title: Jackson C. Frank

text: Frank, who had known Anderson from their days at Gettysburg College, had decided to write him to ask if there was anywhere in Woodstock he could stay after he had made up his mind to leave New York City. Abbott phoned Frank, and then organized a temporary placement for him at a senior citizens' home in Woodstock. Abbott was stunned by what he saw when he found Frank in New York:


title: Jackson C. Frank

text: Soon after this, Frank found himself sitting on a bench in Queens while awaiting his move to Woodstock, when he was shot with a pellet gun and blinded through his left eye. At first the shooter could not be found, but it was later determined that local kids had been firing the pellet gun indiscriminately at people, and Frank happened to be in the wrong place at the wrong time.


title: Jackson C. Frank

text: Abbott then promptly helped him move to Woodstock. During this time, Frank began recording some demos of new songs. Frank's resurfacing led to the first CD release of his self-titled album. In later pressings, Frank's demos from the 1970s were included as a bonus disc with the album, and an anthology entitled "Blues Run the Game" contained all these tracks as well as his final demos made in the 1990s. In 2014 "Forest of Eden", an album of Frank's unreleased demos, was released through London based record label Secret Records. The collection includes his unheard song "Forest of Eden", alongside 1950s demo recordings of "Heartbreak Hotel"; two Christmas songs, called "Santa Bring My Baby Back To Me" and "Precious Lord" (with a spoken word greeting to his grandparents); and three home-recorded demos of his original songs made prior to his 1965 album. These original song demos are of "I Want To Be Alone", "Here Comes The Blues", and "You Never Wanted Me". The only available recordings of Frank yet to be officially released are songs made for the BBC Radio 1 show "Nightride" in 1968, but they only exist as poor quality off-air sources.


title: Jackson C. Frank

text: Frank died in Great Barrington, Massachusetts, from a combination of pneumonia and cardiac arrest, on March 3, 1999, at the age of 56.


title: Jackson C. Frank

text: Though he never achieved fame during his lifetime, his songs have been covered by many well-known artists, including Simon and Garfunkel, John Mayer, Counting Crows, Nick Drake, Sandy Denny, Julie Felix, Bert Jansch, John Renbourn, Laura Marling, Chromatics, and Robin Pecknold. Nick Drake covered 4 songs from Frank's debut album; "Here Come the Blues", "Blues Run the Game", "Milk & Honey", and "Kimbie". These are found on Drake's posthumous release, "Family Tree". Frank's song "I Want To Be Alone", also known as "Dialogue," appeared on the soundtrack for the film "Daft Punk's Electroma". Soulsavers covered "Blues Run the Game" on their single "Revival" (7" vinyl, April 30, 2007). Marianne Faithfull covered Frank's arrangement of the traditional song "Kimbie" on her 2008 album "Easy Come, Easy Go" and included the song in the repertoire of her 2009 tour. Erland & The Carnival covered "My Name Is Carnival," apparently Frank's favourite song. Bert Jansch also covered this song as a gesture to Frank.


title: Jackson C. Frank

text: Sandy Denny covered "You Never Wanted Me" and "Milk and Honey" on the album "It's Sandy Denny" released by Saga Eros in 1970. Her song, "Next Time Around," contains coded references to Frank, her ex-boyfriend. "Marcy's Song" is played by Patrick, John Hawkes' character, in the 2011 film "Martha Marcy May Marlene", and "Marlene" plays in the closing credits. Laura Barton's BBC Radio 4 programme "Blues Run the Game", first broadcast November 20, 2012, included interviews with Al Stewart, John Renbourn, Jim Abbott and John Kay as well as archive material of Jackson C. Frank talking and singing.


title: Jackson C. Frank

text: South Korean jazz singer Na Yoon-sun covered "My Name Is Carnival" on her 2010 album "Same Girl". Frank's song "Milk and Honey" featured on the soundtrack of Vincent Gallo's 2003 movie "The Brown Bunny" (and prominently in the movie's trailer). It was also sampled by Hidden Orchestra in their track "The Burning Circle" and by Hip Hop artist Nas in his track "Undying Love". French singer and Kora player Stranded Horse (Yann Tambour) covered "My Name Is Carnival" on his 2016 album "Luxe". The popular American TV series "This Is Us" features "Blues Run the Game" in episode three, which first aired on October 11, 2016.


title: Jackson C. Frank

text: Alt-country band Son Volt covered "Yellow Walls" in 2017. A previously lost song from his 1968 period called "Golden Mirror" was uploaded to YouTube in late 2017. "Blues Run the Game" is featured in the 2018 film "The Old Man & the Gun". Colin Meloy performed "Blues Run The Game" in the 2013 musical/documentary "Another Day, Another Time: Celebrating the music of "Inside Llewyn Davis" and in 2017 Brazilian film "Araby"". "Horseshoe Crabs," a song on Hop Along's 2015 album "Painted Shut", was inspired by the events of Frank's later life. "Just Like Anything" was covered by Malcolm Middleton (Arab Strap) on his 2008 album "Sleight Of Heart". The electronic music band Chromatics did a cover of "I Want To Be Alone" in 2019


title: Jackson C. Frank

text: "My Name Is Carnival" is briefly played in the 2019 film "Joker". In a later scene, Joaquin Phoenix's character, Arthur, says, "I heard this song on the radio the other day, and the guy was singing that his name was Carnival. Which is crazy, because that’s my clown name at work." "Blues Run the Game" is featured on season 2, episode "Subterranean Fire" of "Tin Star" in 2019. "Blues Run the Game" is featured on season 2, episode 7 of "Britannia" in 2019. Joshua Lee Turner covered "Blues Run The Game" on his YouTube channel in late 2018.


title: Jackson C. Frank

text: David Balfe's project "For Those I Love" samples the main hook from "Cryin' like baby" on the eponymous debut album's final track "Leave Me Not Alone". The album's themes concentrate on youth, friendship and grief, using the lyrical sample to convey the artist's feelings upon learning of the death of his best friend.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Patricia Jinich ( Born Patricia Drijanski, March 30, 1972) is a Mexican chef, TV personality, cookbook author, educator, and food writer. She is best known for her James Beard Award-winning and Emmy-nominated public television series "Pati's Mexican Table". Her first cookbook, also "Pati's Mexican Table", was published in March 2013 and her second cookbook, "Mexican Today", was published in April 2016.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Jinich is the resident chef at the Mexican Cultural Institute in Washington, DC, where she has run her "Mexican Table" live culinary program since 2007. She has appeared on "The Today Show", "The Chew", "The Talk", "CBS This Morning", "The Home and Family Show", "All Things Considered", "Morning Edition", and "The Splendid Table" among other media. Her food writing has appeared in "The Washington Post" and "The New York Times". In May 2014, Jinich was invited to cook at the White House for President Barack Obama's Cinco de Mayo dinner. In May 2018, she cooked at the James Beard House in New York city for its Cinco de Mayo dinner.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Jinich was born and raised in Mexico City to a Jewish family. The youngest of four sisters, her grandparents were Jewish refugees from Eastern Europe. Jinich's maternal grandfather, who established a silver business in Mexico, came from Bratislava during World War II. Her grandmother, a seamstress, left her home near Vienna for New York before moving to Mexico. The two had originally met in Europe and then reconnected in Mexico. Her father was an architect and a jeweler who turned restaurateur, and her mother ran an art gallery.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Food was always an important part of Jinich's family life growing up. Her three older sisters pursued the culinary arts early on, but Jinich grew up dreaming of a career in academia. She earned a political science bachelor's degree from the Instituto Tecnológico Autónomo de México and a master's degree in Latin-American studies from Georgetown University, and she worked as a political analyst for the Inter-American Dialogue, a Washington, DC think tank before switching careers.


title: Pati Jinich

text: She met her husband, Daniel Jinich, who is also Jewish-Mexican, on a blind date. They were married in Mexico City in 1996 when she was 24.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Jinich first began researching and cooking Mexican cuisine out of homesickness for her native Mexico City, when she moved to Dallas, Texas, with her husband. Soon, she was teaching Mexican cooking to friends and neighbors. At the same time, as she was writing her bachelor's thesis, she offered to help KERA, the Dallas public TV station, with a documentary on the Mexican Revolution, but they needed help with another project: the PBS series "New Tastes from Texas" with Chef Stephan Pyles, for which she became a production assistant.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Two years later, she relocated to Washington, DC, with her husband and their first-born son, where she resumed her academic pursuits, earning her master's degree from Georgetown and landing her "dream job" at the Inter-American Dialogue, but she never stopped obsessively thinking about food and enrolled at L'Academie de Cuisine in Maryland.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Jinich envisioned herself writing articles about Mexican cuisine and teaching it in her home kitchen, until she met with the executive director of the Mexican Cultural Institute in Washington, DC, who encouraged her to bring her cooking program to the institute. In 2007, she launched her "Mexican Table" series of live cooking demonstrations along with multi-course tasting dinners, which she still runs today. The classes combine Jinich's skilled Mexican cooking with her knowledge of the country's history and regions. Each one explores a single topic—for example, dishes of the Mexican Revolution, a historical vanilla menu, or convent foods from colonial Mexico.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Around the same time, she started her blog about Mexican cuisine, which was followed by invitations to write about food for print publications and to give talks and cooking demos for radio and TV shows.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Jinich's charisma and intelligence caught the attention of television producers. After exploring different outlets, she decided Washington, DC's WETA-TV was the right home for "Pati's Mexican Table" because of her commitment to authenticity and the independence the PBS and public-TV platform allows over the content of its shows.


title: Pati Jinich

text: The first season of Pati’s Mexican Table aired in 2011 and included an episode that focused on the Sephardic and Lebanese influences on Mexican cooking. The best-selling cookbook of the same name followed in 2012.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Her book which focuses on easy-to-prepare dishes is based on everyday family meals that she prepares and serves to her husband and three sons.


