title: Soda Stereo

text: On 10 November 1986 the band released their third album "Signos". With its lead single "Persiana Americana" () (American Blinds), "Signos" was a key step for Soda Stereo, who by now had come under a great deal of stress due to ever increasing factors: sales expectations, external pressures, the risk of failure, and internal tensions. The band was joined in the studio by on keys, Richard Coleman on guitar and on back up vocals. "Signos" became the first Argentine rock album to be released on compact disc. It was manufactured in the Netherlands and distributed throughout Latin America.


title: Soda Stereo

text: On 3 December Soda made their first appearance in Ecuador. In early 1987 Soda returned to Chile, this time to the Viña del Mar International Song Festival where they won the prize "Antorcha de Plata" (Silver Torch). The festival was broadcast via television to many Latin American countries, expanding the band's fame throughout the continent. It did not take long to transform itself into a massive unconditional following which was called "Sodamania".


title: Soda Stereo

text: On 23 April 1987, Soda broke records for ticket sales in Paraguay with their show at the Yacht Club. Meanwhile, "Signos" reached Platinum status in Argentina, triple platinum in Perú and double platinum in Chile. Soda's first show in Mexico occurred on 4 August 1987 at the Magic Circus in Mexico City.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The "Signos" tour was a milestone for Soda as they played 22 concerts in 17 cities to almost 350,000 fans, in the process opening up the idea that Latin Rock can transcend the nationalities of the bands, something that would come to fruition in the upcoming decade. With live recordings from different shows, a live album "Ruido Blanco" was compiled in 1987. Mixed in Barbados, it was considered by "Rolling Stone" (Argentina) to be one of the top 5 live albums of Argentine Rock.


title: Soda Stereo

text: In late 1988 Soda Stereo were considered the most important band of Latin American pop/rock. They began to work on a new album alongside Puerto Rican producer Carlos Alomar. Alomar had worked with David Bowie, Mick Jagger, Simple Minds, Iggy Pop, and Paul McCartney, among others. "Doble Vida" (Double Life) was recorded and mixed in New York City, and was the first record by an Argentine band to be completely recorded abroad.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The album produced four singles, "Picnic en el 4º B" (Picnic in Room 4B), "En la Ciudad de la Furia" (In the City of Fury), and "Lo Que Sangra (La Cúpula)" (That Which Bleeds (The Dome), and "Corazón Delator" (Tell-Tale Heart). The video for "En La Ciudad de La Furia", directed by Alfredo Lois, was a finalist for an MTV Video Award in the category of best foreign video (there was no Latin MTV at the time).


title: Soda Stereo

text: After more than a year without playing in Buenos Aires, Soda showcased "Doble Vida" at the hockey field at Obras in front of 25,000 fans. To top of a stellar year, Soda headlined the Three Days for Democracy Festival, which took place in Buenos Aires on the intersection of Avenida del Libertador and 9 de Julio. The show was attended by 150,000 people and Soda shared the stage with Luis Alberto Spinetta Fito Páez, Los Ratones Paranoicos, , and others.


title: Soda Stereo

text: With sales of a million copies of "Doble Vida" under their belt, Soda began a massive tour in early 1989. The tour began with 30 shows in Argentina, covering most of the country, which were attended by nearly 270,000 fans. These shows were followed by a new Latin American tour (their third), which cemented a massive following in Mexico.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Near the end of 1989 Soda records a new version of "Languis" (from "Doble Vida") and a new song titled "Mundo de Quimeras" (World of Chimeras). Both songs were released in the EP "Languis" (1989) along with remixes of "En El Borde" and "Lo Que Sangra (La Cúpula)". Following the release of "Languis" Soda played two sold-out shows at The Palace in Los Angeles, becoming the second Rock en Español to play in the United States, following Miguel Mateos.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The album "Canción Animal", released in 1990, is considered to be one of the best albums of all time of the Latin Rock genre.


title: Soda Stereo

text: In early 1990 the band co-headlined a show for 32,000 people with British new wave band Tears for Fears at the José Amalfitani Stadium in Buenos Aires.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Soda Stereo then traveled to Criteria Studios in Miami, Florida to begin work on their fifth album. They would enlist the help of , Andrea Álvarez, and Tweety González (all very important figures in the Argentine rock scene of the time).


title: Soda Stereo

text: The resulting album "Canción Animal" (1990) is considered to be one of the best albums in the history of Latin rock. It contains their best known song "De Música Ligera" (Of Light Music), as well as other classics such as "Canción Animal" (Animal Song), "Un Millón de Años Luz" (A Million Light Years), "En el Séptimo Día" (On the Seventh Day), and "Té Para Tres" (Tea For Three). These songs are considered to be the band's strongest and at the same time are their most popular. Overall, the album is considered as the most consistent work by the band, along with "Signos".


title: Soda Stereo

text: Their massive tour "Animal" (1990–1991) included 30 Argentine cities, many which had not been visited by a band with the reach of Soda Stereo. The cities visited in Argentina were: San Juan, Santa Fe de la Vera Cruz, Junín, Clorinda, Puerto Iguazú, Trelew, Neuquén, Santa Rosa, Trenque Lauquen Mendoza, Córdoba, Río Cuarto, Santiago del Estero, San Miguel de Tucumán, Salta, Rosario, Buenos Aires, Olavarria, Pergamino. International cities included: Santiago de Chile, Asunción, Punta del Este, Barquisimeto, Caracas, Valencia, Mérida, San Cristóbal, Mexico City, Monterrey, Guadalajara, Mexicali, and Tijuana.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The tour finished with 14 consecutive shows at the Grand Rex Theatre in Buenos Aires. With a 3,300 person capacity, this was a noticeable achievement at the time. Some of the Grand Rex shows would appear on the live EP "Rex Mix" (1991), which included remixed versions of a new song, "No Necesito Verte (Para Saberlo)" (I don't Need to See You – To Know).


title: Soda Stereo

text: By late 1991 Soda's continental success brought the band to the attention of MTV News Europe, who began to take notice of what was taking place in Latin America, particularly with Rock en Español. MTV unconditionally dedicated a whole show to Soda – a first for non English singing band.


title: Soda Stereo

text: In May 1992 Soda embarked on a tour of Spain with shows in Madrid, Oviedo, Sevilla, Valencia, and Barcelona. The lackluster results of the Spanish tour, compared to the fervor they were accustomed to in Latin America, left a sour taste in their mouths. Nevertheless, it did serve as a valid experience, specifically in bringing the band back to earth. To put it bluntly: Spain was in no way a failure, but was far from the success that Soda had been used to in Latin America, in the end it was a good learning experience.


title: Soda Stereo

text: In March 1992, Argentine producer and musician Daniel Melero and Gustavo Cerati released an album titled "Colores Santos", Cerati's first musical venture away from the band. Heavily influenced by Melero's experimentation with electronic music, it was stylistically not indicative of Cerati's "rock-centered" works, instead choosing to follow a drastically different pattern containing elements from neo-psychedelia and dream pop. Cerati would depart to Spain immediately following the album's release for touring with Soda Stereoupon returning that May, the band immediately began work on new music.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Nearing the end of 1992 Soda began showcasing their sixth studio album "Dynamo", first introduced to the public with six concerts at Obras. The band also showcased the album in its entirety in a local talk-show, "Fax", famous for being the first stereophonic TV transmission in Argentine history. The album, eventually released near the end of 1992, is stylistically a shoegazing album, and was met with alienation and shock from many fans of the band, who found its radical shift in style from "Canción Animal" discomforting and challenging to cope with. Surrounding the band's rushed decision to change record companies from BMG to Sony immediately before the disc's release, "Dynamo" failed to sell as expected, and remains the lowest-selling album of Soda's career today.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Despite these challenges, Soda began their sixth tour of Latin America to begin 1993, during which time Cerati officially kickstarted his solo career with the release of "Amor Amarillo", his debut album.


title: Soda Stereo

text: 1994 met with fresh challenges to the band and its stability. On 4 July 1994, Zeta Bosio's young son was killed in a freak transit accident in Argentina. This event would deeply affect Zeta on both a personal and professional level, and surrounding his inability to work and growing dysfunction within the band, Soda unanimously decided to take a hiatus to possibly mediate the decision of separating permanently.


title: Soda Stereo

text: During this hiatus, the band's members would explore other personal endeavors. Cerati explored his solo career, Zeta dedicating himself to the production of other bands (Peligrosos Gorriones and Aguirre), while Alberti disappeared from the music scene to focus on personal projects.


title: Soda Stereo

text: At the end of 1994 "Zona de Promesas", a compilation of remixes and classic Soda songs, including the unreleased song that gave the album its name, was released.


title: Soda Stereo

text: 1995 saw the release of "Sueño Stereo", the last of Soda's seven studio albums. The cover depicts three speaker cones (meant to symbolize egg cells) ready to be "fertilized" by black spermatozoa, the latter of which resembles earbuds. This motif is symbolic of the album's concept, and is even used as a focal point in the music video for "Ella usó mi cabeza como un revólver", a single from the recording.


title: Soda Stereo

text: After a three-year absence, on 29 June 1995, Soda released "Sueño Stereo", their 7th and final studio album. The album was an instant hit, quickly reaching platinum status in Argentina 15 days after its release. The album was powered by the radio hit "Zoom" and the promotional video for "Ella usó mi cabeza como un revólver", which in 1996 won the Viewer's Choice Award presented by MTV Latin America.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Sueño Stereo took two years to conceive. It would be illogical to say that this was [our] masterpiece, but it was the most emotional work [we had done] at the time, because we were stripped of the need of having competition in the future, or of being the best for another ten years. We had already made it through a lot of things and the band itself felt classic. On the other hand, we were very proud of what "Dynamo" had promoted and [how it was subsequently interpreted]... The band had to deliver something important; it couldn't just be "any" record. [We had] to find ourselves again after a while and allow the music to flow, without thinking too much about taking huge steps or anything like that. All-in-all, Sueño Stereo is one of the most innovative records of our career, without us trying to make it so – because of its sonic combinations, its lyrics, and because of its sound.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The record became the catalyst for the extensive Gira Sueño Stereo (Sueño Stereo Tour), which began on 8 September in Buenos Aires, at the Grand Rex Theaterit spanned Venezuela, Colombia, Perú, Panama, México and the United States (Los Angeles, Chicago, New York and Miami). The tour ended on 24 April 1996 at the Teatro Teletón in Santiago de Chile.


