title: Radio drama

text: Regular broadcasts of radio drama in English can be heard on the BBC's Radio 3, Radio 4 and Radio 4 Extra (formerly Radio 7), on RTÉ Radio 1 in Ireland, and RNZ National in New Zealand. The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation produced notable radio plays in Calgary and Toronto in the postwar decades, from which many actors and directors proceeded to international careers, but abolished its radio drama department in the 1970s and finally ceased production of radio dramas in 2012. BBC Radio 4 in today noted for its radio drama, broadcasting hundreds of new, one-off plays each year in such strands as "The Afternoon Play", as well as serials and soap operas. Radio 4 Extra broadcasts a variety of radio plays from the BBC's vast archives and a few extended versions of Radio 4 programmes. The British commercial station Oneword, though broadcasting mostly book readings, also transmitted a number of radio plays in instalments before it closed in 2008.


title: Radio drama

text: In the United States, contemporary radio drama can be found on broadcasters including ACB radio, produced by the American Council of the Blind; on the Sirius XM Book Radio channel from Sirius XM Satellite Radio (previously Sonic Theater on XM); and occasionally in syndication, as with Jim French's production "Imagination Theater". Several community radio stations carry weekly radio drama programs including KBOO, KFAI, WMPG, WLPP and WFHB.


title: Radio drama

text: A growing number of religious radio stations air daily or weekly programs usually geared to younger audiences, such as Focus on the Family's "Adventures in Odyssey" (1,700+ syndicated stations), or Pacific Garden Mission's "Unshackled!" (1,800 syndicated stations – a long-running radio drama), which is geared to adults. The networks sometime sell transcripts of their shows on cassette tapes or CDs or make the shows available for listening or downloading over the Internet. Transcription recordings of many pre-television shows have been preserved. They are collected, re-recorded onto audio CDs and/or MP3 files and traded by hobbyists today as old-time radio programs. Meanwhile, veterans such as the late Yuri Rasovsky (The National Radio Theater of Chicago) and Thomas Lopez (ZBS Foundation) have gained new listeners on cassettes, CDs and downloads. In the mid-1980s, the nonprofit L.A. Theatre Works launched its radio series recorded before live audiences. Productions have been broadcast via public radio, while also being marketed on compact discs and via download. Carl Amari's nationally syndicated radio series "Hollywood 360" features four old-time radio shows during his four-hour weekly broadcasts. Amari also broadcasts old-time radio shows on "The WGN Radio Theatre" heard every Saturday night beginning at 10 pm on 720-WGN in Chicago.


title: Radio drama

text: In addition to traditional radio broadcasters, modern radio drama (also known as audio theater, or audio drama), has experienced a revival, with a growing number of independent producers who are able to build an audience through Internet distribution. While there are few academic programs in the United States that offer training in radio drama production, organizations such as the National Audio Theatre Festival teach the craft to new producers.


title: Radio drama

text: The digital age has also resulted in recording styles that differ from the studio recordings of radio drama's Golden Age. "Not from Space" (2003) on XM Satellite Radio was the first national radio play recorded exclusively through the Internet in which the voice actors were all in separate locations. Other producers use portable recording equipment to record actors on location rather than in studios.


title: Radio drama

text: Podcasts are a growing distribution format for independent radio drama producers. Podcasts provides an alternative to mainstream television and radio which does not necessarily require a pitching process to be made and distributed (as these aspects of production can be learned by the creator) and which have no restrictions regarding programme length or content.


title: Radio drama

text: In Australia, as in most other developed countries, from the early years of the medium almost every radio network and station featured drama, serials, and soap operas as staples of their programming; during the so-called "Golden Years" of radio these were hugely popular. Many Australian serials and "soapies" were copies of American originals (e.g., the popular soap "Portia Faces Life" or the adventure series "Superman", which featured future Australian TV star Leonard Teale in the title role), although these were typically locally produced and performed live to air, since the technology of the time did not permit high-quality pre-recording or duplication of programs for import or export.


title: Radio drama

text: In this period radio drama, serials and soap operas provided a fertile training ground and a steady source of employment for many actors, and this was particularly important because at this time the Australian theatre scene was in its infancy and opportunities were very limited. Many who trained in this medium (such as Peter Finch) subsequently became prominent both in Australia and overseas.


title: Radio drama

text: It has been noted that the producers of the popular 1960s Gerry Anderson TV series "Thunderbirds" were greatly impressed by the versatility of UK-based Australian actor Ray Barrett, who voiced many roles in Anderson's TV productions. Thanks to his early experience on Australian live radio (where he often played English and American roles), Barrett was considered better than his English counterparts at providing a convincing Mid-Atlantic English ("transatlantic") accent, and he could perform a wide range of character voices; he also impressed the Anderson team with his ability to quickly and easily switch from one voice/accent to another without the sound engineers' having to stop the recording.


title: Radio drama

text: The effect of the introduction of television there in the late 1950s had the same devastating effects as it did in the US and many other markets, and by the early 1960s Australian commercial radio had totally abandoned radio drama and related programming (including comedy, soapies, and variety) in favour of music-based formats (such as Top 40) or talk radio ("talkback"), and the once-flourishing Australia radio production industry vanished within a few years. One of the few companies to survive was the Melbourne-based Crawford Productions, which was able to make the successful transition into TV production.


title: Radio drama

text: Despite the complete abandonment of drama and related programming by the commercial radio sector, the government-funded Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC) maintained a long history of producing radio drama. One of its most famous and popular series was the daily 15-minute afternoon soap opera "Blue Hills", which was written for its entire production history by dramatist Gwen Meredith. It featured many well-known Australian actresses and actors, ran continuously for 27 years, from 28 February 1949 to 30 September 1976, with a total of 5,795 episodes broadcast, and was at one time the world's longest-running radio serial. It was preceded by an earlier Meredith serial "The Lawsons", which featured many of the same themes and characters and itself ran for 1299 episodes.


title: Radio drama

text: In the 1960s and later, the ABC continued to produce many original Australian radio dramas as well as works adapted from other media. In recent years original radio dramas and adapted works were commissioned from local dramatists and produced for the ABC's Radio National network program "Airplay", which ran from the late 1990s until early 2013. In late 2012 ABC management imposed budget cuts and axed a number of long-running arts programs, thereby ending the national broadcaster's decades-long history of producing radio drama (as well as its equally long history of providing daily serialised book readings).


title: Radio drama

text: Since around the early sixties the Cyprus Broadcasting Corporation (RIK) features radio plays in the Cypriot Greek dialect. They are called Cypriot (radio drama) sketches and they are mainly about Cyprus's rural life, traditions and customs, its history and its culture.


title: Radio drama

text: The works are written by established writers, but also from new writers through the Writing Contest of Cypriot Sketches issued annually by CyBC (RIK)


title: Radio drama

text: The first German radio drama was produced in 1923. Because of the external circumstances in postwar Germany in which most of the theaters were destroyed, radio drama boomed. Between 1945 and 1960 there were more than 500 radio plays every year. The German word for radio drama or audio play is . Today Germany is a major market for radio plays worldwide. In particular, audio plays on CD are very popular. A popular audio play serial of Germany and of the world is " ("Three Investigators").


title: Radio drama

text: Vividh Bharati, a service of All India Radio, has a long running Hindi radio-drama program: "Hawa Mahal".


title: Radio drama

text: Radio dramas began in Japan in 1925, and enjoyed a great level of popularity after the hit of "Tankou no Naka". This resulted in the NHK hiring famous writers to write radio drama scripts for 500 yen, which in 1930 was equivalent to 1 million yen in the present day.


title: Radio drama

text: Due to voice acting in Japan having its own distinct culture, audio dramas continue to be popular in Japan, where they are now primarily released on disc as "drama CDs" (). They are also referred to in Japanese as "voice dramas" (). Many such audio dramas are based on anime, manga, novels and video games, but there are also many that are completely original. Though most drama CDs are commercial products made by corporate entities, there has been a growing number of "doujin" audio dramas in recent years due to it being easier for hobbyists to obtain the equipment required to make recordings, and the Internet making distribution easier.


title: Radio drama

text: In Poland, radio dramas are sometimes called "the theater of the imagination" (). The first Polish radio drama, "Warszawianka" based on Stanisław Wyspiański's play, was produced in 1925 while the first radio drama written for radio was produced in 1929. Polish Radio has been successfully producing radio dramas since then – between 1925 and September 1939, over 2,500 were made. In 1956, Polish Radio started broadcasting "Matysiakowie", which is currently one of the longest-running radio plays in the world. Audio plays based on literature are also popular in Poland, this is how the sound adaptations of George R. R. Martin's "A Game of Thrones", Mario Puzo's "The Godfather", Ken Follett's "The Pillars of the Earth" or Robert Kirkman's "The Walking Dead" were created. Since 1988, the Polish Radio Theater has awarded the "" awards to actors and authors of radio dramas.


title: Radio drama

text: A low power radio station "M.C.O.K. Radio 2" (formally Pira FM) introduces a new programming block called "M.C.O.K. Television" – aims to replace the regular evening music programmes. The programming block is composed of British radio dramas and an Audio-Described version of British TV programmes such as "Doctor Who", "EastEnders" and "Horrible Histories".


title: Radio drama

text: Since 1 November 2021, Radio dramas were scrapped and replaced with more (Audio-Described) programmes – "All At Sea", "Dad's Army", "Mrs. Brown's Boys" and "The Outlaw". The radio station broadcasts on 87.2 MHz every evening / late night. Due to the nature of low-power VHF propagation, the coverage is very limited, the radio station can be heard only in Lat Luang (Bangkok / Samut Prakan area).