title: Pati Jinich

text: In "Pati's Mexican Table", Jinich shares authentic Mexican cooking, along with Mexico's rich history and culture; her personal experiences and family life; and her ongoing conversations with cooks on both sides of the border. The series airs nationally in the United States on public television stations (distributed by APT) and on Create TV. It also airs on the Asian Food Channel in Southeast Asia, Food Network in Australia, TLN in Canada, and TABI Channel in Japan.


title: Pati Jinich

text: The "Pati's Mexican Table" series premiered in 2011. Its ninth consecutive season started on October 3, 2020.


title: Pati Jinich

text: In 2017, Amazon added "Pati's Mexican Table" to its Amazon Prime Video Internet video on demand service.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Jinich also has a show called "La Frontera with Pati Jinich" which explores the region around the Mexico–United States border.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Jinich's first cookbook, "Pati's Mexican Table: The Secrets of Real Mexican Home Cooking", was published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt in March 2013. The book is based on the traditional Mexican home cooking with which Jinich grew up, with many recipes gleaned from her childhood in Mexico City. It made Amazon's "Best of the Year in Cookbooks" list of 2013, the Washington Post's "Best Cookbooks of 2013" list, The Splendid Table's "Staff Book Picks of 2013" list, and Serious Eats "Our Favorite Cookbooks of 2013" list.


title: Pati Jinich

text: Jinich's second cookbook, "Mexican Today: New and Rediscovered Recipes for Contemporary Kitchens", was published by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt in April 2016. Jinich explores both traditional and rediscovered Mexican dishes as well as reinterpretations and new takes using Mexican ingredients in this book. NPR's Maria Godoy said, "Mexican Today explores not just traditional fare but [also] the country's evolving cuisine and the many immigrant groups who have influenced it."


title: Pati Jinich

text: Jinich lives in Chevy Chase, Maryland, with her husband Daniel Jinich and their three sons: Alan, Samuel ("Sami"), and Julian ("Juju"). Her sister Karen Drijanski is a chef in Mexico City. Her other sister Sharon Drijanski is a designer and has written vegetarian cookbooks. A third sister, Alisa Drijanski, is a pastry chef who is married to former Telemundo president Emilio Romano.


title: Fat Bastard

text: Fat Bastard is a fictional character in the second and third films of the "Austin Powers" series. A morbidly obese henchman hailing from Clydebank, Scotland, Fat Bastard serves Dr. Evil in his quest to destroy Austin Powers. The character is portrayed by Mike Myers.


title: Fat Bastard

text: His extreme size and weight (1 tonne, according to Dr. Evil) endows Fat Bastard with massive strength. He exhibits this prowess in the sumo ring during the third movie.


title: Fat Bastard

text: Fat Bastard is noted for his foul temper, his emotional monologues that culminate in flatulence, his vulgar, crude manners, and his unusual diet. These go as far as to include a cannibalistic taste for human infants and people with dwarfism, whom he calls "the "other", other white meat". In "", he boasts that he once ate a baby, and tries to refuse Dr. Evil's money for his services in exchange for getting to eat Mini-Me.


title: Fat Bastard

text: The character utilizes many tropes associated with a very negative view of fat people, namely that they are greedy, obsessed with eating, possibly cannibalistic, and grotesque.


title: Fat Bastard

text: Fat Bastard had stolen Austin's mojo in 1969, as he is a guard in the facility, and has knocked out the other guards using bagpipes that spray gas, leaving Austin impotent in 1999. After seducing and sleeping with Fat Bastard, secret agent—and Austin's ally—Felicity Shagwell (Heather Graham) places a homing device in his rectum. During this time with Felicity, Fat Bastard is also eating a whole chicken while in bed with her. However, the device is ineffective, lost and left in a toilet before he returns to Dr. Evil's island. However, traces of rare vegetables are found in a stool sample, enabling the island to be tracked down. Fat Bastard often declares himself "dead sexy", but he is really hiding his true feelings of rejection from society. During an assassination attempt against Austin and Felicity in 1999, Fat Bastard dresses as a package delivery man and literally breaks in through the front door. When Felicity asks if he is happy, Fat Bastard has an emotional breakdown, tearfully confessing "I eat because I'm unhappy, and I'm unhappy because I eat. It's a vicious cycle. Now if you'll excuse me, there's someone I need to get in touch with and forgive. Myself." He then farts, which makes Austin and Felicity disgusted. Fat Bastard is slightly embarrassed and says "Sorry, I farted. Cm It's a long road ahead". He then changes his mind and decides to kill them both anyway. Before he can, Felicity incapacitates him by kicking Fat Bastard in the Testicles, he groans and calls his Scrotum “ the mommy daddy button “ she tells him she did it for insulting her sexual prowess and he faints shaking the whole room in the process.


title: Fat Bastard

text: In the next film, Fat Bastard retires from being a henchman and relocates to Japan. There, he becomes a sumo wrestler and, despite trying to go straight, he still carries out the occasional job for Dr. Evil. During his bathroom time, Foxxy Cleopatra and Austin sneak in using a disguise and catch him. Austin starts shouting to him "You really are a Fat Bastard"; to which he replies "You know that hurts my feelings. I've tried going on a diet, you know". Fat Bastard then says he did the Zone diet, stating that "carbs are the enemy", though the Zone diet promotes equal amounts of carbs and protein and Fat Bastard probably meant the Atkins diet, which emphasizes low carbs. After tearfully telling Austin and Foxxy that he's happy as a sumo wrestler, he farts. Austin asks him if he soiled himself. Fat Bastard replies "maybe" and laughs. He then jokes about how it sounded wet and smells it. He is disgusted by how it smells, stating it smells like "Carrots and throw up".


title: Fat Bastard

text: By the end of "Austin Powers in Goldmember", he has lost his excessive weight, crediting it to the Subway diet, even citing Jared Fogle as a hero. However, he points out that he still has a lot of excess skin, further noting the resemblance of his neck to a vagina. On the film audio commentary, Mike Myers says that Fat Bastard probably will not stay thin (as "Thin Bastard", as he called him) and would most likely return to his overweight state.


title: Fat Bastard

text: In reviews for the movie in the newspapers, film critic Roger Ebert referred to him as ""We can't even say his name!"", while others called him ""Obese Illegitimate Child"".


title: Fat Bastard

text: The mass retail action figures sold of the character had the name "Fat Man" on the box, even though the patch on his blazer clearly displayed "FB". Specialty stores such as comic book shops had figures in packaging which referred to him as "Fat Bastard", however.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Ashley Rae Maika DiPietro (born Ashley Youmans; April 30, 1985), better known by the stage name Ashley Alexandra Dupré, is a former call girl. She has worked as a sex columnist for the "New York Post", and as a singer. She became a public figure when it was disclosed that she was the woman at the center of the Eliot Spitzer prostitution scandal. In that capacity, she was known as Kristen, the name she used as a call girl.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Dupré spent her early childhood years in Beachwood, New Jersey, a borough near the Jersey Shore. Her father, William Youmans, owned a landscaping business and also worked as a salesman of surfing accessories. When her parents divorced, Dupré moved to Wall Township, New Jersey with her mother, Carolyn Capalbo, and her stepfather, Mike DiPietro, an oral surgeon. There, she attended Old Mill (elementary) School and Wall High School until her sophomore year, when she moved to Kill Devil Hills, North Carolina, to live with her father. On her MySpace page, Dupré described leaving home at age 17 to escape a broken family and abuse, but her aunt, Barbara Youmans of Seaside Heights, denied that Dupré had a difficult childhood. "She never had a bad life when she was growing up. She had the best of everything: bicycles, clothing, O'Neill surf boards. ... She was always dressed to kill and got everything she wanted."


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: In 2004, at the age of 19, Dupré moved to New York City in pursuit of a music career, and worked as a waitress at a dance club called Viscaya in the Chelsea district. She also worked at the clubs Pink Elephant and Retox. Jason Itzler, who ran a New York escort service called NY Confidential from 2003 to 2005, met Dupré while she was working as a cocktail waitress at the Hotel Gansevoort in 2004. Dupré began working for him on the side, using the alias Victoria. NY Confidential was shut down and Itzler sent to prison by Spitzer's New York State Attorney General's office in 2005. Dupré subsequently worked for NY Confidential's former CFO, who had opened Velvet Traces in Brooklyn.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Acquaintances cited in the "New York Post" stated that Dupre had expensive tastes, including Cartier and Louis Vuitton consumer goods and trips to Saint-Tropez, France. The sources also stated that several of her tattoos, in Latin and Arabic, were mantras to help keep her clean—including "What does not destroy me makes me stronger," "Protect your own," and "Never give up." None admitted suspecting that she was a sex worker, believing her statements that the cash for her lifestyle came from her wealthy parents. In 2006, Dupré changed her legal name from Youmans to her stepfather's name of DiPietro, stating that she regarded him as "the only father I have known." In the same year, she answered an ad by the escort agency Emperors Club VIP, and began working for the agency under the alias Kristen. By 2008, Dupré was living in a ninth-floor apartment in the Flatiron District of Manhattan. She maintains that she was concerned about her ability to pay her rent after the man she was living with left following her discovery that he had fathered two children.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: On February 13, 2008, Dupré travelled by Amtrak from New York's Pennsylvania Station to Washington, D.C., for an assignation at the Mayflower Hotel with New York Governor Eliot Spitzer. The arrangements had been made by phone between Spitzer and a booker at Emperors Club VIP, and were monitored by federal investigators who had initiated a wiretap after his bank had filed a suspicious activity report regarding money transfers by Spitzer to a front company operated by the escort service.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Caught on the FBI's wiretap was Dupré's response to the booker's mention of other escorts' difficulties with Spitzer. "I don't think he's difficult," said Dupré. "I mean it's just kind of like, whatever, I'm here for a purpose. I know what my purpose is. I am not a … moron, you know what I mean."