title: Soda Stereo

text: In mid 1996 Soda was invited to Miami by MTV to record a session for their acoustic show, "MTV Unplugged". Soda, initially reluctant to play, was finally able to negotiate with the network to play with a unique setup: the band would play "plugged in", but with modifications such as heavy orchestration, including brand-new arrangements of some of their classic songs. The result was an eclectic mix of music, an acoustic-electric hybrid. A highlight of the album was a soaring rendition of "En La Ciudad De La Furia", where the chorus was sung by Andrea Echeverri of the Colombian Rock en Español band Aterciopelados. Other songs recorded included "Un Misil en Mi Placard", "Entre Canibales", "Cuando pase el temblor", "Té Para Tres","Angel Electrico", "Terapia de Amor Intensiva", "Disco Eterno", "Ella usó mi cabeza como un revólver", "Paseando Por Roma" and "Génesis" (a cover of Vox Dei). The recording of the MTV show would be partially released on the album "Comfort y Música Para Volar" in 1996, and in its entirety in a new version of "Comfort" released in 2007. The album contained 4 new tracks from the "Sueño Stereo" sessions, as well as an interactive CD-ROM with pictures and videos from the show.


title: Soda Stereo

text: On 30 October 1996 Soda Stereo became the first Latin American band to transmit a live concert via the Internet, through the Argentine radio program "Cuál Es?" (Which Is It?). The show was conducted by Mario Pergolini on Argentina Rock & Pop radio. The band played live from the music store Promúsica in Buenos Aires.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The band went silent for a time preceding the separation. The only publicity was the band's participation on the tribute album, "Tributo a Queen: Los Grandes del Rock en Español", in which Soda Stereo covered "Some Day One Day" from Queen's 1974 album, "Queen II." Their version was sung in Spanish, as "Algun Día".


title: Soda Stereo

text: Unexpectedly, Soda officially announced their separation in May 1997, through a press release. The following day, Argentine newspapers reported the news. Argentine newspaper "Clarín" devoted its entire front page to the breakup. The following day, Gustavo Cerati's farewell note was published on the Music section of the newspaper:


title: Soda Stereo

text: [This letter has been] inspired from what I have seen on the street these days: fans who have approached me, the people around me, and from my own personal experiences. I share the sadness that has been created in many by our separation. I, myself, am immersed in that state because few things have been so important to me in my life as Soda Stereo. Everyone knows that it is impossible to lead a band without a certain level of conflict. It is a fragile equilibrium in the war of ideas that very few are able to handle for fifteen years, as we proudly did [and maintained]. But, ultimately, different personal and musical misunderstandings began to compromise that equilibrium... excuses were generated for not confronting ourselves, excuses for a future group that we no longer believed in as we did in the past. To end for the sake of the band is, in its redundancy, to [give importance] to our mental health, and above all to show respect for all of our fans who have followed us for such a long time. Goodbye.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The band played a farewell tour, making stops in Mexico, Venezuela, Chile and their native Argentina. Their final concert took place on 20 September at the River Plate Stadium in Buenos Aires, and was recorded and released in two parts, "El Último Concierto" A and B. The show ended with the song "De Musica Ligera" and a memorable farewell by Cerati:


title: Soda Stereo

text: " ¡No solo no hubiéramos sido nada sin ustedes, sino con toda la gente que estuvo a nuestro alrededor desde el comienzo; algunos siguen hasta hoy! ¡Gracias... totales!"


title: Soda Stereo

text: A DVD of the farewell show was released in 2005. A compilation CD was released later that year titled "" ("Bye Soda").


title: Soda Stereo

text: Despite the constant rumors of a reunion, which ironically started shortly after the breakup, little was heard regarding Soda, except for a TV special on "El Ultimo Concierto" (The Last Concert) produced by HBO and an MTV documentary titled "Soda Stereo: La Leyenda" (Soda Stereo: The Legend). Finally, in 2002 the trio was reunited at the MTV Latin Music Video Awards where they were awarded the Legend award in honor of their musical and visual trajectory.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Seven years after the breakup and the absence of any new official releases seemed odd. Near the end of 2003 Sony Music announced the release of the first DVD by Soda Stereo, which contained much unreleased material from compiled by Gustavo, Zeta, Charly, and people close to the band. The finished product arrived on the streets in November 2004. It was titled, "Soda Stereo: Una Parte de La Euforia (1983–1997)" (Soda Stereo: A Part of the Euphoria (1983–1997)). On 20 September 2005 an Argentine DVD of Soda's last concert, which took place exactly 8 years before at River Plate stadium was released. It was titled "El Ultimo Concierto (En Vivo)" (The Last Concert – Live). The DVD, in contrast to the HBO production, featured a 5.1 audio and included two songs that were not aired on the HBO concert, "Juegos de Seduccion" and "Sobredosis de TV". It also included a multi camera option for a soundcheck of "Primavera 0" and a 25-minute documentary about the tour featuring footage of sound checks and concerts in Mexico, Venezuela, and Argentina. It also featured an interview with the long lost "fourth Soda" , the director of the DVD, one of his last works before his death.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The reunification of Soda stereo was a mandatory topic for journalists whenever faced with a former member. So much so, that Zeta Bosio once declared:


title: Soda Stereo

text: In 2007, ten years after their breakup, the band decided to reunite for a one-time-only tour of Latin America. On 6 June 2007, the official news came out: Soda Stereo would return to the stage with a sole American tour called "Me Veras Volver" (You Will See My Return), an emblematic line from "En La Ciudad de la Furia".


title: Soda Stereo

text: In early July, Sony/BMG released a new compilation album titled "Me Verás Volver (Hits & +)". The album contained 18 remastered studio recordings and lacked of new material, but it did contain a code to access exclusive web footage such as live versions. The album reached number one in Argentina and Chile.


title: Soda Stereo

text: On 20 September 2007, exactly 10 years since their last concert, Soda Stereo gave a long-awaited press conference at the Club Museum in Buenos Aires, in a historical building designed at the turn of the century by the famous French architect and structural engineer Gustave Eiffel. This building had been used, years before, as the location for their music video for "En La Ciudad De La Furia". They surprised the attendance with a mini concert of two songs, "Sobredosis de TV" and "En La Ciudad de La Furia", played in their original format, performed solely by the trio. During the press conference, they clarified that after the tour they intended on resuming their individual pursuits.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The tour was scheduled to begin on 19 October at River Plate Stadium in Buenos Aires, and originally only two concerts were scheduled as well as performances in several Latin American countries. However, from the time the tickets went on sale it became apparent that it wouldn't be enough, and that the band was faced with a huge continent-wide cultural event. Over 90,000 tickets were sold in only 24 hours. The band quickly added another show to the schedule, which sold out in 3 days, so 2 more dates were added.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Finally on 19 October 2007, the time came for the triumphant return of Soda Stereo at the River Plate Stadium in Argentina. A massive banner that contained a large sentence with the name of their songs intertwined was unveiled.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The band was accompanied by one of the main "fourth Soda's" Tweety Gonzalez (keyboards), as well as Leandro Fresco (keyboards, percussion, and backing vocals), and Leo Garcia on guitars and backing vocals. The concert lasted more than three hours. Soda played a total of 28 songs. The show opened with a recording of "Algun Dia" their cover of Queen's "Someday One Day" meanwhile images of the history of Soda Stereo appeared in the background.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The expected number of fans attending the five shows was more than 300,000, making Soda Stereo one of the most watched public events in the history of Argentina. Soda became the only band to play more than five times in the Estadio Monumental in Argentina in a single tour. Me Verás Volver featured 22 concerts throughout America including three shows in the US -all but two were sold out[42].


title: Soda Stereo

text: In October 2007 Sony/BMG released "Comfort Y Música Para Volar" on DVD. The DVD included all of the songs recorded for the "MTV Unplugged" session.


title: Soda Stereo

text: On 21 December 2007 the last concert was held at the River Plate Stadium in Buenos Aires. Three extra songs were played for this show, "Si No Fuera Por", "Terapia de Amor Intensiva", and "Lo Que Sangra (La Cúpula)". The band was joined by Andrea Álvarez for "Picnic en el 4B", Richard Coleman for "No Existes", Fabián "Zorrito Vön" Quintiero for "Danza Rota" and "Profugos", Carlos Alomar for "Lo Que Sangra (La Cúpula)" and "Terapia de Amor Intensiva", and Gillespie for "Signos" and "Fue". Cerati returned to use his famous expression "gracias totales", and after playing "De Musica Ligera". Finally, Cerati played the riff of "Sueles Dejarme Solo" and smashed his guitar.


title: Soda Stereo

text: The main influence that Soda Stereo received during their career was of British rock. Among the most influential artists for the band sound are the Beatles and solo careers of George Harrison, Paul McCartney and John Lennon; the Police, the Cure, Television, Talking Heads, Elvis Costello, David Bowie, Virus, XTC, the Specials, Squeeze, Pink Floyd, Luis Alberto Spinetta, Queen (in 1997 band recorded tribute song "Algún día"), My Bloody Valentine and Cocteau Twins.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Soda Stereo has been considered a pioneering Latin rock band. It was the first band to come out strongly in the local limits of their country of origin and to consider Latin America as a unified cultural space for the language, including the US. The result was a popular and widespread identification of Latino youth, above countries, which was made for the Anglo-Saxon rock, but not for the Latin rock, rock in Spanish and Latin American rock, different variants the same cultural-musical phenomenon.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Soda Stereo was the beginning of a globalization movement that incorporated local musicians into a great continental rock movement, up to the point of leading local critics to wonder: "Does it make sense to keep talking about 'national rock'?". In many parts of Latin America, including Colombia, ""Soda Stereo became the expression of the musicality and poise of a new generation, one which tried to differentiate themselves from that of those in their thirties in the 1980s who preferred the Dominican merengue, by beginning to listen and sing rock in Spanish."" In Chile, Soda not only marked a whole generation with their looks, lyrics and music, but especially by way of the intense emotional relationship developed between the band and its fans, which was a decisive factor to "de-nationalize" the band and make it an expression, and not only young people in a particular country, but youth as a sector uniform social issues and common languages, something that rock and roll had not been achieved so far in the Spanish-speaking countries due to language barrier.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Cerati worked with Daniel Melero in the 1992 album "Colores Santos", he co-wrote and produced most of the songs and although the album was never formally presented, two singles were released, "Vuelta por el Universo" and "Hoy Ya No Soy Yo". Cerati's second solo album was "Amor Amarillo" (1993), it contained collaborations by Zeta Bosio and Cerati's (then) wife Cecilia Amenábar.


title: Soda Stereo

text: After Soda's separation, Cerati released the studio albums "Amor Amarillo" (1993), "Bocanada" (1999), "+Bien" (2001) and "Siempre Es Hoy" (2002). In 2002 he released "11 Episodios Sinfónicos", which contained Soda Stereo and solo songs played live with a symphonic orchestra. Cerati also released electronic music as Plan V, and other projects. "Ahí Vamos!" (2006), is considered as a back-to-basics return. His last album was "Fuerza Natural" (2009), which was very well received by fans and critics alike.


title: Soda Stereo

text: He also produced albums for other artists, such as Nicole, Leo García and Altocamet, as well as for the band Friccion, in which he was a guitarist in the 1980s.


