Chicago Fire, the 1893 World's Fair, and the 1933 World's Fair. Other names considered were Progress, Towers, Union, Blues, 1871, and Wind. "Red Stars" was chosen by popular vote in a two-month fan poll.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Red Stars won their first game of the season, 1–0, at Saint Louis Athletica. They followed with two ties (1–1 at Washington Freedom and 0–0 hosting Sky Blue FC) and a 4–0 shutout of the Boston Breakers at Toyota Park. This was the best starting record of any team in the league except season champions Los Angeles Sol, seeming to live up to preseason predictions.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The team was then winless for its next nine games (with three away draws), including a 451-minute scoring drought. The Washington Freedom, scored first in their next game, indicating that the streak would continue. However, the Red Stars came from behind to win 2–1. They defeated last-place FC Gold Pride 3–1 in their next game before losing four of their last five games, eliminating them from the playoffs and ending the season in sixth place. The Red Stars finished second in league attendance in 2009, behind the LA Sol.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: Agreeing to see the Red Stars through their first season, Peter Wilt stepped down as CEO at the end of 2009 to become general manager of the Milwaukee Wave (his hometown NISL team). General manager Marcia McDermott assumed many of Wilt's responsibilities, although he continued to support the team on the league's board of governors and as president of the Chicago Red Stars Charitable Foundation.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Red Stars began their second season with high hopes and new faces. They lost their first game at Sky Blue FC 1–0, after dominating much of the game. A 1–1 home tie in their second game earned the Stars their first point of the season. After a successful season, the team left WPS on December 13 because they were unable to meet the league's funding requirements for the 2011 season; the league folded in 2011 for financial and legal reasons.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Red Stars joined the Women's Premier Soccer League in 2011. They played their home games at Village of Lisle-Benedictine University Sports Complex, in west-suburban Chicago.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The roster consisted of players from the women's national team U-20 and U-23 pools and collegiate players. The first players announced included three with WPS experience, including two from the Red Stars' 2010 squad. The team was coached by Chicago native Rory Dames, and continued their activity in the Chicago soccer community through their soccer camps.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Red Stars finished the regular season with a 10–1 record, hosting the playoff semifinals and championship matches. Defeating Tampa Bay Hellenic 2–1 in their semifinal, they lost in overtime by the same score in the final to the Orange County Waves (another WPSL team with WPS connections; Brittany Klein, a 2009–10 Red Stars player, was on the Waves).


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: In 2012, the Red Stars joined the former WPS Boston Breakers and Western New York Flash to found the WPSL Elite League. Five other former WPSL teams joined the league: ASA Chesapeake Charge, F.C. Indiana, New England Mutiny, New York Fury, and Philadelphia Fever.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Red Stars finished fourth in the league, making the playoffs. They advanced to the final, where they lost to the Flash in a 2–4 penalty shootout after a 1–1 draw at the end of extra time. Red Stars Ella Masar and Lori Chalupny were injured on the same play in the 33rd minute. WNY scored the equalizer in regulation with a 40-yard goal in the 97th minute to reach overtime. The Red Stars won the 2012 National Women's Cup with half their roster, since the cup final was played at the same time as their final WPSL Elite regular-season match against the eventual third-place New York Fury.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: In November 2012, the Red Stars co-founded and was one of the original eight teams in a yet-to-be-named women's professional soccer league in concert with United States Soccer Federation, the Canadian Soccer Association, and the Mexican Football Federation. The league began competition in spring 2013.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: All NWSL teams received an allocation of USWNT players, and the Red Stars received Shannon Boxx, Amy LePeilbet, and Keelin Winters; only Boxx had limited playing time that season. The Red Stars began the season with two draws and four losses. The mid-season arrival of Germans Sonja Fuss and Inka Grings revived the team somewhat, but not enough to qualify for the playoffs. The Red Stars played 22 matches with eight wins, six draws, and eight losses to finish the season in sixth place.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: In 2014, the Red Stars finished in fifth place. The club was waiting for United States international player Christen Press to join after completing her commitment to a European club, and the Canadian international player Melissa Tancredi to gain full fitness after college. The team signed two other internationals, Abby Erceg and Emily van Egmond, in May. Despite the late arrival of international stars, at the end of May the team had six wins, one draw, and two losses; its performance was aided by rookies Julie Johnston, Vanessa DiBernardo, Hayley Brock, young players Jen Hoy, Rachel Quon, veterans Lori Chalupny and Michelle Wenino, and goalkeeper Karina LeBlanc. With a mid-season slump (one win in 11 matches during June and July), the team did not qualify for the playoffs and was edged out by head-to-head results with the Washington Spirit.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Red Stars began the 2015 season with three home games: a 3–2 win over the previous season's Supporting Shield winner Seattle Reign FC, a 2–2 draw with Portland Thorns FC, and a 1–0 win against Sky Blue FC. Christen Press scored four of the club's first five goals, and was named the April Player of the Month. Red Stars who were also members of the national team were training for the 2015 FIFA Women's World Cup during weeks five and six. Rookie Sofia Huerta scored multiple goals in two matches, and was named the NWSL Player of the Week for weeks five and six and the May NWSL Player of the Month. The team was in first place from week four to week 13 of the regular season, ultimately finishing second. In the playoffs, they lost the semi-final to FC Kansas City.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The team ended the regular season in third place, and advanced to the playoffs. They played the semi-final at Boyds, Maryland against the Washington Spirit on September 30, losing 2–1. The Red Stars returned to Toyota Park for home games for the first time since their 2010 WPS season.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: For the third consecutive season, the Red Stars made the post-season playoffs. They were eliminated in the semi-final, losing 1–0 to the North Carolina Courage in Cary with a goal in the 89th minute.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: For the team's tenth season and sixth in the NWSL, the team qualified for the fourth consecutive year for the playoffs and lost 2–0 in the semifinal to the North Carolina Courage.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Red Stars made the finals for the first time in NWSL history, clinching their fifth consecutive playoff spot on September 21, 2019, after defeating the Washington Spirit 3–1. Forward Sam Kerr scored her 18th goal of the season in that game, breaking the record for goals scored in an NWSL season which she had set with Sky Blue FC in 2017. The Red Stars defeated the Portland Thorns 1–0 in a semifinal home game, and lost 4–0 to the North Carolina Courage in the final. Their season record was 14 wins, two draws, and eight losses.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: Chicago ended their season in fourth place, becoming the first team in the NWSL to make the playoffs for six consecutive seasons. At the end of the regular season, the Red Stars named defender Sarah Gorden the team's first Iron Woman, an honor awarded for playing every minute of the season. The Red Stars faced the Washington Spirit at the NWSL Championship, held in Louisville, but lost 2-1 on overtime.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: On Monday, November 22, 2021, just after midnight, the Red Stars announced that head coach Rory Dames had resigned effective immediately. Later that day, The Washington Post sports reporter Molly Hensley-Clancy reported that prior to resigning, The Post had approached the Red Stars Front Office with allegations from players, both previous and current, of abuse by Dames. The Post also provided documentation of reports made to United States Soccer Federation by players such as Christen Press as far back as 2014, detailing abuse, harassment, and inappropriate use of his power as head coach to manipulate players. “Three former Red Stars players, including one who played on the team at the time of the investigation, told The Post that they had wanted to speak to U.S. Soccer investigators but had never heard from them,” reported Hensley-Clancy. “Two had left the team because of Dames’s abuse, they said.”