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation) are full-size automobiles produced by Chevrolet for the 1965 through 1970 model years. The 1965 Impala was all new, while the 1967 and 1969 models featured new bodies on the same redesigned perimeter frame introduced on the 1965 models. All Impalas of this generation received annual facelifts as well, distinguishing each model year. Throughout the early 1960s, Chevrolet's basic body designs became increasingly subtle, while the bright trim that was part of the Impala package added more than a touch of luxury to the look. The same pattern was followed in the interiors, where the best materials and equipment Chevrolet had to offer were displayed. In short, the Impala was on its way to becoming a kind of junior-grade Cadillac, which, for both the company and its customers, was just fine.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: Totally redesigned in 1965, the Impala set an all-time industry annual sales record of more than 1 million units in the U.S.; which has never been bettered. The new full-size Chevrolets featured dramatically rounded sides, and an all-new front end with new hood contours, curved, frameless side glass (for pillarless models), and sharper angled windshield with newly reshaped vent windows. Sport Coupes wore a sleek semi-fastback roofline, and wheel well moldings were revised. Chevrolet promoted the cars' Wide-Stance design, adhesively bonded windshield, and improved full-coil suspension. A two-tone instrument panel put gauges in a recessed area ahead of the driver. The "X" frame was dropped for a new Girder-Guard full-width perimeter frame which reduced the size of the inside driveline tunnel and redesigned suspension. Two-range Powerglide, as well as Synchro-Mesh 3- and 4-speed manual transmissions were available. The Turbo Hydra-Matic automatic transmission was offered for the first time. As with previous years, Impalas featured more chrome trim inside and out, with pleated tufted upholstery and door panels plus simulated walnut trim on the lower instrument panel.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: Engine choices included the inline six-cylinder as well as the famous Chevrolet small-block and big-block V8s. Automatic transmission buyers were given the option of the newly introduced three-range Turbo Hydra-Matic for the newly introduced Mark IV big-block engine, displacing 396 cubic inches. The old "W" engine was discontinued early in the 1965 model year, so early-production '65s got the 409, available only in four-barrel 340 and 400 horsepower options. The new 396 Turbo Jet V8 was the first General Motors engine to receive the Rochester Quadra-Jet four-barrel carburetor that would become a mainstay until the early 1980s. The new 396 was available as a 325-horsepower version with 10.25 to 1 compression ratio and hydraulic lifters or a high-performance version with 11 to 1 compression ratio, solid lifters and 425 horsepower.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: For $200, an Impala four-door Sport Sedan could be transformed into an Impala Caprice establishing a name destined for decades of life. Referenced as Regular Production Option Z18, the Caprice option group included a black-out grille, vinyl top with Fleur de lis emblems, unique wheel covers, and narrow sill moldings. The new interiors were the most luxurious ever seen in a Chevrolet, and an array of comfort/convenience features. Specially stitched cloth door panels were accented with simulated walnut, and contour-padded seats wore a combination of fabric and vinyl. All of this aimed to give Chevrolet buyers a "one-of-a-kind" taste of Cadillac's look and ride. Its sales success prompted Chevrolet to make the V8-only Caprice a full series for 1966.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1966 Impala received only a minor facelift from its predecessor that included a revised horizontal bar grille up front and new triple rectangular taillights that replaced the triple round lights used on full-sized Chevrolets each year since 1958 with the exception of 1959, and chrome beltline strips were added in response to complaints about parking lot door dings on the clean-lined '65 models.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The standard column-shift three-speed manual was now full synchronized, and a new 250-cubic-inch six-cylinder engine replaced the previous 230-cubic-inch six while the 195-horsepower 283-cubic-inch Turbo Fire V-8 remained the base V-8 engine. Optional engines included a 275-horsepower 327-cubic-inch Turbo Fire V-8, the 396-cubic-inch Turbo-Jet V-8 rated at 325 horsepower, or two new 427-cubic-inch Turbo Jet V8s of 390 horsepower with 10.5 to 1 compression ratio and hydraulic lifters or the high performance version rated at 425 horsepower with 11 to 1 compression ratio and solid lifters. A four-speed manual transmission was offered with all V8 engines. The two-speed Powerglide was exclusively offered with the six-cylinder engine as well as the 283 and 327-cubic-inch Turbo Fire V8s. The three-speed Turbo Hydramatic was limited to the 396 and 390-horsepower version of the 427 V-8.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1967 Chevrolet full-size was redesigned with enhanced Coke bottle styling. Dimensions remained roughly the same, still on a 119-inch wheelbase, four inches longer than the mid-size Chevrolet Chevelle. Impala Sport Coupes had a graceful fastback roof line, which flowed in an unbroken line into the rear deck. In keeping with federal regulations, safety features were built into Impalas during the 1967 and 1968 model years, including a fully collapsible energy-absorbing steering column, side marker lights, and shoulder belts for closed models.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: Most engine offerings were carryover from 1966 including the base 250 cubic-inch Turbo Thrift 6 (155 horsepower) and 283 cubic-inch Turbo Fire V-8 (195 horsepower), and optional 275-horsepower 327 cubic-inch Turbo Fire V-8 and 325-horsepower 396 cubic-inch Turbo Jet V-8, with a 385-horsepower 427 cubic-inch Turbo Jet V-8 now the top offering as the high-performance 425-horsepower version of the 427 offered in 1966 was not listed in the 1967 specifications. The two-speed Powerglide automatic was the only shiftless transmission offered with the 250 6 and 283 V-8, but the three-speed Turbo Hydramatic was now available with the 327 V-8 along with the big-block 396 and 427 V-8s.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: New options for 1967 included front-disc brakes (standard with the SS-427 option), stereo 8-track player, fiber optic light monitoring system and vacuum power door locks.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: Cloth-and-vinyl upholstery was standard in most closed body styles, but all-vinyl upholstery was a new option at extra-cost in several colors on "all" sedan and coupe body styles (heretofore all-vinyl trim was offered as an option on the Sport Coupe and Sport Sedan hardtop body styles in "black" only since 1963), and remained standard equipment on convertible and station wagon models, again in several colors. All Impala models for 1967 also featured upgraded door panels with carpeting on the lower section.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: A black four-door version of this vehicle, nicknamed "Baby," is featured in the CW television show "Supernatural".