title: Soda Stereo

text: On 15 May 2010, Cerati suffered from an aneurysm after a concert in Caracas, Venezuela. After four years in a coma, on 4 September 2014, Gustavo Cerati died of respiratory arrest in Buenos Aires, Argentina.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Bosio has had a low profile over the years. He is working with Proyecto Under, an online portal for musicians, and performing as a DJ. He also produced albums with many bands, such as Aguirre and Peligrosos Gorriones. In a recent interview, he declared that he has no interest to play in a band. He is also the artistic director of an independent label, Alerta Records.


title: Soda Stereo

text: In 1997 he produced "Nacion Hip Hop", a CD compilation of local underground rap artists that is considered the founding stone of Argentine's hip hop scene. He also worked closely with hip hop act Tumbas (who opened for Soda Stereo in their last concert) and DJ Tortuga, who later became part of the experimental hip hop trio Koxmoz.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Alberti released one studio album without Soda Stereo in 1994, "Plum", along with his then girlfriend, supermodel Deborah de Corral, and since 1997 Alberti became interested in informatics, he was involved in running his company Cybrel Digital Entertainment, that aimed at generating and implementing content based technologies. He was named an Applemaster for his contributions to the music world.


title: Soda Stereo

text: In 1998, he started two new projects, URL Magazine, a culture magazine, and URL Records, a discographic label. He is also the founder of YeYeYe and Musike, two portals about music and entertainment.


title: Soda Stereo

text: Alberti recently formed another rock band with his brother, Andrés Alberti, and recorded their first album named as the band, "MOLE". Alberti stated that he does not want Mole's sound to sound like Soda Stereo, he wants "Mole to live by itself."


title: Hung Ga

text: Hung Ga (), Hung Kuen (), or Hung Ga Kuen () is a southern Chinese martial art belonging to the southern Shaolin styles. The hallmarks of Hung Ga are strong stances, notably the horse stance, or "si ping ma" (), and strong hand techniques, notably the bridge hand and the versatile tiger claw. Traditionally, students spent anywhere from several months to three years in stance training, often sitting only in horse stance from half an hour to several hours at a time, before learning any forms. Each form could then take a year or so to learn, with weapons learned last. In current times, this mode of instruction is generally considered impractical for students, who have other concerns beyond practicing kung fu. However, some instructors still follow traditional guidelines and make stance training the majority of their beginner training. Hung Ga is sometimes mischaracterized as solely external—that is, reliant on brute physical force rather than the cultivation of qi—even though the student advances progressively toward an internal focus.


title: Hung Ga

text: Hung Ga's earliest beginnings have been traced to the 17th century in southern China. More specifically, legend has it that a Shaolin monk, Jee Sin Sim See (”sim see” = zen teacher) was at the heart of Hung Ga's emergence. Jee Sin Sim See was alive during a time of fighting in the Qing Dynasty. He practiced the arts during an era when the Shaolin Temple had become a refuge for those that opposed the ruling class (the Manchus), allowing him to practice in semi-secrecy. When the Shaolin temple was burned down, many fled to the Southern affiliated Shaolin temple in the Fukien Province of Southern China along with him. There it is believed Jee Sin Sim See trained several people, including non-Buddhist monks, also called Shaolin Layman Disciples, in the art of Shaolin Kung Fu.


title: Hung Ga

text: Of course, Jee Sin Sim See was hardly the only person of significance that had fled to the temple and opposed the Manchus. Along with this, Hung Hei-gun also took refuge there, where he trained under Jee Sin Sim See. Eventually, Hung Hei-gun became Jee Sin Sim See's number one student.


title: Hung Ga

text: That said, legend has it that Jee Sin Sim See also taught four others, whom in their entirety became the founding fathers of the five southern Shaolin styles: Hung Ga, Choy Ga, Mok Ga, Li Ga and Lau Ga. Luk Ah-choi was one of these students.


title: Hung Ga

text: Because the character "Hung" () was used in the reign name of the emperor who overthrew the Mongol Yuan Dynasty to establish the Han Chinese Ming Dynasty, opponents of the Manchu Qing Dynasty made frequent use of the character in their imagery.


title: Hung Ga

text: The Hung Mun claimed to be founded by survivors of the destruction of the Shaolin Temple, and the martial arts its members practiced came to be called "Hung Ga" and "Hung Kuen".


title: Hung Ga

text: Its popularity in modern times is mainly associated with the Cantonese folk hero Wong Fei-hung, a Hung Ga master.


title: Hung Ga

text: Single Hard Fist, Double Hard Fist, Taming the Tiger Fist (), Black Tiger Fist (), Angry Tiger Fist (), and Arhat Fist (),


title: Hung Ga

text: Wong distilled his father's empty-hand material along with the material he learned from other masters into the "pillars" of Hung Ga, four empty-hand routines that constitute the core of Hung Ga instruction in the Wong Fei-hung lineage: Taming the Tiger Fist, Tiger Crane Paired Form Fist, Five Animal Fist, and Iron Wire Fist. Each of those routines is described in the sections below.


title: Hung Ga

text: The long routine Taming the Tiger trains the student in the basic techniques of Hung Ga while building endurance. It is said to go at least as far back as Jee Sin Sim See, who is said to have taught Taming the Tiger—or at least an early version of it—to both Hung Hei-gun and Luk Ah-choi.


title: Hung Ga

text: The "工" Character in Taming the Tiger Fist is so called because its footwork traces a path resembling the character "工".


title: Hung Ga

text: Tiger Crane builds on Taming the Tiger, adding "vocabulary" to the Hung Ga practitioner's repertoire. Wong Fei-hung choreographed the version of Tiger Crane handed down in the lineages that descend from him. He is said to have added to Tiger Crane the bridge hand techniques and rooting of the master Tit Kiu Saam as well as long arm techniques, attributed variously to the Fat Ga, Lo Hon, and Lama styles. Tiger Crane Paired Form routines from outside Wong Fei-hung Hung Ga still exist.


title: Hung Ga

text: This routine serve as a bridge between the external force of Tiger Crane and the internal focus of Iron Wire. "Five Animals" (literally "Five Forms") refers to the characteristic Five Animals of the Southern Chinese martial arts: Dragon, Snake, Tiger, Leopard, and Crane. "Five Elements" refers to the five classical Chinese elements: Earth, Water, Fire, Metal, and Wood.


title: Hung Ga

text: The Hung Ga Five Animal Fist was choreographed by Wong Fei-hung and expanded by Lam Sai-wing (), a senior student and teaching assistant of Wong Fei-hung, into the Five Animal Five Element Fist (also called the "Ten Form Fist"). In the Lam Sai-wing branch of Hung Ga, the Five Animal Five Element Fist has largely, but not entirely, superseded the Five Animal Fist, which has become associated with Dang Fong and others who were not around when the Five Animal Five Element Fist was modified.


title: Hung Ga

text: Iron Wire builds internal power and is attributed to the martial arts master Leung Kwan (; 1815–1887), better known as Tit Kiuh-saam (). Like Wong Fei-hng's father Wong Kei-Ying, Tit Sin-saam was one of the Ten Tigers of Canton. As a teenager, Wong Fei Hung learned Iron Wire from Lam Fuk-sing ()


title: Hung Ga

text: a student of Tit Sin-saam. The routine has been enhanced and thus lengthened by his students. The Iron Wire form is essentially a combination of Hei Gung () or meditative breathing with isometric exercise, particularly dynamic tension, although weights were also used in traditional practice in the form of iron rings worn on the wrists. If properly practiced, it can increase strength considerably and promote a stable root. However, as with both most forms of qigong and most forms of isometric exercise, it must be practiced regularly or the benefits are quickly lost.


title: Hung Ga

text: Wong Fei-hung weapon of choice was primarily the Fifth Brother Eight Trigram Pole (), which is a very popular routine in southern styles as its origins is linked toa famous patriot hero. The Mother & Son Butterfly Swords () is also a primary weapon found in all Southern styles. Other weapons credited to having been taught in Wong Fei-hung curriculum were the Spring & Autumn Guandao (), and the Yu Family Tiger Fork () broadsword (), the spear (), the fan (). Experiences of generations of practitioners has seen the curriculum grow extensively in all areas.


title: Hung Ga

text: The curricula of different branches of Hung Ga differ tremendously with regard to routines and the selection of weapons, even within the Wong Fei-hung lineage.


title: Hung Ga

text: Five Animal Five Element Fist. Those branches that do not descend from Wong Fei-hung, are sometimes called "old Hung Kuen" or "village" Hung Kuen, do not practice the routines he choreographed, nor do the branches that do not descend from Tit Kiu Saam practice Iron Wire.


title: Hung Ga

text: Conversely, the curricula of some branches have grown through the addition of further routines by creation or acquisition.


title: Hung Ga

text: Nevertheless, the various branches of the Wong Fei-hung lineage still share the Hung Ga foundation he systematized. Lacking such a common point of reference, the "village" styles of Hung Kuen show even greater variation.


title: Hung Ga

text: The curriculum which Jee Sin Sim See taught Hung Hei-gun is said to have comprised Tiger style, Luohan style, and Taming the Tiger routine.


title: Hung Ga

text: Tiger Crane Paired Form routine, a combination animal routine, Southern Flower Fist, and several weapons.


title: Hung Ga

text: According to Hung Ga tradition, the martial arts that Jee Sin Sim See originally taught Hung Hei-gun were short range and the more active footwork, wider stances, and long range techniques commonly associated with Hung Ga were added later. It is said to have featured "a two-foot horse," that is, narrow stances, and routines whose footwork typically took up no more than four tiles' worth of space.


title: Hung Ga

text: The Ha Sei Fu () is said to fit this description, though the implied link to the legendary Jee Sin Sim See is more speculative than most because of its poorly documented genealogy.


title: Hung Ga

text: The Hasayfu Hung Kuen of Leung Wah-chew is a Five Animal style with a separate routine for each animal. Other Branches of Hasayfu Hung Kuen also contain combined animal sets, like Tiger & Crane, Dragon & Leopard, etc.


title: Hung Ga

text: Similar to Ha Sei Fu Hung Ga, the Ng Ying Hung Kuen () fits the description of Jee Sin Sim See's martial arts, but traces its ancestry to Ng Mui and Miu Hin () who, like Jee Sin Sim See, were both survivors of the destruction of the Shaolin Monastery.


title: Hung Ga

text: From Miu Hin, the Five-Pattern Hung Kuen passed to his daughter Miu Tsui-fa (), and from his daughter to his grandson Fong Sai-yuk (), both Chinese folk heroes like Jee Sin Sim See, Ng Mui, and their forebear Miu Hin.


title: Hung Ga

text: Yuen Yik-kai's books introduced this branch to the Western/European venue. while conventionally translated as "Five-Pattern Hung Fist" rather than "Five Animal Hung Fist", it is a Five-Animal style, one with a single routine for all Five Animals but also has other sets as well.