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: A busy offseason saw the Red Stars trade Makenzy Doniak, Katie Johnson and 2021 College Draftee Kelsey Turnbow who never played in a Red Stars uniform to San Diego Wave FC for protection in the 2022 NWSL expansion draft. The Red Stars also traded 2021 Iron women Sarah Gorden and the rights to USWNT player Julie Ertz to Angel City FC for expansion draft protection. The Red stars also traded Nikki Stanton to OL Reign and backup Goalkeeper who was crucial in 2021, Cassie Miller to Kansas City Current The Red Stars drafted 5 players in the 2022 NWSL draft and rostered 3 of the 5 Ava Cook, Sammy Fischer, and Sarah Griffith. The Red Stars welcomed back Yuki Nagasato from Louisville. Additionally, Kealia Watt was coming off of an ACL injury, and later announced she was pregnant, Sarah Woldmoe was pregnant and it seemed like it would be long season for the Red Stars. The new head coach was announced as Chris Petrucelli.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: In the 2022 NWSL Challenge Cup the Red Stars finished 2nd in the Central Division behind the Kansas City Current and did not move on. In the 2022 National Women's Soccer League season the Red Stars finished 6th to clinch the final playoff spot and move on for the 7th consecutive season. This was decided after a 2-0 victory over Angel City FC. In the playoffs, the Red Stars traveled to San Diego and lost 2-1 in extra time after Alex Morgan scored her 16th goal of the regular season. Mallory Pugh finished as the teams leader in scoring (11 goals) and assists (6). She was named to the Best XI while Tatumn Millazo was named to the 2nd Best XI. The Red Stars finished the year with a record of 11W, 8D and 10L.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The club's original primary logo combined two Chicago images; the shape of the shield is taken from its equivalent in Chicago's city seal. The colors, stripes, and stars in the logo are inspired by the symbolism of Chicago's municipal flag, with the blue stripes representing the two branches of the Chicago River.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: In 2018, the club's primary and secondary logos were updated by a design team headed by Julie Rochelle.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: During the team's membership in Women's Professional Soccer, the Chicago Red Stars played at Toyota Park. Now known as SeatGeek Stadium, it is a 20,000-seat soccer-specific stadium which was the home of the Chicago Fire FC from 2006 to 2019. From 2011 to 2015, in the Women's Premier Soccer League, Women's Premier Soccer League Elite league and National Women's Soccer League, the Red Stars played at the 3,000-seat Village of Lisle-Benedictine University Sports Complex.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: During the club's 2012 WPSL Elite season, some matches were played at the Concordia University Chicago Athletic Complex in River Forest, Illinois and the Lakeside Athletic Field at Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois due to renovation at Benedictine University. In December 2015, the Chicago Red Stars announced their return to Toyota Park for their 2016 NWSL home games.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: The Chicago Professional Women's Soccer investor group owned the Red Stars from 2009 to 2010, during the team's membership in Women's Professional Soccer. Its April 2010 management group was Gary Weaver, Jim Willett, and Arnim Whisler, and the Illinois Women's Soccer League (IWSL) was a partner. In addition to the IWSL, the team ownership included shareholders John (Jack) Cummins, Robert and Susan Morrison, Jim and Kathi Willett, Dale Weaver, Gary Weaver, Pin Ni, Dong Li, Arnim Whisler, Dean Egerter, Stephen Ritchie and Peter Wilt.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: Arnim Whisler took over the team after the 2010 season, and continued to operate it for the 2011 season in the WPSL while helping to reorganize the WPS. Whisler remained its sole owner until 2021.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: On March 1, 2021, the Red Stars announced a new ownership group led by co-founder (and majority owner) Arnim Whisler and his family. In addition to Whisler, the ownership group is led by founding members Dean Egerter and Steve Ritchie and includes additional members Jessie Becker, Julie Haddon, Israel Idonije, Jordan Levin, Abel Lezcano, Colleen Mares, Michael Raimondi, Kendall Coyne Schofield, Michael Schofield, Sarah Spain, Marie Tillman, Brian Walsh, Kevin Willer, and David M. Zapata. On May 4, 2021, the Red Stars announced further additions to the club's ownership group, including Aimee Garcia, Josh Dixon, Bela Bajaria, Channing Dungey and spouse Scott Power, Keli Lee, Devin Johnson and daughter Carys Johnson, Ken Kaufman, Nora Mabie, Kim Vender Moffat, Stephen Moffat, Todd Vender, Nick Coleman, Jon Moonves, Jim Allen, Graham Allen, and Kirk Allen. On August 18, 2022, the NWSL announced that it had hired Haddon as chief marketing officer, and that Haddon had divested from the Red Stars prior to taking the job.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: It was announced on April 17, 2019 that NBC Sports Chicago would be the Red Stars' new regional broadcaster, televising all regular-season matches (beginning with their second match of the 2019 season). Seven 2019 matches were scheduled to be carried on its overflow channel, NBC Sports Chicago Plus.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: On August 23, 2021, the Red Stars announced that Univision Chicago would simulcast Spanish-language coverage of the club's September 25 match against Portland Thorns FC on WXFT-DT and WRTO AM.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: On November 22, 2021, The Washington Post published an article with allegations from players, both previous and current, of abuse by Dames. The Post provided documentation of reports made to the United States Soccer Federation by players, such as Christen Press, as far back as 2014, detailing abuse, harassment, and inappropriate use of power as head coach to manipulate players.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: “Three former Red Stars players, including one who played on the team at the time of the investigation, told The Post that they had wanted to speak to U.S. Soccer investigators but had never heard from them,” reported Hensley-Clancy. “Two had left the team because of Dames’s abuse, they said.”