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1968 model's front end received a facelift similar to the 1965 model, while rear bumpers held triple "horseshoe" shaped taillights. The formal Custom Coupe, previously a Caprice exclusive, became available as an Impala. Most Chevrolets got hidden windshield wipers. Plush new interiors also helped attract buyers. Impala overwhelmed the sales charts, as it had for years. Full-sized cars could have a 250-cubic-inch six, a 307-cubic-inch V-8, either of a pair of 327s of 250 or 275 horsepower, or a 325-horsepower 396-cubic-inch V-8. Topping the list was the big 427, rated at 385 or 425 horsepower. The two-speed Powerglide automatic transmission was still available with the 250 six-cylinder and 307 or 327 V-8s, but the three-speed Turbo Hydramatic could be ordered with all V-8 engines on the Impala Sport Sedan and Custom coupe.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: "Astro Ventilation" was an option for the Custom Coupe that included fresh-air vents, the same units that were used for the optional air conditioning, "sans" the center upper vent. Cars equipped with this option got full-length door glass minus the vent windows.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1969 Impala and other full-sized Chevrolets were restyled with crisper body lines and front bumpers that wrapped around the grille and ventless front windows were new on all models. The 119-inch (3,023 mm) wheelbase, inner body shell and framework were carried over from the 1965 model – along with the roof lines of pillared four-door sedans and station wagons. The station wagon was renamed the Kingswood - reverting to a pre-1962 Chevrolet practice of using different nameplates on wagons than other models.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: Inside, front seat headrests were now standard equipment due to a federal safety mandate and the ignition switch moved from the dashboard to the steering column and doubled as a lock for the steering wheel when the key was removed, a Federal mandate that took effect with the 1970 models but introduced a year earlier on all General Motors cars. The instrument panel was restyled and highlighted by a new steering wheel.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1969 Impala also offered a new GM-designed variable-ratio power steering unit as optional equipment along with a seldom-ordered "Liquid Tire Chain" option, which was a vacuum activated button that would spray ice melt on the rear tires (UPC option code is "V75"). The standard engine was enlarged to a 235 hp (175 kW) 327 cubic-inch V8 with optional engine choices including a new 350 cubic-inch Turbo Fire V8 rated at 255 and 300 hp (220 kW), a 265 hp (198 kW) 396 cubic-inch Turbo Jet V8, and 427 cubic-inch Turbo Jet V8s rated at 335 and 390 hp (291 kW). The L72 425 horse power engine was available in all B-Bodies. All V8 engines were now available with the three-speed Turbo Hydramatic transmission for the first time though the two-speed Powerglide was still offered with the 327 and 350 V8s.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: During the 1969 model year Impala production, including Kingswood wagons totaled 777,000 units, compared to 166,000 Caprices and Kingswood Estate wagons, 68,700 Biscaynes and Brookwood wagons, and 155,700 Bel Airs and Townsman wagons. Impala totals for 1969 included 768,000 produced with V-8 engines and 8,700 with six-cylinders.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1970 Impala got a minor facelift featuring a more conventional bumper under the grill replacing the wrap-around unit used in 1969 and new triple vertical taillights. Fiberglass-belted tires on 15-inch (380 mm) wheels were made standard equipment along with a larger standard 250 hp (186 kW) 350 cubic-inch Turbo Fire V8, on most models (the 250 cubic-inch six-cylinder engine was now only offered on the 1970 Impala four-door sedan as well that year's lower-line Biscayne and Bel Air four-door sedans). Optional V8s included a 300 hp (220 kW) 350 and a new 265 hp (198 kW) 400 cubic-inch Turbo Fire V8 (not to be confused with Chevrolet's Turbo Jet big-block 402 V8 (essentially a bored out 396) offered on that year's Chevelles and Monte Carlos). At the top of the engine roster, the big block 427 was replaced by a new, longer stroke, 454 cubic-inch Turbo Jet V8 offered in power ratings of 345 hp (257 kW) and 390 hp (290 kW). The 155-horsepower Turbo Thrift six-cylinder, and 250- and 265 hp (198 kW) Turbo Fire engines were designed to use regular gasoline while the 300 hp (220 kW) 350 Turbo Fire and both 454 Turbo Jet engines required premium fuel.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: A three-speed manual transmission with column shift was standard equipment as in previous years but the floor-mounted four-speed manual with Hurst shifter was dropped from the option list for 1970 as were the Strato bucket seats and center console previously offered on coupes. Automatic transmission options included the two-speed Powerglide on 250 6s and 350 V8s, and three-speed Turbo Hydramatic was available with all engines. Power front disc brakes were standard on the Impala Custom coupe and optional on all other models.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1970 Impala was one of three remaining Chevrolet convertibles, with only 9,562 were built. Interest in all size rag tops had dwindled. So was the fascination with large sporty cars, prompting abandonment of the Impala Super Sport. Output of full-sized Chevrolets dropped sharply for the 1970 calendar year, below the million mark, partly as a result of a 65-day strike in the fall of 1970 - but that strike affected the production of early 1971 models. Impala sales, as expected, ranked far above other big Chevrolets with 612,800 Impalas built (6,500 six-cylinder and 606,300 V-8s) compared to 92,000 Caprices, 75,800 Bel Airs and 35,400 Biscaynes, plus another 162,000 station wagons for all series.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: Right Hand Drive cars were manufactured in Canada for export to some countries such as Australia, UK, etc., until 1969. They used a version of the 1965 Impala dash panel until 1969. Australian models were assembled in Australia from kits as this lessened tax on the cars. A similar arrangement applied in New Zealand although the bodies were supplied from Canada already welded, painted and trimmed.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: 1965 Super Sport exteriors differed only slightly from regular Impalas. Rocker panel trim was deleted. "Super Sport" scripts replaced the "Impala" fender badges. The new center console housed a rally-type electric clock, and full instrumentation now included a vacuum gauge. A total of 243,114 Impala SS coupes and convertibles were built for 1965.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1966 Impala SS was facelifted with a revised grille and new rectangular taillights that replaced the triple round units. A chrome beltline strip shared with regular Impalas was added in response to complaints about door dings on the clean-lined 1965s. Inside were new "Strato-bucket" front seats with thinner and higher seat backs, and a center console with an optional gauge package available. Sales of the 1966 Impala SS dropped by more than 50% to around 117,000 units; this was mainly due to the sport/performance car market switching from full-sized models to intermediates (including Chevrolet's own Chevelle SS396 and Pontiac GTO), along with the emerging market for the even smaller pony car market created by the Ford Mustang in 1964 that Chevrolet would respond to with the Camaro for 1967.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1967 Impala SS was less decorated than other Impalas; Super Sports had black grille accents and black-accented body-side and rear fender moldings. Lesser models leaned more toward brightwork inside and out. Buyers could choose either vinyl bucket seats with a center console, or a Strato-Bench seat with a fold-down center armrest. Standard wheel covers were the same as the optional full covers on other big Chevrolets, but the centers featured the "SS" logo surrounded by tri-color ring of red, white and blue. "Chevrolet" and "Impala" callouts on the body were all replaced by "Impala SS" badges. Of the 76,055 Impala SS models built, just 2,124 were ordered with RPO Z24, a special performance package that included RPO F41 heavy-duty suspension and other performance features, RPO L36 () Turbo-Jet V8, as well as a special trim package that replaced the "Impala SS" badges with large "SS427" emblems on the front grille and rear trim. None of these cars had the name "Impala" anywhere on the body or interior, and Chevrolet often marketed them as the "Chevrolet SS427," "sans" the "Impala" name. The Z24 package also included a special hood with fake chrome-plated intake. Only about 400 Super Sports had a six-cylinder engine from 1967 to 1968, in 1969, or L72 () from 1968 to 1969. Special SS427 badging, inside and out, was the rule, but few were sold, since muscle car enthusiasts were seeking big-block intermediates, such as the Chevelle SS396 and Plymouth Road Runner.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: In 1968 as Caprice sales escalated, those of the Impala Super Sport suffered a decline. Much of this drop in sales was no doubt due to the availability of big-block engines in the mid-sized (and lighter) Chevelle, and even Novas could be special-ordered with the 396 engine with the new-for-1968 body. No longer a separate series, the Super Sport was a mere $179 option package (Regular Production Option Z03) for the two Impala coupes and the convertible. Only 38,210 Impalas were so-equipped, including 1,778 with the Z24 package, which was carried over from 1967. In 1968 only, SS427s could be ordered without the Z03 SS package, which meant SS427 equipment but no bucket seats, SS door panels, or center console. The Z03 Impala SS could be identified by "Impala Super Sport" badges on the front grille, rear fenders and trunk lid. Z24-optioned cars included "SS427" emblems to replace the "Impala Super Sport" badges, a special layered "pancake" hood, and three "gills" mounted on the front fender aft of the wheel well "à la" Corvette Stingray.


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: In 1969, the Impala SS was available only as the Z24 (SS427), coming exclusively with a V8 of , , or . This was the final year for the Impala SS until 1994. Unlike the previous two years, the 1969s finally got "Impala" script on the front fenders and interior. The 1969 Impala SS had no distinctive SS badging inside the car except for an "SS" logo the steering wheel (again, there was no Z03 offered that year). Like the 1968s, the Z24 could be ordered on the Impala convertible, Sport Coupe, or Custom Coupe. 1969 was the last year that the Impala SS was offered with the Z24 package, but the only year in which front disc brakes and wheels were standard; that made the 1969 SS427 mechanically better than the previous versions in standard form. Although sales of 1969 Z24-optioned Impalas increased to approximately 2,455 units from the 1,778 Z03-optioned units of 1968, and high-powered big-block V8 engines continued to be available, there would be no Impala SS for 1970. The 427 was also replaced on the engine offerings list by a new Turbo-Jet 454 producing


title: Chevrolet Impala (fourth generation)

text: The 1965–1970 GM B platform is the fourth best selling automobile platform in history after the Volkswagen Beetle, Ford Model T and the Lada Riva.


title: Hatayspor

text: Hatayspor Kulübü, known as Atakaş Hatayspor due to sponsorship reasons, is a Turkish professional football club located in Antakya, Hatay Province.


title: Hatayspor

text: Hatayspor was founded on 23 July 1967. In July 2020, the team achieved promotion to the Süper Lig as champions of the 2019–20 TFF First League.


title: Hatayspor

text: In January 2022, the club launched a partnership with Philippines Football League club Dynamic Herb Cebu.


