title: Screen time

text: More screen-time has been linked with shorter sleep duration, decreased sleep efficiency, and longer sleep onset delay. When using any screen before bedtime, the blue light emitted disrupts the body's natural melatonin hormone production. Melatonin is produced by the brain's pineal gland and controls the body's internal clock. This clock is what is referred to as the body's circadian rhythm and it naturally is responsive to light. Melatonin levels increase as the sun sets and remain at that increased state for the remainder of the night. As the sun rises, melatonin levels start to drop. This hormone reduction is what helps the body's natural rhythm wake up due to the bursts of natural sunlight. The light screens emit are in a similar spectrum of sunlight, but the blue light emission is what human circadian rhythms are most sensitive to. Studies have shown that the blue wavelengths are closely correlated to those from sunlight, which is what helps the body keep in sync with the sunrise and sunset. Therefore, using any screen prior to bedtime disrupts the body's production of natural bedtime hormones which can trick the brain to believe it is still daytime making it harder to fall asleep.


title: Screen time

text: Increased use of screens in children has also been shown to have an association with adverse effects on the quality of sleep in children. A 2010 review concluded that "the use of electronic media by children and adolescents does have a negative impact on their sleep, although the precise effects and mechanisms remain unclear", with the most consistent results associating excessive media use with shorter sleep duration and delayed bed times. A 2016 meta-analysis found that "Bedtime access and use of media devices was significantly associated with inadequate sleep quantity; poor sleep quality; and excessive daytime sleepiness". This relationship is because much of the time spent on screens for children is at night, which can cause them to go to sleep later in addition to the blue light from the screens making it more difficult to sleep.


title: Screen time

text: Night-time use of screens is common for Americans ages 12–18: A 2018 nationally representative survey found that 70% use their mobile device within 30 minutes of going to sleep. Data suggests those who had spent more time on their screens were more likely to wake in the night from notifications on their phone, or experience disruptive sleep. In a series of nationally representative surveys, 36% of Americans age 12-18 and 35% of Mexican teens age 13-18 woke up during the night before to check their mobile device. For American children and teens, 54% of those did so because of getting a notification and 51% did so because of the desire to check social media. Content that stirs emotions has been linked with a delay in the onset of sleep.


title: Screen time

text: Many apps promise to improve sleep by filtering out blue light produced by media devices; there have been no large studies to assess whether such apps work. Some users express dissatisfaction with the resultant orange tint of screens. Some people use blue-blocking glasses, for the purpose of attempting to block out blue light both from electronic media and from other artificial light sources. The American Academy of Pediatrics recommends screen time for children be limited for multiple reasons, among them that "Too much screen time can also harm the amount and quality of sleep".


title: Screen time

text: As well as negatively impacting the adult sleep cycle, using screens can also affect one's physical health. Obesity is a common result of spending great amounts of time on screens like a television, video games, a smartphone, or a computer screen. Studies have shown that if the amount of screen time adolescents spend was limited, the likelihood of obesity can be reduced.


title: Screen time

text: This sedentary behavior is largely due to the nature of most electronic activities. Sitting to watch television, playing computer games or surfing the Internet takes time away from physical activities which leads to an increased risk of weight gain. It has been found that children (kindergarten and 1st graders) who watch 1–2 hours of television a day are more likely to be overweight or obese than children who watch less than one hour a day. Additionally, one study showed that the increased use of video games and other forms of media consumption led to more back pain among Norwegian teens.


title: Screen time

text: It has been reported that screen time negatively affects health in children independently of their physical activity and eating habits. One possible explanation for the link between TV and obesity is the number of commercials for sugary and unhealthy foods. This advertising can have an effect on what gets purchased and consumed in a household. The effect of advertising was demonstrated in a study where children were shown cartoons with and without food commercials. The children who watched the food commercials along with the cartoons ate 45% more unhealthy snacks than the group who watched the cartoons without food ads.


title: Screen time

text: As previously discussed, sleep and screen time are heavily impacted by the other and can lead to affecting one's behavior as well. If someone does not get an adequate amount of sleep, it can affect their behavior and performance for the day. High amounts of screen time also can significantly affect a person's mental health, although some have called these findings into question. With screen usage increasing as time progresses, adults have begun spending more and more time focusing their attention of screens. This time spent sitting and viewing a screen has been linked to mental health effects such as anxiety and depression. Adults who spend six hours or greater using screen time are more likely to suffer from moderate to severe depression. This increased use in screen time has been shown to be directly correlated with an increased chance of depression in adults. With this added risk, lack of sleep plays a major role in a healthy mindset, and without proper rest, mental health can degrade at a higher rate.


title: Screen time

text: An increase in screen time has been associated with negative cognitive outcomes for children between 0 and 4. A study on Korean children aged 24–30 months old found that toddlers with 3 hours of TV viewing per day were three times as likely to experience a language delay. Toddlers with higher TV time also scored lower on school readiness tests, which measured vocabulary, number knowledge, and classroom engagement. The same outcomes are not present in children older than 4. Children who watched more TV were found to have less brain connectivity between language, visual and cognitive control regions of the brain than their peers who watched less TV.


title: Screen time

text: An ongoing study reported from the National Institutes of Health concluded that preteens who spent over 7 hours on screens a day and children who spend less than 7 hours a day had noticeably different development of their cerebral cortex. This part of the brain usually thins as people mature but the accelerated decrease could potentially be linked to amounts spent on screens.


title: Screen time

text: The American Academy of Pediatrics recommend for children in age 3 - 5, a screen time not longer than 1 hour per day. According to study published in November 2019, children who have a longer screen time, have slower brain development, what hurt "skills like imagery, mental control and self-regulation". The scientists add that: "This is important because the brain is developing the most rapidly in the first five years," "That's when brains are very plastic and soaking up everything, forming these strong connections that last for life." They also stated that screens changed childhood rapidly. The over exposure also hurts skills of literacy, cognition and language.


title: Screen time

text: Screen use has been implicated with a slew of behavioral effects, especially in children. The primary effect is an increase in sedentary activity. Approximately 47% of American children spend 2 or more hours per day on screen-based sedentary activities. Research results indicated children who had high amounts of screen time had delayed white matter development, decreased ability to rapidly name objects, and poorer literacy skills. This is in contrast with the 25.5% who reported at least 20 minutes of physical per day for a week. Additionally, the likelihood of a child participating in physical activity has been shown to decrease with increasing screen use.


title: Screen time

text: Lindsay Kneteman says technology makes kids more aggressive and that it is more difficult to take kids off of electronic devices without having to argue and fight. She argues that screen time releases dopamine, a type of neurotransmitter that is associated with pleasure, which makes it harder for people to get off of their electronic devices. This means that when they stop using their electronic devices, the process of releasing dopamine stops as well, and for some people, this can cause irritability.


title: Screen time

text: Academic performance can be improved by screen time depending on the length and content of exposure. Toddlers after the age of 18 months can be exposed to high-quality programming such as Sesame Street or PBS that provide educational television. The right content can prove beneficial, but too much screen time distracts students from studying. It is important for parents to establish a limit to how much screen time their children can use per day. Limiting and monitoring children's screen usage can increase cognitive development, but further research is required to get a better understanding of how screen time positively affects academic performance. On the other hand, increased screen use has been associated with missing school assignments. Students who used screens for more than two hours a day are twice as likely to not turn in homework on a regular basis. It is yet to be proven that screen time can significantly enhance academic performance, but it is known that increased use in screen time distracts students from focusing on class assignments.


title: Screen time

text: More screen time generally leads to less time spent in nature and therefore a weaker connection to it. Studies show nature inspired activities simultaneously decrease for youth in financially stabilized countries with mental health issues becoming a connection to higher screen time levels. However, the higher the count in activities spent experiencing the outdoors produced positive results in mental health among adolescents.


title: Screen time

text: Digital technologies emitted approximately 4% of world Greenhouse-gas emissions in the year 2019 and the number could be two times larger by the year 2025. For comparison, the paper pulp and print industries emitted together about 1% in 2010 and about 0.9% in 2012


title: Screen time

text: There is no consensus on the safe amount of screen time for adults. Ideally, adults should limit their screen time similar to children and only use screens for about two hours a day. However, many adults spend up to 11 hours a day looking at a screen. Adults many times work jobs that require viewing screens which leads to the high screen time usage. Adults obligated to view screens for a means of work may not be able to use screen time less than two hours, but there are other recommendations that help mitigate negative health effects. For example, breaking up continuous blocks of screen time usage by stretching, maintaining good posture, and intermittently focusing on a distant object for 20 seconds. Furthermore, to mitigate the behavioral effects, adults are encouraged not to eat in front of a screen to avoid habit formation and to keep track of their screen use every day. Specialists also recommend that adults analyze their daily screen time usage and replace some of the unnecessary usage with a physical activity or social event.


title: Screen time

text: In 2019, the World Health Organization came out with guidelines about media use for children under 5:


title: Screen time

text: More extensive guidelines have been put forth by the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP) in 2016 for children up to age 5, which include screen time, the quality of content used, and "how" parents are using screens with their children. The screen time limits are as follows:


title: Screen time

text: In addition to these screen time guidelines, the AAP recommends that when screen time does occur, the content should be high-quality, educational, slower-paced, and free of violence. Caregivers should avoid giving apps to children that have highly distracting content.


title: Screen time

text: They also recommend that families try to use media with their child so that they can help explain what content is on the screen and how it applies to their own lives. They recommend to turn off devices (including TVs) when the child is not actively using them and to keep bedrooms as screen-free zones. Additionally, they recommend that screens should be put away at least 1 hour before bedtime.


title: Screen time

text: For children from ages 5 to 18, the AAP came out with recommendations in 2016 that focus less on the amount of screen time and more on how media is being used. They recommend children and teens should keep devices (including TVs) out of the bedroom during bedtime, and screens should be put away at least 1 hour before bedtime. They recommend that caregivers discourage children and teens to use screens during homework for entertainment purposes. Additionally, they recommend that families come up with a "Family Use Plan" that aligns with their family's needs, values, and goals. This plan should have consistent guidelines and limits for each family member, and families should consider having designated times of the day and areas in the house that are screen-free.