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: In February 2022, the Washington Post published a follow up story reporting claims of misconduct dating back to the late 1990’s, including a 1998 police report involving a youth player Dames coached at Chicago Eclipse Select. The allegations went further, including multiple players claiming to have had a sexual relationship with Dames when they played for him at Eclipse. An accuser claimed that sex “felt almost expected”. The verbal abuse also included constant name-calling.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: Dames’ role in the founding of Elite Clubs National League, an elite group of youth soccer clubs, of which he sat on the Board of Directors, and his role with the Chicago Red Stars and NWSL, played a role in players not speaking up, according to accusers. Players and parents were afraid Dames “could ruin the chance at a scholarship or a spot in the professional league,” if they spoke up. “But the monopoly over Chicago soccer, our belief that his connection to the college world was the only connection we would have — he used all of that to get away with doing and saying whatever the hell he wanted to us,” said an accuser.


title: Chicago Red Stars

text: Initially, Arnim Whisler, the Jewish owner and chairman of the Red Stars, denied any knowledge of or complicity in Dames's abuse, claiming that "I have always strived to ensure that everyone hired in our environment is of high character and shares our positive values." However, an investigation by former U.S Attorney General Sally Yates revealed that not only had Whisler known about Dames's abusive behavior for years, but he had chosen to ignore it, given Dames's successful record as a coach. Yates's investigation also found that Whisler neglected to run a background check on Dames before hiring him. On October 4, 2022, the day after Yates's report was released. Whisler resigned from the NWSL Board of Directors in disgrace, also giving up operational control of the Red Stars.


title: Kill Bill Vol. 1 Original Soundtrack

text: Kill Bill Vol. 1 Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack to the of the two-part Quentin Tarantino film "Kill Bill". Released on September 23, 2003, it reached #45 on the Billboard 200 album chart and #1 on the soundtracks chart. It was organized, and mostly produced and orchestrated by RZA from the Wu-Tang Clan.


title: Kill Bill Vol. 1 Original Soundtrack

text: The last three are merely noises that occur as sound effects in the film. The vinyl record version includes only the first fifteen tracks.


title: 2015 Delhi Legislative Assembly election

text: The Delhi Legislative Assembly election was held on 7 February 2015 to elect 70 members of the Sixth Legislative Assembly of Delhi. The results were announced on 10 February 2015. The Aam Aadmi Party secured an absolute majority in the assembly, winning 67 of the 70 seats.


text: In the 2013 Delhi state elections, the Bharatiya Janata Party (along with its pre-poll ally Shiromani Akali Dal) emerged as the single-largest party, winning 32 out of the 70 seats. However, they fell short of an outright majority and therefore were unable to form the government. This led the then Lieutenant Governor of Delhi Najeeb Jung to invite the Aam Aadmi Party, the second-largest party after the BJP, to form the government. On 28 December 2013, AAP formed the state government after taking outside support from the Indian National Congress. AAP's leader Arvind Kejriwal, who defeated the incumbent chief minister Sheila Dikshit, became the 7th chief minister of Delhi. However, on 14 February 2014 (after 49 days of rule), Arvind Kejriwal resigned from his post citing the reason as his government's inability to table the Jan Lokpal Bill in Delhi Assembly for discussion, due to stiff opposition from other political parties in the house.


text: Delhi remained thereafter under President's Rule for about a year. On 4 November 2014, the Lieutenant Governor of Delhi Najeeb Jung made a recommendation to the Union Cabinet to dissolve the Delhi Legislative Assembly and conduct fresh elections. On 12 January 2015, the Election Commission of India announced that state assembly elections would be held on 7 February 2015 with results being announced on 10 February 2015.


text: The election commission announced the schedule for the elections on 12 January 2015. Voter-verified paper audit trail (VVPAT) along with EVMs were used in 2 assembly seats in Delhi elections- New Delhi and Delhi Cantt.


text: AAP started campaigning in Delhi in November 2014 and inducted several first-time candidates, with as many as 27 out of 70 MLA candidates. AAP convener Arvind Kejriwal was the chief ministerial candidate and contesting the elections from the New Delhi seat again after successfully managing to defeat incumbent MLA and then CM Sheila Dixit in the 2013 elections. Other known names and prominent faces in their candidate list are Jarnail Singh, Surinder Singh (commando), former Transport Minister for Delhi Saurabh Bhardwaj, former Education Minister Manish Sisodia, and former Law Minister Somnath Bharti.


text: The rallies and roadshows of Arvind Kejriwal were a great success, drawing large enthusiastic crowds. His nomination rally-cum-roadshow drew massive crowd and included flash mobs, slogans and chant of "5 Saal Kejriwal" song. AAP has consistently targeted the issues of corruption, security, education, environmental pollution, employment opportunities for youth and making Delhi a world class city.


text: Kejriwal's statement "Paise lekar sting kar lo" created controversies by asking volunteers to take bribes from other parties and do a sting. Kejriwal claimed that BJP had been trying to bribe AAP volunteers. The situation rose The Election Commission of India, which issued notice to Kejriwal to desist from breaking the laws governing the model code of conduct for elections in India. The Delhi court finally allowed Kejriwal to put forth his plea on the matter.


text: BJP targeted AAP and Kejriwal in a series of controversial negative newspaper ads. AAP claimed that one of these ads made a derogatory reference to Kejriwal's caste, while another one with a garlanded portrait of Anna Hazare signified Hazare's death. AAP threatened to complain about these ads to the Election Commission of India.


text: Noted music composer and party sympathizer Vishal Dadlani composed a song "Panch Saal Kejriwal" (5 years of Kejriwal Government) in December 2014 to give a boost to AAP's campaign. The song was seen used in flash mobs, roadshows, and rallies and was well received. AAP's campaign included advertisements on bus stops, billboards, and in the Delhi Metro, mostly focusing on Blue and Yellow Lines. To save costs ads were put up only on one side of the Metro.


text: The last days of the campaign saw TV actors Ayub Khan and Smita Bansal joining AAP. The AAP strategy for campaigning included flash mobs, street plays ("nukkad natak"), human banners, posters and pamphlets in auto-rickshaws.