title: Hatayspor

text: The team which Hatayspor most played against is Tarsus İdman Yurdu. So far, there have been 43 games between the teams. Hatayspor won 17 of 43, Tarsus Idman Yurdu won 15 of 43, and 11 games ended with draw.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: The Battle of Medina Ridge was a tank battle fought on the 27 February 1991, during the Gulf War, between the U.S. 1st Armored Division and the 2nd Brigade of the Iraqi Republican Guard Medina Luminous Division outside Basra, Iraq. The U.S. 3rd Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division was also a major contributor, by leading the attack. Iraq's Adnan Motorized Division was also a participant. Medina Ridge is the name American troops gave to a low rise, approximately long.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: The battle, which was waged over approximately two hours, was considered by some sources the largest tank battle of the war. It took place west of Phase Line Kiwi, east of Phase Line Smash, and north of Phase Line Grape. Phase lines are map references occurring every few kilometers used to measure progress of an offensive operation.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: The 1st Armored Division, commanded by Major General Ron Griffith, consisted of some 3,000 vehicles including 348 M1A1 Abrams tanks. The 1st Armored Division's Cavalry Squadron—1-1 Cavalry—made contact with the Medina Division and informed the Division Commander of the location of the enemy forces. 1st Armored Division's 2nd Brigade (comprising three battalions TF 4-70th Armor, TF 2-70th Armor and TF 1-35th Armor) saw major action in this battle and was commanded by Colonel Montgomery Meigs (a descendant of General Montgomery C. Meigs of Civil War fame) 3rd Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division, commanded by Colonel James Riley replaced 1st Armored Division's 1st Brigade for the duration of the war and was also heavily involved in the battle.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: Medina Ridge was one of the few battles during Desert Storm in which American forces encountered significant Iraqi resistance and found it extremely difficult to advance. The Iraqi forces were well-deployed such that they could not be seen by American forces advancing until after they had cleared the top of the ridgeline. This reverse slope position was intended to give the Iraqis protection from the powerful long-range direct fire of the M1 Abrams tanks and the M2 Bradley infantry fighting vehicles.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: During the battle the American forces destroyed 186 Iraqi tanks (mostly T-72Ms, Asad Babils and obsolete Type 69s) and 127 armored vehicles. Only four Abrams tanks were hit by direct fire. Evidence suggests that some of them were hit by Iraqi T-72 fire. Ballistics reports have further confirmed this as well as physical evidence such as obvious sabot holes. Out of the four Abrams that were struck, one was a catastrophic loss, while the other three had been disabled, but could be repaired. Thirty-eight of the Iraqi tanks were destroyed by U.S. Army AH-64 Apaches and U.S. Air Force A-10 Thunderbolt IIs. The 75th Field Artillery Brigade and Battery B, 25th Field Artillery, the division's target acquisition battery, conducted counter-artillery fire missions and destroyed two Medina Field Artillery battalions in the process. The 2nd Battalion, 1st Field Artillery Regiment also eventually participated in these counter-battery missions.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: On 25 February, the 3rd Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division conducted a 113 km movement to contact and destroy elements of the 26th Infantry Division resulting in the capture of 299 Prisoners of War. On February 26, the 3rd Brigade was ordered to attack east to gain contact with and destroy the Iraqi Republican Guard Forces Command in zone. The 3rd Brigade began an aggressive and continuous movement to contact which covered 74 km in 12 hours, while fighting multiple engagements throughout the day and night with elements of the 52nd Armored Division, 17th, Adnan, and Tawakalna Divisions. During one engagement with the Tawakalna Division the Brigade destroyed 27 Soviet export model T-72 tanks which had established a hasty defense to cover the Iraqi forces withdrawing from the Kuwaiti Theater of Operation.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: As the heaviest Armor Brigade, consisting of the 6th Battalion, 6th Infantry; the 1st Battalion, 35th Armor; the 2nd Battalion, 70th Armor; the 4th Battalion, 70th Armor; the 2nd Battalion, 1st Field Artillery and the 47th Support Battalion (Forward), the 2nd Brigade, 1st Armored Division acted as the lead brigade during combat operations. On 27 February, the 2nd Brigade was fully engaged with the Medina's 2nd Brigade and, in the largest single engagement of the war, destroyed 61 Iraqi T-72/T-55 tanks, 34 APCs and five SA-13 air defense systems in less than one hour.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: On 27 February, the 3rd Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division was ordered to transition to pursuit operations to establish contact with and destroy the RGFC forces in zone. As the Brigade attacked and fought through the Adnan Division, securing a RGFC major logistics base, it captured 465 POWs and made contact with the Medina Armored Division, which was augmented by elements of four other Iraqi divisions. A fierce battle ensued culminating in the destruction of 82 tanks, 31 Armored Personnel Carriers, 11 artillery pieces, 48 trucks, 3 AAA guns and captured 72 POWs for the loss of 2 Bradley Cavalry vehicles, 1 soldier killed, and 30 soldiers wounded. The American soldier killed was Specialist Clarence A.(“Johnny”) Cash, a scout assigned to 4th Battalion, 66th Armor Regiment, 3rd Infantry Division.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: While conducting offensive operations against the Iraqi Republican Guard Forces Command. The 3rd Brigade, 1st Armored Division fought on the Division's right flank as it led the VII Corps main attack against the RGFC. Completing the destruction of the RGFC Brigade, the 3rd Brigade rejoined the Division transitioned to pursuit operations and continued its attack eastward. Executing an aggressive and continuous movement, the 3rd Brigade fought numerous engagements. The Brigade made contact with a tank battalion defending the western flank of a RGFC's major logistics base. The 3rd Brigade, 1st Armored Division raced eastward at a rate of 15 kilometers per hour. In 24 hours of nearly continuous combat, the 3rd Brigade destroyed or captured 547 vehicles, including 102 tanks, 81 armored personnel carriers, 34 artillery pieces, 15 AAA guns and captured hundreds of tons of supplies and 528 POWs. The 3rd Brigade completed this exemplary action without the loss of a single soldier or vehicle and only three soldiers WIA.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: 1st Armored Division's aviation assets conducted thirty-nine straight hours of continuous combat operations, rotating companies into and out of the battle prior to and after the actions at Medina Ridge. Attack helicopters maintained a steady destructive presence in front of the Division, engaging targets of opportunity and rapidly shifting their focus and combat power as the scenario required. The Brigade's final battle commenced when the Division raced to clear its zone of advance to the Kuwaiti border prior to the impending cease-fire.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: Although the Iraqis used a correct defensive tactic by deploying their armor behind the ridge, this was not properly repeated through the rest of the war. In one incident, an Iraqi commander attempted to repeat what had been done at Medina but mistakenly deployed his armor too far from the ridgeline. This gave the American units the upper hand, as the Abrams tanks specialize in long-distance kills; their Chobham armor is extremely resistant to long-range fire. The American height advantage also reduced the effective range of the Iraqi tanks and presented the Iraqi gunners with a targeting situation for which they were under-trained.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: Nevertheless, the Iraqis had fought hard, shooting down an A-10 Thunderbolt II, and two AH-64 Apache helicopters.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: Most of the units belonging to the 1st Armored Division and the 3rd Brigade, 3rd Infantry Division were awarded Valorous Unit Award Citations.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: In early April 1991, Colonel Montgomery Meigs, the commander of the 2nd Brigade of the 1st Armored Division, paid his respects to his former enemy's Medina Division reporting that, ""These guys stayed and fought."" The same newspaper articles notes that, ""The Americans had more than 100 battle tanks on hand, about the same as the total number of tanks in the Iraqi force. But the Americans had some noteworthy advantages over the Iraqis like attack helicopters and A-10 anti-tanks planes. The Iraqis had no support aircraft.""


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: In a short six-month period during 1990 and 1991, the 1st Battalion, 37th Armor, was alerted for deployment to Operation Desert Shield/Desert Storm, deployed all of its personnel and equipment over from an already forward deployed location, fought a major battle against a well equipped enemy over terrain they had never trained on and then redeployed the unit to its home station.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: The 1st Battalion 37th Armor (1st Armored Division) from Rose Barracks, Vilseck, Germany, commanded by LTC Edward L. Dyer, was alerted for deployment to the Persian Gulf on 8 November 1990. 1–37 Armor was the first brigade unit from Vilseck to deploy. 1–37 Armor was attached to the 3rd "Bulldog" Brigade from Warner Barracks in Bamberg, Germany, under their former commander, Colonel Daniel Zannini. A small advance party deployed on 14 December and the main body began departing on 26 December. By 30 December, the battalion had arrived in Saudi Arabia. Vehicles and equipment which had been shipped from ports in Europe began to arrive on 4 January and by 12 January all the equipment had arrived. When hostilities commenced on 15 January 1991, the battalion was in the process of closing the last elements into TAA Thompson. The next month was spent task organizing, training, rehearsing, and preparing for the ground war.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: On 24 February, Task Force 1–37 crossed the line of departure as part of VII Corps' attack against Iraqi forces. On 25 February, the battalion attacked and seized the division headquarters of the Iraqi 26th Infantry Division destroying four armored vehicles, eight air defense weapons and captured over forty Enemy Prisoners of War (EPW). After attacking all day on 26 February, TF 1–37, part of 3rd Brigade, 1st Armored Division, made contact with a brigade of the Tawakalna Armored Division of the Republican Guard Forces Command (RGFC) which had established a defensive position to protect the flank of the RGFC and facilitate their escape from Kuwait. After a thirty-minute fire fight, TF 1–37 was ordered to assault the enemy position. The assault, conducted at night, in driving rain, resulted in the destruction of twenty-six T-72 tanks, 47 armored personnel carriers (mostly BMP's) and a handful of other vehicles, as well as the capture of over one hundred EPWs. TF 1–37 suffered the loss of four M1A1 tanks destroyed and six personnel wounded in action. After consolidation and reorganization, the task force continued the attack throughout the night of 26–27 February, reestablishing contact with the RGFC at approximately 0530, 27 February. The task force continued to attack, fighting numerous engagements with elements of multiple Iraqi divisions throughout the 27th and into the morning of the 28 February. At 0800 local time, 28 February, the task force established a hasty defensive position astride the Iraq-Kuwait border. During the last 28 hours of the attack, TF 1–37 destroyed an additional thirty-one tanks, thirty-one BMPs, numerous other APCs, air defense weapons and trucks, and captured over 200 EPWs.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: Four days after the cease fire, TF 1–37 moved further into Kuwait. Two missions were conducted to destroy additional enemy weapons, ammunition and equipment, bury enemy remains, and to recover the four M1A1's which had been destroyed on 26 February.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: On 24 March, TF 1–37 moved back into Iraq and established a defensive position in the vicinity of the Rumayilah oil fields. For the next three weeks, task force missions centered on refugee assistance and security operations. On 10 April, TF 1–37 began movement to the Rear Assembly Area (RAA) in the vicinity of King Khalid Military City (KKMC), Saudi Arabia. By 13 April, the task force had closed into the RAA and preparations began for the redeployment of the unit to Germany.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: On 16 August 1991 the 1st Brigade, 1st Armored Division was re-designated as the 3d Brigade, 3d Infantry Division.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 2nd Brigade, 1st Armored Division distinguished itself by gallantry in action from 26 to 28 February 1991, while conducting offensive operations against the Iraqi Republican Guard Forces Command during operation DESERT STORM. As the heaviest Armor Brigade, consisting of the 6th Battalion, 6th Infantry; the 1st Battalion, 35th Armor; the 2nd Battalion, 70th Armor; the 4th Battalion, 70th Armor; the 2nd Battalion, 1st Field Artillery and the 47th Support Battalion (Forward), the 2nd Brigade led the first Division in the largest tank battle against the Republican Guard Forces Command. Throughout the entire operation, the 2nd Brigade, 1st Armored Division, demonstrated tenacity, esprit de corps, and courageous professionalism. The actions of the 2nd Brigade, 1st Armored Division were in keeping with the highest traditions of military service and reflect great credit upon themselves and the United States Army.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: Headquarters and Headquarters 3rd Brigade, 1st Armored division distinguished itself by gallantry in action from 24 to 28 February 1991, while conducting offensive operations against the Iraqi republican Guard Forces Command (RGFC) during Operation DESERT STORM. The Brigade fought on the Division's right flank as it led the VII Corps main attack against the RGFC. Completing the destruction of the RGFC Brigade, the 3rd Brigade rejoined the Division transitioned to pursuit operations and continued its attack eastward. Executing an aggressive and continuous movement, the 3rd Brigade fought numerous engagements. The Brigade made contact with a tank battalion defending the western flank of a RGFC's major logistics base. Attacking with all three Battalions on line, the enemy vaporized in front of the Brigade, ten armored vehicles destroyed in the first minute of the battle. The Brigade's relentless attack continued throughout the day and into the night as it raced eastward at a rate of 15 kilometers per hour. In 24 hours of nearly continuous combat, the Brigade destroyed or captured 547 vehicles, including 102 tanks, 81 armored personnel carriers, 34 artillery pieces, 15 AAA guns and captured hundreds of tons of supplies and 528 EPWs. The Brigade completed this exemplary action without the loss of a single soldier or vehicle and only three WIAs. Through their demonstrated courage, tenacity, esprit de corps and professionalism, Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 3rd Brigade, 1st Armored Division actions reflect great credit upon themselves and the United States Army.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: For exceptionally meritorious service as the Advanced Guard Brigade of the 1st Armored Division during offensive operations against the Iraqi Republican Guard Forces Command (RGFC) during Operation Desert Storm from 24 to 28 February 1991. As an attached Brigade consisting of 1/7th Infantry, 4/7th Infantry, 4/66th Armor, 1/1st Cavalry, 2/41st Field Artillery, 16th Engineer Battalion, and 26th Forward Support Battalion, the 3rd Brigade led the 1st Armored Division and VII Corps main attack against the RGFC. On 25 February, the Brigade conducted a 113 km movement to contact to destroy elements of the 26th Infantry Division resulting in the capture of 299 Enemy Prisoners of War (EPWs). On February 26, the Brigade was ordered to attack east to gain contact with and destroy the RGFC in zone. The 3rd Brigade began an aggressive and continuous movement to contact which covered 74 km in 12 hours, while fighting multiple engagements throughout the day and night with elements of the 52nd, 17th, Adnan, and Tawakalna Divisions. During one engagement with the Tawakalna Division the Brigade destroyed 27 Soviet T-72s which had established a hasty defense to cover the Iraqi forces withdrawing from the Kuwaiti Theater of Operation. On 27 February, the 3rd Brigade was ordered to transition to pursuit operations to establish contact with and destroy the RGFC forces in zone. As the Brigade attacked and fought through the Adnan Division, securing a RGFC major logistics base, it captured 465 EPWs and made contact with the Medina Armored Division, which was augmented by elements of four other Iraqi divisions. A fierce battle ensued culminating in the destruction of 82 tanks, 31 Armored Personnel Carriers, 11 artillery pieces, 48 trucks, 3 AAA guns and captured 72 EPWs with the loss of only 2 Bradley Cavalry vehicles, 30 WIAs and 1 KIA. Through their demonstrated tenacity, Esprit de Corps, and courageous professionalism, the units of the 3rd Phantom Brigade have brought great credit upon themselves, the 3rd Infantry Division and the United States Army.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: Headquarters and Headquarters Company, Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division distinguished itself by gallantry in action against an armed enemy during Operation DESERT STORM from 23 to 28 February 1991. The Brigade conducted combat operations to ascertain enemy dispositions along the Division's zone of advance. The Brigade's aircraft conducted continuous flight operations as the Division's movement to contact accelerated into Iraq. Time and again the attack helicopters were employed against Iraqi armored elements forward of the Division's ground forces. The Brigade conducted thirty-nine straight hours of continuous combat operations, rotating companies into and out of the battle. Because of their integration into the Division's close fight, the destruction of the Medina and Adnan Divisions was assured. Attack helicopters maintained a steady destructive presence in front of the Division, engaging targets of opportunity and rapidly shifting their focus and combat power as the scenario required. The Brigade's final battle commenced when the Division raced to clear its zone of advance to the Kuwaiti border prior to the impending cease-fire. The Brigade completed its combat operations without suffering the loss of any aircraft, vehicles or personnel. Through their expertise, tenacity, and courage, Headquarters and Headquarters Company, Aviation Brigade, 1st Armored Division actions reflect great credit upon themselves and the United States Army.