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: On March 6, federal authorities arrested four individuals involved with Emperors Club VIP, charging them under federal prostitution and money laundering laws. Initial news reports and court documents did not identify the agency's clients or call girls by name, referring to Spitzer as "Client 9" and to Dupré as "Kristen".


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: On March 10, "The New York Times" identified Spitzer as "Client 9." Two days later on March 12, the "Times" identified Dupré as "Kristen." Her mother, Carolyn Capalbo, told the newspaper that her daughter "was a young kid with typical teenage rebellion issues, but we are extremely close now." Capalbo said she was "shell-shocked" when her daughter called to tell her she had been working as a prostitute.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Dupré's only public comment on the affair remained the brief interview with "The New York Times" which broke the story of "Kristen's" identity on March 12, in an article accompanied by photographs taken from Dupré's MySpace page. "I just don't want to be thought of as a monster," Dupré told the newspaper. "This has been a very difficult time. It's complicated." On the day the story broke, she posted a message to her MySpace page that said "Yeah, I did it"; it was later changed to read, "Thank you for your support, it means a lot to me." Dupré uploaded a second song to the Amie Street online music store around 2 a.m. on March 13. On March 14, New York City radio station Z100 played one Dupré song.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: While Dupré remained in seclusion in the days after her role in the scandal became public, she became the subject of increasingly intense media coverage. "The Village Voice" called her "the most famous hooker in America", and the "New York Post" published an extensive photo shoot showing Dupré in provocative poses. By March 18, Dupré's profile on MySpace had received over 9 million page views. Dupré was reportedly offered US$1 million by "Hustler" magazine to pose nude, and received offers from "Penthouse" magazine and Vivid Entertainment.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: It was not clear if Dupré would use her notoriety to gain modeling, interview, sit-com cameo, or reality television opportunities. According to Andy Greene, assistant editor at "Rolling Stone" magazine quoted in "Advertising Age" magazine, "If she was in the studio with a producer, her voice is not that much worse than Britney Spears'. … It's not inconceivable that she could have a song as good as the stuff on the charts. … It's a really tough road for her to have a music career because she's a prostitute. … She had sex with Gov. Spitzer, and that's fascinating to a lot of people. But people ultimately want to read her book or see her interviewed by Oprah or Barbara Walters. They don't want to listen to her third or fourth song."


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: On March 19, the soft porn website Girls Gone Wild featured teasers of Dupré, shot in Miami Beach, Florida in 2003 before she had turned 18. Dupré presented the company the drivers license of a New Jersey woman named Amber Arpaio, claiming it was Dupré's own. Company founder Joe Francis—who served a year in jail for a conviction of child abuse and prostitution involving filming two underaged girls in Panama City, Florida, in 2003 who had represented themselves as adults—prepared to release a full DVD of Dupré footage from company archives. "All nude images of Ms. Dupre were taken in public places and contain no sexual contact," said Francis. "In Florida, where Ms. Dupre was filmed, the law allows even women under the age of 18 to be filmed nude with their consent."


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Dupré's attorney, Don Buchwald, argued in an e-mail to Girls Gone Wild, "It was because she was underage that [Francis] sent her home on a Greyhound bus back to North Carolina. It would be outrageous at the very least to play the video of an underage female on the Internet."


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: On April 28, 2008, Dupré filed suit against Francis and two of his companies alleging their exploitation of Dupré's name and image, seeking US$10 million in punitive damages, but in July of that year she decided to drop the suit after Francis released footage showing her agreeing to be filmed.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: In December 2009, Dupré started writing an advice column in the "New York Post" called "Ask Ashley". Her last column appeared in May 2012.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: In January 2010, Dupré appeared on "The Howard Stern Show", where she discussed incidents ranging from her situation as a rape victim to how she preoccupied her mind when engaged in intercourse with men she was not attracted to.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: It was announced on August 17, 2012, that Dupre was seven months pregnant and engaged to be married to Thomas "TJ" Earle. Dupre was said to have married Earle in Paris on October 13, 2013.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: On March 15, Dupré was granted immunity from prosecution by the United States Attorney for the Southern District of New York for her role in the Spitzer scandal, in order to testify at court hearings related to the Emperors Club VIP prostitution ring.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: In July 2008, a woman named Amber Arpaio filed a federal lawsuit against Dupré for defamation and invasion of privacy, claiming Dupré used her lost driver's license to appear on a Girls Gone Wild video. Arpaio also sued Girls Gone Wild founder Joe Francis.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Dupré began singing professionally when Jerry Cooper, a musician she was living with, heard her singing the Aretha Franklin version of the song "Respect" in the shower. "She had this huge voice for such a little girl," Cooper told MTV, "and so I just kind of went in and said, 'Hey, come upstairs when you're done with this, and let's work on some songs.'" According to Dupré, she then toured and recorded with Cooper's band, networking with people in the music industry. In 2005, she formed a company named Pasche New York, an entertainment business intended to promote her music career.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: In the summer of 2006, she made an appearance in a music video for the song "Pop Off", performed by rapper Mysterious.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Shortly after "The New York Times" published their profile of Dupré, her single "Move Ya Body" set a record for how fast it commanded the top price on the music-download site AmieStreet.com, reaching the site's maximum of US$0.98 per download in five hours. Another single, "What We Want", was played more than 3 million times on the Internet after the scandal erupted. While some speculated that she may have earned as much as US$300,000–1.4 million from download sales of her singles on Amie Street, others estimated her earnings at as low as US$13,720. Dupré's music came to be featured in mash up YouTube videos, blending her tracks with those of established artists.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Dupré reportedly is now being represented by music manager Jerry Blair, who formerly worked for Mariah Carey, but has not yet signed a deal with a record company.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: On July 7, 2008, E! reported that Dupré was engaged in talks about a proposed reality show with Handprint Entertainment, the same firm that managed the reality television careers of Nicole Richie and Pamela Anderson, and that she was considering a move from New York to Los Angeles. One of the concepts reportedly being considered was a dating program similar to "A Shot at Love with Tila Tequila". Dupré will reportedly be working with the production company Reveille Productions (responsible for the TV shows "The Office" and "The Biggest Loser") to create a reality dating show based on the theme that everyone has skeletons in their closet.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: Dupré appeared on "20/20" on Friday, November 21, 2008, where she was interviewed by Diane Sawyer about her feelings about being an "escort," and the emotional effect it had upon her when the encounter with Spitzer was made public.


title: Ashley Alexandra Dupré

text: On July 10, 2011, VH1 premiered "Famous Food", a reality series featuring seven celebrities. Dupré came in third; first and second were given a partnership stake in the Lemon Basket.


title: Brian Thomas Smith

text: Brian Thomas Smith (born May 13, 1977) is an American actor and comedian known for playing the dim-witted but kind-hearted Zack Johnson in "The Big Bang Theory" for nine seasons. He has also made other TV appearances on "Fear Factor", "Two and a Half Men", "Happy Endings", "The Neighborhood", "", and "United States of Al". On the big screen, Smith starred opposite Al Pacino and Annette Bening in Dan Fogelman's directoral debut film, "Danny Collins". Other films Smith has starred in include "Lethal Seduction", "Babysplitters", "The Wedding Party", and "Concrete Blondes".


title: Brian Thomas Smith

text: Smith graduated from Central Missouri State University (he was also a Sigep) before moving to Los Angeles. He was a member of the sketch comedy troupe, The Exploding Pajamas.


title: Brian Thomas Smith

text: Smith has appeared in over 100 commercials including Miller Lite, Pizza Hut, Burger King, State Farm, Lopez Tonight, Chevrolet, Carl's Jr., Coors Light, Budweiser, Taco Bell, DirecTV, Pop Chips, Buffalo Wild Wings, Honda, Corona, Applebee's, DairyQueen, Audi, and Progressive Insurance.


title: Brian Thomas Smith

text: In 2005, in markets outside of the United States, he starred in a Heineken beer commercial with Jennifer Aniston.


title: Brian Thomas Smith

text: In 2005, Smith appeared on the reality television competition series "The Amazing Race 7" with his brother, Greg. The two were involved in a car accident during the sixth leg that injured their cameraman. They were then eliminated on the subsequent leg during the sixth episode and placed sixth overall.


title: Brian Thomas Smith

text: In 2010, Smith joined the cast of comedy series "The Big Bang Theory" in a recurring role, brilliantly portraying Penny's ingenuous ex-boyfriend, Zack Johnson. He continued to recur on the show until its 12th and final season in 2019 (S12E12 and S12E25).


title: Brian Thomas Smith

text: In 2021, Smith was cast in a recurring role of the comedy series "United States of Al", as Freddy, the new boyfriend of Vanessa, Riley's ex-wife.


title: Hemispheres of Earth

text: Hemispheres of Earth in geography and cartography, are any division of the globe into two hemispheres ().


title: Hemispheres of Earth

text: The primary hemispherical split geographically is made by latitudinal (north/south) and longitudinal (east-west) markers:


title: Hemispheres of Earth

text: The East–West division can also be seen in a cultural and religious sense, as a division into two cultural and religious hemispheres. Some geographers prefer to split the hemispheres at 20° west and 160° east so that Africa and Europe are not split.


title: Hemispheres of Earth

text: However, other schemes have sought to divide the planet in a way that maximizes the preponderance of one geographic feature or another in each division:


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants is a 2013 nonfiction book by Potawatomi professor Robin Wall Kimmerer, about the role of Indigenous knowledge as an alternative or complementary approach to Western mainstream scientific methodologies.