title: Brent Burns

text: During the shortened 2012–13 season and continuing through the 2013–14 season, the Sharks used Burns as a forward. Starting with the 2014–15 season, he was returned to defence. At the end of the 2015–16 season, Burns finished third in voting for the James Norris Memorial Trophy (awarded to the NHL's best defenceman); one year later, at the end of the 2016–17 season, Burns won the award for the first time in his career.


title: Brent Burns

text: Burns was drafted by the Minnesota Wild in the first round, 20th overall, in the 2003 NHL Entry Draft. He spent most of his minor hockey career playing for the Barrie Icemen and Ajax Knights of the Ontario Minor Hockey Association (OMHA). He spent two years playing in the Metropolitan Toronto Hockey league (MTHL), now called the Greater Toronto Hockey League (GTHL), for the North York Canadiens, along with fellow NHL draftees Anthony Stewart and Geoff Platt. Burns then played his Ontario Hockey League (OHL) career as a right winger with the Brampton Battalion in the 2002–03 season. He led the team in playoff scoring that season with five goals and six assists in 11 games. Burns was runner-up for Most Improved Player in the OHL as voted on by Leagues coaches.


title: Brent Burns

text: Upon turning professional with the Wild in 2003, Burns was converted to defence by defensively-minded Minnesota Head Coach Jacques Lemaire. He made his NHL debut with the Wild on October 8, 2003, against the Chicago Blackhawks, and scored his first NHL goal in his third game, against the Sharks. Burns played in 36 games with Minnesota in the 2003–04 season, showing flashes of natural ability in rushing from the blueline. After spending the 2004–05 NHL lock-out in the American Hockey League (AHL) with the Houston Aeros, Burns adapted as a defenceman and earned a regular spot on the Wild roster for the 2005–06 season, contributing 16 points in 72 games.


title: Brent Burns

text: In the 2006–07 season, Burns eclipsed his previous season's points total with 25 and became a significant force for the Wild in the latter months of the season, scoring back-to-back overtime winners in March and engaging in two fights during the 2007 Stanley Cup playoffs.


title: Brent Burns

text: On October 25, 2007, during the 2007–08 season, Burns signed a four-year contract extension with the Wild. He emerged as one of the Wild's top defencemen, scoring a career-high 15 goals and 43 points.


title: Brent Burns

text: In the 2008–09 season, Burns was regularly shifted between forward and defence with mild success before he was eventually hampered by a concussion that caused him to miss the final 19 games of the regular season. Burns' concussion was later a point of scrutiny when his agent, Ron Salcer, stipulated that Wild staff had misdiagnosed his symptoms for six weeks with sinusitis, putting Burns at an increased health risk. Burns then had shoulder surgery upon the completion of the Wild season. He finished the injury-marred season with 27 points.


title: Brent Burns

text: Burns suffered another concussion briefly into his 2009–10 season, beginning to skate again only on January 14. He finished another injury-filled season with 20 points in 47 games. On November 12, 2010, Burns was suspended for two games for hitting Florida Panthers forward Steve Bernier. Burns hit Bernier on the chin with the knob of the stick, causing Bernier to bleed profusely.


title: Brent Burns

text: During the 2011 NHL Entry Draft, Burns, along with a second-round draft pick in 2012, was traded to the San Jose Sharks in exchange for Devin Setoguchi, Charlie Coyle and a first-round pick in 2011. With a year still left in his contract with the Wild, Burns signed a five-year contract extension on August 1, 2011, with the Sharks; the deal would pay him $28.8 million over five years, with an average salary cap figure of $5.76 million. In 2013, after rookie defenceman Matt Irwin's acquisition by the Sharks, in March, Burns was moved to forward, where he scored 20 points in 23 regular season games. In the 2013–14 season, Burns played the first eight games of the season, but missed 13 games after October 21 due to sore gums. On November 21, Burns returned to the Sharks' line-up and scored a goal against the Tampa Bay Lightning in a 5–1 winning effort. On November 29, against the St. Louis Blues, Burns recorded his first career hat-trick in a 6–3 victory.


title: Brent Burns

text: In August 2014, the Sharks announced that Burns would move back to defense where he scored 17 goals and finished tied for second among NHL defensemen with 60 points. Burns also won the NHL Foundation Player Award for outstanding charitable and community work.


title: Brent Burns

text: He had a breakout season in 2015–16, finishing with 75 points (27 goals, 48 assists), then had 24 points (seven goals, 17 assists) in 24 Stanley Cup Playoff games to help the Sharks reach the Final for the first time since entering the NHL in 1991.


title: Brent Burns

text: On November 22, 2016, Burns signed an eight-year $64 million contract extension with the Sharks through 2024–25, with an average annual value of $8 million per year.


title: Brent Burns

text: In 2017, Burns won the James Norris Memorial Trophy as the league's best defenceman. He was also nominated for the Ted Lindsay Award, awarded annually to the league's best player as voted by the National Hockey League Players Association.


title: Brent Burns

text: On July 13, 2022, the Sharks traded Burns and Lane Pederson to the Carolina Hurricanes in exchange for forward Steven Lorentz, goaltending prospect Eetu Makiniemi, and a third-round selection in the 2023 NHL Entry Draft.


title: Brent Burns

text: Burns was named the best defenceman at the 2008 World Championships as he helped Canada to a silver medal finish as the host country. Two years later, at the 2010 World Championships, Burns led all Canadian defencemen in ice time at 18:29 minutes per game as Canada finished in seventh place. He was also part of the summer camp roster for Canada in the 2010 Winter Olympics, though he did not make the final roster cut. At the 2015 World Championships Burns was again named the best defenceman, and a member of the all-star team, as part of Canada's gold medal-winning team.


title: Brent Burns

text: Off the ice, Burns spends his summers in Barrie, Ontario, and Lake Elmo, Minnesota, and is a noted animal enthusiast. His suburban Saint Paul home is nicknamed "Burns Zoo" due to his collection of dogs, cats and dozens of reptiles, mainly snakes. Burns Zoo was subject of a CBC "Hockey Night in Canada" feature with Elliotte Friedman and on "After Hours".


title: Brent Burns

text: Starting in the 2009 season, Burns purchased a suite at the Xcel Energy Center for members of the military and their families to attend Minnesota Wild home games.


title: Brent Burns

text: Burns also owns and operates a ranch in Texas where he raises and maintains many species of exotic animals, including Wildebeest, Fallow deer, and more. For his 1000th game, his fellow San Jose Sharks teammates bought him two antelopes to add to his animal collection.


title: Brent Burns

text: Burns made his acting debut with a 2-episodes role in season 6 of "Vikings" as an ambitious raider named Skane.


title: Matt Birk

text: Matthew Robert Birk (born July 23, 1976) is a former American football center who played in the National Football League (NFL) for 14 seasons. He spent most of his professional career playing for the Minnesota Vikings. He was the Republican nominee for Lieutenant Governor of Minnesota running alongside Scott Jensen in the 2022 Minnesota gubernatorial election.


title: Matt Birk

text: Born and raised in Saint Paul, Minnesota, Birk played college football at Harvard University. He graduated from Harvard with a degree in economics and entered the 1998 NFL Draft. He was drafted towards the end of the draft by the Minnesota Vikings. He spent his first two seasons with the Vikings as a backup offensive lineman. He became the starting center in 2000 and went on to be selected to six Pro Bowls and two All-Pro second-teams during his career with the Vikings. As a free agent following the 2008 season, Birk left the Vikings and joined the Baltimore Ravens. After the Ravens won Super Bowl XLVII, Birk retired from the NFL. In 2011 he was awarded the Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award.


title: Matt Birk

text: Following his retirement in 2012, Birk returned to Minnesota. He started a Catholic school in Burnsville, Minnesota in 2019. Active in anti-abortion causes and local Republican politics, Birk joined Jensen's gubernatorial candidacy in March 2022. Jensen and Birk faced incumbents Tim Walz and Peggy Flanagan in the general election and lost the race.


title: Matt Birk

text: Birk attended Cretin-Derham Hall High School in St. Paul, Minnesota, and was a letterman and standout in football, basketball, and track and field. He was an All-St. Paul Conference honoree, an Academic All-State honoree, and an All-State honoree in both football and basketball. Birk graduated from Cretin-Derham in 1994.


title: Matt Birk

text: Birk attended Harvard University to play college football for the Harvard Crimson. He attained All-Ivy League, All-New England and Division I-AA All-Eastern College Athletic Conference first-team football honors. Birk graduated from Harvard University in 1998 with a degree in economics.


title: Matt Birk

text: Ranked as the No. 16 offensive tackle available, Birk was selected by the Minnesota Vikings in the sixth round with the 173rd overall pick of the 1998 NFL Draft. He was described by "Sports Illustrated" as "maybe the best Ivy League prospect to come along in several years", who "could be a nice developmental type pick".


title: Matt Birk

text: During his first two seasons with the Vikings, he appeared in 22 games as a backup offensive lineman. In 2000, he took over the starting center position for the Vikings, starting all 16 games and was named to his first Pro Bowl team. Birk started every game for the Vikings at center from 2000 to 2003.


title: Matt Birk

text: In 2004, Birk missed the last four games of the season due to surgery to treat a sports hernia. He missed the entire 2005 season with a hip injury that required surgery.


title: Matt Birk

text: Birk returned to form in 2006, anchoring the Vikings offensive line from the center spot and earning his fifth career Pro Bowl selection. In 2007, Birk was named Minnesota Vikings Man of the Year for the sixth year in a row. He also earned his sixth Pro Bowl selection, tying Mick Tingelhoff for most Pro Bowl appearances by a Vikings center.


title: Matt Birk

text: In 2010 Minnesota Vikings season, the 50th anniversary of the Minnesota Vikings, he was ranked by the team as one of their 50 greatest players.


title: Matt Birk

text: He returned to the Vikings’ home stadium, the Hubert H. Humphrey Metrodome, for the team's final game in the stadium before its demolition for the construction of U.S. Bank Stadium. The team named him honorary captain for the finale game.