title: Battle of Medina Ridge

text: The Battle of Medina Ridge is recognized as the largest tank battle of the Gulf War by some sources. Other sources put it second behind the Battle of Norfolk.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Singaporean nationality law details the conditions by which a person holds Singapore nationality. The primary law governing nationality requirements is the Constitution of Singapore, which came into force on 9 August 1965.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Individuals born to at least one Singaporean parent are typically automatically citizens at birth, regardless of where the birth occurred. Birth in Singapore by itself does not make a child eligible for citizenship. Foreign nationals may become Singaporean citizens after completing a residence requirement (normally 10 years) and renouncing any previous nationalities. Holding another nationality concurrently is generally disallowed and there are many paths for a Singaporean citizen to lose their citizenship should they acquire another nationality.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Singapore was briefly a constituent part of Malaysia and local residents were Malaysian citizens from 1963 to 1965. Prior to this, Singapore was a colony of the British Empire and municipal citizens were British subjects. Although the country gained independence in 1965 and Singaporeans no longer hold Malaysian nor British nationality, they continue to hold favoured status in the United Kingdom; as Commonwealth citizens, Singaporeans are eligible to vote in UK elections and serve in public office there.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Modern Singapore was founded in 1819 and soon after merged with Penang and Malacca to form the Straits Settlements in 1826. After their incorporation as Crown dominions in 1858, British nationality law applied to the Straits Settlements, as was the case elsewhere in the British Empire. Singaporeans and all other imperial citizens were British subjects; any person born in Singapore, the United Kingdom, or anywhere else within Crown dominions was a natural-born British subject.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: In the rest of British Malaya outside of the Straits Settlements, local Malay rulers were given limited autonomy in exchange for accepting British suzerainty. Subjects of the rulers in the Federated Malay States and Unfederated Malay States were considered British protected persons. Although Britain held jurisdiction in all of British Malaya, domestic law treated the Malay states as foreign territory. British protected persons were treated as aliens in the United Kingdom, but both British subjects and protected persons could be issued British passports. Protected persons could not travel to the UK without first requesting permission, but were afforded the same consular protection as British subjects when travelling outside of the Empire. A person with connections both to directly governed portions of British Malaya and one of the Malay states could be a British subject and British protected person simultaneously.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Singaporean citizenship was first granted in 1957. Singapore Citizenship Ordinance 1957 which commenced on 1 November 1957 provided Singaporean citizenship to all people who were born in Singapore (except children of diplomats and enemy aliens). People who were born in the Federation of Malaya or citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies who had been resident for two years, and others who had been resident for eight years were able to register or naturalise as Singaporean citizen. When Singapore gained internal self-government in 1959, Singapore became an independent Commonwealth country for the purpose of British nationality law. From then on, Singaporean passports had the unusual nationality status of "British subject: citizen of the State of Singapore" instead of the usual "British subject: citizen of the United Kingdom and Colonies". There are treaties signed by the United Kingdom during this period specifically mention this unusual nationality status.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: In 1963, Singaporean nationality law was incorporated into the new Constitution of the State of Singapore. The constitution repealed the 1957 Ordinance, and all persons who were citizens as of 16 September 1963 by virtue of the Ordinance continued to be Singaporean citizens. All Singaporean citizens became Malaysian citizens on 16 September 1963 upon Singapore's merger with Malaysia on that date. Malaysian nationality law provided that Singaporean citizenship to continue to exist as a subnational citizenship. Singaporean citizenship continued to be legislated by the Legislative Assembly of Singapore, subject to the approval of the Parliament of Malaysia. Singaporean citizenship was inseparable from Malaysian citizenship; in other words, it was not possible to have Singaporean citizenship without having Malaysian citizenship.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Upon Singapore's secession from Malaysia on 9 August 1965, Malaysian citizenship was withdrawn from Singaporean citizens.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: The Constitution was amended in 2004 to allow female citizens and citizens by descent to transmit their citizenship to children born overseas. For this to occur, citizens by descent must satisfy certain residency requirements.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Individuals born in Singapore automatically receive Singaporean citizenship at birth if at least one parent is a Singaporean citizen, except if the father is a foreign diplomat or enemy alien and birth occurred in occupied territory. Children born overseas are Singaporean citizens by descent if either parent is a citizen otherwise than by descent. For an individual born abroad to a parent who is a citizen by descent, the parent must have lived in Singapore for two of the five years preceding the child's birth. Any child eligible for citizenship by descent must have their birth registered at a Singaporean diplomatic mission within one year of their birth. Prior to 15 May 2004, citizenship was transferrable by descent only from fathers who were citizens by birth or registration, and not mothers.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Foreigners over the age of 21 may become Singaporean citizens by naturalisation after residing in the country for at least 10 of the 12 years preceding an application for citizenship. Applicants must fulfill a basic language knowledge requirement (in English, Malay, Mandarin Chinese, or Tamil), intend to reside in Singapore permanently, renounce any previous nationalities, and swear an oath of allegiance to the state. Foreign women who marry Singaporean men are eligible for a reduced residence requirement of two years; there are no facilitated paths to citizenship for male spouses of citizens.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: The government has discretionary power to waive requirements for further residence and grant citizenship to any person who has resided in the country for at least five of the previous six years. It may also exceptionally reduce residence requirements to 12 months, though this is targeted for foreign investors and skilled migrants who can make considerable economic contributions.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Singaporean citizenship can be relinquished by making a declaration of renunciation, provided that the declarant is over age 21 and already possesses another nationality. Renunciation may be denied if an applicant actively exercises Singaporean citizenship rights or has outstanding military service obligations. It is also automatically lost when an individual voluntarily acquires a foreign citizenship in any way other than by marriage. Singaporean children with multiple nationalities are required to choose between their Singaporean and foreign statuses before the age of 22. Dual nationals who fail to make this choice are automatically stripped of their Singaporean citizenship. Former citizens cannot reacquire citizenship once it has been renounced or revoked.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Citizenship may be stripped from a person who exercises any rights derived from another nationality. This includes voting in elections or applying for passports in any jurisdiction outside Singapore. It is also lost after continuous residence overseas for more than 10 years if that citizen has not entered Singapore during that time or is not employed in public service.