text: Trinamool Congress chief Mamata Banerjee tweeted on 5 February "My request to all of you in Delhi to please vote for AAP. For the greater need of the country and development in Delhi". TMC has stringently criticized BJP's central government in the recent past. Also, CPI(M) general secretary Prakash Karat said in an interview, "15 seats are being contested jointly by Left parties in the Delhi polls. Rest of the 55 seats, our party has decided that it will ask our party members and voters to vote for the AAP. Most of the other left parties are also of the same view".


text: On 10 January 2015, Prime Minister Narendra Modi started the BJP's campaign for the Delhi assembly polls by holding an "Abhinandan" rally at the Ramlila Maidan. With some recent corruption allegations on BJP-Delhi unit head Satish Upadhyay, and speculation of increasing internal fights for CM position between several big leaders liker Jagdeesh Mukhi, Vijay Goel, and Satish Upadhyay, on 15 January 2015, BJP added Kiran Bedi as a prominent face to lead Delhi Campaign. Within 4 days, on 19 January, India's first woman IPS officer, anti-corruption activist and Magsaysay awardee Kiran Bedi was announced by the BJP as their candidate for chief minister in Delhi.


text: Analysts questioned BJP's decision to project Kiran Bedi as the party's CM candidate when two opinion polls indicated that AAP had gained ground over BJP after the announcement of her candidature. Kiran Bedi was seen leaving news interviews and even questions of her being the first woman IPS and her role in towing Indra Gandhi's convoy car were raised. Her induction led to internal rifts in the party, but the party president Amit Shah defended the decision. On 2 February, Kiran Bedi's manager announced his resignation blaming her "dictatorial attitude", but then withdrew the resignation and apologized on the same day.


text: Key party strategist Arun Jaitley (now the cabinet minister) was tasked with bringing together the BJP's campaign efforts, with regular meetings at the Delhi BJP office, and Prime Minister Narendra Modi addressing four rallies. Also, 11 central ministers and 17 lawmakers of the party were deployed in the campaign for Delhi. Human Resource Minister Smriti Irani and External Affairs Minister Sushma Swaraj hit the campaign trail addressing several rallies in South and North West Delhi. Haryana Chief Minister Manohar Lal Khattar, held a public meeting in the Bijwasan area of South West Delhi. Madhya Pradesh Chief Minister Shivraj Singh Chouhan is scheduled to campaign for BJP


text: Finance Minister Arun Jaitley, Commerce Minister Nirmala Sitharaman and Chemicals and Fertiliser Minister Ananth Kumar have been making rounds of Delhi BJP office for the last couple of days. As of 29 January, Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) has brought in 22 of its top ministers at the Centre and 17 MPs to take charge of the campaign. According to another source " around 58 Union ministers and MPs took charge of Delhi constituencies. More than 70 MPs have been assigned to oversee preparations for the Feb. 7 polls to the 70-member Assembly," said a senior BJP leader. Shazia Ilmi a member of AAP who has joined BJP saying BJP stands for good governance and development.


text: BJP actively used the media for their campaign, and released a series of newspaper advertisements targeting AAP's CM candidate Arvind Kejriwal.


text: During the last phases of the campaign rallies of Prime Minister Narendra Modi got poor turnouts and the BJP Delhi state unit was seen complaining about appointing Kiran Bedi as the CM candidate.


text: BJP had prepoll alliance with Shiromani Akali Dal, whose candidates contested four seats: three on BJP's symbol and one on SAD's own symbol.


text: On 13 January 2015, Ajay Maken was announced as the head of the Congress campaign committee. Maken is also the party's chief minister candidate. On 19 January, Maken released a booklet titled "49 dino ki ultee chaal, Dilli hui behal" listing Kejriwal's U-turns and misgovernance during his 49-day government.


text: Other parties such as Bahujan Samaj Party, Poorvanchal Rashtriya Congress, and Janata Dal are also part of the campaign but none have enough candidates to get a majority vote to form the government on their own.


text: On 29 January 2015, the party announced that they would release a vision document before the elections, as full statehood for Delhi was a topic of debate in the party. Although such is the case, beginning 28 January 2015, the BJP's chief ministerial candidate Kiran Bedi has initiated a series of tweets with hashtag #KiransBlueprint detailing her plans for improving Delhi. It has been said that no manifesto by BJP has provided AAP with a "much needed ammunition" in their Election Campaign


text: On 3 February 2015, the BJP's vision document was released publicly. It included 270 points and 35 areas of focus, which included the following:


text: The Election Commission canceled the nomination of 230 candidates during the scrutiny of papers and 693 candidates were deemed valid to contest the polls.


text: Delhi Election Watch and Association for Democratic Reforms (ADR) have analyzed the self-sworn affidavits of all 673 candidates who are contesting in the 2015 Delhi Assembly Elections. There are 70 political parties fielding candidates in these elections. In the previous elections in 2013 77 political parties were contested and in 2008 there were 68 political parties that were in the fray. There are 66 (10%), female candidates, out of 673 candidates contesting this year. In 2013 there were 71(9%), female candidates, out of 810 candidates in the fray, and in 2008 there were 81 (9%) female candidates out of 875 candidates contesting the elections.


text: Polling took place at 12,177 polling stations. As many as 95,000 government officials were deployed for election duty. 16,000 control units 20,000 ballot units were to be used for polling. As for security inside polling booths, 1,200 micro observers oversaw the entire procedure and also reported technical problems in EVM operations. According to the Delhi CEO, a total of 43,235 postal ballots were received in comparison to 41,095 during the Assembly Elections 2013.


text: A record "67.47%" turnout was registered on the election day. The voter turnout was 1.61% higher than 65.86% polling in the 2013 Assembly polls. The polling percentage was 65.07% in the Lok Sabha polls in April 2014.


text: BJP's candidate Surjeet Kumar from Mangolpuri was detained on the night before the Election following allegations of liquor distribution. As per the reports, he was caught distributing liquor to people around 3.30 am. Liquor bottles recovered from a car purportedly owned by him.


text: AAP complained to Election Commission against Kiran Bedi for violating model code of conduct in Krishna Nagar Constituency by holding pad-yatra and asking for votes on the day of Election.