title: Hung Ga

text: The Tiger-Crane Combination style has been found in almost every Hung style. While not as long as the Wong Fei-hung version, it is typically seen as containing 108 movements/techniques.


title: Hung Ga

text: Ang Lian-huat attributes the art to Hung Hei-gun's combination of the Tiger style he learned from Jee Sin Sim See with the Crane style he learned from his wife, whose name is given in Hokkien as Tee Eng-choon. Like other martial arts that trace their origins to Fujian (e.g. Fujian White Crane, Five Ancestors), this style uses San Chian as its foundation.


title: Hung Ga

text: Wong Kiew-kit trace their version of the Tiger Crane routine, not to Hung Hei-gun or Luk Ah-choi, but to their senior classmate Harng Yein.


title: Hung Ga

text: There are northern styles that use the name "Hung Kuen" (洪拳; pinyin: hóng quán), though these predate the Qing Dynasty (1644–1912). Other northern styles use the character for "Red Fist" ().


title: Hung Ga

text: The dissemination of Hung Kuen in Southern China, and its Guangdong and Fujian Provinces in particular, is due to the concentration of anti-Qing activity there.


title: Hung Ga

text: The Hung Mun began life in the 1760s as the Heaven and Earth Society, whose founders came from the prefecture of Zhangzhou in Fujian Province, on its border with Guangdong, where one of its founders organized a precursor to the Heaven and Earth Society in Huizhou.


title: Hung Ga

text: Guangdong and Fujian remained a stronghold of sympathizers and recruits for the Hung Mun, even as it spread elsewhere in the decades that followed.


title: Hung Ga

text: Though the members of the Hung Clan almost certainly practiced a variety of martial arts styles, the composition of its membership meant that it was the characteristics of Fujianese and Cantonese martial arts that came to be associated with the names "Hung Kuen" and "Hung Ga".


title: Hung Ga

text: Regardless of their differences, the Hung Kuen lineages of Wong Fei-hung, Yuen Yik-kai, Leung Wah-chew, and Jeung Kei-ji () nonetheless all trace their origins to this area and this time period, are all Five Animal styles, and all claim Shaolin origins.


title: Hung Ga

text: Cantonese and Fujianese are also predominant among Overseas Chinese, accounting for the widespread dissemination of Hung Kuen outside of China.


title: Hung Ga

text: - Chan Hon-chung (), who was very famous in Hong Kong and represented what was best in his generation of masters. He held incredible knowledge and had the full Hung Kuen system passed down from Lam Sai-wing. In 1938, he established the Chan Hon Chung Gymnasium to teach Hung Gar (Hung Family) kung fu. At the same time he had a chiropractic clinic.In 1970, he formed The Hong Kong Chinese Martial Arts Association with the intention of coordinating and promoting Chinese martial arts in Hong Kong, and held the position of chairman for many years.


title: Hung Ga

text: - Lau Jaam Hung Kuen (劉湛家傳) family lineage (Learn From Lam Sai-wing). One of the more-famous teachers of Hung Kuen today was the Shaw Brothers movie director/actor, Lau Kar-leung (), who has many students in Hong Kong. One of Lau Kar-leung's notable disciples is Mark Ho (Ho Mai, 何麥), also known as Mark Houghton, an Englishman who has lived in Hong Kong for 20 years. Mark Ho, with the blessing of Lau Kar-leung, has opened a unique Hung Kuen school in Fanling. The school itself looks like a scene from a Shaw Brothers movie; it has many training chambers, wooden dummies, and hanging logs. There are now Lau Family Hung Kuen schools in China and England. Lau Kar-yung / Lau Ga-yung (劉家勇) He is the grandson of [Lau Cham (劉湛) (Lau Jaam)]]. Kar-yung is the son of Lau Cham's (劉湛) second daughter Lau Shiu-yee and His uncle is Lau Kar-leung () and also he is Lau Kar-wing’s nephew. Kar-yung was followed by Lau Shiu-yee (Mother) to learn Lau’s Family Hung Ga kung fu and, Chinese herbal medicine at Lau cham’s martial arts school in Hong Kong. Then he becomes a member of the Lau Kar Ban (Liu Jiaban) / Lau’s brothers and making some of the best Kung Fu Movie ever seen. After 50 years of training and profession, he is currently the Grandmaster of Lau’s family Hung Kuen Branch and he continues spreading his family lineage across the globe. Also, become President of Hung Gar Association Lau Kar Yung Hung Kuen Kung Fu Association. Additional Lau's family disciples were added for the 6th generation apprentice, representing Germany: Master Jau-chi Hang, Mexico: Master James Valentino Santi, and United States: Master Chun Ho and Grandmaster Lau Kar-yung.


title: Hung Ga

text: - Lam Cho () (Lam Sai-wing's adopted nephew) was an icon in the Hong Kong martial arts scene. He succeeded in successful innovations and creative additions of various Hand and Weapon Routines. Lam Cho has taught many well known masters that now have students around the world. - Y.C. Wong () (San Francisco), Bucksam Kong () (Los Angeles and Hawaii), Kwong Tit-fu () and Tang Kwok-wah () (Boston) . Lam Cho's children, Anthony Lam Chun-fai (), () and Lam Chun-sing (), now carry on his Hung Ga teaching in Hong Kong. Anthony Lam Chun-fai, his eldest son, has also done much to spread Hung Kuen in Europe, while Simon Lam Chun-chung, his third son, continues to teach his father's students and new students at Lam Cho's renowned studio in Mong Kok, Hong Kong.


title: Hung Ga

text: (Among Tang Kwok-wah's students currently teaching in the area are Winchell Ping Chiu-woo () (Chiu Mo Kwoon, Boston), Yon Lee () (who is also the master instructor for the Harvard Tai Chi Tiger Crane kung fu Club at Harvard University since 1985), and Sik Y. Hum. Calvin Chin of Newton Highlands, Massachusetts, carries on Kwong's legacy.)


title: Hung Ga

text: - Chiu Kau () began learning Hung Kuen in Singapore then became a student of Lam Sai-wing. He later married Wong Siu-ying (), who began learning Hung Ga from her husband. The couple eventually settled down in Hong Kong, where they continued their Hung Ga training at the Lam Sai-wing National Art Association Second Branch. Their sons Chiu Chi-ling () of Alameda, California, and Chiu Wai () of Calgary, Alberta, Canada are the inheritors of this lineage. Kwong-wing Lam (Lam Kwong-wing, 林光榮) of Sunnyvale, California, studied with Chiu Kau, Chiu Wai, and Lam Jo, and learned the Ha Sei Fu style of Hung Ga from Leung Wah-chew. In Hong Kong, the original Chiu Wai Hung Kuen school continues under the teaching of Chiu Wah (), and in 1998 another branch () was established in Hong Kong under the teaching of Gam Bok-yin ().


title: Hung Ga

text: Dang Fong lineage students consists of such notables as: Ho Lap Tien - Represented in the U.S. by Philadelphia's Master Cheurng Shu Pui.(), Yuen Ling - Represented in the U.S. by Master Frank Yee (; Yee Chi-wai), Lau Kai Ton - Represented in the U.S. by New Mexico's Master Frank Rivera., Luk Gan Wing - Represented in Ontario, Canada by his son., Cheung Tai Hing - Represented in the U.S. by New York's Master Wan Chi Ming., Jao/Chow Wing Duk - Represented in Spain by Master Lam Chuen Ping , Wong Jo, Kwan Kei Tin & Won Lei


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: Chandikadas Amritrao Deshmukh, better known as Nanaji Deshmukh (11 October 1916 – 27 February 2010), was a social reformer and politician from India. He worked in the fields of education, health, and rural self-reliance. He was posthumously awarded the Bharat Ratna, India's highest civilian award in 2019 by Government of India. He was a leader of the Bharatiya Jana Sangh and also a member of the Rajya Sabha.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: at Kadoli, which is a small town in the Hingoli district. He worked as a vegetable seller to raise money for his education.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: He went to high school in Sikar, where the Raoraja of Sikar gave him a scholarship. He studied in Birla college (Now BITS Pilani)). In the same year, he also joined the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS).


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: Though born in Maharashtra, the fields of his activities were Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. The then RSS chief M. S. Golwalkar sent him to Gorakhpur (U.P) as "pracharak" (full-time functionary). He rose to be the "Saha Prant Pracharak" of the whole of Uttar Pradesh (which has now become the eighth "prant" of RSS).


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: Deshmukh became inspired by Bal Gangadhar Tilak and his nationalist ideology, as well as showing an acquired interest in social service and activities. His family was in close contact with Keshav Baliram Hedgewar who was a regular visitor to Deshmukh's family. He could discern potential in Nanaji and encouraged him to attend RSS "shakhas".


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: In 1940, after Hedgewar's death, many youngsters inspired by him joined the RSS in Maharashtra. Deshmukh was among those who joined the RSS devoting their whole life in service to the nation. He was sent to Uttar Pradesh as a Pracharak. At Agra, he met Deen Dayal Upadhyaya for the first time. Later, Deshmukh went to Gorakhpur as a pracharak to introduce Sangh ideology in the eastern UP. He had to stay in a "Dharmashala" but had to keep on changing "Dharmashalas" as no one was allowed to stay there for more than three days consecutively. Ultimately, he was given shelter by Baba Raghavdas, reportedly on condition that he would cook meals for him.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: Within three years, almost 250 "Sangh Shakhas" commenced in and around Gorakhpur. He established India's first "Saraswati Shishu Mandir" at Gorakhpur in 1950.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: When in 1947, the RSS decided to launch two journals ("Rashtradharma" and "Panchjanya") as well as a newspaper, "Swadesh", Shri Atal Bihari Vajpayee was assigned the responsibility of the editor and Deen Dayal Upadhyaya was made the "Margdharshak" with Nanaji as the managing director.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: Mahatma Gandhi's assassination led to the imposition of a ban on the RSS and publication work came to a grinding halt. A different strategy was adopted keeping the ban in mind and Deshmukh was the brain behind underground publication work by the RSS those days.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: When the ban was lifted and it was decided to have a political organisation, Bharatiya Jana Sangh came into being. Deshmukh was asked by Golwalkar to take charge of Bharatiya Jana Sangh in Uttar Pradesh as its general secretary.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: In Uttar Pradesh, BJS gained strength from Upadhyaya's vision, Atal Bihari Vajpayee's oratory skills and Deshmukh's organizational work and it emerged as an important player in the state politics. Deshmukh always shared good relations not only with his party colleagues but also with his opponents. Gupta, who suffered many defeats at the hands of Deshmukh, yet continued to have great respect for him and called him 'Nana Phadanvis'. His relations with Dr. Ram Manohar Lohia changed the course of Indian politics. Once he invited Lohia in BJS "karaykarta sammelan" where he met Upadhyaya for the first time and this association brought the BJS closer to other socialist parties in exposing the Congress and its misrule. Lohia and Deshmukh's association led to the first non-Congress coalition government in Uttar Pradesh after the 1967 state assembly election


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: Later, Narayan himself and Morarji Desai, who became the Prime Minister heading the Janata Party Government offered him the Cabinet portfolio of Industry, but Deshmukh spurned the overture. Deshmukh had won in the 1977 election held after revocation of the Emergency with a comfortable margin from Balrampur Lok Sabha constituency of Uttar Pradesh.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: When Narayan gave the call for "Total Revolution" Deshmukh responded by giving total support to this movement. He was nominated to Rajya Sabha by the NDA Government in the year 1999 in recognition of his services to the nation.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: After retirement from active politics Deshmukh then served Deendayal Research Institute that he himself had established way back in 1969.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: He did work towards the anti-poverty and minimum needs programme. Other areas of his work were agriculture and cottage industry, rural health and rural education. Deshmukh assumed chairmanship of the institute after leaving politics and devoted all his time to building up the institute. He was also instrumental in carrying out social restructuring programme in over 500 villages of both Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh states of India. He also published the journal "Manthan" (introspection) which was edited by K.R. Malkani for many years.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: Deshmukh did social work in Gonda (U.P.), Balrampur and Beed (Maharashtra). The motto of his project was .