title: Matt Birk

text: In rankings since his career with the Vikings, he has been ranked as one of the team's greatest players.


title: Matt Birk

text: An unrestricted free agent in the 2009 offseason, Birk signed a three-year, $12 million contract with the Baltimore Ravens on March 4. The deal included $6 million guaranteed.


title: Matt Birk

text: In March 2012, Birk signed a new three-year deal with the Ravens. He won his first career championship during Super Bowl XLVII against the San Francisco 49ers. Birk announced his retirement on February 22, 2013.


title: Matt Birk

text: Birk was briefly the NFL director of football development. In 2019, he co-founded (with Tom Bengtson) a private Catholic high school, Unity Catholic High School, in Burnsville, Minnesota. He has also been involved in politics in the Minnesota Republican Party.


title: Matt Birk

text: Birk, who has had three concussions since high school, announced in February 2013 his intentions to donate his brain to the Boston University School of Medicine for research into chronic traumatic encephalopathy.


title: Matt Birk

text: In 2012, Birk spoke out against same-sex marriage, filming a video in opposition to a new Maryland law legalizing same-sex marriage. The law was the subject of a Maryland ballot referendum (Question 6); voters upheld the law. Also in 2012, Birk wrote an op-ed, published in the "Star Tribune", calling for passage of the Minnesota Marriage Amendment that would amend that state's constitution to prohibit gay marriage. Birk suggested that legal recognition of same-sex unions would harm "the broader well-being of children and the welfare of society." The same-sex marriage ban proposal was defeated in the fall election and same-sex marriage was legalized in Minnesota in 2013.


title: Matt Birk

text: After the Ravens won Super Bowl XLVII, Birk chose not to attend the celebratory meeting with President Barack Obama, citing Obama's recent comments in support of Planned Parenthood as contrasting Birk's Catholic and anti-abortion views. In January 2018, Birk spoke at the 45th annual March for Life.


title: Matt Birk

text: In March 2022, Republican Scott Jensen announced Birk as his running mate in his gubernatorial campaign, challenging Governor Tim Walz and Lieutenant Governor Peggy Flanagan. In addition to being known as an outspoken conservative who opposes same-sex marriage, Birk also expressed skepticism of the government's response to the COVID-19 pandemic. The party endorsed the ticket in May 2022, with Birk's selection appealing to Republican base voters. Scott and Birk generally trailed in surveys of Minnesota voters. Walz and Flanagan released copies of their tax returns ahead of the election, while Jensen and Birk declined to do so.


title: Matt Birk

text: Following the U.S. Supreme Court decision overturning the landmark ruling of "Roe v. Wade", Birk spoke at a June 2022 National Right To Life convention in Georgia where he compared legalized abortion to slavery, saying that proponents treat unborn children as the "property of the mother". Birk said in the same speech that American culture "loudly but also stealthily promotes" abortion by prioritizing women's careers over motherhood. He also criticized the termination of pregnancies resulting from rape, saying that abortion would not heal those wounds. His comments were criticized by opponent Peggy Flanagan (who said that Birk "does not trust or respect women") as well as others.


title: Matt Birk

text: As a candidate, Birk had a "flashy and combative" style, which caused consternation among some fellow Minnesota Republicans. Birk personally attacked Minnesota Republican activist Michael Brodkorb (a critic of Birk) on Twitter, after Brodkorb highlighted a KSTP/SurveyUSA poll showing Walz ahead of Jensen by 18 percentage points. Birk played an atypically large role on the ticket, maintained his own campaign website, campaign material, and yard signs separate from Jensen's. Less than eight weeks before Election Day, Birk traveled to deliver a speech to an insurance industry networking conference outside Baltimore, Maryland.


title: Matt Birk

text: He was named the sixth-smartest athlete in 2010 by the "Sporting News". Birk scored a 46 on the Wonderlic Test, the seventh-highest score in NFL history.


title: Matt Birk

text: Birk is an anti-abortion activist. His wife volunteers at a crisis pregnancy center and he participated in the Maryland March for Life in 2011. He is Catholic. Birk and his wife have eight children.


title: Matt Birk

text: Birk established the HIKE Foundation in 2002, an educational nonprofit targeting at-risk Twin Cities' youth. Birk received the Walter Payton NFL Man of the Year Award in 2011 for his commitment to improving literacy among at-risk youth.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: Argentina has 35 indigenous groups (often referred to as Argentine Amerindians or Native Argentines) according to the Complementary Survey of the Indigenous Peoples of 2004, the Argentine government's first attempt in nearly 100 years to recognize and classify the population according to ethnicity. In the survey, based on self-identification or self-ascription, around 600,000 Argentines declared to be Amerindian or first-generation descendants of Amerindians, that is, 1.49% of the population. The most populous indigenous groups were the Aonikenk, Kolla, Qom, Wichí, Diaguita, Mocoví, Huarpe peoples, Mapuche and Guarani In the , 955,032 Argentines declared to be Amerindian or first-generation descendants of Amerindians, that is, 2.38% of the population. Many Argentines also identify as having at least one indigenous ancestor; a genetic study conducted by the University of Buenos Aires in 2011 showed that more than 56% of the 320 Argentines sampled were shown to have at least one indigenous ancestor in one parental lineage and around 11% had indigenous ancestors in both parental lineages.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: Jujuy Province, in the Argentine Northwest, is home to the highest percentage of households (15%) with at least one indigenous resident or a direct descendant of an indigenous person; Chubut and Neuquén Provinces, in Patagonia, have upwards of 12%.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: The earliest known evidence of indigenous peoples in Argentina is dated 11,000 BC and was discovered in what now known as the Piedra Museo archaeological site in Santa Cruz Province. The "Cueva de las Manos," also in Santa Cruz, is over 10,000 years old. Both are among the oldest evidence of indigenous culture in the Americas, and have, with a number of similarly ancient sites on other parts of the southern hemisphere, challenged the "Clovis First" hypothesis on the settlement of the Americas (the assumption, based on lacking evidence to the contrary, that the Clovis culture was the first in the Western Hemisphere).


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: By the year 1500, many different indigenous communities lived in what is now modern Argentina. They were not a unified group but many independent ones, with distinct languages, societies, and relations with each other. As a result, they did not face the arrival of the Spanish colonization as a single block and had varied reactions toward the Europeans. The Spanish people looked down on the indigenous population, to the point that they held in doubt whether they had souls, following the general thought in Europe. For this reason, they kept very little historical information about them.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: In the 19th century major population movements altered the original Patagonian demography. Between 1820 and 1850 the original Aonikenk people were conquered and expelled from their territories by invading Mapuche (that called them "Tehuelches") armies. By 1870 most of northern Patagonia and the south east Pampas were Araucanized.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: During the Generation of 1880, European immigration was strongly encouraged as a way of occupying an empty territory, configuring the national population and, through their colonizing effort, gradually incorporating the nation into the world market. These changes were perhaps best summarized by the anthropological metaphor which states that "“Argentines descend from ships.”" The strength of the immigration and its contribution to the Argentine ethnography is evident by observing that Argentina became the country in the world that received the second highest number of immigrants, with 6.6 million, second only to the United States with 27 million, and ahead of countries such as Canada, Brazil, Australia, etc.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: The expansion of European immigrant communities and the railways westward into the Pampas and south into Patagonia was met with Malón raids by displaced tribes. This led to the Conquest of the Desert in the 1870s, which resulted in over 1,300 indigenous dead. Indigenous cultures in Argentina were consequently affected by a process of invisibilization, promoted by the government during the second half of the 19th century and the early 20th.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: The extensive explorations, research and writing by Juan Bautista Ambrosetti and other ethnographers during the 20th century, which followed earlier pioneer studies by anthropologists such as Robert Lehmann-Nitsche, encouraged wider interest in indigenous people in Argentina, and their contributions to the nation's culture were further underscored during the administration of President Juan Perón in the 1940s and 1950s as part of the rustic "criollo" culture and values exalted by Perón during that era. Discriminatory policies toward these people and other minorities officially ended, moreover, with the August 3, 1988, enactment of the Antidiscrimination Law (Law 23.592) by President Raúl Alfonsín, and were countered further with the establishment of a government bureau, the National Institute Against Discrimination, Xenophobia, and Racism (INADI), in 1995. Corrientes Province, in 2004, became the first in the nation to award an indigenous language (Guaraní) with co-official status, and all 35 native peoples were recognized by both the 2004 Indigenous Peoples Census and by their inclusion as self-descriptive categories in the 2010 census; indigenous communities and Afro-Argentines thus became the only groups accorded any recognition as ethnic categories by the 2010 census.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: In addition to the indigenous population in Argentina, most Argentines are descendants of indigenous peoples or have some indigenous ancestry. Many genetic studies have shown that Argentina's genetic footprint is primarily but not overwhelmingly European. In a genetic study involving 441 Argentines from across the North East, North West, Southern, and Central provinces (especially the urban conglomeration of Buenos Aires) of the country, it was observed that 65% of the Argentine population was of European descent, followed by 31% of Amerindian descent, and 4% of African descent.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: The same study also found there were great differences in the ancestry amongst Argentines as one traveled across the country. For example, the population in the North West provinces of Argentina (including the province of Salta) were on average of 66% Amerindian, 33% European, and 1% of African ancestry. The European immigration to this North West part of the country was limited and the original Amerindian population largely thrived after their initial decline owing to the introduction of European diseases and colonization. Similarly, the study also showed that the population in the North Eastern provinces of Argentina (for example, Misiones, Chaco, Corrientes, and Formosa) were on average 43% of Amerindian, 54% European, and 3% of African ancestry. The population of the Southern provinces of Argentina, such as Río Negro and Neuquén, were on average 40% of Amerindian, 54% European, and 6% of African ancestry. Finally, only in areas of massive historical European immigration in Argentina, namely the Central provinces (Buenos Aires and the surrounding urban areas), Argentines were of overwhelmingly European ancestry, with the average person having 17% Amerindian, 76% European, and 7% of African ancestry.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: In another study, that was titled the Regional pattern of genetic admixture in South America, the researchers included results from the genetic study of several hundreds of Argentines from all across the country. The study indicated that Argentines were as a whole made up of 38% Amerindian, 58.9% of European, and 3.1% of African ancestry. Again, there were huge difference in the genetic ancestry from across the various regions of the country. For example, Argentines who hailed from Patagonia were 45% Amerindian and 55% of European ancestry . The population in the North West part of the country were made up of 69% of Amerindian, 23% of European, and 8% of African ancestry. The population in the Gran Chaco part of the country were 38% of Amerindian, 53% of European, and 9% of African ancestry. The population in the Mesopotamian part of the country were 31% of Amerindian, 63% of European, and 6.4% of African ancestry. Finally, the population in the Pampa region of the country were 22% of Amerindian, 68% of European, and 10% of African ancestry.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: Finally in another study involving the North Western provinces of the country, the genetic structure of 1293 individuals from Jujuy, Salta, Tucumán, Santiago del Estero, Catamarca and La Rioja was analysed. This study showed that the Spanish contribution (50%) predominated in Argentina's North West, followed by the American Indian (40%) and African (10%) contributions. According to this study, Argentines from Jujuy were 53% Amerindian, 47% European, and 0.1% African ancestry. Argentines from Salta were 41% of Amerindian, 56% of European, and 3.1% of African ancestry. Those from Catamarca were 37% of Amerindian, 53% of European, and 10% of African ancestry. Those from La Rioja were on average 31% Amerindian, 50% European, and 19% African ancestry. The inhabitants of Santiago del Estero were on average 30% Amerindian, 46% European, and 24% African ancestry. The inhabitants of Tucumán were on average 24% Amerindian, 67% European, and 9% African ancestry.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: Argentina has a total population of 40 million. The Additional Survey on Indigenous Populations, published by the National Institute for Statistics and Census, gives a total of 600,329 people who see themselves as descending from or belonging to indigenous people.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: For a number of reasons the different indigenous organisations do not believe this to be a credible survey: First, the methodology used in the survey was considered inadequate, as a large number of indigenous people live in urban areas where the survey was not fully conducted. Second, many indigenous people in the country hide their identity for fear of discrimination. Moreover, when the survey was designed in 2001, it was based on the existence of 18 known peoples in the country, today there exist more than 31 groups. This increase reflects a growing awareness amongst indigenous people in terms of their ethnic belonging.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: As many Argentines either believe that the majority of the indigenous have died out or are on the verge of doing so, or 'their descendants' assimilated into Western civilisation many years ago, they wrongly hold the idea that there are no indigenous people in their country. The use of pejorative terms likening the indigenous to lazy, idle, dirty, ignorant and savage are part of the everyday language in Argentina. Due to these incorrect stereotypes many indigenous have over the years been forced to hide their identity in order to avoid being subjected to racial discrimination.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: As of 2011 many natives were still being denied land and human rights. Many of the Qom native community had been struggling to protect the land they claim as ancestral territory and even the lives of its members. A leader of the Aboriginal Community Félix Díaz claimed that his people were being denied medical assistance, did not have much access to drinking water and traders keep raising food prices. He also claimed judges would not even hear the native's complaints.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: This region includes the provinces of Chaco, Corrientes, Entre Ríos, Formosa, Misiones, Santa Fe, and parts of Santiago del Estero Province.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: This region includes the provinces of Catamarca, Jujuy, La Rioja, Salta, San Juan, parts of Santiago del Estero Province, and Tucumán.