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: "Braiding Sweetgrass" explores reciprocal relationships between humans and the land, with a focus on the role of plants and botany in both Native American and Western traditions. The book received largely positive reviews, appearing on several bestseller lists. Kimmerer is known for her scholarship on traditional ecological knowledge, ethnobotany, and moss ecology.


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: "Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants" is about botany and the relationship to land in Native American traditions. Kimmerer, who is an enrolled member of the Citizen Potawatomi Nation, writes about her personal experiences working with plants and reuniting with her people's cultural traditions. She also presents the history of the plants and botany from a scientific perspective.


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: The series of essays in five sections begins with "Planting Sweetgrass", and progresses through "Tending," "Picking," "Braiding," and "Burning Sweetgrass." "Environmental Philosophy" says that this progression of headings "signals how Kimmerer's book functions not only as natural history but also as ceremony, the latter of which plays a decisive role in how Kimmerer comes to know the living world."


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: Kimmerer describes "Braiding Sweetgrass" as "[A] braid of stories...woven from three strands: indigenous ways of knowing, scientific knowledge, and the story of an Anishinabeckwe scientist trying to bring them together in service to what matters most." She also calls the work "an intertwining of science, spirit, and story."


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: "American Indian Quarterly" writes that "Braiding Sweetgrass" is a book about traditional ecological knowledge and environmental humanities. Kimmerer combines her training in Western scientific methods and her Native American knowledge about sustainable land stewardship to describe a more joyful and ecological way of using our land in "Braiding Sweetgrass".


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: Kimmerer has said about the book that, "I wanted readers to understand that Indigenous knowledge and Western science are both powerful ways of knowing, and that by using them together we can imagine a more just and joyful relationship with the Earth." Plants described in the book include squash, algae, goldenrod, pecans and the eponymous sweetgrass. She describes the book as “an invitation to celebrate the gifts of the earth.”


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: Kimmerer received the 2014 Sigurd F. Olson Nature Writing Award for her book "Braiding Sweetgrass: Indigenous Wisdom, Scientific Knowledge, and the Teachings of Plants". The book has also received best-seller awards amongst the "New York Times" Bestseller, the"Washington Post" Bestseller, and the "Los Angeles Times" Bestseller lists. It was named a “Best Essay Collection of the Decade” by Literary Hub and a Book Riot “Favorite Summer Read of 2020”


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: "Native Studies Review" writes that "Braiding Sweetgrass" is a "book to savour and to read again and again."


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: Heather Sullivan writes in the "Journal of Germanic Studies" that "one occasionally encounters a text like an earthquake: it shakes one’s fundamental assumptions with a massive shift that, in comparison, renders mere epiphanies bloodless: Robin Wall Kimmerer’s "Braiding Sweetgrass" is one of these kinds of books.”


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: Sue O'Brien in "Library Journal" wrote "Kimmerer writes of investigating the natural world with her students and her efforts to protect and restore plants, animals, and land. A trained scientist who never loses sight of her Native heritage, she speaks of approaching nature with gratitude and giving back in return for what we receive." O'Brien expresses that anyone "who enjoys reading about natural history, botany, protecting nature, or Native American culture will love this book".


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: The "Appalachian Review" notes that Kimmerer's writing does not fall into "preachy, new-age, practical bring-your-own-grocery-bags environmental movement writing" nor "the flowing optimism of pure nature writing." The reader is compelled to act and change their view of the environment as the book "challenges the European immigrant ecological consciousness" through "Native American creation stories and details of sustainable, traditional, ecological management practices of Native Americans."


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: Kathleen D. Moore in "The Bryologist" says that "Braiding Sweetgrass" "is far more than a memoir or a field guide. I would call it a wisdom book, because I believe that Robin has something world-changing to pass along, an ethos she has learned by listening closely to plants".


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: The "Tribal College Journal" wrote "Each chapter is an adventurous journey into the world of plants." "Publishers Weekly" call Kimmerer a "mesmerizing storyteller" in "Braiding Sweetgrass".


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: The "Star Tribune" writes that Kimmerer is able to give readers the ability to see the common world in a new way. "Kirkus Reviews" calls "Braiding Sweetgrass" a "smart, subtle overlay of different systems of thought that together teach us to be better citizens of Earth."


title: Braiding Sweetgrass

text: On Feb. 9, 2020, the book first appeared at No. 14 on the "New York Times Best Sellers" paperback nonfiction list; at the beginning of November 2020, in its 30th week, it was at No. 9. In 2021, "The Independent" recommended the book as the top choice of books about climate change.


title: Transfăgărășan

text: The Transfăgărășan ("trans" + "Făgăraș") or DN7C is a paved mountain road crossing the southern section of the Carpathian Mountains of Romania. It has national-road ranking and is the second-highest paved road in the country after the Transalpina. It starts near the village of Bascov, near Pitești, and stretches to the crossroad between the DN1 and Sibiu, between the highest peaks in the country, Moldoveanu and Negoiu. The road, built in the early 1970s as a strategic military route, connects the historic regions of Transylvania and Wallachia.


title: Transfăgărășan

text: The Transfăgărășan was constructed between 1970 and 1974 during the rule of Nicolae Ceaușescu as a response to the 1968 invasion of Czechoslovakia by the Soviet Union. Ceaușescu wanted to ensure quick military access across the mountains in case of a Soviet invasion. At the time, Romania already had several strategic mountain passes through the Southern Carpathians, whether inherited from the pre-communist era (the DN1 and the high-pass DN67C) or built during the initial years of the Communist regime (the DN66). These passes, however, were mainly through river valleys, and would be easy for the Soviets to block and attack. Ceaușescu therefore ordered the construction of a road across the Făgăraș Mountains, which divide northwestern and southern Romania.


title: Transfăgărășan

text: Built mainly by military forces, the road had a high financial and human cost. Work was carried out in an alpine climate, at an elevation of , using roughly of dynamite, and employing junior military personnel who were untrained in blasting techniques. Many workers died; official records state that only 40 soldiers lost their lives, but unofficial estimates by workers put the number in the hundreds.


title: Transfăgărășan

text: The road was officially opened on 20 September 1974, although work, particularly paving of the roadbed, continued until 1980.


title: Transfăgărășan

text: The road climbs to an altitude of , making it the second highest mountain pass in Romania after the Transalpina. It is a winding road, dotted with steep hairpin turns, long S-curves, and sharp descents. It is both an attraction and a challenge for hikers, cyclists, drivers and motorcycle enthusiasts. Due to the topography, the average speed is around . The road also provides access to Bâlea Lake and Bâlea Waterfall.


title: Transfăgărășan

text: The road is usually closed from late October until late June because of snow. Depending on the weather, it may remain open until as late as November, or may close even in the summer; signs at the town of Curtea de Argeș and the village of Cartisoara provide information.


title: Transfăgărășan

text: The Transfăgărășan has more tunnels (a total of 5) and viaducts than any other road in Romania. Near the highest point, at Bâlea Lake, the road passes through Bâlea Tunnel, the longest road tunnel in Romania at .


title: Transfăgărășan

text: Along the southern section of the road, near the village of Arefu, is Poenari Castle. The castle was the residence of Vlad the Impaler, the inspiration for Bram Stoker's Count Dracula.


title: Transfăgărășan

text: The northern section is used for annual cycling competitions, including the Tour of Romania, and the section to Bâlea Lake has been used since 2011 for the Sibiu Cycling Tour. These sections are considered to be similar in difficulty to hors catégorie climbs in the Tour de France.


title: Transfăgărășan

text: The Transfăgărășan was featured in a segment of the British TV show "Top Gear", in the first episode of Series 14 (November 2009). Host Jeremy Clarkson proclaimed that the Transfăgărășan was "the best road in the world," a title the presenters had previously given to the Stelvio Pass in Italy.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Rape is a traumatic experience that affects the victim (also known as 'survivor') in a physical, psychological, and sociological way. Even though the effects and aftermath of rape differentiate among victims, individuals tend to suffer from similar issues found within these three categories. Long-term reactions may involve the development of coping mechanisms that will either benefit the victim, such as social support, or inhibit their recovery. Seeking support and professional resources may assist the victim in numerous ways.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Research on women in shelters has shown that women who experience both sexual and physical abuse from intimate partners are significantly more likely to have had sexually transmitted diseases.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Most rape survivors experience a stronger psychological impact in the initial period after their assault; however, many survivors may experience long-lasting psychological harm.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Survivors of rape may often have anxiety and fear directly following their attack. According to a study on the reactions after rape by the American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 96 percent of women said they were scared, shaking, or trembling a few hours after their attack. After even more time passed, the previous symptoms decreased while the levels of depression, exhaustion, and restlessness increased.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: After an attack, rape survivors experience heightened anxiety and fear. According to Dean G. Kilpatrick, a distinguished psychologist, survivors of rape have high levels of anxiety and phobia-related anxiety. This includes and is not limited to the following:


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Some survivors of rape cope by attempting to have a lot of sex, even (or especially) in cases where they did not do this before the rape.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Many survivors of rape have post-traumatic stress disorder. The National Victim Center and the Crime Victim's Research and Treatment Center released a report that found 31% of women who were raped develop PTSD at some point in their lives following their attack. The same study estimated 3.8 million American women would have rape-related PTSD, and 1.3 million women have rape-induced PTSD.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: A study found that women who were raped were more depressed than women who were not. The study measured the level of depression using the Beck Depression Inventory test, and concluded that forty-five percent of the women assessed in the study were moderately or severely depressed.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Self-blame is among the most common of both short- and long-term effects and functions as an avoidance coping skill that inhibits the healing process and can often be remedied by a cognitive therapy technique known as cognitive restructuring.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: There are two main types of self-blame: behavioral self-blame (undeserved blame based on actions) and characterological self-blame (undeserved blame based on character). Survivors who experience behavioral self-blame feel that they should have done something differently, and therefore feel at fault. Survivors who experience characterological self-blame feel there is something inherently wrong with them which has caused them to deserve to be assaulted.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: A leading researcher on the psychological causes and effects of shame, June Tangney, lists five ways shame can be destructive:


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Tangney notes the link of shame and anger. "In day-to-day life, when people are shamed and angry they tend to be motivated to get back at a person and get revenge."