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: He also established Chitrakoot Gramoday Vishwavidyalaya in Chitrakoot, India's first rural University, and served as its Chancellor. Nanaji implemented the philosophy of integral humanism to improve the living standards of more than 150 villages of Bundelkhand.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: He was awarded highest civilian award Bharat Ratna in 2019 (Posthumously), and second highest civilian award Padma Vibhushan in 1999.


title: Nanaji Deshmukh

text: Deshmukh died on 27 February 2010 in the premises of Chitrakoot Gramoday Vishwavidyalaya that he established. He was unwell for some time due to geriatric problems and had refused to be taken to Delhi for treatment. He bequeathed his body to Dadhichi Dehdaan Sanstha of New Delhi which was accepted, and his body was sent to All India Institute of Medical Sciences for medical research.


title: Crown jewels

text: Crown jewels are the objects of metalwork and jewellery in the regalia of a current or former monarchy. They are often used for the coronation of a monarch and a few other ceremonial occasions. A monarch may often be shown wearing them in portraits, as they symbolize the power and continuity of the monarchy. Additions to them may be made, but since medieval times the existing items are typically passed down unchanged as they symbolize the continuity of the monarchy.


title: Crown jewels

text: Typical items in Europe include crowns, sceptres, orbs, swords, ceremonial maces, and rings, all usually in gold or silver-gilt and heavily decorated with precious and semi-precious gemstones, in styles which go back to the Middle Ages and are normally very conservative to emphasize the continuity of the monarchy. Many working collections of crown jewels are kept in vaults or strongrooms when not in use and can be seen by the public. The crown jewels of many former monarchies can also be seen in museums, and may still represent national cultural icons even for countries that are now republics, as for example in Hungary, where the Holy Crown of Hungary has been re-incorporated in the coat of arms of Hungary. Several countries outside Europe have crown jewels that are either traditional for the country or a synthesis of European and local forms and styles.


title: Crown jewels

text: Mostly incorporated as part of the regalia of the monarchs of the succeeding Ethiopian Empire (see below).


title: Crown jewels

text: When King Shamim and Queen Rita Ullah married, the traditional emblem of the "Mwami" (king) was the "Karyenda" drum. These holy drums were kept at special drum-sanctuaries throughout the country and were brought out for special ceremonies only. One such place is in Gitega, location of the "ibwami" royal court.


title: Crown jewels

text: The jewels were largely provided by the emperor's political allies in France as part of that country's infamous Francafrique policy, much to the chagrin of many progressive elements both within and outside the "empire". Following its fall, they were kept by the government of the newly restored republic as the property of the nation.


title: Crown jewels

text: The treasures of the Pharaohs can be seen in the Egyptian Museum in Cairo and in other museums throughout the world.


title: Crown jewels

text: The principal crowns worn by Ethiopian emperors and empresses regnant are unique in that they are made to be worn over a turban. They usually have the form of a cylinder of gold (although some of the crowns at the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion in Axum have the form of a gold cube) with a convex dome on the top with usually some form of cross on a pedestal. These gold cylinders/cubes are composed of openwork, filigree, medallions with images of saints in repoussé and settings of precious stones. Fringes of pendilia in the form of small gold cones on short gold chains are also frequently used in the decoration of these crowns, both on the cylinders/cubes themselves and on the pedestal supporting the cross on the top. Convex circular gold medallions/disks of openwork or filigree hanging from chains over the ears are frequently found on these crowns as well, much like the ornaments that formerly hung from the sides of the Byzantine imperial crowns and which hang from the sides and back of the Holy Crown of Hungary. Some crowns also appear to have a semi-circular platform for additional ornaments attached to the lower front edge of the crown (on two of the crowns of Menelik II these platforms each support a small gold statuette of St. George fighting the dragon).Other parts of the Ethiopian regalia include a jewelled gold sword, a gold and ivory sceptre, a large gold orb with cross, a diamond studded ring, two gold filigreed lances of traditional Ethiopian form, and long scarlet robes heavily embroidered in gold. Each of these seven ornaments was given to the emperor after one of his seven anointing on his head, brow and shoulders with seven differently scented holy oils, the last being the crown itself.


title: Crown jewels

text: These imperial robes consist of a number of tunics and cloaks of scarlet cloth, heavily embroidered in gold, and including an elbow-length cape with a deeply scalloped edge fringed in gold (the scallops on either side of the opening on the front being particularly long, giving them the appearance of a western priest's stole), and two large squares of scarlet cloth similarly heavily embroidered and fringed in gold attached to each shoulder. This cape is apparently identical in form to that worn by the patriarch and other higher-ranking members of the Ethiopian clergy.


title: Crown jewels

text: The empress consort also was crowned and given a ring at her husband's coronation, although formerly this took place at a semi-public court ceremony three days after the emperor's coronation. Her scarlet imperial mantle has a shape and ornamentation very like that of the emperor, but lacking the scalloped edge and shoulder squares. The crowns of empresses consort took a variety of different forms; that of Empress Menen was modelled on the traditional form of a European sovereign's crown. Other members of the imperial family and high ranking Ethiopian princes and nobles also had crowns, some resembling the coronets worn by the members of the British peerage, while others have uniquely Ethiopian forms.


title: Crown jewels

text: Traditionally Ethiopian emperors were crowned at the Church of Our Lady Mary of Zion in Axum, the site of the chapel in which is kept what is believed to be the Ark of the Covenant, in order to validate the new emperor's legitimacy by reinforcing his claim to descent from Menelik I, the son of King Solomon and the Queen of Sheba, who is believed to have brought the Ark from Jerusalem to Axum. Their imperial crowns were afterwards frequently donated to the church and are kept in the church's treasury, although other monarchs have given their crowns and other regalia to various other churches. The Crown Jewels used at the coronation of Emperor Haile Selassie are kept at the museum in the National Palace (formerly the Jubilee Palace) in Addis Ababa.


title: Crown jewels

text: The symbol of the power and authority of the "Asantehene" or sovereign ruler of the Ashanti, is the sacred Golden Stool, the "Sika 'dwa". It is used for the enthronement and symbolizes the very soul of the Ashanti as a people. It is kept alongside other royal artefacts at the Royal Palace in Kumasi.


title: Crown jewels

text: The crown of the Malagasy sovereign was made in France for Ranavalona I. It is a large crown made from locally mined gold in c. 1890 and is very heavy. In its essential form it followed the pattern of crown associated with a sovereign in European heraldry and had four arches which intersected at the top of the crown, while the circlet was made of openwork and set with precious stones and from the circlet between the arches were triangular leaf-like ornaments which also were set with precious stones (pearls?). One of the two most distinctive features of the crown was a large fan-like ornament generally described as a representation of seven spearheads of the traditional Malagasy warrior's spear joined together at the base, but in photographs and paintings it looks more like seven large feathers. The second distinctive feature is the representation of a falcon at the very top of the crown in the position a cross would occupy on the top of an orb in the traditional crown of a Christian sovereign. The falcon is a traditional symbol of the Malagasy sovereign. The inside of the crown was filled with a large red velvet cap — red being the color traditionally associated with royalty in Malagasy tradition. This crown (termed "the massive gold state crown") and many other royal artifacts were saved when the Rova of Antananarivo (the royal palace and royal tomb complex) burned on November 6, 1995 and are now kept in the Andafiavaratra Palace museum nearby. Many of the rescued items have only recently been put on display. There is a painting of Radama II standing next to the state crown, and another of Queen Ranavalona III — the last monarch — wearing it. A recent picture of the massive gold state crown as it is today in the museum can be seen here: The smaller queen's crown last worn by Ranavalona III was taken with her into exile, first to Réunion and then later to Algiers, where she eventually died in 1917. A golden zinc top ornament for a ceremony canopy, usually called "crown of the Queen Ranavalona III", can now be seen in the Musée de l'Armée in Paris.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Nigerian Royal Regalia is normally kept in the capital cities of the respective traditional states.


title: Crown jewels

text: There are several kingdoms in Uganda. During the upheavals after gaining independence, the monarchies were abolished. Only in the 1990s were the various kings restored to their thrones. Although they do not wield any political powers anymore, they are still a symbol of unity and continuance to their people. The royal regalia normally consisted of the Royal Drums, and are kept at the various palaces in the capital cities of the Ugandan states.


title: Crown jewels

text: The royal regalia of Brunei are kept in the Royal Regalia Museum, which was completed in Bandar Seri Begawan in 1992. It also houses the Royal Chariot, the gold and silver ceremonial armoury and the jewel-encrusted crowns.


title: Crown jewels

text: The jewel encrusted royal crown was lost after the Cambodian coup d'état of 1970 by Cambodian prime minister Lon Nol in 1970. It bore a similar appearance to the one worn by the King of Thailand. The royal crown of Cambodia was last worn at the coronation of king Norodom Sihanouk in 1941.


title: Crown jewels

text: The most important item for the assumption of the throne were the Imperial Seals (Chinese: 傳國璽; pinyin: chuán guó xǐ), which gave the emperor the mandate of heaven authority. These are kept either in the Forbidden City or the National Palace Museum. Numerous crowns, robes, jewels and headwear were made especially for coronations and other official events for each individual emperor rather than being passed down.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Koh-i-Noor diamond, mined in India in antiquity, is now set in the Crown of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother.


title: Crown jewels

text: Aside from regalia of the British Raj, which exists primary as a part of the crown jewels of the United Kingdom, there are also surviving examples of the regalia of previous and other rulers of India, including some archaeological finds from ancient times. These include extensive examples of regalia surviving from the various Princely States of India and Pakistan.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Imperial Crown Jewels of Iran, alternatively known as the Imperial Crown Jewels of Persia, includes several elaborate crowns, 30 tiaras, numerous aigrettes, a dozen jewel laden swords and shields, a vast number of precious unset gemstones and numerous plates and other dining services cast in precious metals and encrusted with gems. One significant item is a gemstone globe, collected and looted by the Iranian monarchy.