title: Indigenous peoples in Argentina

text: This region includes the Autonomous City of Buenos Aires and the provinces of Buenos Aires, Córdoba, La Pampa, Mendoza, and San Luis.


title: Cassie Scerbo

text: Cassandra Lynn Scerbo (born March 30, 1990) is an American actress, singer and dancer. She was one of the members of the all-girl pop band Slumber Party Girls in the CBS children's music variety series "Dance Revolution". In acting, she starred as Brooke in the film "" (2007), as Lauren Tanner in the ABC Family comedy-drama series "Make It or Break It" (2009–2012), and as Nova Clarke in the "Sharknado" film series alongside Ian Ziering and Tara Reid (2013–2018).


title: Cassie Scerbo

text: Scerbo was born on Long Island, New York. She is of full Italian ancestry. Scerbo was raised in Parkland, Florida and played soccer for the Parkland Soccer Club. She lived in Florida from the time she was in kindergarten until she was cast in "Make It or Break It". She attended Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School in Parkland. In 2006, Scerbo successfully auditioned for the music girl group Slumber Party Girls. Scerbo was chosen as one of the five members out of over 1,000 fellow applicants. In September 2006, the group hosted the children's music variety series "Dance Revolution" which promoted nutrition and fitness to children. Slumber Party Girls' original songs were dominantly featured through the series run. The group's debut album "Dance Revolution" was released but failed to chart. The series was not renewed for a second season. In mid-2007, as the group began working on their second record the group was confirmed to have split. That same year, Scerbo signed a solo-recording contract with Geffen Records. Her three original songs "Betcha Don't Know", "Sugar and Spice" and "Top Of The World" were all released on iTunes in 2008.


title: Cassie Scerbo

text: In 2007, Universal Pictures has green-lit a planned of the "Bring It On" film series with Scerbo confirmed to star. She portrayed the role of Brooke the team captain of the East Coast Jets Cheerleading squad who have won three years in a row at Camp Spirit-Thunder. It was released direct-to-DVD on December 18, 2007 to generally negative reviews from critics. That same year, Scerbo appeared in the Disney Channel television pilot "Arwin!". The pilot was filmed in late-2006 but was not picked up by Disney Channel.


title: Cassie Scerbo

text: In September 2008, Scerbo starred in the direct-to-DVD comedy film "Soccer Mom" alongside Missi Pyle and Emily Osment. In June 2009, Scerbo was cast in the ABC Family teen comedy-drama series "Make It or Break It" which premiered to 2.5 million viewers. Scerbo portrayed the role of a skilled gymnast named Lauren Tanner who aspires to make it to the Olympic Games. Due to the series success ABC Family ordered an additional 10-episodes bringing the first season episode count to 20 episodes. In January 2012, ABC Family renewed the series for a third and final season. The series finale "United Stakes" aired in May 2012. In April 2010, Scerbo also appeared with her "Make It or Break It" castmate Chelsea Hobbs in an episode of "" entitled "". The episode aired on April 12, 2010.


title: Cassie Scerbo

text: In 2011, Scerbo starred in the ABC Family original film "Teen Spirit". Scerbo portrayed the role of the Queen Bee of high school who is electrified to death and is not allowed to enter Heaven unless she helps the school's most unpopular girl become prom queen. Filming took place in Wilmington, North Carolina. The film premiered on August 7, 2011 on ABC Family.


title: Cassie Scerbo

text: In 2013, Scerbo starred in the Syfy original film "Sharknado" as bartender Nova Clarke; she reprised her role in the third installment "" in 2015, "" in 2017, and the final installment "" in 2018, of which her character has turned into a hardened sharknado fighter.


title: Gamma globulin

text: Gamma globulins are a class of globulins, identified by their position after serum protein electrophoresis. The most significant gamma globulins are immunoglobulins (antibodies), although some immunoglobulins are not gamma globulins, and some gamma globulins are not immunoglobulins.


title: Gamma globulin

text: Gamma globulin injections are usually given in an attempt to temporarily boost a patient's immunity against disease.


title: Gamma globulin

text: Injections are most commonly used on patients having been exposed to hepatitis A or measles, or to make a kidney donor and a recipient compatible regardless of blood type or tissue match. Injections are also used to boost immunity in patients unable to produce gamma globulins naturally because of an immune deficiency, such as X-linked agammaglobulinemia and hyper IgM syndrome. Such injections are less common in modern medical practice than they were previously, and injections of gamma globulin previously recommended for travelers have largely been replaced by the use of hepatitis A vaccine.


title: Gamma globulin

text: Gamma globulin infusions are also used to treat some immunological diseases, such as idiopathic thrombocytopenia purpura (ITP), a disease in which the platelets are being attacked by antibodies, leading to seriously low platelet counts. It appears that gamma globulin causes the spleen to ignore the antibody-tagged platelets, thus allowing them to survive and function.


title: Gamma globulin

text: Another theory on how gamma globulin administration works in autoimmune disease is by overloading the mechanisms that degrade gamma globulins. Overloading the degradation mechanism causes the harmful gamma globulins to have a much shorter half of the life in sera.


title: Gamma globulin

text: Being a product derived from bone marrow and lymph gland cells, gamma globulin injections, along with blood transfusions and intravenous drug use, can pass hepatitis C to their recipients. Once hepatitis C was identified in 1989, blood banks began screening all blood donors for the presence of the virus in their bloodstream. However, since hepatitis C is known to have been present since at least the 1940s, a gamma globulin shot received prior to the early 1990s put the recipient at risk of being infected.


title: Gamma globulin

text: Intravenous gamma globulin was FDA-approved in 2004 to reduce antibodies in a patient with kidney failure to allow that person to accept a kidney from a donor with a different blood type (ABO-incompatible), or who is an unacceptable tissue match. Stanley Jordan at Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles pioneered this treatment.


title: Gamma globulin

text: A disease of gamma globulins is called a "gammopathy" (for example, in monoclonal gammopathy of undetermined significance).


title: Gormogon (Bones)

text: The Gormogon was introduced as a cannibalistic serial killer in the third-season premiere, "The Widow's Son in the Windshield", and has made appearances in the form of teeth marks on bones examined by the Jeffersonian scientists. He makes his first on-screen appearance in "The Knight on the Grid" (episode 8), although his former master, Arthur Graves, appears earlier in that episode, and his late apprentice, Jason Harkness (Andrew James Allen), appeared in the season premiere. Before the season finale "The Pain in the Heart", reviewers and fans speculated that the audience has actually already met him, perhaps being psychologist Dr. Lance Sweets.