text: On 10 February 2015, counting was held. AAP won 67 seats and BJP just 3. Bharatiya Janata Party's chief ministerial candidate Kiran Bedi lost to Aam Aadmi Party candidate SK Bagga in the Krishna Nagar constituency by 2277 votes. Congress party candidates lost deposits in 63 of the 70 seats, including senior leaders Ajay Maken, Yoganand Shastri, Kiran Walia and Sharmistha Mukherjee. Arvind Kejriwal took oath as the CM of Delhi on 14 February 2015.


text: Second Kejriwal ministry of the Delhi government was formed on 14 February 2015, led by Kejriwal as Delhi's chief minister for a second time at Ramlila Maidan.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: The 2022 Johor state election, formally the 15th Johor general election, took place on 12 March 2022. The election was to elect 56 members of the 15th Johor State Legislative Assembly. The previous assembly was dissolved on 22 January 2022.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: The state election was conducted in the midst of the 2020-22 Malaysian political crisis and the COVID-19 pandemic in Malaysia. The state election is notable for being the first elections to have UNDI18 voters, where 18-year-olds were allowed to vote.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: The snap election was called prematurely after the government led by Menteri Besar Hasni Mohammad had lost a simple majority in the legislature, being left with a minority government of just 28 seats, above one seat against the 27 seats of the opposition following the death of Kempas assemblyman and former Menteri Besar Osman Sapian on 21 December 2021 before the dissolution. The Sultan of Johor, Sultan Ibrahim Ismail consented to the dissolution of the Johor State Legislative Assembly on 22 January 2022.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: The state election is the fourth election after the 2018 general election, resulting in the most non-simultaneous elections between federal and state elections in a single 5-year term of parliament in the nation's history. The state election is also the third election after Ismail Sabri Yaakob took over as Prime Minister in August 2021. The state election would also be the first in which 18-20 year olds are eligible to vote after the gazettement of the constitutional amendment on 15 December 2021.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: Barisan Nasional (BN) continued its landslide winning streak in recent state elections, winning 40 seats and a two-thirds majority. Pakatan Harapan (PH) suffered heavy losses, winning only 12 seats. Perikatan Nasional (PN) won just 3 seats. The Malaysian United Democratic Alliance (MUDA) won 1 seat in its election debut.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: Johor became the fourth state in Malaysia to not hold its state elections simultaneously with national elections, after Sarawak (since 1979), Sabah (since 2020), and Malacca (since 2021).


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: Kelantan (1978–1982) held its state election in March 1978 following a political crisis the previous year, but national elections were held only 4 months later. Since then election cycles in Kelantan have synchronized with national elections.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: Elections in Malaysia are conducted at the federal and state levels. Federal elections elect members of the Dewan Rakyat, the lower house of Parliament, while state elections in each of the 13 states elect members of their respective state legislative assembly. As Malaysia follows the Westminster system of government, the head of government (Prime Minister at the federal level and the Menteri Besar/Chief Ministers at the state level) is the person who commands the confidence of the majority of members in the respective legislature – this is normally the leader of the party or coalition with the majority of seats in the legislature.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: The Legislative Assembly consists of 56 members, known as Members of the Legislative Assembly (MLAs), that are elected for five-year terms. Each MLA is elected from a single-member constituencies using the first-past-the-post voting system; each constituency contains approximately an equal number of voters. If one party obtains a majority of seats, then that party is entitled to form the government, with its leader becoming the Chief Minister. In the event of a hung parliament, where no single party obtains the majority of seats, the government may still form through a coalition or a confidence and supply agreement with other parties. In practice, coalitions and alliances in Malaysia, and by extension, in Johor, generally persist between elections, and member parties do not normally contest for the same seats.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: On 27 February 2022, Health Minister Khairy Jamaluddin said he will review a video depicting former prime minister Najib Razak purportedly violating Covid-19 standard operating procedure (SOP) during a campaign visit in Perling.


title: 2022 Johor state election

text: On 10 March 2022, Khairy revealed that his ministry had issued 42 compound notices for the violation of SOPs during the campaign period for the Johor election, including five to Najib.


title: The West Wing (season 1)

text: The first season of the American political drama television series "The West Wing" aired in the United States on NBC from September 22, 1999 to May 17, 2000 and consisted of 22 episodes.


title: The West Wing (season 1)

text: The first season, which begins in the middle of Bartlet's first year in office, is loaded with images of a West Wing "stuck in neutral" and powerless to govern. Several episodes (notably "Five Votes Down" and "Mr. Willis of Ohio") feature the White House desperately digging for a backdoor through which to pass a particular piece of legislation. This powerlessness ends in "Let Bartlet Be Bartlet" when Leo and the president finally agree to fight any battle they believe to be important, even if they are not sure they can win. The season ends with a cliffhanger assassination attempt with an ominous call over a Secret Service radio: "Who's been hit?! Who's been hit?!"


title: The West Wing (season 1)

text: The first season of "The West Wing" received positive reviews, and scored a Metacritic rating of 79 out of 100, based on 23 reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the season has an approval rating of 96% with an average score of 8.3 out of 10 based on 46 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""The West Wing" is a gripping fantasy of lawmakers and government operatives looking to make a difference, presenting an idealized vision of politicking that audiences can strive toward."


title: The West Wing (season 1)

text: The first season received 18 Emmy Award nominations for the 52nd Primetime Emmy Awards, winning a total of 9 awards. It won for Outstanding Drama Series, Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series (Richard Schiff), Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series (Allison Janney), Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series (Aaron Sorkin and Rick Cleveland for "In Excelsis Deo"), Outstanding Directing for a Drama Series (Thomas Schlamme for "Pilot"), Outstanding Main Title Theme Music (W. G. Snuffy Walden), Outstanding Cinematography for a Single Camera Series (Thomas Del Ruth), Outstanding Art Direction for a Single Camera Series, and Outstanding Casting for a Drama Series. Notable nominations included Martin Sheen for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Drama Series, John Spencer for Outstanding Supporting Actor in a Drama Series, Stockard Channing for Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Drama Series, and Aaron Sorkin for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series for "Pilot".


title: The West Wing (season 1)

text: Thomas Del Ruth received a nomination from the American Society of Cinematographers for the pilot episode.


title: The Prodigy discography

text: English electronic music group the Prodigy has released seven studio albums, one live album, one compilation album, one mix album, three extended plays, twenty-one singles, and twenty-two music videos. Hailed as pioneers of genres such as rave, techno, and big beat, the group have sold over twenty million albums worldwide. As of 9 November 2018 their UK album sales stood at 4,707,982.