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: In addition, shame is connected to psychological problems – such as eating disorders, substance abuse, anxiety, depression, and other mental disorders as well as problematic moral behavior. In one study over several years, shame-prone children were also prone to substance abuse, earlier sexual activity, less safe sexual activity, and involvement with the criminal justice system.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Behavioral self-blame is associated with feelings of guilt within the survivor. While the belief that one had control during the assault (past control) is associated with greater psychological distress, the belief that one has more control during the recovery process (present control) is associated with less distress, less withdrawal, and more cognitive reprocessing. This need for control stems from the just-world belief, which implies that people get what they deserve and the world has a certain order of things that individuals are able to control. This control reassures them that this event will not happen again.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Counseling responses found helpful in reducing self-blame are supportive responses, psychoeducational responses (learning about rape trauma syndrome) and those responses addressing the issue of blame. A helpful type of therapy for self-blame is cognitive restructuring or cognitive-behavioral therapy. Cognitive reprocessing is the process of taking the facts and forming a logical conclusion from them that is less influenced by shame or guilt. Most rape survivors cannot be reassured enough that what happened to them is "not their fault." This helps them fight through shame and feel safe, secure, and grieve in a healthy way. In most cases, a length of time, and often therapy, is necessary to allow the survivor and people close to the survivor to process and heal.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: In a study about the impacts of rape of males, distinguished scholars Jayne Walker, John Archer, and Michelle Davies found that after their attack, male survivors had long-term depression, anxiety, anger, confusion about their masculinity, confusion about their sexuality, and grief. Ninety-seven percent of men reported being depressed after their attack. As well as this, approximately ninety-three percent of men report feelings of anxiety. Along with depression, the most commonly reported reaction is anger. Ninety-five percent of male survivors reported having fantasies of revenge or retaliation. Male survivors reported buying weapons to kill their assailants. Men also reported experiencing long-term crises with their sexual orientation and their masculinity. The male victims of rape felt powerless because they believed they lost their male pride and dignity. Many men reported grieving the loss of self-respect and self-worth. Ninety percent of male survivors lost respect for themselves because of their assault.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Survivors of rape are more likely to attempt or commit suicide. The association remains, even after controlling for sex, age, education, symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder and the presence of psychiatric disorders. The experience of being raped can lead to suicidal behavior as early as adolescence. In Ethiopia, 6% of raped schoolgirls reported having attempted suicide. They also feel embarrassed to talk about what had happened to them. A study of adolescents in Brazil found prior sexual abuse to be a leading factor predicting several health risk behaviours, including suicidal thoughts and attempts.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: After a sexual assault, victims are subjected to investigations and, in some cases, mistreatment. Victims undergo medical examinations and are interviewed by police. During the criminal trial, victims suffer a loss of privacy and their credibility may be challenged. Sexual assault victims may also experience secondary victimization and victim blaming including, slut-shaming and cyberbullying. During criminal proceedings, publication bans and rape shield laws operate to protect victims from excessive public scrutiny.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Rape is especially stigmatizing in cultures with strong customs and taboos regarding sex and sexuality. For example, a rape victim (especially one who was previously a virgin) may be viewed by society as being "damaged." Victims in these cultures may suffer isolation, be disowned by friends and family, be prohibited from marrying, be divorced if already married, or even killed. This phenomenon is known as secondary victimization. While society targets secondary victimization mainly towards women, male victims can also feel shameful, or experience a loss of purity.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Secondary victimization is the re-traumatization of the sexual assault, abuse, or rape victim through the responses of individuals and institutions. Types of secondary victimization include victim blaming and inappropriate post-assault behavior or language by medical personnel or other organizations with which the victim has contact. Secondary victimization is especially common in cases of drug-facilitated, acquaintance, and statutory rape.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: The term "victim blaming" refers to holding the victim of a crime to be responsible for that crime, either in whole or in part. In the context of rape, it refers to the attitude that certain victim behaviors (such as flirting or wearing sexually provocative clothing) may have encouraged the assault. This can cause the victim to believe the crime was indeed their fault. Rapists are known to use victim blaming as their primary psychological disconnect from their crime(s) and in some cases it has led to their conviction. Female rape victims receive more blame when they exhibit behavior which breaks the gender roles of society. Society uses this behavior as a justification for the rape. Similarly, blame placed on female rape victims often depends on the victim's attractiveness and respectability. While such behavior has no justified correlation to an attack, it can be used in victim blaming. A "rape supportive" society refers to when perpetrators are perceived as justified for raping. Male victims are more often blamed by society for their rape due to weakness or emasculation. The lack of support and community for male rape victims is furthered by the lack of attention given to sexual assaults of males by society.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: It has been proposed that one cause of victim blaming is the "just world hypothesis". People who believe that the world is intrinsically fair may find it difficult or impossible to accept a situation in which a person is badly hurt for no reason. This leads to a sense that victims must have done something to deserve their fate. Another theory entails the psychological need to protect one's own sense of invulnerability, which can inspire people to believe that rape only happens to those who provoke the assault. Believers use this as a way to feel safer: If one avoids the behaviours of the past victims, one will be less vulnerable. A global survey of attitudes toward sexual violence by the Global Forum for Health Research shows that victim-blaming concepts are at least partially accepted in many countries.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Victim blame can also be a result of popular media's use of sexual objectification. Sexual objectification is reducing an individual's existence to that of a sexual object. This involves dehumanization. A study conducted in Britain found that women who are objectified based on the clothes that they wear and what the media says about them, the more likely they would be to experience victim-blame after a sexual assault. Another study that investigated a large group of college students to see medias contribution to sexual objectification and its effects on victim-blaming, found that the more a person is exposed to media content that sexualizes women's bodies the more likely they are to participate in rape blame.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: It has also been proposed by Roxane Agnew-Davies, a clinical psychologist and an expert on the effects of sexual violence, that victim-blaming correlates with fear. "It is not surprising when so many rape victims blame themselves. Female jurors can look at the woman in the witness stand and decide she has done something 'wrong' such as flirting or having a drink with the defendant. She can therefore reassure herself that rape won't happen to her as long as she does nothing similar."


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: According to a multitude of studies, heterosexual men are the most likely to participate in victim-blaming. Men tend to blame other men for their own sexual assaults. They also tend to blame individuals who do not adhere to gender norms, such as crossdressers, transgender men, and gay men.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Many of the countries in which victim blaming is more common are those in which there is a significant social divide between the freedoms and status afforded to men and women.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Some individuals have found that reporting their assault assisted them in their recovery process. Contacting their local police department, visiting a medical center, and/or calling the National Sexual Assault Hotline are several options that survivors may consider while seeking justice.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Even so, only a small percentage of survivors decide to report their rape. Rape victims are less likely to report their sexual assault than simple assault victims. Between 2006 and 2010, it is estimated that 211,200 rapes or sexual assaults were unreported to police each year. Factors that may influence a rape reporting decision include gender, age, minority status, perceived outcomes, and social expectations. Furthermore, a rape in which the survivor knows the perpetrator is less likely to be reported than one committed by a stranger. The absence of physical injuries and involvement of drugs and/or alcohol also contributes to the decrease in reports. Specifically, female rape victims are more likely to report their cases when they feel more victimized due to serious bodily injuries. Female rape victims are less likely to report cases in which the perpetrator is a relative or acquaintance. Male rape victims may be hesitant to report rapes due to the stigma surrounding male rape, which can cause humiliation or fear of emasculation.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: Survivors who do not decide to report their rape to law enforcement are still eligible to receive a sexual assault forensic exam, also known as a rape kit. They are also still encouraged to seek support from their loved ones and/or a professional psychologist.


title: Effects and aftermath of rape

text: The process of recovering from a rape differentiates among survivors for their own individual reasons. The nature of the attack, how survivors choose to cope with their trauma, and social influences are a few of the many variables that impact the healing process. Even so, recovery generally consists of three main themes: reaching out, reframing the rape, and redefining the self. Professional treatment may be needed to help assist with properly accomplishing these three factors. Cognitive Processing Therapy has been found to result in a decrease or remission of post trauma symptoms in survivors and to help them regain a sense of control. Due to its complexity, advancing through the healing process requires patience and persistence. In addition, meditation, yoga, exercise, rhythmic movement, and socialization may also provide elements of relief for survivors. Furthermore, support groups provide individuals with an opportunity to connect with other survivors and serve as a constant reminder that they are not alone.


title: Onion routing

text: Onion routing is a technique for anonymous communication over a computer network. In an onion network, messages are encapsulated in layers of encryption, analogous to layers of an onion. The encrypted data is transmitted through a series of network nodes called onion routers, each of which "peels" away a single layer, uncovering the data's next destination. When the final layer is decrypted, the message arrives at its destination. The sender remains anonymous because each intermediary knows only the location of the immediately preceding and following nodes. While onion routing provides a high level of security and anonymity, there are methods to break the anonymity of this technique, such as timing analysis.


title: Onion routing

text: Onion routing was developed in the mid-1990s at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory by employees Paul Syverson, Michael G. Reed, and David Goldschlag to protect U.S. intelligence communications online. It was then refined by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and patented by the Navy in 1998.


title: Onion routing

text: This method was publicly released by the same employees through publishing an article in the IEEE Journal on Selected Areas in Communications the same year. It depicted the use of the method to protect the user from the network and outside observers who eavesdrop and conduct traffic analysis attacks. The most important part of this research is the configurations and applications of onion routing on the existing e-services, such as Virtual private network, Web-browsing, Email, Remote login, and Electronic cash.