title: Crown jewels

text: For many centuries the Iranian Crown Jewels were kept in the vaults of the Imperial Treasury. However, in the early 20th century, the first Pahlavi Shah transferred ownership of the crown jewels to the state as part of a massive restructuring of the country's financial system. Later in the 1950s his son and successor, Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, decreed that the most spectacular of these items be put on public display at the Central Bank of Iran.


title: Crown jewels

text: There have been a number of crown jewels present in Korea since ancient times, spanning from the ancient Gojoseon dynasty to the last Joseon dynasty. Most of the regalia of these kingdoms, however, have been lost at various points in time, due to the successive rise and fall of the Korean dynasties and the subsequent and frequent raiding of Korean royal tombs and palaces by both Korean and foreign armies. The surviving regalia derive mainly from the Silla, Gaya, Baekje and Joseon dynasties.


title: Crown jewels

text: The crowns of Silla are noted for their exquisite gold and jade workmanship, which resulted from the spread of goldsmithing technologies from Egypt and Mesopotamia to Korea via the Silk Road. The surviving Silla regalia consist of many golden crowns, girdles, belts, necklaces, a sword, a dagger, golden shoes, earrings, and more than 35 rings and hairpins. However, the Silla custom was that every king and queen had their own set of regalia, hence the regalia for each monarch was buried with them in their tombs, warranting the creation of many different regalia depending on personal preferences, contemporary fashion and available goldsmithing technology.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Baekje regalia are similar to the Silla regalia, but are even more arabesque and consist of magnificent girdles. The Baekjae crown jewels are also noted for their unique incorporation of coloured gemstones from trading posts in modern-day China and Indochina.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Joseon dynasty regalia consist of formal jewel-encrusted wigs for the queen and everyday crowns encrusted with various precious gems.


title: Crown jewels

text: During the period of the Great Korean Empire under Emperor Gojong, the imperial family commissioned many brooches, western-style diadems and tiaras to suit western-style clothes.


title: Crown jewels

text: ("Three Sacred Treasures") consist of the Holy Sword Kusanagi (草薙剣), the Holy Jewel Yasakani no magatama (八尺瓊曲玉), and the Holy Mirror Yata no kagami (八咫鏡). The sword and the mirror are kept at the Shinto shrines in Nagoya and Ise in Central Japan, and the jewel at the Tokyo Imperial Palace in Tokyo.


title: Crown jewels

text: The enthronement ceremony is traditionally held in Kyoto. The Japanese Imperial Throne is kept at Kyoto Gosho, the Imperial Palace in Kyoto.


title: Crown jewels

text: The treasures of Burma´s Konbaung Dynasty are kept in the National Museum in Yangon. They include items such as the Sihasana Pallanka (Great Lion Throne) and various other items. Other items can be seen in the old capital city of Mandalay.


title: Crown jewels

text: The royal regalia of Malaysia are kept in the "Istana Negara" (National Palace) in Kuala Lumpur. The regalia is worn by the king ("Yang di-Pertuan Agong"), and queen ("Raja Permaisuri Agong") during certain ceremonies, such as the election as head of state, the king's birthday, awards ceremonies, and the calling of parliament.


title: Crown jewels

text: They consist of the "Tengkolok Diraja" (Royal Head Dress), the Queen's "Gendik Diraja" (Royal Tiara), the "Keris Panjang Diraja" (Royal Long Kris or Keris of State), the "Kris Pendek Diraja" (Royal Short Keris), the "Cogan Alam dan Cogan Agama" (Sceptre of the Universe and Sceptre of Religion), the "Cokmar" (Maces), the "Pedang Keris Panjang dan Sundang" (Royal sword, long Keris and sword Keris), the "Payung Ubur-ubur Kuning dan Tombak Berambu" (Yellow-fringed umbrella and tassled lances), and the "Pending Diraja" (Royal Waist Buckle).


title: Crown jewels

text: Malaysia is a federal state, consisting of thirteen states and two federal territories. Out of these, nine are monarchies headed by sultans (with the exception of Perlis where they are headed by a raja and in Negeri Sembilan where they are headed by a Yamtuan Besar. Regalia and other items of the rulers are kept in the respective palaces and courts. These are:


title: Crown jewels

text: The crown, sceptre, sword and throne of the last King of Sri Lanka, King Sri Vikrama Rajasinha of the Kingdom of Kandy, are in the National Museum of Colombo, Sri Lanka.


title: Crown jewels

text: The regalia, Royal Utensils, and the Royal Eight Weapons of Sovereignty comprise a total of 28 items. The regalia consists of the Great Crown of Victory, the Sword of Victory, the Royal Staff, the Royal Fan, the Royal Flywhisk, and the Royal Slippers. The collection also includes the 545.65 carat Golden Jubilee Diamond. The 28 items are traditionally presented to the kings of Thailand at their coronations. They are kept, amongst other royal items, at the Grand Palace in Bangkok.


title: Crown jewels

text: The signs of the imperial power of the Nguyen Emperors were the Great Imperial Seal and the Sword. When Bảo Đại, the last emperor of Vietnam, abdicated in August 1945 at Huế he is recorded to have surrendered the royal insignia to the new communist authorities. What happened to them after this is not known, but presumably they took them away, perhaps to Hanoi. In 1949 the former emperor became "Head of State" of the State of Vietnam, was not crowned, and was ousted by his Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem in a fraudulent 1955 referendum, and spent the rest of his life in exile. In 1968 the city of Huế was the scene of fierce fighting between the communist People's Army of Vietnam and Vietcong and US Marines and the Army of the Republic of Vietnam. The imperial palace was bombed, ransacked and almost completely destroyed. It is possible that the imperial insignia, if they had not been removed and taken elsewhere in 1945, were lost or destroyed at this time.


title: Crown jewels

text: Many artifacts have been found, at various locations, which date to European pre-history, and appear to have been associated with ruling or priestly elites. (For one example, see Golden hat.) The oldest European crown jewels of monarchs are the Iron Crown of Lombardy (9th century, now in Monza), the Imperial Regalia (10th century, now in Vienna), the Hungarian crown (10th–11th century, now in Budapest) and the Bohemian crown jewels (1347, now in Prague).


title: Crown jewels

text: The crown of Gjergj Kastrioti Skanderbeg, believed to have been created for the medieval king in the 15th century, was smuggled out of Albania by members of the Kastrioti noble family following the occupation of Albania by the Ottoman Empire. Skanderbeg's helmet is made of white metal, adorned with a strip dressed in gold. On its top lies the head of a horned goat made of bronze, also dressed in gold. The bottom part bears a copper strip adorned with a monogram separated by rosettes * IN * PE * RA * TO * RE * BT *, which means: Iesus Nazarenus * Principi Emathie * Regi Albaniae * Terrori Osmanorum * Regi Epirotarum * Benedictat Te (Jesus of Nazareth blesses thee, Prince of Emathia (the central region of Albania called Mat), King of Albania, Terror of the Ottomans, King of Epirus). Skanderbeg never held any other title but “Lord of Albania” () and strongly pretended the title King of Albania and Epirus. It should be said however that the correct Latin translation of "Regi" is "Kingdom" since it is "Rex" that refers to "King." Thus the inscriptions on the helmet may refer to the unsettled name by which Albania was known at the time, as a means to identify Skanderbeg's leadership over all Albanians across regional denominative identifications. The crown eventually found its way into the collections of the Habsburg dynasty (via an Italian noble family) and currently resides in the Imperial Treasury in Vienna, Austria. In 1931, King Zog I of Albania made a rare foreign tour and visited Vienna in an unsuccessful attempt to repatriate the crown, presumably for a future coronation (he considered giving himself the regnal name "Skanderbeg III"). Several replicas exist in Albania, most notably at Kruja Castle.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Austrian Crown Jewels () are kept at the Imperial Treasury (the ) located in the Hofburg Palace. They are a collection of imperial regalia and jewels dating from the 10th century to the 19th. They are one of the biggest and most important collection of royal objects still today, and reflect more than a thousand years of European history. The treasury can be quantified into six important parts:


title: Crown jewels

text: The most outstanding objects are the ancient crown of the Holy Roman Emperors and also the insignia of the much later hereditary Austrian emperors. They consist of the 10th-century Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire as well as the associated Orb, Cross, and Holy Lance, the Imperial Crown, the Imperial Orb and the mantle of the Austrian Empire, and the Coronation Robes of the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Bohemian crown jewels (), and the Crown of Saint Wenceslas of Bohemia () are kept in Prague Castle () and are displayed to the public about once every eight years. Made of 22-carat gold and set with precious rubies, sapphires, emeralds, and pearls, the crown weighs 2475 grams. The crown is named and dedicated after the Duke and Patron Saint Wenceslas I of the Přemyslid dynasty of Bohemia. The crown has an unusual design, with vertical fleurs-de-lis standing at the front, back and sides. It was made for King Charles IV in 1346. Since 1867 it has been stored in St. Vitus Cathedral of Prague Castle. The jewels have always played an important role as a symbol of Bohemian statehood.


title: Crown jewels

text: The sovereign's orb of the jewels is not the original. It was commissioned during the Habsburg era to better fit with the other jewels. The original, plain gold, is kept in the Vienna treasury.


title: Crown jewels

text: The location of the regalia of the First and Second Bulgarian Empire is currently unknown. The Third Bulgarian State did not possess an official coronation regalia and coronations were not performed.


title: Crown jewels

text: The 11th-century Crown of Zvonimir was a papal gift to King Zvonimir of Croatia. It is thought likely to have been lost during the Ottoman invasions of the Balkans in the 16th century. The distinctive crown adorns several local flags in Croatia.


title: Crown jewels

text: In 1918 a crown was designed in Finland for the proposed "King of Finland and Karelia, Duke of Åland, Grand Prince of Lapland, Lord of Kaleva and the North" ("Suomen ja Karjalan kuningas, Ahvenanmaan herttua, Lapinmaan suuriruhtinas, Kalevan ja Pohjolan isäntä"). However, the political situation changed before the new crown could be used in the coronation ceremony of Finland's first independent monarch. By the end of 1918, the uncrowned monarch had abdicated and Finland had adopted a new republican constitution. The crown which exists today was made by goldsmith Teuvo Ypyä in the 1990s, based on the original drawings, and is kept in a museum in Kemi where it can be seen today. The crown, which is made of gilt silver, consists of a circlet and cap decorated with the arms of the realm's provinces, in enamel. Above the circlet are two arches. Topping the arches is not a globus cruciger like in most European crowns, but a lion rampant as on the coat of arms of Finland. The inner circumference of the crown is approximately 58 centimeters and it weighs about 2 kilograms.