title: The Prodigy discography

text: The Prodigy's first release was the 1991 EP "What Evil Lurks". "Experience", the group's debut studio album, was released in September 1992, peaking at number 12 in the United Kingdom and certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry (BPI). "Experience" spawned the singles "Charly", "Everybody in the Place", "Fire" / "Jericho", "Out of Space" and "Wind It Up (Rewound)", all of which were top 12 hits in the United Kingdom. "Music for the Jilted Generation", the group's second studio album, was released in July 1994. The album peaked at number one in the UK, also reaching the top ten in countries such as Australia and New Zealand. Earning a platinum certification from the BPI, "Music for the Jilted Generation" spawned the UK top ten singles "One Love" and "No Good (Start the Dance)".


title: The Prodigy discography

text: The Prodigy's third studio album "The Fat of the Land" was released in June 1997, becoming a huge commercial success. The album peaked at number one in multiple countries, including the United Kingdom and the United States. "The Fat of the Land" received multi-platinum certifications from the BPI, the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA), and the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). "Firestarter", the album's first single, peaked at number one in the United Kingdom and hit the top ten in multiple other countries. It also gave the group their biggest hit in the United States, where it peaked at number 30 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and was certified gold by the RIAA. The album's second single "Breathe" also performed well commercially, reaching the top ten in multiple countries and becoming the group's second consecutive UK number-one hit. "Smack My Bitch Up", the album's final single, peaked at number 8 in the UK.


title: The Prodigy discography

text: The group released their fourth studio album "Always Outnumbered, Never Outgunned" in August 2004. Their style had changed from rave and breakbeat to more of an electronic rock style. The album topped the charts in the United Kingdom, earning a silver certification from the BPI. "Always Outnumbered, Never Outgunned" spawned three singles, including the UK top 20 hit "Girls". "Invaders Must Die", the group's fifth studio album, was released in February 2009. The album became the band's fourth consecutive studio album to top the charts in the UK. Among its four singles were the UK top ten hits "Omen" and "Warrior's Dance", both of which received silver certifications from the BPI.


title: The Prodigy discography

text: "Firestarter" re-entered the UK and US charts in March 2019 following the death of band member Keith Flint.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: The Champions Hockey League is a European first-level ice hockey tournament. Launched in the 2014–15 season by 26 clubs, 6 leagues and the International Ice Hockey Federation (IIHF), the tournament features top teams across Europe.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: The IIHF launched a tournament with the same name in 2008 to coincide with the IIHF's 100th anniversary. The tournament's only season was played between 8 October 2008 and 28 January 2009, and was won by the ZSC Lions who got to play in the 2009 Victoria Cup game as a result. The IIHF planned to launch another season but was ultimately forced to cancel the tournament due to problems finding sponsors during the concurrent global economic crisis and failure to agree on a tournament format. On 9 December 2013, a new tournament with the same name was launched by the IIHF and a group of 26 clubs from six countries, born out of the European Trophy, starting in the 2014–15 season.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: The 2014–15 season was played between August 2014 and February 2015. 44 clubs from 12 European countries participated in the season, divided into 11 groups of four teams each. Each team played a double round-robin in their group, for a total of 6 games per team. The 11 group winners as well as the top five group runners-up qualified for the playoffs. The playoffs were as a single-elimination tournament, with all rounds leading to the final played in two-game, home-and-away, total-goal series. The final was a single game. In total, 161 games were played, including the group and playoff stages. The season was won by Luleå HF which defeated Frölunda HC in the final.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: For the 2015–16 season, the tournament was expanded to 48 teams, divided into 16 groups with three teams in each group. The two first teams in each group advanced to the playoff round of 32. The 48 teams consisted of the 26 founding A-licence clubs, 12 B-licensed clubs from the founding leagues, and 10 C-licensed "Wild card" teams from other leagues. In total, 157 games were played. Frölunda HC won their first Champions League title by beating Oulun Kärpät in the final.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: The 2016–17 season was once more played with 48 teams, using the same format as in the previous season. The season started on 16 August 2016 and ended with the final game on 7 February 2017 with Frölunda defeating Sparta Prague, 4–3 in overtime.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: Starting with the fourth CHL season, the championship was reduced to 32 teams, and qualification was on sporting merits only. The six founding leagues were represented by between three and five teams (based on a three-year league ranking), while eight teams from the "challenge leagues" were represented by one team each. No founding team was qualified automatically.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: The fifth CHL season was competed by 32 teams, and qualification was on sporting merits only. The six founding leagues were represented by between three and five teams (based on a four-year league ranking), while seven "challenge leagues" were represented by one team each. One place was awarded to the Continental Cup champion. Unlike in the first three editions, founding teams did not automatically qualify. The group stages began on 30 August 2018, and ended on 17 October 2018. The season had an average attendance of 3,401 per game, one percent increase from the previous season.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: Swedish team Frölunda HC won their third Champions Hockey League title, defeating Red Bull München, the first German team to reach the final, 3–1 at the Scandinavium in Gothenburg.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: The sixth CHL season had 32 teams competing, and qualification was again on sporting merits only. The six founding leagues were represented by between three and five teams (based on a three-year league ranking), while seven "challenge leagues" were represented by one team each. One place was awarded to the champion of the 2018–19 Champions Hockey League as well as a wild card spot selected by the board.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: Swedish team Frölunda HC successfully defended their Champions Hockey League title, defeating Czech team Mountfield HK 3–1 in the final to win the European Trophy for a fourth time. For the first time in the history of the league, the final was held in the Czech Republic as Mountfield HK earned the right to host the game at ČPP Arena.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: The seventh CHL season had 32 teams competing with qualification being on sporting merits only. The six founding leagues were represented by between three and five teams (based on a three-year league ranking) while seven "challenge leagues" were represented by their national champions. One place was awarded to the champion of the 2019–20 Champions Hockey League as well as two wild card spots selected by the board to replace the national champions of Belarus and Slovakia. The season was marked by participation of the first Ukrainian team, HC Donbass.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: Swedish team Rögle BK in their debut season beat Finnish team Tappara 2–1 in the final at their home Catena Arena in Ängelholm to win the European Trophy for the first time.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: Since the 2017–18 season, 32 teams again participate in the group stage, with 24 of the entries coming from the six founding leagues (Swedish Hockey League, Finnish Liiga, Swiss National League A, Czech Extraliga, German DEL and Austrian/international EBEL) and all berths being earned through on-ice achievement: the "founding clubs" are no longer guaranteed a place in the competition. A maximum of five teams from each country are permitted, with the entries allotted to each country according to a coefficient system (best two leagues get five berths, next two get four, last two get three). The remaining eight places are given to the champions of the Norwegian, Slovak, French, Belarusian, Danish, British and Polish leagues, as well as the champion of the Continental Cup. The teams are then drawn into eight groups of four, with the top two teams in each group advancing to the knockout stage, which is contested as two-legged ties until a one-match final.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: In the first three years of the competition, the 26 founding teams had guaranteed spots in the group stage ("A license"). Additional teams from the founding league, that qualified based on sporting merits ("B license") and the champions from other European leagues ("C license") completed the field.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: Each match is counted for league ranking points. Points collected by all teams from a specific league are summed up and then divided by number of teams from that league. The final result represents the league's coefficient for that year. Coefficients are then sorted from highest to lowest: the best league gets 100 points with each following getting five points less than previous one (95, 90, 85...).