title: Singaporean nationality law

text: Naturalised citizens may also be stripped of citizenship for: fraduently acquiring it, committing an act of disloyalty against the state, aiding an enemy nation with which Singapore is at war, serving in any capacity for a foreign government, being sentenced to incarceration for longer than 12 months in any jurisdiction or fined US$5,000 for any offence within five years of acquiring citizenship.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: "Wrath" is the sixteenth and final episode of the eighth season of the post-apocalyptic horror television series "The Walking Dead", which aired on AMC on April 15, 2018. It was written by Scott M. Gimple, Angela Kang and Matthew Negrete, and directed by Greg Nicotero.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: This episode marks the last regular appearance of main cast member Lennie James as Morgan Jones, who first appeared in the first season premiere episode "Days Gone Bye". The character was moved to the companion series "Fear the Walking Dead" beginning with its fourth season. It also marks the final appearance of Austin Amelio, who played Dwight from the sixth season in the episode "Always Accountable" as a recurring member of the series and the following season was promoted to the regular cast. The fate of Dwight also marked the same path of Morgan for the crossover of "Fear The Walking Dead" as he made his debut for the fifth season as part of the main cast.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: At the Hilltop, Rick and company prepare to launch their offensive against the Saviors. In the midst of events, Rick has flashbacks to a day before the apocalypse that Carl alluded to in his last letter to him, in which a young Carl was leading him down a country road. Rick goes to tend to Gracie and encounters Siddiq. Rick asks how Carl was bitten; Siddiq tells him it happened while honoring Siddiq's mother, someone Carl never knew. Later, Rick, Michonne, Daryl, and Maggie review and prepare to depart to investigate the Savior plans that had been previously delivered by Gregory on behalf of Dwight. However, they are unaware that Negan planted these as a ruse to entrap them. Meanwhile, Morgan, starts hallucinating again and nearly kills Henry before Carol stops him.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: Back at the Sanctuary, Eugene delivers and demonstrates his homemade ammo supply to Negan, and recommends that they use a firing line approach to fight Rick's army. Negan sends a decoy group of Saviors to set up a roadblock as part of the ruse to entrap Rick, while he, Gabriel, Eugene, and the rest of them set out on their real course. As they drive, Negan confesses to Gabriel that he intentionally sacrificed the roadblock group, knowing Rick will kill all of them, but that this was a necessary sacrifice as they were also armed with more false intel that would lead Rick's group into his ambush while thinking the plans from Dwight were legitimate. Gabriel, on hearing this, tries to escape the moving vehicle to warn Rick, but is caught by Eugene.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: Rick's group kills the roadblock as predicted, with Morgan killing a surrendering Savior in cold blood; Jesus later suggests that he should not kill the living so willingly. Following the map, Rick's group witnesses a massive walker horde in the distance and continue on. They end up in a large field where Negan taunts them over a PA system. Negan reveals that he has Gabriel at gunpoint, that their traitor Dwight is a prisoner, and that his people are ready to fire. He counts down from three, as a firing line of Saviors appears on the ridge line of the hill, ready to shoot down Rick's group. However, as they fire, their weapons all backfire due to Eugene's purposely faulty ammo, killing or injuring many – including Negan – and rendering the guns ineffective. As Rick's group engage in gun battle, Gabriel and Dwight overpower their captors and force Negan to flee with his baseball bat "Lucille". In the ensuing shootout, many of the Saviors are killed while the rest willingly put down their weapons and surrender.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: Concurrently, a smaller Savior convoy reaches the Hilltop. The residents all evacuate through a secret passage to the woods behind the community. Tara and Alden stay behind to slow down the Saviors, when suddenly the Saviors are hit by molotov cocktails thrown by the Oceanside community, led by Cyndie and Aaron.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: Back at the field, Rick pursues Negan to a tree where two stained glass windows hang; one of Rick's shots fractures one. Negan attacks Rick with Lucille; the two grapple until Negan gains the upper hand. He tells Rick that he wanted to kill him back when they first met, but could not do it in front of Carl. Rick says there can be another way and convinces Negan to hear him out for Carl's sake, that there could be a peaceful future for both of them. Negan seems to be listening and becomes tearful. With Negan's guard down, Rick uses a shard of broken glass to slice Negan's throat while the combined groups watch from a distance. Rick tells Siddiq to save him, much to Maggie's anguish; she wanted to see Negan dead for killing her husband, Glenn. Michonne restrains Maggie as Rick tells the gathered people that they will start a new world, living in peace, and that the walkers are the real enemies; stating that all the communities, including the Saviors, must work together in order to survive. As everyone departs, Rick falls against the tree and tearfully says to himself "My mercy prevails over my wrath" – a scene first shown in "Mercy".


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: Eventually, the survivors regroup back at their various communities. At the Hilltop, Alden tells Maggie he will stay and help build the inventions from the book given to Maggie by Georgie. The Oceanside group reintegrate and revitalize the Sanctuary. In exchange, a large amount of food and other supplies are given to Tara for the Hilltop. Dwight, whom Daryl has driven deep into the woods, profusely apologizes for his former actions but acknowledges to Daryl he deserves to die. Instead, Daryl gives him the keys to the truck and tells him to leave, but warns him to never return or he will be killed, and to go make it right and find his wife Sherry. Later, Dwight arrives at their old home and finds a recent note from Sherry. At the junkyard, Morgan stops to see Jadis and tells her that Rick has invited her to join their community and be part of a group again. Morgan says he will stay behind in the junkyard to be alone as he has decided he cannot be around people now.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: Back in her office at the Hilltop, Maggie has a private meeting with Jesus and Daryl. They believe Rick and Michonne made a mistake by keeping Negan alive and the three allude to rectifying this once Hilltop has had time to regroup and fortify. In the infirmary, Rick and Michonne explain to a recovering Negan that he will spend the rest of his life in a cell while he watches their community thrive. At Alexandria, Gabriel returns to the burnt-out remains of the church and thanks God for helping him by showing him the light. Later, Rick reads his own letter back to Carl – saying he remembers that earlier day too and thanks him for leading him to this point.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: This episode features the departure of Morgan Jones, portrayed by Lennie James, as the character was about to be incorporated into the show's companion series, "Fear the Walking Dead", where he became a regular character starting with its fourth season, which premiered immediately after the episode’s broadcast.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: According to showrunner Scott M. Gimple, the idea of having Eugene be critical to the end of the war by sabotaging the ammunition, which was not a narrative element of the comic series, had been devised before Eugene was taken by the Saviors and had not informed Josh McDermitt about it until necessary as to reflect the character's own motivations as a last-minute change of heart due to his humanity finally overcoming his instinct for self-preservation.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: It also marks the departure of Dwight, played by Austin Amelio, who first appeared in season 6 "Always Accountable", became a recurring character and in season 7 was promoted to the regular cast. There has been speculation that Dwight was going to appear in the middle of season 9. Dustin Rowles of Uproxx wrote: "Should characters from The Walking Dead and Fear the Walking Dead come upon The Commonwealth around the same time, it’s quite possible that Dwight could step right back into his The Walking Dead role, only now as a representative of Fear the Walking Dead. In this scenario, Daryl (filling the role of Rick) could be the one to pull the trigger and kill Dwight in that meeting with Governor Milton (or Georgie). However, Daryl — the guy who exiled Dwight from Alexandria — would feel much less remorse about killing Dwight than Rick does in the comics."


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: "Wrath" received mostly positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, it holds a 75% with an average rating of 6.95 out of 10, based on 28 reviews. The site's consensus reads: "Wrath" begins predictably and ends twistedly as it tidily closes out the "all-out-war" arc that's been creeping throughout "TWD" season 8, presenting a cliffhanger that goes against the grain of several lead characters and the series itself.


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: Nick Romano of "Entertainment Weekly" gave the episode a "B−" and said: "In the end, the hour comes down to only a few things: remembrance of Carl, the walk-up to the finale, the twist, and the aftermath — with the latter being saved for next season." Noel Murray of "Rolling Stone" commented on the episode: "The twist gets the story where it needs to go." Alex McLevy of "The A.V. Club" gave the episode a "B" and said: "The ending of this story means the series has a chance to do some firm rebooting next season." Matt Fowler of IGN rated the episode 7.6 out of 10 and commented: "There were a couple twists in the third act - one from the comics, that the show's been not shy about telegraphing, and the other one taking three character and having them act extremely contrary to how we know them to be."


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: Bill Keveney of "USA Today" commented on the episode: "The war, which dragged on longer than many viewers liked, turned on a surprising, satisfying plot twist." Steven Johnson of the "Chicago Tribune" commented on the episode: "All of Sunday's wrap-up material — Rick under the tree with the art glass windows hanging from it; Rick, red- and teary-eyed, intoning, "My mercy prevailed over my wrath" — packed a surprising emotional wallop." Dustin Rowles of Uproxx commented on the episode: "The season eight finale of The Walking Dead threw us all for a loop when Maggie teased her role in the future of the series."


title: Wrath (The Walking Dead)

text: The season finale received a total viewership of 7.92 million with a 3.4 rating in adults aged 18–49, which was an increase from the previous week which had 6.67 million viewers, and was the highest-rated episode since the mid-season premiere, "Honor", which had 8.28 million viewers. However, it was also the show's lowest rated season finale since season one.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Bruno Eduardo Regufe Alves (; born 27 November 1981) is a Portuguese former footballer who played as a central defender, currently sporting director of Super League Greece club AEK Athens.


title: Bruno Alves

text: He began and spent most of his professional career at Porto, where he won a total of nine titles and appeared in 171 official games. He also won trophies in Russia with Zenit Saint Petersburg, and in Turkey with Fenerbahçe.


title: Bruno Alves

text: A senior Portugal international since 2007, Alves represented the country in three World Cups, three European Championships and one Confederations Cup, winning Euro 2016 and earning 96 caps in the process.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Alves was born in Póvoa de Varzim, and grew up in the Caxinas fishing neighbourhood of bordering Vila do Conde, as did his long-time international teammates Hélder Postiga and Fábio Coentrão. He started playing football for local club Varzim SC, before joining the youth ranks of FC Porto at the age of 17.


title: Bruno Alves

text: After three consecutive loans, two in Portugal and another in Greece with AEK Athens FC, Alves returned Porto for the 2005–06 season, extending his contract until 2010 and battling for a first-team spot with Ricardo Costa and João Paulo. He played seven league games for the eventual Primeira Liga champions, but was infamously sent off on 15 October 2005 in a 0–2 home loss against S.L. Benfica, after headbutting Nuno Gomes.


title: Bruno Alves

text: The arrival of manager Jesualdo Ferreira in summer 2006 signalled the turning point in Alves' career. He beat off stiff competition for a starting berth in the team alongside Pepe and formed a solid partnership with the Brazilian-born centre back. An impressive campaign saw the player finally come of age, and he was ever-present as the northerners won another national championship.


title: Bruno Alves

text: On 7 April 2009, Alves' early mistake in a UEFA Champions League quarter-final tie against Manchester United at Old Trafford led to Wayne Rooney's equaliser– the match ended 2–2 and Porto went on to lose 3–2 on aggregate. However, on 10 May, he headed in the only goal in a home win over C.D. Nacional which ensured team and the player a fourth consecutive league accolade.