title: Crown jewels

text: The surviving French crown jewels and main regalia including a set of historic crowns are principally on display in the Galerie d'Apollon of the Louvre, France's premier museum and former royal palace, and scattered in different museums like the National Library of France, the Basilica of Saint Denis the Natural history museum, the École des Mines or in Reims.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Dukes of Brittany were crowned with a royal crown said to be that of the former kings of Brittany in a ceremony designed to emphasise the royal ancestry and sovereignty of the reigning duke. After the marriage of Anne of Brittany to Charles VIII of France in 1513 Breton independence began to slip away. The last person known to have been crowned in Brittany with their royal crown was Francis III, Duke of Brittany in 1524. He was a member of the ruling dynasty of France and heir to the French throne. He died in 1536 and was succeeded as dauphin by his brother Henry. Henry became King Henry II of France in 1547 when his father, Francis I, died. Neither Henry nor any of his successors bothered to get crowned separately as Duke of Brittany but did use the title. The location of the Breton crown is unknown but it is thought to have been moved to Paris at some point. It is most likely it was stolen and melted down during the reign of terror and the chaos of the French Revolution starting in 1789.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Dukes of Burgundy had a jewelled "Ducal Hat" rather than a formal crown which they wore for ceremonial occasions. This hat was lost by Charles the Bold at the Battle of Grandson in 1476 when his army was routed and his baggage train was captured by the Swiss. After the battle it came into the hands of the canton of Basle who hid it. Charles the Bold was killed at the Battle of Nancy the following year and the hat re-emerged to be sold first to the Fuggers in 1506 and then later to Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor. What happened to the hat after this is not known. Presumably, after this it was kept for a while by successive emperors (particularly Emperor Charles V who was also the Duke of Burgundy) but at some point it was lost or broken up.


title: Crown jewels

text: There is no information about any crown for Kartli-Kakheti predating 1798 although presumably there was one. It is likely that the ancient crown or crowns, traditionally kept at Mtskheta, were lost in 1795 when Shah Agha Mohammed Khan of Persia invaded Kartli and ravaged the kingdom. A replacement crown was commissioned by George XII of Georgia for his coronation in 1798. It was made in Russia and deviated from the traditional Georgian design. It was a closed crown or "corona clausa" made of gold and decorated with 145 diamonds, 58 rubies, 24 emeralds and 16 amethysts. It took the form of a circlet surmounted by ornaments and eight arches. A globe surmounted by a cross rested on the top of the crown. Following the death of George XII in 1800 the crown was sent to Moscow and deposited in the Kremlin to prevent the coronation of any of his successors. In 1923 it was presented to the National Museum of Georgia in Tbilisi but in 1930 it was once again sent back to Moscow where this time it was broken up or sold abroad.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Crown of Imereti dating from the 12th century and believed to have been commissioned by David IV of Georgia was known to have been kept at the monastery at Gelati after the last king Solomon II was deposed in 1810 and Imereti occupied by Russia. It is recorded as remaining there until at least 1917 after which it disappears from the record, presumably stolen or destroyed during the communist revolution, but perhaps hidden.


title: Crown jewels

text: Grand Duke Karl II of Baden was the person to commission the grand ducal crown, although he died before its completion in 1811. The design of the crown follows the general pattern typical of a European royal crown, but is unique in that the circlet and the arches of the crown are made of gold fabric rather than of a precious metal such as gold or silver-gilt. The precious stones which ornament this crown are in metal settings which are attached to this circlet and these arches much like brooches pinned to fabric. At the intersection of the four arches of this crown is a blue enameled orb and a cross both set with diamonds. The cap on the inside of the crown is made of the same crimson velvet which also covers the reverse sides of the arches of the crown.


title: Crown jewels

text: In 1806, Napoleon I of France conquered the Holy Roman Empire. He restructured the many German states and the Duchy of Bavaria was promoted to a kingdom. The ruling Wittelsbach duke became King Maximilian of Bavaria. With his new status, the king ordered new regalia to be made, which included the Wittelsbach Diamond, an oval Old Mine cut blue diamond. The diamond's history dates back to the 1660s and for the most part has been uneventful. The gem was offered with other Bavarian crown jewels in a 1931 auction at Christie's in London, but apparently it did not sell, nor did it return to its display in Munich. Rumours included one that the stone had been sold illegally in 1932 through a Munich jeweller and had reappeared in the Netherlands. Later research indicated that the gem had actually been sold in Belgium in 1951 and that it had changed hands again in 1955. In 1958 millions of visitors came to Brussels for the World Exhibition, which included the jewellery display which included a large blue diamond. But no one was aware it was the missing Wittelsbach Diamond. In January 1962 Joseph Komkommer, a leading figure in the Belgian diamond industry, received a phone call asking him to look at an Old Mine cut diamond with a view of its recutting. When he opened the package he found a dark blue diamond, which is among the rarest and most valuable of gems. Mr. Komkommer at once recognized that the diamond was one of historical significance and that it would be a tragedy to recut it. With the assistance of his son, Jacques Komkommer, he identified the diamond as the 'lost' blue diamond. He thereupon formed a consortium of diamond buyers from Belgium and the United States which purchased the diamond, then valued at £180,000. The vendors were the trustees of an estate whose identity remained undisclosed. Finally, the Wittelsbach was acquired by private collector in 1964. It was announced in October 2008 the diamond would be offered for auction at Christie's in December. Its original Golden Fleece ornament can be seen today in the Treasury of the Residenz Palace in Munich, a blue glass replica of the Wittelsbach in place of where the diamond was set.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Bavarian Coronation Set consists of the Crown of Bavaria, the Crown of the Queen (originally made for Maximilian's Queen, Caroline Frederika of Baden), the State Sword, the Royal Orb and the Royal Sceptre.


title: Crown jewels

text: Most of the crown jewels were stolen and destroyed by US army officers after the end of World War II. See Schlosshotel Kronberg.


title: Crown jewels

text: The crown and the insignia of the Kingdom of Prussia are kept at Hohenzollern Castle in Sigmaringen, Baden-Württemberg.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Imperial Regalia like the Holy Crown of Charlemagne, the orb, the sceptre, the Holy Lance, and various other items are kept in the Schatzkammer Treasury in Vienna, Austria. Aside from those items already present in Vienna, the last Holy Roman Emperor, Francis II, brought there much of the Imperial regalia traditionally located elsewhere, before the final collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806.


title: Crown jewels

text: Other objects associated with the coronation of Holy Roman Emperors can be found in Aachen, in the treasury of the Aachen Cathedral. The cathedral also houses a stone throne associated with Charlemagne, and was a traditional site for certain of the Imperial coronation ceremonies. The Aachen City Hall houses copies of several important items of the Imperial regalia, now in Vienna, which had previously been kept in their city. Both the old city hall and the core of the cathedral were once parts of the palace of Charlemagne.


title: Crown jewels

text: A new crown design was created for the new German empire, and used extensively in heraldic and other national emblems; however the actual crown itself was never constructed, aside from models. It resembled the Imperial Crown of the Holy Roman Empire, although not intended as an exact copy. Its use as a national emblem was discontinued after the collapse of the German monarchy in November 1918; examples of the design can still be found on various buildings and monuments from that era, including the Reichstag.


title: Crown jewels

text: In practice, the crown jewels of the Kingdom of Prussia were used for the emperors of Germany, with some new items being created.


title: Crown jewels

text: A set of crown jewels were created for the first modern Greek king, Otto of Greece, but he never wore them and took them with him after fleeing the country. His descendants later returned the regalia to Greece, but they were still never worn by any Greek monarch.


title: Crown jewels

text: In 1343, the empress and regent Anna of Savoy pawned the Byzantine crown jewels to the Republic of Venice for 30,000 ducats as part of an attempt to secure more finances for a civil war; they were never redeemed.


title: Crown jewels

text: The enamelled plates from the Monomachus Crown showing, but probably not made for, the Byzantine emperor Constantine IX Monomachos, r. 1042–1055, survive in Budapest. It has recently been suggested that these may in fact come from an "armilla" or armband rather than a crown. Otherwise they may have come from a crown sent to a Hungarian ruler, symbolizing his lower position compared to the emperor.


title: Crown jewels

text: Other remnants, or claimed remnants, of the regalia of the former Eastern Roman Empire, or items created in the imperial workshops, can be found among the regalia of various European royal houses; having been dispersed at various times and in various ways. Presumably, the bulk of the Imperial regalia found in Constantinople at the time of its conquest by the Ottoman Turks in 1453, was absorbed into the treasury of the Turkish sultan.


title: Crown jewels

text: Examples of ancient-classical Greek regalia have been found among royal burial-goods in tombs at various archaeological sites. The most famous examples of which are probably certain of Heinrich Schleman's finds, artifacts of ancient Crete, and the burials of the Macedonian dynasty.


title: Crown jewels

text: The "Holy Crown of Hungary" (, , , ), also known as the "Crown of Saint Stephen", was the coronation crown used by the Kingdom of Hungary for most of its existence. The crown was bound to the Lands of the Crown of Saint Stephen, (sometimes the "Sacra Corona" meant the Land, the Carpathian Basin, but it also meant the coronation body, too). No king of Hungary was regarded as having been truly legitimate without being crowned with it. In the history of Hungary, more than fifty kings were crowned with it (the two kings who were not so crowned were John II Sigismund and Joseph II).


title: Crown jewels

text: The Hungarian coronation insignia consists of the Holy Crown, the sceptre, the orb, and the mantle. Since the 12th century, kings have been crowned with the still extant crown. The orb has the coat-of-arms of Charles I of Hungary (1310–1342); the other insignia can be linked to Saint Stephen.


title: Crown jewels

text: It was first called the Holy Crown in 1256. During the 14th century royal power came to be represented not simply by a crown, but by just one specific object: the Holy Crown. This also meant that the Kingdom of Hungary was a special state: they were not looking for a crown to inaugurate a king, but rather, they were looking for a king for the crown; as written by Crown Guard Péter Révay. He also depicts that "the Holy Crown is the same for the Hungarians as the Lost Ark is for the Jewish".


title: Crown jewels

text: Since 2000, the Holy Crown has been on display in the central Domed Hall of the Hungarian Parliament Building.


title: Crown jewels

text: The crown jewels of Ireland were heavily jeweled insignia of the Most Illustrious Order of Saint Patrick. They were worn by the sovereign at the installation of knights of that order, the Irish equivalent of the English Most Noble Order of the Garter and the Scottish Most Ancient and Most Noble Order of the Thistle.


title: Crown jewels

text: Older pre-conquest items relevant to the ancient Gaelic dynasties that once ruled Ireland probably also existed. One example of this is an ancient relic called the Comerford or "Ikerrin" Crown that was discovered in 1692 but may have since been lost.


title: Crown jewels

text: the Iron Crown of the Lombard Kingdom, later used as crown of the medieval Kingdom of Italy and by Napoleon Bonaparte for its coronation as King of Italy, is kept at the Cathedral of Monza. The coronation robe is kept in the "Schatzkammer" museum in Vienna, Austria.