title: Champions Hockey League

text: The last four seasons are taken into account for berth allocation for the 2018–19 season. League points are made of 25% of points won in first season, 50% of points won in second season, 75% of points won in third season and 100% of points won in last, fourth season.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: For the 2018–19 season, each of the four previous seasons was taken into account and starting with 2019–20 season each will be based on points from last five seasons.


title: Champions Hockey League

text: The winner of the Competition receives the "European Trophy", named after the tournament European Trophy which was a predecessor to the Champions Hockey League.


title: Aérospatiale

text: Aérospatiale (), sometimes styled Aerospatiale, was a French state-owned aerospace manufacturer that built both civilian and military aircraft, rockets and satellites. It was originally known as Société nationale industrielle aérospatiale (SNIAS). Its head office was in the 16th arrondissement of Paris. The name was changed to Aérospatiale during 1970.


title: Aérospatiale

text: During the 1990s, Aérospatiale underwent several significant restructures and mergers. Its helicopter division was, along with Germany's DaimlerBenz Aerospace AG (DASA), combined to form the Eurocopter Group. In 1999, the majority of Aérospatiale, except for its satellite activities, merged with French conglomerate Matra's defense wing, Matra Haute Technologie, to form Aérospatiale-Matra. That same year, the satellite manufacturing division merged with Alcatel to become Alcatel Space, now Thales Alenia Space. In 2001, Aérospatiale-Matra merged with Spanish aviation company Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA (CASA) and German defense firm DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (DASA) to form the multinational European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS). Currently, the majority of the former assets of the company are part of the multinational Airbus consortium.


title: Aérospatiale

text: During 1970, "Aérospatiale" was created under the name "SNIAS" as a result of the merger of several French state-owned companies - Sud Aviation, Nord Aviation and Société d'étude et de réalisation d'engins balistiques (SEREB). The newly formed entity was the largest aerospace company in France. From the onset, the French government owned a controlling stake in Aérospatiale; at one stage, a 97 per cent ownership of the company was held by the government.


title: Aérospatiale

text: In 1971, Aérospatiale was managed by the French industrialist Henri Ziegler; that same year, the firm's North American marketing and sales arm, which had previously operated under the trading name of the "French Aerospace Corporation", was officially rebranded as the "European Aerospace Corporation", which was intended to better reflect Aérospatiale's increasing focus on collaborative efforts with its European partners.


title: Aérospatiale

text: Many of Aérospatiale's initial programmes were holdovers from its predecessors, particularly those of Sud Aviation. Perhaps the most high-profile of these programmes was Concorde, a joint French-British attempt to develop and market a supersonic commercial airliner. Initial work on this project had begun at Sud Aviation and the Bristol Aeroplane Company, its British counterpart. The engines for Concorde were also developed as a joint Anglo-French effort between SNECMA and Bristol Siddeley. However, the programme was highly politicised and encountered considerable cost overruns and delays. Ultimately, it was negatively affected equally by bad political decisions and an oil crisis in the 1970s; thus, only two airlines purchased Concorde.


title: Aérospatiale

text: Aérospatiale's senior management were keen to avoid the mistakes of the Concorde program. Their next major effort was would be an international consortium between British Aerospace and West German's aircraft company Messerschmitt-Bolkow-Blohm (MBB), called Airbus Industries.


title: Aérospatiale

text: This was established with the purpose of building a twin-engined widebody airliner, known as the A300. While at first, it was difficult to achieve sales and the outlook for the A300 seemed negative. However, Aérospatiale continued to manufacture the airliner without orders, as it could not reasonably cut back production as French law required that laid-off employees were to receive 90 percent of their pay for a year as well as to retain their health benefits throughout.


title: Aérospatiale

text: Sales of the A300 picked up and the type eventually became a major commercial success, subsequently driving both the American Lockheed L-1011 and the McDonnell Douglas DC-10 from the market due to its cheaper operating model. On the back of this success, further airliners would be produced under the Airbus brand and the company would become a world leader in the field of large commercial aircraft during the 1990s.


title: Aérospatiale

text: Aérospatiale played a leading role in the development of the European space sector. During the 1960s, Sud Aviation had been involved in a multinational European programme to produce the Europa space launch vehicle, this being a three-stage rocket with


title: Aérospatiale

text: the separate stages being manufactured in Britain, France, and Germany respectively. However, all of the flight tests conducted were failures; the programme's misfortune has been attributed to there being no central authority responsible for operations. This came was a result of the issue of workshare becoming highly politicized.


title: Aérospatiale

text: When Aérospatiale stepped in, during 1973, it was determined not to repeat the mistakes of Europa. The company proposed to build a new heavy launch vehicle, which would later be called the Ariane, to take the place of Europa. While other European nations were invited to participate, it would be French officials who would hold primary responsibility, and thus, make the most important decisions. This approach was agreed upon with several other nations; during 1979.


title: Aérospatiale

text: Ariane was an immediate success, allowing the French to gain a strong advantage over the United States, which had centred its efforts on the Space Shuttle. However, the "Challenger" disaster during 1986 showed that it was too complex for routine use as a satellite launch platform. Aérospatiale went on to develop more capable versions of the Ariane, which took much of the business of space launches away from the Americans during the 1990s.