title: Bruno Alves

text: On 3 August 2010, aged 28, Alves signed with Russian Premier League side FC Zenit Saint Petersburg for €22 million, joining compatriots Danny and Fernando Meira in the squad. Upon his arrival, head coach Luciano Spalletti described him as a very important player for the team, noting his experience, ability in the air and strong character.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Alves scored his first goal for the side on 30 September 2010, against former team AEK Athens in the group stage of the UEFA Europa League.


title: Bruno Alves

text: On 5 June 2013, Alves agreed to join Turkey's Fenerbahçe SK on a three-year deal worth €2.5 million per season, for a transfer fee of €5.5 million. He scored twice in 25 league appearances in his first season in Istanbul, to help the side win the Süper Lig title, and also contested in their Turkish Super Cup win against Galatasaray SK on 25 August 2014.


title: Bruno Alves

text: On 18 October 2014, Alves was given a straight red card for kicking Blerim Džemaili, as his team eventually lost 2–1 to Galatasaray at the Türk Telekom Arena. He was sent off again on 25 May 2015, for conceding a penalty against another team from the city, İstanbul Başakşehir, being the second of four "Fener" players to be dismissed in a 2–2 draw which gave the title to Galatasaray.


title: Bruno Alves

text: On 5 June 2016, Alves signed a two-year contract with Cagliari Calcio, who had recently returned to the Italian Serie A. The deal was set to go through when he became a free agent at the end of the month. He made his debut on 15 August 2016, in a 5–1 home win over S.P.A.L. 2013 in the Coppa Italia, and scored his first goal on 11 September, which was a free-kick in a 2–1 league loss at Bologna F.C. 1909.


title: Bruno Alves

text: On 31 May 2017, Alves signed for Rangers on a two-year deal for an undisclosed fee. He scored his first goal for his new team on 9 August, in a 6–0 routing of Dunfermline Athletic in the Scottish League Cup.


title: Bruno Alves

text: On 24 October 2017, two days after an incident with Louis Moult during a 0–2 defeat against Motherwell in the League Cup semi-finals, Alves was handed a two-match ban which was appealed. On 11 July 2018, the 36-year-old terminated his contract by mutual consent.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Alves returned to the Italian top division in the summer of 2018, joining recently promoted Parma Calcio 1913 until 30 June 2019. In February 2019, he signed a new deal covering the 2019–20 season and, in January 2020, agreed to a further extension until June 2021.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Alves agreed to a two-year contract with F.C. Famalicão on 1 July 2021. Two weeks later, however, after falling out with the management, he cancelled it.


title: Bruno Alves

text: On 4 September 2021, Alves signed a one-year deal at Apollon Smyrnis FC; aged nearly 40, he returned to the Greek top flight and the city of Athens for the first time in 16 years. He announced his retirement in June 2022, being appointed sporting director of AEK Athens shortly after.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Alves played for Portugal at the 2004 Summer Olympics, with the country's participation ending after three games in Greece. Luiz Felipe Scolari gave him his full international debut in June 2007 against Kuwait in a 1–1 away draw, and he was later selected as a back-up for UEFA Euro 2008, appearing in the 0–2 group stage loss to Switzerland.


title: Bruno Alves

text: A regular starter during the 2010 FIFA World Cup qualifiers, Alves headed the winner in injury time for the final 2–1 win in Albania on 6 June 2009, allowing Portugal to reach the play-offs; there, in the first leg in Lisbon, he also found the net (the game's only goal) against Bosnia and Herzegovina, in an eventual 2–0 aggregate qualification. He also played all the matches and minutes in the finals in South Africa, in an eventual round-of-16 exit.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Alves played all the games and minutes at the Euro 2012 tournament, starring alongside former Porto teammate Pepe. In the semi-finals, against Spain, he missed his penalty shootout attempt in a 4–2 loss.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Ten days after being included in Paulo Bento's final 23-men squad for the 2014 World Cup, Alves scored a 93rd-minute winner in a 1–0 friendly win over Mexico for his tenth international goal, also featuring in the tournament opener against Germany, a 0–4 defeat. He also started in the following two fixtures in Brazil, in a group stage exit.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Alves was also selected for Euro 2016. In the penultimate warm-up game away to England on 2 June, he was sent off in the first half for a head-high tackle on Harry Kane; he only made his debut in the tournament in the semi-finals against Wales due to injury to Pepe, playing the full 90 minutes and being booked in a 2–0 victory at the Parc Olympique Lyonnais.


title: Bruno Alves

text: In May 2017, Alves was picked for the 2017 FIFA Confederations Cup squad. The following year, he was selected for the 2018 World Cup also to be held in Russia.


title: Bruno Alves

text: Alves' older brother, Geraldo, was also a footballer and a central defender. He had paternal Brazilian ancestry through his father Washington Geraldo Dias Alves. He played ten years of his career in Portugal–mainly with Varzim–where his children were born.


title: Bruno Alves

text: The youngest sibling, Júlio, was also a footballer, playing in the midfielder position. Their uncle, Geraldo Assoviador, also played the sport.


title: Time immemorial

text: Time immemorial () is a phrase meaning time extending beyond the reach of memory, record, or tradition, indefinitely ancient, "ancient beyond memory or record". The phrase is used in legally significant contexts as well as in common parlance.


title: Time immemorial

text: In law, time immemorial denotes "a period of time beyond which legal memory cannot go," and "time out of mind." Most frequently, the phrase "time immemorial" appears as a legal term of art in judicial discussion of common law development and, in the United States, the property rights of Native Americans.


title: Time immemorial

text: "Time immemorial" is frequently used to describe the time required for a custom to mature into common law. Common law is a body of law identified by judges in judicial proceedings, rather than created by the legislature. Judges determine the common law by pinpointing the legal principles consistently reiterated in previous legal cases over a long period of time.


title: Time immemorial

text: In English law, time immemorial ends and legal memory begins at 1189 A.D., the end of the reign of King Henry II, who is associated with the invention of the English common law. Because common law is found to have a non-historical, "immemorial" advent, it is distinct from laws created by monarchs or legislative bodies on a fixed date. In English law, "time immemorial" has also been used to specify the time required to establish a prescriptive right. The Prescription Act 1832, which noted that the full expression was "time immemorial, or time whereof the memory of man runneth not to the contrary," replaced the burden of proving "time immemorial" for the enjoyment of particular land rights with statutory fixed time periods of up to 60 years.


title: Time immemorial

text: American law inherited the English common law tradition. Unlike English law, American law does not set "time immemorial," and American courts vary in their demands to establish "immemoriality" for the purposes of common law. In "Knowles v. Dow," a New Hampshire court found that 20 years suffices to demonstrate a legal custom dating back to "time immemorial." More often than not, however, American courts identify common law without any reference to the phrase "time immemorial."


title: Time immemorial

text: "Time Immemorial" is sometimes used to describe the priority date of water rights holders. In the western United States, water rights are administered under the doctrine of prior appropriation. Under prior appropriation, water rights are acquired by making a beneficial use of water. Water rights that are acquired earlier are senior, and have priority over later, junior water rights during water shortages due to drought or over-appropriation. Generally, the priority date of water rights held by Native American tribes, also called Winters rights, is the date the tribe's reservation was established. However, courts occasionally find that the tribe's water rights carry a "time immemorial" priority date, the most senior date conceivable, for aboriginal uses of water on reserved land that overlaps with the tribe's aboriginal land. For example, in "U.S. v. Adair," the court reasoned that the Klamath Tribe necessarily had water rights with a priority date of "time immemorial" because they had lived and used the waters in Central Oregon and Northern California for more than a thousand uninterrupted years prior to entering a treaty with the United States in 1864.


title: Time immemorial

text: "Aboriginal title" describes the land rights Native Americans possess over the lands they have continuously and exclusively occupied for a long time prior to the intrusion of other occupants. When claiming or finding aboriginal title, plaintiff tribes and courts sometimes describe their occupancy as dating back to "time immemorial."


title: Time immemorial

text: Historically, American judges lacked confidence in the use of Native American oral traditional evidence, oral histories shared between past and present generations, in court. Since the "Pueblo de Zia" decision of the United States Court of Federal Claims in 1964, oral traditional evidence has received increased judicial endorsement. In affirming the use of Native American oral traditional evidence to establish title to land, the "Pueblo de Zia" court described the testimony as having been handed down between tribal council members from "time immemorial."


title: Joe Robert Cole

text: Joe Robert Cole (born January 1, 1980) is an American filmmaker and actor. He is best known for his Emmy Award-nominated and Writers Guild of America Award-winning work on the first season of the true crime anthology television series "American Crime Story", titled "", and for co-writing the film "Black Panther" and its sequel, "".


title: Joe Robert Cole

text: Cole, an only child, moved around a lot growing up, which he felt "prepared" him to be a writer, a desire he only discovered during college. He soon applied to the University of California, Berkeley.


title: Joe Robert Cole

text: During his tenure at the university, Cole entered the film business, working as a writer on the 2006 film "ATL", although not receiving a credit. In 2011, he released his first feature film as a director and writer, "Amber Lake".


title: Joe Robert Cole

text: After writing a ""Chinatown"-style cop script", Cole was invited to a meeting with Marvel Studios, where he was told that they had plans of doing a movie about the character War Machine. He pitched a story and was chosen to write the film, but, according to him, "they decided, based on what "Iron Man 3" was going to be, they weren't going to do "War Machine" anymore." Marvel subsequently invited him to join its writers program.


title: Joe Robert Cole

text: In 2016, the television series "American Crime Story" was released. Cole served as co-producer of the first season, "", and wrote two episodes, "The Race Card" (for which he was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Limited Series, Movie or a Dramatic Special) and "A Jury in Jail".