title: Onion routing

text: Based on the existing onion routing technology, computer scientists Roger Dingledine and Nick Mathewson joined Paul Syverson in 2002 to develop what has become the largest and best-known implementation of onion routing, then called The Onion Routing project (Tor project).


title: Onion routing

text: After the Naval Research Laboratory released the code for Tor under a free license, Dingledine, Mathewson and five others founded The Tor Project as a non-profit organization in 2006, with the financial support of the Electronic Frontier Foundation and several other organizations.


title: Onion routing

text: Metaphorically, an onion is the data structure formed by "wrapping" a message with successive layers of encryption to be decrypted ("peeled" or "unwrapped") by as many intermediary computers as there are layers before arriving at its destination. The original message remains hidden as it is transferred from one node to the next, and no intermediary knows both the origin and final destination of the data, allowing the sender to remain anonymous.


title: Onion routing

text: To create and transmit an onion, the originator selects a set of nodes from a list provided by a "directory node". The chosen nodes are arranged into a path, called a "chain" or "circuit", through which the message will be transmitted. To preserve the anonymity of the sender, no node in the circuit is able to tell whether the node before it is the originator or another intermediary like itself. Likewise, no node in the circuit is able to tell how many other nodes are in the circuit and only the final node, the "exit node", is able to determine its own location in the chain.


title: Onion routing

text: Using asymmetric key cryptography, the originator obtains a public key from the directory node to send an encrypted message to the first ("entry") node, establishing a connection and a shared secret ("session key"). Using the established encrypted link to the entry node, the originator can then relay a message through the first node to a second node in the chain using encryption that only the second node, and not the first, can decrypt. When the second node receives the message, it establishes a connection with the first node. While this extends the encrypted link from the originator, the second node cannot determine whether the first node is the originator or just another node in the circuit. The originator can then send a message through the first and second nodes to a third node, encrypted such that only the third node is able to decrypt it. The third, as with the second, becomes linked to the originator but connects only with the second. This process can be repeated to build larger and larger chains, but is typically limited to preserve performance.


title: Onion routing

text: When the chain is complete, the originator can send data over the Internet anonymously. When the final recipient of the data sends data back, the intermediary nodes maintain the same link back to the originator, with data again layered, but in reverse such that the final node this time adds the first layer of encryption and the first node adds the last layer of encryption before sending the data, for example a web page, to the originator, who is able to decrypt all layers.


title: Onion routing

text: One of the reasons why the typical Internet connections are not considered anonymous, is the ability of Internet service providers to trace and log connections between computers. For example, when a person accesses a particular website, the data itself may be secured through a connection like HTTPS such that the user's password, emails, or other content is not visible to an outside party, but there is a record of the connection itself, what time it occurred, and the amount of data transferred. Onion routing creates and obscures a path between two computers such that there's no discernible connection directly from a person to a website, but there still exists records of connections between computers. Traffic analysis searches those records of connections made by a potential originator and tries to match timing and data transfers to connections made to a potential recipient. If an attacker has compromised both ends of a route, a sender may be seen to have transferred an amount of data to an unknown computer a specified amount of seconds before a different unknown computer transferred data of the same exact size to a particular destination. Factors that may facilitate traffic analysis include nodes failing or leaving the network and a compromised node keeping track of a session as it occurs when chains are periodically rebuilt.


title: Onion routing

text: Garlic routing is a variant of onion routing associated with the I2P network that encrypts multiple messages together, which both increases the speed of data transfer and makes it more difficult for attackers to perform traffic analysis.


title: Onion routing

text: Although the message being sent is transmitted inside several layers of encryption, the job of the exit node, as the final node in the chain, is to decrypt the final layer and deliver the message to the recipient. A compromised exit node is thus able to acquire the raw data being transmitted, potentially including passwords, private messages, bank account numbers, and other forms of personal information. Dan Egerstad, a Swedish researcher, used such an attack to collect the passwords of over 100 email accounts related to foreign embassies.


title: Onion routing

text: Exit node vulnerabilities are similar to those on unsecured wireless networks, where the data being transmitted by a user on the network may be intercepted by another user or by the router operator. Both issues are solved by using a secure end-to-end connection like SSL/TLS or secure HTTP (S-HTTP). If there is end-to-end encryption between the sender and the recipient, and the sender isn't lured into trusting a false SSL certificate offered by the exit node, then not even the last intermediary can view the original message.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: John Punch ( 1630s, living 1640) was an enslaved African who lived in the colony of Virginia. Thought to have been an indentured servant, Punch attempted to escape to Maryland and was sentenced in July 1640 by the Virginia Governor's Council to serve as a slave for the remainder of his life. Two European men who ran away with him received a lighter sentence of extended indentured servitude. For this reason, some historians consider John Punch the "first official slave in the English colonies," and his case as the "first legal sanctioning of lifelong slavery in the Chesapeake." Some historians also consider this to be one of the first legal distinctions between Europeans and Africans made in the colony, and a key milestone in the development of the institution of slavery in the United States.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: In July 2012, Ancestry.com published a paper suggesting that John Punch was a twelfth-generation grandfather of President Barack Obama on his mother's side, on the basis of historic and genealogical research and Y-DNA analysis. Punch's descendants were known by the Bunch or Bunche surname. Punch is also believed to be one of the paternal ancestors of the 20th-century American diplomat Ralph Bunche, the first African American to win the Nobel Peace Prize.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Africans were first brought to Jamestown, Virginia, in 1619. However, their status as slaves or indentured servants remains unclear. Philip S. Foner pointed out the differing perceptions held by historians, saying:


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Some historians believe that slavery may have existed from the very first arrival of the Negro in 1619, but others are of the opinion that the institution did not develop until the 1660s and that the status of the Negro until then was that of an indentured servant. Still others believe that the evidence is too sketchy to permit any definite conclusion either way.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Historian Alden T. Vaughan also recognizes differing opinions over when the institution of slavery started, but he says that most scholars agree that both free black people and enslaved black people were found in the Virginia colony by 1640. He notes, "On the first point--the status of blacks before the passage of the slave laws--the issue is not whether some were free or some were slave. Almost everyone acknowledges the existence of both categories by the 1640s, if not from the beginning."


title: John Punch (slave)

text: John Punch was a servant of Virginia planter Hugh Gwyn, a wealthy landowner, justice, and member of the House of Burgesses, representing Charles River County (which became York County in 1642).


title: John Punch (slave)

text: In 1640, Punch ran away to Maryland accompanied by two of Gwyn's European indentured servants. All three were caught and returned to Virginia. On July 9, the Virginia Governor's Council, which served as the colony's highest court, sentenced both Europeans to have their terms of indenture extended by another four years each. However, they sentenced Punch to "serve his said master or his assigns for the time of his natural Life here or elsewhere." In addition, the council sentenced the three men to thirty lashes each.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Whereas Hugh Gwyn hath by order from this Board brought back from Maryland three servants formerly run away from the said Gwyn, the court doth therefore order that the said three servants shall receive the punishment of whipping and have thirty stripes apiece. One called Victor, a Dutchman, the other a Scotchman called James Gregory, shall first serve out their times with their master according to their Indentures, and one whole year apiece after the time of their service is expired by their said indentures in recompense of his loss sustained by their absence, and after that service to their said master is expired, to serve the colony for three whole years apiece. And that the third being a negro named John Punch shall serve his said master or his assigns for the time of his natural life here or elsewhere.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Three sources are cited in a 2012 article written by Jeffrey B. Perry, in which he quotes Ancestry.com, stating "'only one surviving [written] account ... certainly pertains to John Punch's life ... ' a paragraph from the "Journal of the Executive Council of Colonial Virginia", dated July 9, 1640:"


title: John Punch (slave)

text: The difference between a servant and a slave is elementary and fundamental. The loss of liberty to the servant was temporary; the bondage of the slave was perpetual. It is the distinction made by Beverly in 1705 when he wrote, "They are call'd Slaves in respect of the time of their Servitude, because it is for Life." Wherever, according to the customs and laws of the colony, negroes were regarded and held as servants without a future right to freedom, there we should find the beginning of slavery in that colony.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Historians have noted that John Punch ceased to be an indentured servant and was condemned to slavery, as he was sentenced to "serve his said master or his assigns for the time of his natural Life." Edgar Toppin states that "Punch, in effect, became a slave under this ruling." A. Leon Higginbotham Jr. said, "Thus, although he committed the same crime as the Dutchman and the Scotsman, John Punch, a black man, was sentenced to lifetime slavery." Winthrop Jordan also described this court ruling as "the first definite indication of outright enslavement appears in Virginia ... the third being a negro named John Punch shall serve his said master or his assigns for the time of his natural life here or else where."


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Theodore W. Allen notes that the court's "being a negro" justification made no explicit reference to precedent in English or Virginia common law, and suggests that the court members may have been aware of common law that held a Christian could not enslave a Christian (with Punch being presumed to be a non-Christian, unlike his accomplices), wary of the diplomatic friction that would come of enslaving Christian Europeans, and possibly hopeful of replicating the lifetime indentures of African slaves held in the Caribbean and South American colonies.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: In his "A Biographical History of Blacks in America since 1528" (1971), Toppin explains the importance of Punch's case in the legal history of Virginia:


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Thus, the black man, John Punch, became a slave unlike the two white indentured servants who merely had to serve a longer term. This was the first known case in Virginia involving slavery. It was significant because it was documented.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: The National Park Service, in a history of Jamestown, notes that while it was a "customary practice to hold some Negroes in a form of life service," Punch was the "first documented slave for life."


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Other historians have also emphasized the importance of this court decision as being one to establish a legal acceptance for slavery. John Donoghue said, "This can be interpreted as the first legal sanctioning of lifelong slavery in the Chesapeake." Historians consider this difference in penalties to mark the case as one of the first to make a racial distinction between black and white indentured servants. Tom Costa in his article, "Runaway Slaves and Servants in Colonial Virginia" says, "Scholars have argued that this decision represents the first legal distinction between Europeans and Africans to be made by Virginia courts."


title: John Punch (slave)

text: One historian has speculated that Punch may never have been an indentured servant. In his 1913 study of free negroes in Virginia, John Henderson Russell points out that the court decision was ambiguous. If Punch was not a servant with future prospects of freedom, his sentencing was less harsh than his white accomplices. If Punch was a servant, then his punishment was much more severe than that of his white accomplices. But Russell states that the "most reasonable explanation" was that the Dutchman and the Scot, being white, were given only four additional years on top of their remaining terms of indenture, while Punch, "being a negro, was reduced from his former condition of servitude for a limited time to a condition of slavery for life." Russell noted that the court did not refer to an indentured contract related to Punch, but notes that he was a "servant," and it was most reasonable that he was a limited-term servant (of some sort) before he was sentenced to "slavery for life".


title: John Punch (slave)

text: In the same 2012 article referenced above, Perry says that the court ruling specifically refers to the indentured contracts of Victor and James Gregory and extends them, while the court decision refers to John Punch only as a servant. Perry adds,


title: John Punch (slave)

text: "What is likely is that" Punch "was previously subjected to limited-term chattel bond-servitude" and says "that in Virginia chattelization was imposed on free laborers, tenants, and bond-servants increasingly after 1622, that it was imposed on both European and African descended laborers, that it was a qualitative break from common law labor laws, and that the chattelization of plantation labor constituted an essential precondition of the emergence of the subsequent lifetime chattel bond-servitude imposed on African American laborers in continental Anglo-America under the system of racial slavery and racial oppression."


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Drawing on a combination of historical documents and autosomal DNA analysis, Ancestry.com stated in July 2012 that it is a strong likelihood that 44th United States President Barack Obama is an eleventh-great-grandson of Punch through his mother Stanley Ann Dunham.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Genealogical research indicates that some time in the 1630s, Punch married a white woman, likely also an indentured servant. By 1637 he had fathered a son called John Bunch (labelled by genealogists as "John Bunch I"). While researchers cannot definitively prove that Punch was the father of Bunch, he is the only known African man of that time and place who is a possible progenitor. Punch and his wife are known as the first black and white couple in the colonies who left traceable descendants. It remains possible that the father of Bunch was another African, of whom there is no record, but the similarity of the names would still need to be explained.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Due to some challenges by racially mixed children of Englishmen to being enslaved, in 1662 the Virginia colony incorporated the principle of "partus sequitur ventrem" into slave law. This law held that children in the colonies were born into the status of their mothers; therefore, children of slave mothers were born into slavery, regardless of whether their fathers were free and European. In this way, slavery was made a racial caste associated with people of African ancestry. The law overturned the English common law applicable to the children of two English subjects in England, in which the father's social status determined that of the child.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: At the same time, this law meant that racially mixed children of white women were born into their mother's free status. Paul Heinegg, in his "Free African Americans in Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Maryland and Delaware" found that most families of free black people in the 1790–1810 U.S. censuses could be traced to children of white women and black men, whether free, indentured servant, or slave, in colonial Virginia. Their children were born free and the families were established as free before the Revolution.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Punch's male descendants probably became known by the surname Bunch, a very rare name among colonial families. Before 1640, there were fewer than 100 African men in Virginia, and John Punch was the only one with a surname similar to Bunch. The Bunch descendants were free black people who became successful land-owners in Virginia. Some lines eventually assimilated as white, after generations of marrying white.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: In September 1705 a man referred to by researchers as John Bunch III petitioned the General Court of Virginia for permission to publish banns for his marriage to Sarah Slayden, a white woman, but their minister had refused to publish the banns. (There had been a ban on marriages between Negroes and whites, but Bunch posed a challenge, as he was apparently the son of a white woman, with only a degree of African ancestry. The petition argued that "mulatto" meant a person of half Negro and half white ancestry.) This John Bunch appealed the denial to the General Court of Virginia. The Court's decision is unknown, but the following month the government of Virginia responded by issuing a statute expanding the use of the term "mulatto". It held that anyone who was a child, grandchild or great-grandchild of an African or Native American was a mulatto.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: In the early nineteenth century, racially mixed people of less than one-eighth African or Native American ancestry (equivalent to one great-grandparent) were considered legally white. Many racially mixed people lived as white in frontier areas, where they were treated in accordance with their community and fulfillment of citizen obligations. This was a looser definition than that established in 1924, when Virginia adopted the "one-drop rule" under its Racial Integrity Act, which defined as black anyone with any known black ancestry, no matter how limited.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Records do not show a marriage for John Bunch III, but the mother of one of his children was later noted as being named Rebecca. He had moved to Louisa County as part of the colonial westward migration to the frontiers of Virginia. Through continued intermarriage with white families in Virginia, the line of Obama's maternal Bunch ancestors probably were identified as white as early as 1720. Members of this line eventually migrated into Tennessee and ultimately to Kansas, where descendants included Obama's maternal grandmother and his mother Stanley Ann Dunham.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Another line of the Bunch family migrated to North Carolina, where they were classified in some records as mulatto. They intermarried with people of a variety of ethnic origins, including European. The Bunch (sometimes spelled Bunche) family was established as free before the American Revolution. The Bunch surname lines also became associated with the core racially mixed families later known as Melungeon in Tennessee.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Bunch family members also lived in South Carolina by the end of the 18th and early 19th centuries. Several members of the Bunch family from South Carolina were living in Detroit, Michigan, by the 1900 and 1910 censuses, as a result of moving in the Great Migration. Researcher Paul Heinegg, known for his genealogy work on free African Americans of the colonial and early federal periods, believes that Fred Bunche was among those Bunch descendants from South Carolina, as people often migrated in related groups. His son Ralph Bunche, born in Detroit, earned a doctorate in political science and taught at the university level. He helped plan the United Nations, mediated in Israel, and later served as U.S. Minister to the United Nations, eventually being awarded the Nobel Peace Prize.


title: John Punch (slave)

text: Y-DNA testing of direct male descendants of the Bunch family lines has revealed a common ancestry going back to a single male ancestor of African ethnicity. Genealogists believe this male ancestor to be John Punch the African. He was probably born in present-day Cameroon in West Africa, where his particular type of DNA is most common.


title: Diastereomer

text: In stereochemistry, diastereomers (sometimes called diastereoisomers) are a type of stereoisomer. Diastereomers are defined as non-mirror image, non-identical stereoisomers. Hence, they occur when two or more stereoisomers of a compound have different configurations at one or more (but not all) of the equivalent (related) stereocenters and are not mirror images of each other.


title: Diastereomer

text: When two diastereoisomers differ from each other at only one stereocenter, they are epimers. Each stereocenter gives rise to two different configurations and thus typically increases the number of stereoisomers by a factor of two.


title: Diastereomer

text: Diastereomers differ from enantiomers in that the latter are pairs of stereoisomers that differ in all stereocenters and are therefore mirror images of one another.


title: Diastereomer

text: Enantiomers of a compound with more than one stereocenter are also diastereomers of the other stereoisomers of that compound that are not their mirror image (that is, excluding the opposing enantiomer).


title: Diastereomer

text: Diastereomers have different physical properties (unlike most aspects of enantiomers) and often different chemical reactivity.


title: Diastereomer

text: Diastereomers differ not only in physical properties but also in chemical reactivity — how a compound reacts with others. Glucose and galactose, for instance, are diastereomers. Even though they share the same molar weight, glucose is more stable than galactose. This difference in stability causes galactose to be absorbed slightly faster than glucose in human body.


title: Diastereomer

text: Diastereoselectivity is the preference for the formation of one or more than one diastereomer over the other in an organic reaction. In general, stereoselectivity is contributed to torsional and steric interactions in the stereocenter resulting from electrophiles approaching the stereocenter in reaction.


title: Diastereomer

text: When the single bond between the two centres is free to rotate, cis/trans descriptors become invalid. Two widely accepted prefixes used to distinguish diastereomers on sp³-hybridised bonds in an open-chain molecule are syn and anti. Masamune proposed the descriptors which work even if the groups are not attached to adjacent carbon atoms. It also works regardless of CIP priorities. Syn describes groups on the same face while anti describes groups on opposite faces. The concept applies only to the Zigzag projection. The descriptors only describe relative stereochemistry rather than absolute stereochemistry.


title: Diastereomer

text: Two older prefixes still commonly used to distinguish diastereomers are threo and erythro. In the case of saccharides, when drawn in the Fischer projection the erythro isomer has two identical substituents on the same side and the threo isomer has them on opposite sides. When drawn as a zig-zag chain, the erythro isomer has two identical substituents on different sides of the plane (anti). The names are derived from the diastereomeric four-carbon aldoses erythrose (a syrup) and threose (melting point 126 °C). These prefixes are not recommended for use outside of the realm of saccharides because their definitions can lead to conflicting interpretations.


title: Diastereomer

text: Another threo compound is threonine, one of the essential amino acids. The "erythro" diastereomer is called allothreonine.


title: Diastereomer

text: If a molecule contains two asymmetric centers, there are up to four possible configurations, and they cannot all be non-superposable mirror images of each other. The possibilities for different isomers continue to multiply as more stereocenters are added to a molecule. In general, the number of stereoisomers of a molecule can be determined by calculating 2, where "n" = the number of chiral centers in the molecule. This holds true except in cases where the molecule has meso forms. These meso compounds are molecules that contain stereocenters, but possess an internal plane of symmetry allowing it to be superposed on its mirror image. These equivalent configurations cannot be considered diastereomers.