title: Gormogon (Bones)

text: This belief was partially validated later in the season when the show's executive producer, Hart Hanson, stated in an interview with EW.com that either the Gormogon or his apprentice is someone the fans are fond of. In the season finale, this statement is confirmed when Dr. Brennan finds that Zack Addy had lied about some of his earlier conclusions, leading Dr. Brennan and Agent Seeley Booth to realize that Zack must be the apprentice. The team finally tracks down the Gormogon with the information provided by Zack as to the location of the Gormogon's home, and Booth kills him; he has not been given a name, and he has been described by Sweets as "a nobody, an invisible man, angry at history for not seeing him". The stunt performer — Laurence Todd Rosenthal — who played the current (and presumably last) Gormogon, went uncredited; the character had no spoken dialogue and appeared on screen only briefly.


title: Gormogon (Bones)

text: When particles left on a victim's skull led Dr. Temperance Brennan and Seeley Booth to a vault in an old bank, they discover tapestries, paintings, books, and other artifacts related to a number of mystical orders and traditions, including Kabbalah, Freemasonry, and Gnosticism. One of these tapestries included the imagery of the wolf, a symbol of freedom and power, which reflected in the killer's dentures, which were made exclusively with real canine teeth only (canines being symbolic of the wolf). The key feature of the vault is a silver skeleton arranged in a "widow's son" pose, a position known to the ancient Greeks as one of sacrifice. Parts of the silver skeleton had been replaced with actual bone, which bear teeth marks from two different individuals, suggesting ritualistic consumption of flesh. The vault also yields a tapestry whose pattern corresponds to specific locations in Washington, D.C. and to tarot cards showing different archetypes, such as the Musician, the Bishop, and the Corruptor. The map provides a schematic for the Gormogon's activities, including the atomic location of the sculpture and of another, older sculpture and the residence of the Gormogon's old master, and the order of archetypes which are being integrated, via their bones, into the sculpture.


title: Gormogon (Bones)

text: The Gormogons were an anti-Masonic order of the 18th century. They are mentioned in scattered writings of the era, and accusations of association with them may have been used as a political weapon, as the very existence of the order involved a rejection of Masonic ideas. However, only the name has any relevance on the show, as Hodgins borrows it to refer to the killer for his dual reverence for and apparent dislike of secret societies and fraternal orders, including the Knights of Columbus. Hodgins' and Sweets' understanding of typical practices among orders, such as the master-apprentice relationship, ritualistic meals, and sacred geometry inform the ongoing investigation of the murders.


title: Gormogon (Bones)

text: Two skeleton sculptures have been found, one of which was constructed by Arthur Graves and the current Gormogon, the other by Jason Harkness and the current Gormogon. The former was completely made of bone, while the latter was still mostly silver. Not all the victims have yet been identified, but at least one bone in each sculpture was added for its significance to its owner. The three victims named below all lost their fathers at young ages, making them "widows' sons" and thus doubly symbolic as a sacrifice to the Gormogon. They were all involved with a trip to the Anatolian region of Turkey, and associated with the Knights of Columbus.


title: Chad Veach

text: Chad Veach is an American evangelical pastor and the founder of Zoe Church, a youth-oriented Christian congregation that is based in Los Angeles, California. Veach has been the subject of significant mainstream press coverage, which often focuses on Veach’s taste in streetwear and sneakers and his links to celebrities like actor Chris Pratt and singer Justin Bieber, which have been chronicled on Veach’s Instagram.


title: Chad Veach

text: Veach was born in 1979. Veach grew up on Whidbey Island, Washington. His father, Dave Veach, is a District Supervisor with Foursquare Church in Tacoma, Washington. Growing up he attended Shelton Christian Fellowship (now called Gateway Christian Fellowship), as his parents were youth pastors there. As a young man, Veach “wasn’t solid in his faith at all,” according to his father. In an interview with "The Christian Post", Veach said that he had "a foot in, a foot out" of church as a teenager, but that attending a Promise Keepers event was a turning point for him: "it's the typical prodigal son story who has an experience and then says, 'Wait, what I had back home was way better. I'm going back home and to church.' I had sown some wild oats but nothing too crazy." Veach’s two siblings are also pastors.


title: Chad Veach

text: Veach attended Life Pacific College, a Foursquare denominational Bible college located in San Dimas, California, graduating in 2002.


title: Chad Veach

text: Veach started as a youth pastor in El Monte, California. In 2004, Veach took a job counseling teens and young adults for United Generation ministry in Puyallup, Washington. In 2013, he became associated with Judah Smith, spiritual adviser to Justin Bieber and lead pastor of Churchome, a multi-site megachurch based in Seattle and Los Angeles.


title: Chad Veach

text: In 2014, Chad Veach and his wife Julia Veach moved to Los Angeles and started their ministry with informal gatherings at their home. Zoe Church began its services in borrowed space in a small church in Santa Monica and, after one day at the 1 Oak nightclub in Hollywood. Zoe Church had services at the Fonda nightclub. Zoe Church moved to the El Rey Theatre on Wilshire Boulevard. Services were also held at the Million Dollar Theater in downtown Los Angeles. Veach told the "New York Times" that he modeled Zoe Church after Hillsong Church and Church of the Highlands.


title: Chad Veach

text: In 2017, Veach and Judah Smith accompanied Justin Bieber on his Purpose World Tour, reportedly to serve as “positive influences.” Videos of Veach hanging out with Justin Bieber have appeared on Veach’s Instagram account.


title: Chad Veach

text: Ruth Graham, writing in "Slate", noted how Veach’s “on-trend streetwear and friendship with Justin Bieber” made him the latest example of the “cool-pastor phenomenon.” Describing Veach as an “Instagram-savvy pastor ... who dresses not like Ward Cleaver, but like a Supreme model,” Graham observed that “Veach and his cohort seem to have converted as many style writers as they have souls.”


title: Chad Veach

text: In August 2022, Zoe Church bought the 98 year old Buddhist Temple in Highland Park for their future church site.


title: Chad Veach

text: In a profile of Veach published in "The New York Times", Veach was quoted as saying "I want to be loud and dumb. That's my goal. If we aren't making people laugh, what are we doing? What's the point?" Veach is described as frequently using street talk, Spanish bilingualism and changing his dialect depending on his audience, and occasionally mimicking Houston megachurch pastor Joel Osteen. Veach maintains an active social media presence, crediting Instagram with helping to popularize his church.


title: Chad Veach

text: Veach described his pastoral philosophy in an interview with "The Christian Post", saying that he was motivated by a desire to reverse the trend of young adults becoming less affiliated with church:We need to do whatever we can to become relevant and deconstruct some of those false notions about what religion is. What resonates with young adults is actually the message of Jesus and maybe that was convoluted or placed in the back burner in the past but I think that's why you're seeing young adults in the droves respond because if people can see a clear picture of Jesus, that undeniable ... we obviously have something better than the world can offer."


title: Chad Veach

text: In 2016, Veach’s second book, "Unreasonable Hope: Finding Faith in the God Who Brings Purpose to Your Pain", was published, about his daughter Georgia’s struggle with lissencephaly.


title: Chad Veach

text: In 2017, Veach’s third book, "Faith Forward Future: Moving Past Your Disappointments, Delays, and Destructive Thinking" was published.


title: Chad Veach

text: In 2020, Veach’s fourth book, "Help! I Work with People: Getting Good at Influence, Leadership, and People Skills" was published.


title: Chad Veach

text: Veach's church has been criticized by actor Elliot Page for being "infamously anti-LGBTQ". Actor Chris Pratt spoke on the matter, denying the anti-LGBTQ stance and saying that the Zoe Church "opens its doors to absolutely everyone".


title: Chad Veach

text: Veach and his wife Julia were executive producers on the 2017 film "The Heart of Man-" a docudrama on sexual brokenness which aligns same-sex attraction with porn addiction and infidelity.


title: Chad Veach

text: Veach was associated with the controversial church Hillsong by attending and speaking at Hillsong conferences. Veach was close friends with Hillsong's pastor, Carl Lentz.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Executive Residence is the central building of the White House complex located between the East Wing and West Wing. It is the most recognizable part of the complex, being the actual "house" part of the White House. This central building, first constructed from 1792 to 1800, is home to the president of the United States and the first family. The Executive Residence primarily occupies four floors: the Ground Floor, the State Floor, the Second Floor, and the Third Floor. A two-story sub-basement with mezzanine, created during the 1948–1952 Truman reconstruction, is used for HVAC and mechanical systems, storage, and service areas.


title: Executive Residence

text: This level was added during the 1948-1952 renovation, and contains the air conditioning and water softening equipment. The sub-basement and mezzanine also contain storage areas, the heating system, elevator machinery rooms, an incinerator, a medical clinic, a dentist's office, the electrical control system, a laundry room, and flatware and dishware storage.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Ground Floor of the White House originally contained service rooms. The White House is built on a small slight hill that slopes to the south. To provide access to the north side of the Ground Floor, the area around the north side of the mansion and its northeast and northwest corners was excavated to provide light and air to this half of the Ground Floor. Architect James Hoban designed the Ground Floor so that the kitchen was directly beneath the Entrance Hall, the door to the kitchen below the North Portico. Storerooms were east of the kitchen, while a toilet and dishwashing room were to the west. The kitchen was relocated into the two rooms in the northwest corner of the Ground Floor by 1846, while the old kitchen space was transformed into an informal sitting room/reception space. As of 2010, this large central space, originally occupied by the kitchen in the early 1800s, had been subdivided into offices for the White House curator and the United States Secret Service. The kitchen, too, continues to occupy the three rooms, somewhat altered in size now, in the northwest corner of the Ground Floor.


title: Executive Residence

text: The storeroom to the east of the kitchen became a pantry in 1809, a meat locker in 1825, and then a flight of stairs leading to the State Floor by 1946. This area remains largely unchanged as of 2010, with the exception of the narrowing of the stairs in 1952 to create an elevator shaft.


title: Executive Residence

text: Under the presidency of John F. Kennedy, the position of executive chef was created. Jackie Kennedy had thought of the idea, and had a chef in mind from the beginning. Jackie Kennedy heard about René Verdon through the chef of one of her favorite restaurants, La Caravelle; it appears the man was a wonderful fit for the Kennedy White House. Verdon was hired for the position while serving as an assistant chef at New York's Carlyle Hotel. He frequently conversed in French with the first lady, fed the president his preferred soup, New England clam chowder, and made cookies for their child, Caroline.


title: Executive Residence

text: The storeroom in the northeast corner of the Ground Floor remained in use as storage space only until 1809, when it became a laundry. In 1902, President Theodore Roosevelt hired the architectural firm of McKim, Mead & White to renovate the White House. They turned the room into a "gentleman's anteroom". This room became the White House Library in 1935. First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy radically transformed the room in 1961. Kennedy consulted initially with a group consisting of members of the United States Commission of Fine Arts, designers from the American Institute of Interior Designers (AIID), and historians. The AIID agreed to take on the job of refurbishing the room, and Kennedy worked with decorator Jeanette Becker Lenygon of the AIID on the project. Lenygon designed an early American library room in the Federal style. Except for minor decorative changes, the White House Library remains the same as of 2010.


title: Executive Residence

text: The toilet and laundry room west of the kitchen became general-use work areas by 1809, and a pantry, small kitchen, and cook's office by 1825. By 1946, these had become general workrooms, with a narrow, winding staircase inserted into the room closest to the former kitchen. The 1952 renovation turned the winding staircase into a steep, straight stairs and added an elevator in this space. As of 2010, a pantry-sized refrigerator also occupied a portion of this space.


title: Executive Residence

text: The oval space beneath what is now the Blue Room was originally a Servants' Hall, but was turned into a furnace room in 1837. During the White House's 1902 renovation, the room was turned into a sitting room. President Franklin D. Roosevelt used it for his "fireside chat" radio broadcasts in the 1930s. Rebuilt (along with the rest of the gutted White House) during the 1948-to-1952 renovation, the room became the Diplomatic Reception Room. It was only sparsely furnished until First Lady Mamie Eisenhower received a large donation of museum-quality antique furniture from the National Society of Interior Designers in 1960. Except for decorative updating, it remains unchanged as of 2010.


title: Executive Residence

text: West of the Servants' Hall, the Ground Floor originally contained a small bedroom and, in the two westernmost rooms, a Steward's Office. The smaller, westernmost of the two rooms in the Steward's Office became the White House vault. By 1825, the Housekeeper's Office had moved into the easternmost room of the Steward's Office. The Steward's Office and vault became general workrooms by 1946, but the 1902 renovation had turned the Housekeeper's Office into a ladies' powder room. Less than a decade later, President Woodrow Wilson turned it into a billiards room. At the outbreak of World War II in December 1939, President Franklin Roosevelt removed the billiards table and turned the room into a place where he could keep track of the war's progress on a wide range of maps and store top-secret communications with world leaders. The Map Room (as it was now called) was heavily guarded, as highly secret U.S. and allied military information was constantly updated on the maps kept in this room. In the early 1960s, the Map Room was transformed into a ladies' powder room again by Jacqueline Kennedy, and portraits of first ladies were hung there. The Map Room continued to retain its name, but in 1970 was decorated in the Chippendale style and turned into a reception room. It retained its name and function as of 2010. A small medical clinic and the office of the White House physician occupy the three rooms to the west of the Map Room as of 2010.


title: Executive Residence

text: East of the original Servants' Hall was the Housekeeper's Office, and then a room for general work. The Housekeeper's Office was turned into general workspace in 1809, while the bedroom became a general-use servants' room. All rooms east of the oval Servant's Hall were turned into staff bedrooms by 1825 (with the Housekeeper's Office taking up a portion of the Steward's Office). In 1837, President Martin Van Buren made the bedroom that would become the China Room into quarters for a stoker, whose job was to keep the White House furnace fueled 24 hours a day, seven days a week (with summers off). First Lady Edith Wilson turned this room into the China Room in 1917 to display the Executive Residence's growing collection of White House china. Just east of the China Room, the 1902 renovation turned the staff bedroom into a sitting room known as the Social Room. It was briefly renamed the Billiard Room after the 1952 restoration, but became the Vermeil Room in 1957 after mining heiress Margaret Thompson Biddle bequeathed 1,575 pieces of vermeil silverware to the White House. It remained little changed as of 2010.


title: Executive Residence

text: During the 1948-to-1952 reconstruction of the White House, additional White House workspace was excavated under the North Lawn. Storage space had first been excavated here in the 1930s, but was greatly expanded and enhanced during the Truman renovation. The Trumans included a bowling alley in this space as well (it is architecturally aligned with the entrance to the Diplomatic Reception Room on the other side of the White House). President Dwight Eisenhower had the bowling alley moved to the Executive Office Building west of the White House, but President Richard Nixon (an avid bowler) had it restored to its original spot in 1969. As of 2010, this space continues to house the bowling alley, as well as the White House chocolatier, the office and workspace of the White House chief floral designer, a cold storage room for flowers and other perishable items, a carpentry shop, and general workrooms.


title: Executive Residence

text: The State Floor was unfinished when President John Adams moved into the White House on November 1, 1800. Work continued through the four remaining months of his presidency and into the first term of Thomas Jefferson to make the Executive Residence habitable. There were no floors in the East Room, the Blue Room, or the western third of the Cross Hall (which at that time extended all the way to the west, as the State Dining Room would not be extended all the way north until 1902). There was also no grand staircase east of the Entrance Hall, and the only way to access the Second Floor was via temporary stairs on the exterior of the building which led up to the top of the South Portico.


title: Executive Residence

text: Until the North Portico was completed in 1829, providing access from the North Lawn and carriageway, the Entrance Hall was used as space to exhibit items brought back by the Lewis and Clark Expedition. A glass screen was placed between the columns along the Entrance Hall's south side in 1837 to reduce the hall's draftiness, effectively reducing its apparent size. A more elaborate iron frame was added to the partition in 1853. The ordinary glass and frame were replaced by a red, white, and blue colored glass screen designed by Tiffany & Co. in 1882. The Tiffany screen was removed in the 1902 renovation.


title: Executive Residence

text: The area that now contains the Grand Staircase originally contained a much smaller, unadorned staircase to the Second Floor. The Grand Staircase was moved into this area during the 1902 renovation.


title: Executive Residence

text: Although architect James Hoban included space for the East Room in his 1792 plans for the White House, it was unclear what purpose the room should fulfill. The room's floor was finished after President John Adams moved in, but the walls remained bare brick and First Lady Abigail Adams famously hung her laundry to dry in it.


title: Executive Residence

text: Thomas Jefferson furnished the room with some chairs during his administration, and had the room partitioned (using canvas and sailcloth for walls) and the southern end used for a bedroom and office for Meriwether Lewis and Lewis Harvie (both private secretary to the president). But it wasn't until 1807 that architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe gave the East Room its function as a site for public audiences and large social events.


title: Executive Residence

text: Rebuilt after the burning of the White House in 1814, its walls remained bare brick and it was used as storage space. President James Monroe's daughter was married in the East Room, at which time it was temporarily furnished, but it was not until the administration of John Quincy Adams that its walls were plastered and painted. The East Room was finally completed in 1829 under President Andrew Jackson. Major redecorations have occurred, but the room continues to serve its function as a site for large social events.


title: Executive Residence

text: James Hoban designated what is today the Green Room as a Common Dining Room, and Thomas Jefferson's family took their meals there. A rectangular ceiling fresco with small circles and trapezoids, designed by Thomas Ustick Walter, was added in 1853. In the 1902 renovation of the White House, a second door, south of the existing door, was cut from the Green Room to the Blue Room. At the same time, a new, southern door was cut from the Green Room to the East Room.


title: Executive Residence

text: Hoban's original plans for the White House created an oval-shaped Drawing Room (now the Blue Room) in the center of the south part of the executive mansion. Since its inception, the Blue Room has remained the centerpiece of the Executive Residence, serving as the formal reception space for heads of state, ambassadors, and other important people. Since its creation in 1801, it has been redecorated more times (18) than any other room in the White House. Originally, a door in the center of the western wall led to the Yellow Room. A fireplace was set in the eastern wall opposite the door. Originally, niches to either side of the door in the north wall mirrored the three windows in the south wall. The reconstruction of 1817 radically changed the Blue Room. Doors replaced the northern niches, and the western door to the Red Room was sealed. On the Red Room side of the wall, a false door was cut into the wall south of the now-sealed central door, and the false door north of the now-sealed door also concealed. An oval ceiling fresco with curved trapezoids, designed Thomas Ustick Walter, was added in 1853. A jib (or disguised) door was cut through the false door to the Red Room in 1891, and a second jib door cut through to the Green Room south of the fireplace in 1902. The ceiling medallion and cornice moldings were altered by architect Edward Vason Jones during the Nixon administration to more closely resemble early 1800s styles.


title: Executive Residence

text: To the west of this room was the President's Antechamber (later known as the Red Room). This room originally had two doors, set close together, leading into the Blue Room. (The one on the north was false.) Beginning in 1809, it became the music room for the White House. During the 1817 rebuilding of the White House, the President's Antechamber was turned into a Yellow Parlor. It was sometimes called the Washington Parlor, as the Gilbert Stuart painting of George Washington hung in this room after the Burning of Washington. At this time, the two doors were rebuilt further apart. (Now the south door became a false door.) In 1845, the Yellow Parlor was redecorated in crimson, and took its current name as the Red Room. A rectangular ceiling fresco with a small central circle, curved trapezoids, and half-moons, designed Thomas Ustick Walter, was added in 1853. The false door was cut through in 1891, and has remained open to the present.


title: Executive Residence

text: The northern third of what is now the State Dining Room was originally the western part of the Cross Hall. Two flights of stairs (one against the north wall, one against the south wall) led from the State Floor to the Second Floor. A single, central stair then led up to the Third Floor. Not completed when the White House was occupied in 1800, the Grand Stairs were probably finished by architect Benjamin Henry Latrobe in 1803 or shortly thereafter. An extensive chimney breast was added to the fireplace in the room's west wall when it was reconstructed in 1817.


title: Executive Residence

text: A large greenhouse was added to the west side of the White House in 1857, replacing one on the east side which had been torn down that year to make way for expansion of the Treasury Building. The greenhouse burned down in 1867, and in 1869 President Ulysses S. Grant built a larger, higher greenhouse in its place. Later presidents expanded the greenhouse, until it occupied most of what is now the West Wing. Grant built a billiards room atop and to the south of the breezeway leading from the west end of the Ground Floor of the White House, but this became a Palm Court in 1877 during the Rutherford B. Hayes administration. Hayes authorized new doors cut through the stone of the mansion's walls to provide access between the Palm Court and State Dining Room.


title: Executive Residence

text: In 1869, President Ulysses S. Grant rebuilt the Grand Stair. Now, only a single staircase against the north wall led to the Second Floor, while a second stair on the south wall of the Second Floor led to the Third Floor. (The new space created on the Second Floor became the West Sitting Hall.)


title: Executive Residence

text: To the south of the Grand Stair was a smaller room, to be used as a Cabinet Room or President's Library. The 1817 reconstruction of the White House saw the Cabinet Room/Presidential Library turned into the State Dining Room. The White House was extensively renovated in 1902, during which the Grand Stair was demolished and a new Grand Staircase was built east of the Entrance Hall. The State Dining Room expanded northward into the space formerly occupied by the Grand Stair. The small fireplaces in the east and west walls of the State Dining Room were removed, and the northern door to the Palm Court sealed. (Another door to the Palm Court, beneath the former Grand Stairs, was also sealed.) Where the old Palm Court door existed, a new, massive stone fireplace and oversize mantel (the famous "Buffalo mantel") were added, to match the enlarged room's size and grandeur. The great Venetian window which formerly spanned the width of the Cross Hall in the mansion's west wall was reduced in size to the width of a standard First Floor window. A French door in the lower half of this window now led to the breezeway. The room was paneled in English oak in a Renaissance Revival style, and the furnishings replaced to turn the room into a Beaux-Arts baronial hall (complete with tapestries, cooking racks over the fireplace, and stuffed animal heads).


title: Executive Residence

text: During the 1948-to-1952 reconstruction of the White House, the State Dining Room was radically redecorated. The "Buffalo mantel" was not reused, and instead given to President Truman (who had it installed it in his presidential library). The oak paneling, heavily damaged during its removal, was reinstalled and given a coat of bright celadon green to hide the flaws. (Some of the frieze had to be recarved where it had been sanded down to accommodate the stuffed animal heads.) The painting scheme proved too much. Jacqueline Kennedy had the room painted bone white in 1961, but that proved too bright. The room was painted antique white in 1971 and again in 1981, and then off-white with an umber glaze in 1985.


title: Executive Residence

text: As originally constructed, north of the Cross Hall was a Public Dining Room, a Porter's Lodge between the dining room and entrance hall, and a narrow, winding Private Stair. When the White House was rebuilt in 1817, the Public Dining Room became the Private Dining Room. The room was partitioned to make it smaller, and the western third of the room turned into a pantry. President James Monroe gave State Dinners in the Private Dining Room from 1817 to 1825, and subsequent presidents used it as a formal dining room for the first family or as a space for official but small events. By 1849 it was used primarily as a ladies' receiving room, a function it retained as late as 1865.


title: Executive Residence

text: During the White House's 1902 renovation, the pantry received a mezzanine to increase its utility. To the Family Dining Room were added a vaulted ceiling, faux paneling, and a frieze featuring Neoclassical designs. The frieze was broken by the high windows in the north wall, but the windows were lowered in 1961 and the frieze allowed to continue unbroken around the entire room. The faux paneling was also removed at this time, and the walls painted yellow. The Family Dining Room underwent its first significant renovation since the Kennedy years in 2015. First Lady Michelle Obama had the room painted a light grey, and the decor, furniture, rug, and artwork now reflect a mid-20th century modern look.


title: Executive Residence

text: The area immediately to the east of the Family Dining Room, tucked against the Entrance Hall, was originally service space. A porter's "lodge" (work and storage space) occupied the northern two-thirds of the space, while a narrow, sharping winding back stairs allowed servants to access the Second Floor. By 1801, the porter's space had become a generic workroom. It was made into a porter's lodge again in 1825. It retained this use as late as 1865. The renovation of 1902 moved the servants' staircase into the center of this area, creating a corridor on the north and west sides and a small closet to the south. After the 1948-to-1952 gutting and restoration of the White House, the northern space became the chief usher's office. It continued to retain this layout as of 2010.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Second Floor contains the private living apartments of the first family, as well as a kitchen. Some of these rooms are used for official entertaining, but most are reserved for private use. Rooms found on the Second Floor include the Center Hall, East Sitting Hall, Lincoln Bedroom, Lincoln Sitting Room, President's Dining Room, Queens' Bedroom, Queens' Sitting Room, Treaty Room, West Sitting Hall, and Yellow Oval Room. The Truman Balcony is accessed from this floor.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Second Floor contains only seven historic rooms: the Lincoln Bedroom, the Lincoln Sitting Room, the Queens' Bedroom, the Queens' Sitting Room, the Treaty Room, the East Sitting Hall, and the Yellow Oval Room. The western half of the Second Floor contains family rooms, a kitchen, and the President's Dining Room, all of which may be redecorated or undergo architectural revision at the whim of the president.


title: Executive Residence

text: When the White House was occupied in 1801, the eastern half of the Second Floor remained unfinished. What would later be the Queens' Suite, Lincoln Suite, East Sitting Hall, Grand Stair, and Grand Stair Landing did not exist. Also unfinished was the West Sitting Hall, which was not intended to be a sitting hall at all but rather a "Grand Staircase" leading up from the Ground Floor. The Second Floor was completed by 1809. Before the Theodore Roosevelt renovation of 1902, the executive offices of the president were located at the east end of the second floor and the public had full and free access to these areas.


title: Executive Residence

text: Originally known as the Great Passage, the Center Hall has always been part of the design of the White House. But it has not always had the same structural design. Today, load-bearing walls outside the Treaty Room define the western side of the Stair Landing. But these walls did not exist when the White House was occupied in 1801. Today, the Center Hall, Stair Landing, and East Sitting Room are all on the same level. But in 1801, three small steps just outside the Treaty Room led up from the Great Passage to the East Sitting Room. Additionally, there was no Grand Stair north of the Stair Landing. When the White House opened, a simple, narrow private stair led from the Ground Floor up to the Second Floor where the Grand Stair is today.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Center Hall has always been used as a large drawing room and a waiting area for guests about to be shown into the Yellow Oval Room. Except for the addition of the Stair Landing, little has changed in the Center Hall. Only minor decorative elements have been altered, such as the addition of a cornice molding and bookshelves during the 1952 reconstruction.


title: Executive Residence

text: The East Sitting Hall is one of the seven historic spaces on the Second Floor. In the first half of the 1800s, the White House was treated as a government office building rather than a residence, and members of the public expected nearly complete access to it. Anyone who wanted to see the President would ascend to the Second Floor using the private steps and wait in the East Sitting Hall. James Hoban, the original architect of the White House, planned and built a double-arched Venetian window here to provide as much light as possible to this area. After 1902, the public no longer had access to the Second Floor, and the area has been used as a small parlor.


title: Executive Residence

text: The East Sitting Hall was more distinctively set off from the Center Hall by the 1952 reconstruction. The steps leading from the Center Hall to the East Hall Room were removed, and small storage spaces added on the north and south side of the passage. This roughly halved the width of the hall here, which created a more private East Sitting Room. A very narrow servants stair was added in the north storage area to provide additional access to the Third Floor.


title: Executive Residence

text: Access to the Center Hall was originally provided by a Grand Staircase on the west end of the building. On the east end, a narrower set of stairs with a single return gave access. These plain stairs were replaced by the modern Grand Staircase.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Lincoln Bedroom and the Lincoln Sitting Room are located in the southeast corner of the Second Floor. As originally designed and completed in 1809, this space contained two very narrow, north–south running bedchambers with a toilet room between them. By 1825, the toilet had been removed and the space joined to the west bedchamber to form the president's office. This area was used for the president's office over the next several decades. Abraham Lincoln used it as both an office and a Cabinet room, and signed the Emancipation Proclamation in the Lincoln Bedroom in 1863. The Lincoln Sitting Room was used as an office for presidential aides, although President John Tyler used it as part of his office from 1841 to 1845.


title: Executive Residence

text: The next major reconfiguration of this space occurred during the 1952 reconstruction of the White House, when a full bath and toilet were built in the northeast corner of the Lincoln Sitting Room.


title: Executive Residence

text: President Truman was the individual who conceived of dedicating the space to Lincoln. The desk in the bedroom was Lincoln's, and the long, wide rosewood bed is probably the one Willie Lincoln died in. The portrait of President Andrew Jackson that hangs in the room is one which Abraham Lincoln admired, and the Lincoln Bedroom has the only known copy of the Gettysburg Address signed, dated, and titled by Lincoln himself. The sitting room furnishings were all purchased by First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln. They include four mahogany chairs, a chest in the late Empire style, and red and gold rugs and drapes. The small mahogany desk in the sitting room was constructed by James Hoban himself. The Lincoln Bedroom and Sitting Room were redecorated by First Lady Laura Bush, who changed the decor so it more accurately reflected tastes common during the American Civil War. The Lincoln Bedroom is usually used to house close friends of the president who are visiting the White House.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Queens' Bedroom and Queens' Sitting Room occupy the northeast corner of the Second Floor. When this space was completed in 1809, it was a mirror of the Lincoln Suite to the south: two very narrow bedrooms with a toilet between them. And like the Lincoln Suite, the toilet was removed by 1825 and the toilet space joined with the western bedchamber. Instead of office space, however, the western two-thirds of this space was partitioned to create storage areas. The remaining bedroom became known as the Rose Bedroom or Pink Bedroom, after the color of its decorating scheme. It was reserved as a guest bedroom, and was most frequently used by the president's private secretaries—all of whom were male, and many of them sons of presidents. By 1865, the western storage space had been converted into a clerk's office. The first woman to regularly occupy the bedroom probably was Anna Roosevelt, who moved into the White House in 1944. The 1952 White House reconstruction created a full bath and toilet in the northeast corner of the sitting room.