title: Aérospatiale

text: In 1992, German defense company DaimlerBenz Aerospace AG (DASA) and Aérospatiale combined their respective helicopter divisions together to form the Eurocopter Group; ownership of this new entity was shared between the two parent companies.


title: Aérospatiale

text: During the late 1990s, French Prime Minister Lionel Jospin's Plural Left government initiated a policy towards the privatization of Aérospatiale. In 1999, the majority of Aérospatiale, except for the satellites activities, merged with French conglomerate Matra's defense wing, Matra Haute Technologie, to form Aérospatiale-Matra. During 2001, Aérospatiale-Matra's missile division underwent a further merger with Anglo-French outfit Matra BAe Dynamics and the missile division of Alenia Marconi Systems to form the multinational MBDA entity.


title: Aérospatiale

text: On 10 July 2000, Aérospatiale-Matra merged with Spanish aviation company Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA (CASA) and German defense firm DaimlerChrysler Aerospace AG (DASA) to form the multinational European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company (EADS). EADS would later rebrand itself as Airbus Military, taking the name of its commercial aircraft division, its primary business.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: Pyoderma gangrenosum is a rare, inflammatory skin disease where painful pustules or nodules become ulcers that progressively grow. Pyoderma gangrenosum is not infectious.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: The disease was identified in 1930. It affects approximately 1 person in 100,000 in the population. Though it can affect people of any age, it mostly affects people in their 40s and 50s.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: Though the cause is not well understood, the disease is thought to be due to immune system dysfunction, and particularly improper functioning of neutrophils. In support of an immune cause, a variety of immune mediators such as interleukin (IL)-8, IL-1β, IL-6, interferon (IFN)-γ, granulocyte colony-stimulating factor, tumor necrosis factor alpha, matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9, MMP10, and elafin have all been reported to be elevated in patients with pyoderma gangrenosum.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: Also in support of an immune cause is the finding that at least half of all pyoderma gangrenosum patients suffer from immune-mediated diseases. For instance, ulcerative colitis, rheumatoid arthritis, and multiple myeloma (MM) have all been associated with pyoderma gangrenosum. It can also be part of a syndromes such as PAPA syndrome.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: One hallmark of pyoderma gangrenosum is pathergy, which is the appearance of new lesions at sites of trauma, including surgical wounds.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: Diagnosis of PG is challenging owing to its variable presentation, clinical overlap with other conditions, association with several systemic diseases, and absence of defining histopathologic or laboratory findings. Misdiagnosis and delayed diagnosis are common. It has been shown that up to 39% of patients who initially received a diagnosis of PG have an alternative diagnosis. In light of this, validated diagnostic criteria have recently been developed for ulcerative pyoderma gangrenosum.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: In addition to a biopsy demonstrating a neutrophilic infiltrate, patients must have at least 4 minor criteria to meet diagnostic criteria. These criteria are based on histology, history, clinical examination and treatment.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: First-line therapy for disseminated or localized instances of pyoderma gangrenosum is systemic treatment with corticosteroids and ciclosporin. Topical application of clobetasol, mupirocin, and gentamicin alternated with tacrolimus can be effective. Pyoderma gangrenosum ulcers demonstrate pathergy, that is, a worsening in response to minor trauma or surgical debridement. Significant care should be taken with dressing changes to prevent potentially rapid wound growth. Many patients respond differently to different types of treatment, for example some benefit from a moist environment, so treatment should be carefully evaluated at each stage.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: Papules that begin as small "spouts" can be treated with Dakin's solution to prevent infection and wound clusters also benefit from this disinfectant. Wet to dry applications of Dakins can defeat spread of interior infection. Heavy drainage can be offset with Coban dressings. Grafting is not recommended due to tissue necrosis.


title: Pyoderma gangrenosum

text: If ineffective, alternative therapeutic procedures include systemic treatment with corticosteroids and mycophenolate mofetil; mycophenolate mofetil and ciclosporin; tacrolimus; thalidomide; infliximab; or plasmapheresis.


title: Screen time

text: Screen time is the amount of time spent using a device with a screen such as a smartphone, computer, television, or video game console. The concept is under significant research with related concepts in digital media use and mental health. Screen time is correlated with mental and physical harm in child development. The positive or negative health effects of screen time are influenced by levels and content of exposure. To prevent harmful exposure to screen time, some governments have placed regulations on its usage.


title: Screen time

text: The first electronic screen was the cathode ray tube (CRT), which was invented in 1897 and commercialized in 1922. CRT's were the most popular choice for display screens until the rise of liquid crystal displays (LCDs) in the early 2000s. Screens are now an essential part of entertainment, advertising, and information technologies.


title: Screen time

text: Since their popularization in 2007, smartphones have become ubiquitous in daily life. In 2019, 81% of American adults reported owning a smartphone, up from 64% in 2015. An American survey in 2016 found a median of 3.7 minutes per hour of screen time over a 30-day period.


title: Screen time

text: All forms of screens are frequently used by children and teens. Nationally representative data of children and teens in the United States show that the daily average of screen time increases with age. TV and video games were once largest contributors to children's screen time, but the past decade has seen a shift towards smart phones and tablets. Specifically, a 2011 nationally representative survey of American parents of children from birth to age 8 suggests that TV accounted for 51% of children's total daily screen time, while mobile devices only accounted for 4%. However, in 2017, TV dropped down to 42% of children's total daily screen time, and mobile media devices jumped up to 35%.


title: Screen time

text: Research has shown that race and socioeconomic class are associated with overall screen time. Younger demographics and individuals who self-identified as Black and "Other" were associated with above average screen use. Additionally, Black and Latino Americans had longer screen times because of less access to desktop computer, which thus leads to more time on phones. In children, the divide is much larger. On average in 2011, White children spent 8.5 hours a day with digital media, and Black and Latino children spent about 13 hours a day on screens. Black and Latino children were also more likely to have TVs in their rooms, which contributed to their increased use of screen time.


title: Screen time

text: The discrepancy in the amount of screen time can also be attributed to a difference in income. In more affluent private schools, there has been a larger push to remove screens from education in order to limit the negative impacts that have been found from screen time. However, in public schools there is more push for the use of technology with some public schools advertising free iPads and laptops to students. Additionally, affluent families are able to afford nannies and extracurriculars that can limit the need for entertainment from screens.


title: Screen time

text: The COVID-19 pandemic increased screen time as people stayed indoors, adding to concerns about the effects of excessive screen time. Specialists called for limiting screen time and for living a more active lifestyle.