title: Diastereomer

text: For "n" = 3, there are eight stereoisomers. Among them, there are four pairs of enantiomers: R,R,R and S,S,S; R,R,S and S,S,R; R,S,S and S,R,R; and R,S,R and S,R,S. There are many more pairs of diastereomers, because each of these configurations is a diastereomer with respect to every other configuration excluding its own enantiomer (for example, R,R,R is a diastereomer of R,R,S; R,S,R; and R,S,S). For "n" = 4, there are sixteen stereoisomers, or eight pairs of enantiomers. The four enantiomeric pairs of aldopentoses and the eight enantiomeric pairs of aldohexoses (subsets of the five- and six-carbon sugars) are examples of sets of compounds that differ in this way.


title: Diastereomer

text: Double bond isomers are always considered diastereomers, not enantiomers. Diastereomerism can also occur at a double bond, where the "cis" vs "trans" relative positions of substituents give two non-superposable isomers. Many conformational isomers are diastereomers as well.


title: Diastereomer

text: In the case of diastereomerism occurring at a double bond, E-Z, or entgegen and zusammen (German), is used in notating nomenclature of alkenes.


title: Diastereomer

text: As stated previously, two diastereomers will not have identical chemical properties. This knowledge is harnessed in chiral synthesis to separate a mixture of enantiomers. This is the principle behind chiral resolution. After preparing the diastereomers, they are separated by chromatography or recrystallization. Note also the example of the stereochemistry of ketonization of enols and enolates.


title: Mogao Caves

text: The Mogao Caves, also known as the Thousand Buddha Grottoes or Caves of the Thousand Buddhas, form a system of 500 temples southeast of the center of Dunhuang, an oasis located at a religious and cultural crossroads on the Silk Road, in Gansu province, China. The caves may also be known as the Dunhuang Caves; however, this term is also used as a collective term to include other Buddhist cave sites in and around the Dunhuang area, such as the Western Thousand Buddha Caves, Eastern Thousand Buddha Caves, Yulin Caves, and Five Temple Caves. The caves contain some of the finest examples of Buddhist art spanning a period of 1,000 years. The first caves were dug out in AD 366 as places of Buddhist meditation and worship, later the caves became a place of pilgrimage and worship, and caves continued to be built at the site until the 14th century. The Mogao Caves are the best known of the Chinese Buddhist grottoes and, along with Longmen Grottoes and Yungang Grottoes, are one of the three famous ancient Buddhist sculptural sites of China.


title: Mogao Caves

text: An important cache of documents was discovered in 1900 in the so-called "Library Cave", which had been walled-up in the 11th century. The contents of the library were subsequently dispersed around the world, and the largest collections are now found in Beijing, London, Paris and Berlin, and the International Dunhuang Project exists to coordinate and collect scholarly work on the Dunhuang manuscripts and other material. The caves themselves are now a popular tourist destination, but the number of visitors has been capped to help with the preservation of the caves.


title: Mogao Caves

text: The caves are commonly referred to in Chinese as the Caves of the Thousand Buddhas (), a name that some scholars have speculated to have come from the legend of its founding, when a monk Yuezun had a vision of a thousand Buddhas at the site. This name, however, may have come from the large number of Buddha figures at the site, or the miniatures figures painted on the walls of these caves as these figures are called "thousand Buddhas" colloquially. The name Mogao Caves () was used in the Tang dynasty, where 'Mogao' refers to an administrative district at the site during the Tang dynasty. Mogao may mean "peerless" (literally "none higher", where ""mo"" means "none", and ""gao"" means "high"); an alternative reading may be "high in the desert" if "mo" is read as a variant of the Chinese term for "desert". Mogao is also used as the name of a modern town that is administered by Dunhuang city: Mogao Town (). The Mogao Caves are also often referred to as the Dunhuang Caves after the nearest city Dunhuang, which means "blazing beacon" as beacons were used at the frontier outpost to warn of attacks by nomadic tribes. The term Dunhuang Caves however is also used in a broader sense as a collective term for all the caves found in or around the Dunhuang area.


title: Mogao Caves

text: Dunhuang was established as a frontier garrison outpost by the Han Dynasty Emperor Wudi to protect against the Xiongnu in 111 BC. It also became an important gateway to the West, a centre of commerce along the Silk Road, as well as a meeting place of various people and religions such as Buddhism.


title: Mogao Caves

text: The construction of the Mogao Caves near Dunhuang is generally taken to have begun sometime in the fourth century AD. According to a book written during the reign of Tang Empress Wu, "Fokan Ji" (, "An Account of Buddhist Shrines") by Li Junxiu (), a Buddhist monk named Lè Zūn (, which may also be pronounced Yuezun) had a vision of a thousand Buddhas bathed in golden light at the site in 366 AD, inspiring him to build a cave here. The story is also found in other sources, such as in inscriptions on a stele in cave 332; an earlier date of 353 however was given in another document, "Shazhou Tujing" (, "Geography of Shazhou"). He was later joined by a second monk Faliang (), and the site gradually grew, by the time of the Northern Liang a small community of monks had formed at the site. The caves initially served only as a place of meditation for hermit monks, but developed to serve the monasteries that sprang up nearby. Members of the ruling family of Northern Wei and Northern Zhou constructed many caves here, and it flourished in the short-lived Sui Dynasty. By the Tang Dynasty, the number of caves had reached over a thousand.


title: Mogao Caves

text: By the Sui and Tang dynasties, Mogao Caves had become a place of worship and pilgrimage for the public. From the 4th until the 14th century, caves were constructed by monks to serve as shrines with funds from donors. These caves were elaborately painted, the cave paintings and architecture serving as aids to meditation, as visual representations of the quest for enlightenment, as mnemonic devices, and as teaching tools to inform those illiterate about Buddhist beliefs and stories. The major caves were sponsored by patrons such as important clergy, local ruling elite, foreign dignitaries, as well as Chinese emperors. Other caves may have been funded by merchants, military officers, and other local people such as women's groups.


title: Mogao Caves

text: During the Tang Dynasty, Dunhuang became the main hub of commerce of the Silk Road and a major religious centre. A large number of the caves were constructed at Mogao during this era, including the two large statues of Buddha at the site, the largest one constructed in 695 following an edict a year earlier by Tang Empress Wu Zetian to build giant statues across the country. The site escaped the persecution of Buddhists ordered by Emperor Wuzong in 845 as it was then under Tibetan control. As a frontier town, Dunhuang had been occupied at various times by other non-Han Chinese people. After the Tang Dynasty, the site went into a gradual decline, and construction of new caves ceased entirely after the Yuan Dynasty. By then Islam had conquered much of Central Asia, and the Silk Road declined in importance when trading via sea-routes began to dominate Chinese trade with the outside world. During the Ming Dynasty, the Silk Road was finally officially abandoned, and Dunhuang slowly became depopulated and largely forgotten by the outside world. Most of the Mogao caves were abandoned; the site, however, was still a place of pilgrimage and was used as a place of worship by local people at the beginning of the twentieth century when there was renewed interest in the site.


title: Mogao Caves

text: During late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, Western explorers began to show interest in the ancient Silk Road and the lost cities of Central Asia, and those who passed through Dunhuang noted the murals, sculptures, and artifacts such as the Stele of Sulaiman at Mogao. There is an estimated half a million square feet of religious wall murals within the caves. The biggest discovery, however, came from a Chinese Taoist named Wang Yuanlu who had appointed himself guardian of some of these temples around the turn of the century and tried to raise funds to repair the statues.


title: Mogao Caves

text: Some of the caves had by then been blocked by sand, and Wang set about clearing away the sand and made an attempt at restoration of the site. In one such cave, on 25 June 1900, Wang followed the drift of smoke from a cigarette, and discovered a walled up area behind one side of a corridor leading to a main cave. Behind the wall was a small cave stuffed with an enormous hoard of manuscripts. In the next few years, Wang took some manuscripts to show to various officials who expressed varying level of interest, but in 1904 Wang re-sealed the cave following an order by the governor of Gansu concerned about the cost of transporting these documents.


title: Mogao Caves

text: Words of Wang's discovery drew the attention of a joint British/Indian group led by the Hungarian-born British archaeologist Aurel Stein who was on an archaeological expedition in the area in 1907. Stein negotiated with Wang to allow him to remove a significant number of manuscripts as well as the finest paintings and textiles in exchange for a donation to Wang's restoration effort. He was followed by a French expedition under Paul Pelliot who acquired many thousands of items in 1908, and then by a Japanese expedition under Otani Kozui in 1911 and a Russian expedition under Sergei F. Oldenburg in 1914. A well-known scholar Luo Zhenyu edited some of the manuscripts Pelliot acquired into a volume which was then published in 1909 as "Manuscripts of the Dunhuang Caves" ().


title: Mogao Caves

text: Stein and Pelliot provoked much interest in the West about the Dunhuang Caves. Scholars in Beijing, after seeing samples of the documents in Pelliot's possession, became aware of their value. Concerned that the remaining manuscripts might be lost, Luo Zhenyu and others persuaded the Ministry of Education to recover the rest of the manuscripts to be sent to Peking (Beijing) in 1910. However, not all the remaining manuscripts were taken to Peking, and of those retrieved, some were then stolen. Rumours of caches of documents taken by local people continued for some time, and a cache of documents hidden by Wang from the authorities was later found in the 1940s. Some of the caves were damaged and vandalized by White Russian soldiers when they were used by the local authority in 1921 to house Russian soldiers fleeing the civil war following the Russian Revolution. In 1924, American explorer Langdon Warner removed a number of murals as well as a statue from some of the caves. In 1939 Kuomintang soldiers stationed at Dunhuang caused some damage to the murals and statues at the site.