title: Executive Residence

text: The name of the suite of rooms is taken from the number of female royalty who have stayed in the room: Elizabeth, queen consort of King George VI; Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom; Queen Wilhelmina of the Netherlands; and Queen Juliana of the Netherlands. This bedroom is also where Winston Churchill stayed on his regular visits to confer with Franklin Roosevelt, and Harry Truman, during and after World War II.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Treaty Room is located between the Lincoln Suite and the Yellow Oval Room, on the south side of the east wing of the Executive Residence. When completed in 1809, it was intended to be a bedroom. By 1825, its function had changed so that it was now an audience chamber where people could meet with the president (whose office was next door to the east). By 1865, the room had been partitioned. A passage taking up the southern third of the room was created, to permit individuals to pass unobserved from the president's office directly into the White House Library (then occupying the Yellow Oval Room). What remained of the room was used for Cabinet meetings from 1865 to 1902. The space was then used as a sitting room from 1902 to 1961. The 1952 White House reconstruction removed the passage. A new door was opened in the southwest corner of the room so permit direct access to the Yellow Oval Room.


title: Executive Residence

text: The space became known as the Treaty Room after President John F. Kennedy signed the Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in the room in 1963. It's been used for important treaty signings ever since. President Richard Nixon signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty in the room in 1972, and President Jimmy Carter signed the Camp David Accords in the room in 1978.


title: Executive Residence

text: The room has undergone some changes in the past 25 years. First Lady Barbara Bush converted it into a private sitting room for the president. President George W. Bush had the room's historic paneling and its vibrant red, gold, and blue fabrics removed to alter it more to his own personal taste. President Barack Obama had the room redecorated in shades of beige, and continued its use as a private presidential study.


title: Executive Residence

text: A half-bathroom in the northwest corner of the Treaty Room remains as of 2015 almost untouched since its creation in 1952. It has green and white floor tile in a checkerboard pattern, and the plumbing pipes are exposed.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Yellow Oval Room is the topmost of the Executive Residence's three oval rooms. Not yet furnished when the White House was first occupied, President John Adams used it as a levée room for New Year's Day celebrations on January 1, 1801. The room received its name after First Lady Dolley Madison decorated the room in yellow damask in 1809. The room served as a ladies' drawing room from 1809 to 1829, when it was turned into a ladies' toilet room under Andrew Jackson. It continued to be used as a ladies' toilet until about 1845. First Lady Abigail Fillmore turned it into a library about 1851.


title: Executive Residence

text: By 1865, the first major architectural change was made to the room when a doorway was cut into the room's southeast corner to provide access to the passage leading behind the Treaty Room to the Presidential Office in the southeast corner of the Second Floor. The Yellow Oval Room was turned into a family room and private presidential study by Abraham Lincoln, and it remained that way until 1952. President Franklin D. Roosevelt and President Harry S. Truman referred to it informally as the "oval study", and used it as an informal working and meeting space.


title: Executive Residence

text: The White House reconstruction of 1952 saw additional major architectural changes to the room. The 1865 passage was removed, but the door to the Treaty Room remained. To balance the door aesthetically, a closet was created in the northeast corner of the Yellow Oval Room and an identical door used to close it off. In the west wall of the room, a door was cut to provide access to the presidential bedroom suite.


title: Executive Residence

text: President Dwight D. Eisenhower began the practice of using the Yellow Oval Room as a formal reception room. More recently, the space has served as a formal drawing room for the first family, and as a reception room where presidents greet dignitaries before lunches and dinners.


title: Executive Residence

text: The non-historic rooms of the Second Floor constitute the first family's private residence. As non-historic space, they may be reconfigured and redecorated in any way.


title: Executive Residence

text: From east to west, leading away from the Yellow Oval Room on the south side, are a small bedroom (with full bath), a large bedroom, and a dressing room (with full bath). The small bedroom west of the Yellow Oval Room was originally used as an "extra bedroom" beginning with President James Madison and concluding with the administration of President Franklin Pierce. Abraham Lincoln slept in this room, and not the Lincoln Bedroom as is commonly assumed (due to its name). Other occupants of the room included Mary Johnson Stover (daughter of Andrew Jackson) and her three children; May and Jessie McElroy (nieces of President Chester Arthur), Russell Harrison (President Benjamin Harrison's adult son); Mary Harrison McKee (adult daughter of President Benjamin Harrison) and her two children; Quentin and Archie Roosevelt (sons of President Theodore Roosevelt); President Woodrow Wilson and his second wife, Edith Wilson; President Warren G. Harding; President Franklin D. Roosevelt; and President Harry S. Truman.


title: Executive Residence

text: During the 1952 renovation, a dressing room was built which straddled the wall between this room and the large bedroom to the west. This dressing room could only be accessed from the small bedroom. A full bath was also created in the northeast corner of the room. The space continued to be used as a bedroom by President Dwight D. Eisenhower; President John F. Kennedy; and President Richard Nixon—all of whom slept in the room. The room was turned into a living room and study by President Gerald Ford, and it has remained a study and living room into 2013.


title: Executive Residence

text: To the west of this space is the large bedroom, which has usually been used by the president and first lady as their private bedroom. Sometimes a president and first lady sleep in the same room, but often they do not due to the president's early and late hours, and personal idiosyncrasies.


title: Executive Residence

text: When this room was completed in 1809, it was intended to be used as the president's bedroom. A tiny entry foyer was partitioned off at the north door, and the western part of the northern third of the room was occupied by a narrow hallway. This hallway connected to the north–south running dressing room on the western wall of the White House. A small toilet occupied the southern end of the dressing room. In this configuration, the large bedroom was occupied by President James Madison and his wife, Dolley; President Thomas Jefferson; President John Adams and his wife, Abigail; and President James Monroe and his wife, Elizabeth.


title: Executive Residence

text: The entry foyer and north passage were removed by 1825. The large bedroom was subsequently occupied by President John Quincy Adams and his wife, Louisa; President Andrew Jackson; President Van Buren; President John Tyler and his wives Letitia Christian Tyler and Julia Gardiner Tyler; and President James K. Polk and his wife, Sarah.


title: Executive Residence

text: A full bath was added to the dressing room by 1849. The large bedroom was then used by President Zachary Taylor and his wife, Margaret; President Millard Fillmore and his wife, Abigail; President Franklin Pierce and his wife, Jane; President James Buchanan; and First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln. The northern passage (this time extending across the length of the room) was restored by 1865. An open doorframe in the south wall provided access to the bedroom to the south. The 1865 configuration was occupied by Senator David T. Patterson and his wife, Martha (daughter of President Andrew Johnson); President Ulysses S. Grant and his wife, Julia; President Rutherford B. Hayes and his wife, Lucy; President James Garfield and his wife, Lucretia; Mary Arthur McElroy, sister of widowed president Chester Arthur; Ruth, Esther, and Marion Cleveland, young daughters of President Grover Cleveland; President Benjamin Harrison and his wife, Caroline; President Theodore Roosevelt and his wife, Edith; President William Howard Taft and his wife, Helen; President Woodrow Wilson and his first wife, Ellen Axson Wilson; President Warren G. Harding and his wife, Florence; President Calvin Coolidge and his wife, Grace; and President Herbert Hoover and his wife, Lou. It was used as a sitting room by first ladies Eleanor Roosevelt and Bess Truman.


title: Executive Residence

text: The room underwent a major architectural change in 1952. The northeast corner of the room was intruded upon by a dressing room which extended from the small bedroom to the east. Another closet extended from the west into the northwest corner of the room. To accommodate these spaces, the northern wall of the large bedroom was made convex. It continued to be used as a sitting room by Bess Truman, but reverted to bedroom space in 1953. It has remained in its 1952 configuration ever since, and has been occupied by First Lady Mamie Eisenhower; First Lady Jacqueline Kennedy; First Lady Lady Bird Johnson; First Lady Pat Nixon; President Gerald R. Ford and his wife, Betty; President Jimmy Carter and his wife, Rosalynn; President Ronald Reagan and his wife, Nancy; President George H. W. Bush and his wife, Barbara; President Bill Clinton and his wife, Hillary; and President Barack Obama and his wife, Michelle.


title: Executive Residence

text: The Presidential Bedroom Suite dressing room was part of the Executive Residence when it was completed in 1809. A full bath was added to it some time before 1849. The bath was expanded to take up half the dressing room's space in the 1952 reconstruction.


title: Executive Residence

text: The dressing room has not always served as a dressing room, however. It served as a small bedroom for Susanna Adams, daughter of President John Adams; Louisa Smith, niece of First Lady Abigail Adams; Tad Lincoln, son of President Abraham Lincoln; Robert Johnson, son of President Andrew Johnson; Anne Thompson, nursemaid to the young children of President Grover Cleveland; First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt; and First Lady Bess Truman. It was used as a private study by first ladies Lucy Webb Hayes and Lou Henry Hoover, and as a private dining room by President Woodrow Wilson and his second wife, Edith. First Lady Florence Harding used it as a dress storage room. It also served as a combination dressing room/sitting room/office to first ladies Mamie Eisenhower, Jacqueline Kennedy, Lady Bird Johnson, Pat Nixon, Betty Ford, Rosalynn Carter, Nancy Reagan, Barbara Bush, and Hillary Rodham Clinton. Michelle Obama used it as a dressing room.


title: Executive Residence

text: West Sitting Hall did not exist when the White House was completed in 1809. James Hoban's original design for the White House had a flight of stairs, one against the north wall and one against the south wall, on the Ground Floor. These rose to a landing, and then a single flight of stairs rose to the Second Floor. This left only a small area north and south of the staircase, which by 1865 was being called the West Hall. In 1869, President Grant rebuilt the stairs so that the single staircase rose against the south wall. This left what space there was in a single rather than divided area, making it more useful. The new space created on the Second Floor became the West Sitting Hall. Considered part of the first family's private space, the West Sitting Hall has undergone redecoration with every new presidency and is not considered a historic room.