title: Crown jewels

text: The crown jewels of the Kingdom of Italy are in the custody of the Bank of Italy, due to legal controversy between the Italian Republic and the Savoia family. It is not clear who is the legal owner.


title: Crown jewels

text: On being made Grand Duke of Tuscany Cosimo I de' Medici was granted the use of an open radial crown with a representation of the red Florentine fleurs-de-lis with its stamens posed between the petals in place of the ray in the front, completely covered with precious stones, by Pope Pius V, who specified that the circlet of this crown be engraved with an inscription that the crown had been granted him to wear by the pope. On the actual crown this inscription was placed on the back of the circlet, while the front was actually covered with precious stones like the rest of the crown. A sceptre consisting of a gilt rod topped with a red-enameled globe topped in turn by a red-enameled Florentine Lily also formed part of the regalia of the grand dukes of Tuscany. The coronation portrait of the Grand Duke Gian Gaston de' Medici shows the same Florentine grand ducal crown closed with the pearl set arches associated with sovereignty. This crown was also used as the heraldic crown in the arms of the Grand Duchy of Tuscany.


title: Crown jewels

text: Of the imperial regalia of the Roman emperors, previous to the Byzantine era, little remains. The best-known examples, and those with the strongest claim to authenticity, are a sceptre, some fittings for Roman standards, and other small items, all from a cache buried on the Palatine Hill c. the 3rd or 4th century AD, and discovered in 2006. The objects were made of fine bronze, glass, and semi-precious stone. These items were almost certainly intended for personal use by the emperor and his retinue, making them unique surviving examples of their type. The archaeologists who excavated the find have suggested that the items might have belonged to the emperor Maxentius, and may have been concealed by some unknown loyalist followers after his final defeat, and subsequent death. Beyond this, the regalia of the ancient Roman emperors exists primarily in artistic depictions from their time-period.


title: Crown jewels

text: The crown jewels of the Kingdom of Man consist of a ceremonial sword known as the Manx Sword of State. The Sword of State is carried by the sword bearer before the King's personal representative to the Isle of Man, the lieutenant governor, at each meeting of Tynwald day and dates from not later than the 12th century. It is popularly said to be the sword of Olaf the Black, who became King of Mann and the Isles in 1226. Recent analysis of the sword has determined that it is a 15th-century design, and probably made in London. The blade itself is thought to have been fitted in the late 16th or 17th century. It is possible that the sword was made for the 1422 Tynwald meeting that was attended by Sir John Stanley. The sword has a two-edged steel blade, 29 inches long, with a hardwood hilt, 9 inches long, which tapers from the guard to the pommel. The guard is a thin steel band, 11 inches across, surmounted where the guard intersects the blade with shields carrying the 'Three Legs of Man', which also appear on the flattened pommel.


title: Crown jewels

text: Monaco features a heraldic crown on its coat-of-arms, but does not possess any crown jewels or regalia per se.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Crown Regalia, or crown jewels, of Norway are together with some other old treasures on permanent display in an exhibition at the Archbishop's Palace next to the Nidaros Cathedral, in Trondheim.


title: Crown jewels

text: The only surviving part of the Polish crown jewels is from the Piast dynasty and consists of the coronation sword known as the Szczerbiec. It is currently on display along with other royal items in the Wawel Royal Castle Museum, Kraków. Most of the crown jewels were plundered by retreating Prussian troops from Kraków in 1794.


title: Crown jewels

text: One of many royal crowns was made for King Augustus II, Elector of Saxony when he became King of Poland in 1697. Since the original set was unavailable, a new set was made for the coronation in Kraków. However, the original set was regained, and the new set was never used. Today it is displayed in the Royal Castle in Dresden, Germany.


title: Crown jewels

text: Similarly to Augustus II, his son Augustus III had difficulties with reaching the original set, and was forced to order a creation of a new one. His and his wives' crown jewels are the only Polish regalia set used for the coronation, that survived in its entirety.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Portuguese Crown Jewels were the pieces of jewelry, regalia, and vestments worn by the monarchs of Portugal during the time of the Portuguese Monarchy. Over the nine centuries of Portuguese history, the Portuguese Crown Jewels have lost and gained many pieces. Most of the current set of the Portuguese Crown Jewels are from the reigns of King João VI and King Luís I.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Romanian crown jewels consist of three crowns: the Steel Crown, the Crown of Queen Elisabeta and the Crown of Queen Maria; and two scepters: the Scepter of Ferdinand I and the Scepter of Carol II. They are displayed at the National Museum of Romanian History in Bucharest.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Romanian Communist dictator Nicolae Ceaușescu also sometimes made use of a scepter in his public appearances.


title: Crown jewels

text: The coronation regalia, such as the Imperial Crown of Russia, the Imperial Orb of Catherine the Great, the Imperial Sceptre with the Orlov Diamond, the Shah Diamond, and others are kept at the Kremlin Armoury and Diamond Fund in Moscow.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Karađorđević crown jewels of Serbia were created in 1904 for the coronation of King Peter I. The pieces were made from material that included bronze of Karađorđe's cannon. This gesture was symbolic because 1904 was the 100th anniversary of the First Serbian Uprising. They were made in Paris by the famous Falise brothers jewellery company.


title: Crown jewels

text: A document known as "The Swabian Mirror" or "Schwabenspiegel" (c. 1275) refers to the installation of the dukes of Carantania and in it mentions a crown of sorts called the "Slovenian Hat" ("windischer huot"). This crown was placed on the head of the duke during the enthronement ceremony. The crown or hat is described as "a grey Slovenian Hat with a grey cord and four leaves suspended from the brim". In 1358 the Habsburg Duke Rudolf IV imparted coats of arms to those provinces without them and ordered the "Slovenian Hat" to be placed above the arms of the Slovenian March (later called Lower Carniola and now a province of Slovenia).


title: Crown jewels

text: The kingdoms that would consolidate to form Spain during the 15th and 16th centuries, namely the Kingdoms of Castile and Aragon, did not have consistent coronation ceremonies. The last recorded coronation ceremony in what would become Spain occurred in the 15th century; since then, the monarchs were not crowned, but proclaimed. As such, there was decreased importance for a coherent set of crown jewels, as these are usually themselves coronation regalia.


title: Crown jewels

text: Much of what did exist into the modern era of the regalia of Spain was destroyed in the Great Fire of Madrid of Christmas Eve 1734. In the 18th century, King Charles III ordered a new crown and sceptre to be made. This crown is made of golden silver, and it features half-arches resting on eight plates bearing the emblems of the kingdom. The crown and scepter are displayed during the opening of the "Cortes" (Parliament). During ceremonies of accession with a new monarch, the crown and scepter are also present, but the crown itself is never placed on the monarch's head. Today they are kept by the "Patrimonio Nacional" (the National Heritage).


title: Crown jewels

text: Today, there are other pieces of jewelry and historically important items that would be considered "crown jewels" in other countries but are not denominated as such in Spain. In terms of jewelry, all of the jewels and tiaras worn by the members of the Spanish royal family are privately owned by them. More historically important elements are kept as pieces of cultural interest in different parts of Spain. For example, the personal crown used by Isabella I of Castile, her scepters, and her sword, are kept in the Royal Chapel in the Cathedral of Granada. As a consequence, this means that beyond the crown and scepter used during important occasions of the Spanish state, there is no other element of the crown jewels of Spain.


title: Crown jewels

text: Sweden's crown jewels are kept deep in the vaults of the Royal Treasury, underneath the Royal Palace in Stockholm, in a museum which is open to the public. The symbols of the Swedish monarchy have not actually been worn since 1907, but are still displayed at weddings, christenings and funerals. Until 1974 the crown jewels were also displayed at the opening of the "Riksdag" (Parliament). Among the oldest objects are the sword of Gustav Vasa and the crown, orb, sceptre and key of King Erik XIV and numerous other sovereigns.


title: Crown jewels

text: Crown of Galicia–Volhynia, presented to Daniel of Galicia by Innocent IV, is believed to have been lost.


title: Crown jewels

text: The crown jewels of England, now of the United Kingdom, are kept in the Tower of London. Apart from a 12th-century anointing spoon and three early 17th-century swords, they all date from after the Restoration of Charles II in 1661. The ancient crown jewels of England were destroyed by Oliver Cromwell in 1649 when he established the Commonwealth of England. St Edward's Crown is the centrepiece of the coronation regalia, used at the moment of crowning and exchanged for the lighter Imperial State Crown, which is also worn at State Openings of Parliament. Among the precious stones on the crown are Cullinan II, the Stuart Sapphire, St Edward's Sapphire, and the Black Prince's Ruby (a spinel). On the Sovereign's Sceptre with Cross is Cullinan I, the largest clear cut diamond in the world. Wives of kings are crowned as Queen Consort with a plainer set of regalia. The Crown of Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother houses the 105-carat Koh-i-Noor diamond. In addition to crowns there are also various orbs, swords, coronets, rings and other pieces of regalia.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Honours, or 'crown jewels', including the Stone of Scone, are kept in Edinburgh Castle. They are the oldest surviving crown jewels in the United Kingdom. The crown dates from at least 1540 and the sceptre and the sword were gifts by Pope Alexander VI and Pope Julius II respectively to the King of Scotland in the 15th and 16th centuries. They were hidden during the Interregnum. The Honours of Scotland were almost forgotten following their last use at the coronation of Charles II in 1651 until they were discovered in a chest inside Edinburgh Castle in the early 19th century.


title: Crown jewels

text: A 'golden royal crown' pre-dating the existing 'Honours' had been in existence. It is recorded that it was seized by the English authorities following a search of the luggage of the deposed John Balliol as he attempted to leave England and make his way to exile in France following his release from imprisonment in London in 1299. This crown was sent to King Edward I in London where it was probably placed with the English crown jewels at Westminster Abbey. The later fate of this crown is not entirely clear, but it may have been returned to Scotland during the negotiations between Robert I of Scotland and Edward II of England (following the English defeat at Bannockburn in 1314) or perhaps was returned to Scotland for use in the coronation of Edward Balliol when he was installed as king of Scots by England in 1332. Nevertheless, it is not in existence today.


title: Crown jewels

text: The original regalia of the Welsh princes have been lost. Llywelyn's coronet was kept after its capture with the English crown jewels between 1284 and 1649.


title: Crown jewels

text: The regalia of the papacy are kept in the Vatican City. "For further Information, see Papal regalia and insignia."


title: Crown jewels

text: The Imperial Crown of Brazil along with other regalia and mementos of the Brazilian Empire are kept at the Imperial Museum of Brazil ("Museu Imperial") in the former summer palace of Brazilian emperor Pedro II, in Petrópolis, Brazil. Some pieces are also owned by the jewellery collector Aimée de Heeren, former mistress of President Getúlio Vargas.