title: Joe Robert Cole

text: While working on "The People v. O. J. Simpson", Cole was approached by Marvel Studios' producer Nate Moore, wanting to know if he was willing to write a film about Black Panther. He immediately accepted. Cole was part of a competition, but was ultimately chosen to write the screenplay with director Ryan Coogler.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: In estimation theory, the extended Kalman filter (EKF) is the nonlinear version of the Kalman filter which linearizes about an estimate of the current mean and covariance. In the case of well defined transition models, the EKF has been considered the "de facto" standard in the theory of nonlinear state estimation, navigation systems and GPS.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: The papers establishing the mathematical foundations of Kalman type filters were published between 1959 and 1961. The Kalman filter is the optimal linear estimator for "linear"


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: system models with additive independent white noise in both the transition and the measurement systems.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: this filtering method to nonlinear systems; most of this work was done at NASA Ames. The EKF adapted techniques from calculus, namely multivariate Taylor series expansions, to linearize a model about a working point. If the system model (as described below) is not well known or is inaccurate, then Monte Carlo methods, especially particle filters, are employed for estimation. Monte Carlo techniques predate the existence of the EKF but are more computationally expensive for any moderately dimensioned state-space.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: In the extended Kalman filter, the state transition and observation models don't need to be linear functions of the state but may instead be differentiable functions.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Here w and v are the process and observation noises which are both assumed to be zero mean multivariate Gaussian noises with covariance Q and R respectively. u is the control vector.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: The function "f" can be used to compute the predicted state from the previous estimate and similarly the function "h" can be used to compute the predicted measurement from the predicted state. However, "f" and "h" cannot be applied to the covariance directly. Instead a matrix of partial derivatives (the Jacobian) is computed.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: At each time step, the Jacobian is evaluated with current predicted states. These matrices can be used in the Kalman filter equations. This process essentially linearizes the non-linear function around the current estimate.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Notation formula_3 represents the estimate of formula_4 at time "n" given observations up to and including at time .


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Unlike its linear counterpart, the extended Kalman filter in general is "not" an optimal estimator (it is optimal if the measurement and the state transition model are both linear, as in that case the extended Kalman filter is identical to the regular one). In addition, if the initial estimate of the state is wrong, or if the process is modeled incorrectly, the filter may quickly diverge, owing to its linearization. Another problem with the extended Kalman filter is that the estimated covariance matrix tends to underestimate the true covariance matrix and therefore risks becoming inconsistent in the statistical sense without the addition of "stabilising noise"


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Having stated this, the extended Kalman filter can give reasonable performance, and is arguably the de facto standard in navigation systems and GPS.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Unlike the discrete-time extended Kalman filter, the prediction and update steps are coupled in the continuous-time extended Kalman filter.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Most physical systems are represented as continuous-time models while discrete-time measurements are frequently taken for state estimation via a digital processor. Therefore, the system model and measurement model are given by


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: The above recursion is a first-order extended Kalman filter (EKF). Higher order EKFs may be obtained by retaining more terms of the Taylor series expansions. For example, second and third order EKFs have been described. However, higher order EKFs tend to only provide performance benefits when the measurement noise is small.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: The typical formulation of the EKF involves the assumption of additive process and measurement noise. This assumption, however, is not necessary for EKF implementation. Instead, consider a more general system of the form:


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Here w and v are the process and observation noises which are both assumed to be zero mean multivariate Gaussian noises with covariance Q and R respectively. Then the covariance prediction and innovation equations become


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: The predicted state estimate and measurement residual are evaluated at the mean of the process and measurement noise terms, which is assumed to be zero. Otherwise, the non-additive noise formulation is implemented in the same manner as the additive noise EKF.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: In certain cases, the observation model of a nonlinear system cannot be solved for formula_27, but can be expressed by the implicit function:


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Here the original observation covariance matrix formula_33 is transformed, and the innovation formula_34 is defined differently. The Jacobian matrix formula_33 is defined as before, but determined from the implicit observation model formula_36.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: The iterated extended Kalman filter improves the linearization of the extended Kalman filter by recursively modifying the centre point of the Taylor expansion. This reduces the linearization error at the cost of increased computational requirements.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: The extended Kalman filter arises by linearizing the signal model about the current state estimate and using the linear Kalman filter to predict the next estimate. This attempts to produce a locally optimal filter, however, it is not necessarily stable because the solutions of the underlying Riccati equation are not guaranteed to be positive definite. One way of improving performance is the faux algebraic Riccati technique


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: which trades off optimality for stability. The familiar structure of the extended Kalman filter is retained but stability is achieved by selecting a positive definite solution to a faux algebraic Riccati equation for the gain design.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Another way of improving extended Kalman filter performance is to employ the H-infinity results from robust control. Robust filters are obtained by adding a positive definite term to the design Riccati equation. The additional term is parametrized by a scalar which the designer may tweak to achieve a trade-off between mean-square-error and peak error performance criteria.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: The invariant extended Kalman filter (IEKF) is a modified version of the EKF for nonlinear systems possessing symmetries (or "invariances"). It combines the advantages of both the EKF and the recently introduced symmetry-preserving filters. Instead of using a linear correction term based on a linear output error, the IEKF uses a geometrically adapted correction term based on an invariant output error; in the same way the gain matrix is not updated from a linear state error, but from an invariant state error. The main benefit is that the gain and covariance equations converge to constant values on a much bigger set of trajectories than equilibrium points as it is the case for the EKF, which results in a better convergence of the estimation.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: A nonlinear Kalman filter which shows promise as an improvement over the EKF is the unscented Kalman filter (UKF). In the UKF, the probability density is approximated by a deterministic sampling of points which represent the underlying distribution as a Gaussian. The nonlinear transformation of these points are intended to be an estimation of the posterior distribution, the moments of which can then be derived from the transformed samples. The transformation is known as the unscented transform. The UKF tends to be more robust and more accurate than the EKF in its estimation of error in all the directions.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: "The extended Kalman filter (EKF) is probably the most widely used estimation algorithm for nonlinear systems. However, more than 35 years of experience in the estimation community has shown that is difficult to implement, difficult to tune, and only reliable for systems that are almost linear on the time scale of the updates. Many of these difficulties arise from its use of linearization."


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: A 2012 paper includes simulation results which suggest that some published variants of the UKF fail to be as accurate as the Second Order Extended Kalman Filter (SOEKF), also known as the augmented Kalman filter. The SOEKF predates the UKF by approximately 35 years with the moment dynamics first described by Bass et al. The difficulty in implementing any Kalman-type filters for nonlinear state transitions stems from the numerical stability issues required for precision, however the UKF does not escape this difficulty in that it uses linearization as well, namely linear regression. The stability issues for the UKF generally stem from the numerical approximation to the square root of the covariance matrix, whereas the stability issues for both the EKF and the SOEKF stem from possible issues in the Taylor Series approximation along the trajectory.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: The UKF was in fact predated by the Ensemble Kalman filter, invented by Evensen in 1994. It has the advantage over the UKF that the number of ensemble members used can be much smaller than the state dimension, allowing for applications in very high-dimensional systems, such as weather prediction, with state-space sizes of a billion or more.


title: Extended Kalman filter

text: Fuzzy Kalman filter with a new method to represent possibility distributions was recently proposed to replace probability distributions by possibility distributions in order to obtain a genuine possibilistic filter, enabling the use of non-symmetric process and observation noises as well as higher inaccuracies in both process and observation models.


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: The mass sexual assault of women in public has been documented in Egypt since 2005, when Egyptian security forces and their agents were accused of using it as a weapon against female protesters during a political demonstration in Tahrir Square, Cairo on 25 May. The behavior spread, and by 2012 sexual assault by crowds of young men was seen at protests and festivals in Egypt.


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: In these assaults, assailants would encircle a woman while outer rings of men deter rescuers. The attackers regularly pretended to be there to help the women, adding to the confusion. Women reported being groped, stripped, beaten, bitten, penetrated with fingers, and raped. The attacks were described as the "circle of hell".


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: Commentators say the attacks reflect a misogynistic attitude among the Egyptian society that penalizes women for leaving the house, seeks to terrorize them out of public life, and views sexual violence as a source of shame for the victim, not the attacker. Sexual assault has been used as a weapon against female protesters in 2005 and since July 2012.


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: Sexual harassment was barely discussed in Egypt before 2006. The Egyptian Center for Women's Rights sought to draw attention to it, but the public's response was that it was an American idea wrongly applied to Egyptian society.


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: Mass sexual assault was first documented during the Egyptian constitutional referendum on 25 May 2005, on what became known as "Black Wednesday," when women demonstrators were sexually assaulted by a group of agents provocateurs, groups of men who had arrived on buses, as police watched and did nothing to intervene.


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: The issue attracted more discussion following the Eid al-Fitr holiday in 2006, when on 24 October a crowd of young men who had been denied entry to a cinema in Cairo engaged in a five-hour-long mass sexual assault of women in Talaat Harb Street. Police were reported to have done nothing to stop it, although many bystanders tried to help the women.


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: The attacks gained prominence outside Egypt in February 2011 when Lara Logan, a correspondent for the American network CBS, was sexually assaulted by hundreds of men in Tahrir Square, Cairo, while reporting on the 2011 Egyptian Revolution. By 2012, according to "Al Akhbar", such attacks had become a "prominent feature" of religious festivals in Egypt.


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: Amnesty International described a series of attacks that took place on January 25, 2013, against protesters in the vicinity of Tahrir Square. The victims of these attacks said they typically lasted from a few minutes to over an hour, and that the men were usually in their 20s and 30s. Victims were aged seven to 70.


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: Describing the Tahrir Square attacks, women said they were often separated from friends by the crowd, or out alone, and encircled by a large group of men who groped their breasts, genitals and buttocks. Attempts were made to pull or cut their clothes off, and their bodies were pulled in different directions as men moved them through the crowd. Women regularly report digital penetration of the vagina and anus. Attackers have used sticks, knives and blades, and in several cases sharp objects have been inserted into the victim's vagina.


title: Mass sexual assault in Egypt

text: One student protester described how a group of men formed a ring around her in Tahrir Square on 25 January 2013: