title: Crown jewels

text: The Kingdom of Araucania and Patagonia has a crown, presented to Prince Philippe of Araucania in 1986 by a group of Araucanian nobles. Previously, the Royal House had no crown. Made of steel and containing stones from the Biobío River, it is on display at the Museum of the Kings of Araucania, outside the village of Chourgnac d'Ans, Dordogne, France.


title: Crown jewels

text: Prior to the Spanish conquest (1519–1522) most of present-day Mexico formed the Aztec Empire, a Native American empire ruled from Tenochtitlán (present day Mexico City) by a "tlatoani" or "emperor". The ceremonial feathered headdress or "quetzalāpanecayōtl" that was worn by Montezuma II (the last reigning emperor) was seized by the Spanish Conquistadors in c. 1520 and sent back to Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor and King of Spain as a gift. Remarkably, it still survives and Montezuma's headdress can be seen at the Museum of Ethnology, Vienna (inventory number 10402VO) along with other ancient Mexican artifacts.


title: Crown jewels

text: Setting aside the artifacts of Aztec and Spanish rule, there are also extant remnants of the imperial regalia of the First Mexican Empire and Second Mexican Empire.


title: Crown jewels

text: See Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom. The government of the Commonwealth of Australia, together with those of the United Kingdom, Canada, New Zealand, South Africa, Pakistan, Ceylon, and Southern Rhodesia, presented to Elizabeth II a pair of armills for her 1953 coronation. They remain a part of the crown jewels of the monarch of Australia and the other Commonwealth realms.


title: Crown jewels

text: Some of the crown jewels and the original thrones of the Kingdom of Hawaii reside within the custody of the Bishop Museum. The King's crown is owned by the State of Hawaii. All are currently on display at Iolani Palace.


title: Crown jewels

text: The two royals crowns were ordered from England in 1883 during Kalakaua's coronation. Worn once and only by Kalakaua and his Queen Kapiolani, they were damaged by looters during the overthrow but later restored and replace with glass jewels. An earlier crown belonging to the Kamehameha Dynasty may have existed. In 1855, missionary Samuel C. Damon, who attended the funeral of Kamehameha III, mentioned "At the foot and in front of the coffin was the Royal Crown, covered with crape, resting upon a velvet cushion" at the foot of the King's casket. This crown was still being stored in the Royal Tomb at Pohukaina when Russian explorer Aleksei Vysheslavtsev visited the coral-house mausoleum during the funeral of John William Pitt Kīnaʻu in 1859.


title: Crown jewels

text: On May 26, 1861, Sophia Cracroft, the niece of Lady Franklin, also described the crown during a visit to Pohukaina.


title: Crown jewels

text: If there ever was such a crown, it was either interred in the Royal Mausoleum with the last of the Kamehameha kings or became lost by 1883. King Lunalilo was buried in 1874 with a silver crown bore by John Mākini Kapena in his funeral procession. This crown was kept in the Lunalilo Mausoleum until 1917 when it was stolen by two robbers named Albert Gerbode and Paul Payne from Key West, Florida and subsequently melted into a silver bar.


title: Crown jewels

text: Copies of the thrones can be seen at Iolani Palace. Some of the crown jewels lie in state with the royals at the Royal Mausoleum at Mauna Ala. Feather cloak and wear are among the oldest of Hawaiian regalias: Nāhiʻenaʻena's Paū, the 180 feather skirt of Nāhiʻenaʻena and later the funeral attire for the dead monarch while lying in state; Kamehameha's Cloak, the war-cloak of Kamehameha I made entirely of the golden-yellow feathers of the now-extinct mamo, which was used to drape the throne of the King when it wasn't being worn; Kīwalaʻō's Cloak, a.k.a. the Queen's Cloak, the cloak won by Kamehameha during his battle with Kiwalao, and used to drape the throne of the Queen; and Liloa's Kaei, the feather belt of Liloa, the 14th-century King of Hawaii. Also the "Kiha-pu" or the War Trumpet (Conch Shell) of Kihanuilulumoku which is one generation older than Liloa's Kaei.


title: Crown jewels

text: Kingitanga is an unofficial kingdom, but one that has become an important one to the Māori people today. The current monarch is Tuheitia Paki. The crown regalia consists of a cloak.


title: Crown jewels

text: The Kingdom of Tahiti had a crown. The crown was a gift from the London Missionary Society to King Pōmare III for his coronation in 1824. The original is housed in the "Musée de Tahiti et des Îles" in Punaauia.


title: Skims

text: Skims is an American shapewear and clothing brand co-founded by Kim Kardashian, Emma Grede, and Jens Grede. Skims has a focus on body positivity and inclusivity across the brand and practice inclusive sizing. The company was valued at over $3.2 billion in January 2022.


title: Skims

text: The company was founded in June 2019 by American media personality, businesswoman Kim Kardashian and Swedish entrepreneur Jens Grede. Kardashian's then husband, Kanye West, was credited as being her "Ghost Creative Director" and for creating the company's unique logo. Prior to creation of this line, Kardashian was inspired by her own creative work of altering clothes, stating she "[has been] designing shapewear for 15 years".


title: Skims

text: Skims's initial launch resulted in more than US$2 million in profit and the company selling out of merchandise in 10 minutes. The company claims to have sold more than 3 million products in its first year in business.


title: Skims

text: In April 2021, the company was reported to be worth over US$1.6 billion. After further investments, the valuation of Skims was reported at US$3.2 billion in January 2022.


title: Skims

text: Skims is notable for its wide range of sizes that range from XXS to 5XL. Skims shape wear also comes in nine different shades to accommodate different skin tones. In addition to shape wear, Skims has released many different collections in lounge wear, lingerie and accessories including bras, underwear, bodysuits, dresses, shorts, sweatpants, tops, hoodies, sweaters and slides.


title: Skims

text: Initially sold direct to consumer via SKIMS.com, Skims products are now being sold on a variety of websites and in Nordstrom stores.


title: Skims

text: Skims has collaborated with many companies. In 2021, the company established a partnership with the United States Olympics team providing Team USA and Skims branded athleisure for its athletes. The athletes wore the clothing during the 2020 Summer Olympics and Paralympics in Tokyo, and at the 2022 Winter Olympics in Beijing.


title: Skims

text: In October 2021, the company collaborated with Italian fashion house Fendi, creating a capsule collection of FENDI x SKIMS branded shapewear, leather dresses, and swimsuits. The collaboration was inspired by a Fendi collection previously released in 1978 by Karl Lagerfeld. "Bloomberg News" reported that the collaboration generated an estimated US$3 million in sales within 10 minutes of its release.


title: Skims

text: The company was originally named Kimono by Kardashian and Jens Grede. The company's initial name was criticized by critics which argued that it disrespected Japanese culture and ignored the significance behind the country's traditional outfit. Before its launch, the hashtag "#KimOhNo" began trending on Twitter, and the mayor of Kyoto, Daisaku Kadokawa, wrote to Kardashian asking her to reconsider the company name and trademark for Kimono. In response to public pressure, Kardashian announced that she would change the company's name to Skims.


title: Skims

text: Skims has been accused of photoshopping numerous advertising campaigns. In February 2021, Kendall Jenner, Kardashian's half-sister, was accused of photoshopping ad campaign images and video to her own social media. In June 2021, Skims was accused of manipulating ad campaign footage featuring Kardashian.


title: Skims

text: In April 2022, Skims released a campaign with celebrated models Tyra Banks, Heidi Klum, Alessandra Ambrosio and Candice Swanepoel. A conversation emerged about Banks being photoshopped, which compared side-by-side campaign images to video taken at the shoot.


title: Skims

text: The company frequently utilizes influencer marketing by having celebrities and social media influencers wear their clothes. Kylie Jenner, Kendall Jenner, Kourtney Kardashian and Khloé Kardashian have been seen wearing Skims numerous times on social media and in Skims advertising campaigns. Other celebrities that have participated in Skims campaigns include Kate Moss, Candice Swanepoel, Heidi Klum, Tyra Banks, Paris Hilton and Paris Jackson.


title: Skims

text: In 2021, founder Kim Kardashian was given a "Brand Innovator" award for her work on Skims by "Wall Street Journal Magazine's Innovator Awards".


title: Melissa Sagemiller

text: Melissa Sagemiller is an American television and film actress. She is known for her performances in films "Get Over It" (2001), "Soul Survivors" (2001), "Sorority Boys" (2002), "The Clearing" (2004), "The Guardian" (2006) and "Mr. Woodcock" (2007). Sagemiller also starred in television dramas "Sleeper Cell" (2005–06), and "Raising the Bar" (2008–09), and from 2010 to 2011 had the recurring role as A.D.A. Gillian Hardwicke in the "".


title: Melissa Sagemiller

text: Sagemiller was born June 1, 1974, in Washington, D.C., to Donna Sagemiller, a political activist mother who worked as a comptroller during Jimmy Carter's presidency, and Charlie Evans, a professional American football player father, who played in the NFL for the New York Giants and the Washington Redskins. She attended Georgetown Day School. Her entry into the performing arts was at age 3 when she began studying tap dance, ballet, jazz dance and modern dance. She made her stage debut in "To Kill a Mockingbird" when she was 9 years old, and soon after she became a regular on her local stage. At 14, however, acting took a backseat to modeling after Sagemiller was scouted by Eileen Ford in a jewelry shop. She eventually left modeling to take an undergraduate degree in Art History at the University of Virginia.


title: Melissa Sagemiller

text: Shortly after graduation, she decided to return to acting full-time, and studied at the Stella Adler Conservatory, New York University's Stonestreet Studio and at Michael Howard Studios. Sagemiller was mentioned in "Movieline" magazine in August 2001. In November 2001, Sagemiller appeared in "Gear" magazine. In early career, she starred on number of teen films, like "Get Over It" and "Sorority Boys", and was lead actress in 2002 thriller "Soul Survivors".


title: Melissa Sagemiller

text: On television, Sagemiller portrayed the character Michelle Ernhardt in the TNT series "Raising the Bar" from 2008 to 2009. After that series was cancelled, Sagemiller joined "" in a recurring role as ADA Gillian Hardwicke. She replaced Paula Patton when Patton departed the series after just one episode. Sagemiller was featured in ten episodes of the 12th season of the series. She was replaced in the 13th season by Stephanie March and Diane Neal. In 2013, she was cast as a lead on "Chicago Fire" spinoff "Chicago P.D.", but left during pre-production.


title: Melissa Sagemiller

text: Sagemiller is one of numerous actresses who have accused Harvey Weinstein of sexual assault and harassment.


title: Melissa Sagemiller

text: Sagemiller became engaged in July 2006 to her "Sleeper Cell" co-star Alex Nesic after he proposed to her in the South of France. The couple have two children.


title: Clear Channel memorandum

text: Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, Clear Channel Communications (now iHeartMedia), the largest owner of radio stations in the United States, circulated an internal memorandum containing a list of songs that program directors felt were "lyrically questionable" to play in the aftermath of the attacks.


title: Clear Channel memorandum

text: During the time immediately after the attacks, many television and radio stations altered normal programming in response to the events, and the rumour spread that Clear Channel and its subsidiaries had established a list of songs with lyrics Clear Channel deemed "questionable". The list was not an explicit demand not to play the songs listed, but rather a suggestion that they "might not want to play these songs". The list was made public by the independent radio industry newsletter "Hits Daily Double", which was not affiliated with iHeartMedia. "Snopes.com" did research on the subject and concluded that the list did exist as a suggestion for radio stations but noted that it was not an outright ban on the songs in question. The compiled list was the subject of media attention around the time of its release.


title: Clear Channel memorandum

text: The list contains 165 suggestions, including a single suggestion for each song in Rage Against the Machine's entire catalogue at the time (49 songs) and covers of certain songs (such as Bob Dylan's "Knockin' on Heaven's Door" and the cover by Guns N' Roses). In some cases, only certain covers were included on the list: for example, the cover of "Smooth Criminal" by Alien Ant Farm is on the list while the original Michael Jackson recording is not; similarly, Martha and the Vandellas's original version of "Dancing in the Street" and Van Halen's cover are included, but David Bowie and Mick Jagger's cover is not.


title: Clear Channel memorandum

text: The Clear Channel memorandum contains songs that, in their titles or lyrics, vaguely refer to open subjects intertwined with the September 11 attacks, such as airplanes, collisions, death, conflict, violence, explosions, the month of September, and New York City, as well as general concepts that could be connected to aspects of the attacks, such as the sky, falling, and weapons. Also included under the ban were several happy and celebratory songs (famously including Louis Armstrong's "What a Wonderful World"), as Clear Channel believed playing joyful music in the aftermath of the attacks was inappropriate.


title: Clear Channel memorandum

text: WASH, a Clear Channel-owned station in Washington, D.C., reportedly played Kool & the Gang's "Celebration" while the memorandum was being circulated, "which brought a polite if reproachful call from one listener, who was assured by the station the song's broadcast was a mistake."


title: Transkei

text: Transkei (, meaning "the area beyond [the river] Kei"), officially the Republic of Transkei (), was an unrecognised state in the southeastern region of South Africa from 1976 to 1994. It was, along with Ciskei, a Bantustan for the Xhosa people—and operated as a nominally independent parliamentary democracy. Its capital was Umtata (renamed Mthatha in 2004).


title: Transkei

text: Transkei represented a significant precedent and historic turning point in South Africa's policy of apartheid and "separate development"; it was the first of four territories to be declared independent of South Africa. Throughout its existence, it remained an internationally unrecognised, diplomatically isolated, politically unstable "de facto" one-party state, which at one point broke relations with South Africa, the only country that acknowledged it as a legal entity. In 1994, it was reintegrated into its larger neighbour and became part of the Eastern Cape province.


title: Transkei

text: The South African government set up the area as one of the two "homelands" for Xhosa-speaking people in Cape Province, the other being Ciskei; it was given nominal autonomy by Prime Minister Hendrik Verwoerd in 1963. Although the first election was contested and won by the Democratic Party, whose founder Chief Victor Poto was opposed to the notion of Bantustan independence, the government was formed by the Transkei National Independence Party. Of the 109 members in the regional parliament, 45 were elected and 64 were held by ex officio chiefs.


title: Transkei

text: The entity became a nominally independent state in 1976 with its capital at Umtata (now Mthatha), although it was recognised only by South Africa and later by the other nominally independent republics within the TBVC-system. Chief Kaiser Daliwonga Matanzima was Transkei's Prime Minister until 1979, when he assumed the office of President, a position he held until 1986.


title: Transkei

text: South African prime minister B. J. Vorster justified the declaration of Transkei as an independent republic by referring to "the right of every people to have full control over its own affairs" and wished "Transkei and its leaders God's richest blessings on the road ahead."


title: Transkei

text: A press release by the African National Congress at the time rejected the Transkei's independence and condemned it as "designed to consolidate the inhuman policies of apartheid". During its thirty-first session, in resolution A/RES/31/6 A, the General Assembly of the United Nations referred to Transkei's "sham independence" as "invalid," re-iterated its labeling of South Africa as a "racist régime," and called upon "all [g]overnments to deny any form of recognition to the so-called independent Transkei." An article published in "Time Magazine" opined that though Transkei declared independence theoretically as a "free Black state", Matanzima ruled as the dictator of a one-party state. He banned local opposition parties and bought farmlands for himself and his family offered by the South African government at subsidised prices.


title: Transkei

text: Matanzima published "Independence my Way" in 1976, a book in which he argued that true liberation could only be gained through a confederation of black states; he described Transkei as a positive precedent and maintained that the liberation struggle chosen by the African National Congress would not be successful.


title: Transkei

text: The United Nations Security Council supported moves not to recognise Transkei, and in Resolution 402 (1976) condemned moves by South Africa to pressure Lesotho to recognise Transkei by closing its borders with the country.


title: Transkei

text: Throughout its existence, Transkei's economy remained dependent on that of its larger neighbour, with the local population being recruited as workers into South Africa's Rand mines.


title: Transkei

text: Because of a territorial dispute, Matanzima announced on 10 April 1978 that Transkei would break all diplomatic ties with South Africa, including a unilateral withdrawal from the non-aggression pact between the two governments, and ordered that all South African Defence Force members seconded to the Transkei Defence Force should leave. This created the unique situation of a country refusing to deal with the only internationally recognised nation it was recognised by. Matanzima soon backed down in the face of Transkei's dependence on South African economic aid.


title: Transkei

text: During his rule, Matanzima arrested state officials and journalists at will; in late 1979, he detained the head of the newly formed "Democratic Progressive Party", Sabata Dalindyebo, king of the Thembu people and vocal opponent of apartheid, for violating the dignity and injuring the reputation of the president. Dalindyebo went into exile in Zambia, a move that marked the end of official opposition politics in Transkei, and in the 1981 election, the ruling "Transkei National Independence Party" was re-elected, gaining 100% of all open seats.


title: Transkei

text: On 20 February 1986, faced with South African evidence of corruption, Matanzima was forced to retire as president. He was succeeded by his brother George. Kaiser Matanzima was still described as Transkei's effective leader for a time, but soon the two fell out and Kaiser was temporarily detained in the Transkei gaols in 1987; upon release, he was restricted to Qamata.


title: Transkei

text: In 1987, Transkei, a larger, wealthier and more populous entity, which had long sought the annexation of Ciskei, and had undertaken a series of military raids on Ciskei. This included an attack on leader Lennox Sebe's compound, with the apparent goal of taking him hostage, in order to force a merger of the two Bantustans. The South African government intervened to warn the Transkei government off.


title: Transkei

text: General Bantu Holomisa of the Transkei Defence Force forced the resignation and exile of Prime Minister George Matanzima in October 1987 and then overthrew Matanzima's successor, Prime Minister Stella Sigcau in a bloodless coup d'état in December 1987. Holomisa became the Head of State, and the Transkei was from that point onwards effectively in (often uneasy) alliance with the African National Congress and provided a relatively safe area for the ANC's activities. In 1990, Holomisa himself evaded a failed attempt to be ousted from his post, and when asked about the fate of his opponents, he claimed that they had died in the ensuing battles with "TDF" soldiers. It was later found that those deemed responsible for the foiled coup had only suffered minor injuries, but were subsequently executed without trial.


title: Transkei

text: The Transkei government was a participant in the CODESA negotiations for a new South Africa. The territory was reincorporated into South Africa on 27 April 1994, and the area became part of the Eastern Cape province.


title: Transkei

text: The Transkei Penal Code, 1983 still applies between the Kei River and the border with KwaZulu-Natal, and persons who are charged with crimes in that area are prosecuted under the code.


title: Transkei

text: Nominally, the Republic of Transkei was a parliamentary democracy which allowed for a multi-party system. During its existence, six parties registered to compete in elections at different points of its history. Until the military coup of 1987, the "TNIP" remained the ruling party, while the "Transkei People's Freedom Party" constituted the official opposition. Because its founder, Cromwell Diko, was a former member of the ruling party, and due to its continued support of President Matanzima's policies, there is a widely held belief that it was actually initiated by Matanzima himself to give the impression of free elections when in fact there were none. Other parties that existed never did gain any representation in parliament.


title: Transkei

text: According to the "Constitution of Transkei", parliament consisted of the president in joint session with the "National Assembly" and its laws and legislative decisions were immune to judicial review. Seventy-five of its members were elected by popular vote from the various districts Transkei's territory was divided into. The remaining members were unelected Paramount Chiefs and ex officio chiefs whose number per district was enshrined in the constitution.


title: Transkei

text: With the establishment of the republic, the citizenry consisted of all those who had been holding the citizenship of the former territory of Transkei. Individuals were given no choice in this matter as the Transkeian constitution was a legally binding act; for the future, it provided citizenship regulations based on both "jus sanguinis" and "jus soli". Citizenship by descent was given along the paternal line, regardless of a person's place of birth; in addition, any individual born within the republic's territory was eligible for citizenship, excluding those whose father held diplomatic immunity or was deemed an illegal immigrant and whose mother was a non-citizen. Dual citizenship at birth was not permitted, and renunciation of one's citizenship was legally possible, but rendered the individual stateless in most cases. In effect, the regulations thus created an almost homogeneous population of Xhosa ethnicity, though exceptions existed.


title: Transkei

text: The Transkei consisted of three disconnected sections with a total area covering . The large main section was bordered by the Umtamvuna River in the north and the Great Kei River in the south. The Indian Ocean and the Drakensberg mountain range, including parts of the landlocked kingdom of Lesotho, served as the eastern and western frontiers. A further two small sections occurred as landlocked isolates within South Africa. One of these was in the north-west, along the Orange River adjoining south-western Lesotho, and the other in the uMzimkhulu area to the east, each reflecting colonially designated tribal areas where Xhosa speaking peoples predominated. A large portion of the area was mountainous and not suitable for agriculture.


title: Transkei

text: The territorial dispute with South Africa that led to the break in relations was a patch of territory called East Griqualand (which was situated between the main and eastern segments of Transkei with its northern limit at the Lesotho border). South Africa put East Griqualand under the jurisdiction of the Cape Province instead of Transkei, thus making it an exclave of the Cape Province.


title: Transkei

text: The majority of the population was Xhosa-speaking, and according to the "Constitution of the Republic of Transkei," Xhosa was the sole official language, but laws had to be translated into Sotho and English in order for them to come into effect, and Afrikaans was permissible in court proceedings and for other administrative purposes. In addition, many thousands of northern Transkei residents spoke a small hybrid Nguni–Sotho language, called Phuthi.


title: Transkei

text: Conflicting data exist about the number of inhabitants. According to the "South African Encyclopaedia," the total population of the Transkei increased from 2,487,000 to 3,005,000 between 1960 and 1970. An estimate of 1982 puts the number at about 2.3 million, with approximately 400,000 citizens residing permanently outside the territory's borders. Fewer than 10,000 individuals were of European descent, and the urbanisation-rate for the entire population was around 5%.


title: Transkei

text: The "Transkei Defence Force (TDF)" was formed in October 1976 and numbered about 2,000, including one infantry battalion and an air wing with two light transporters and two helicopters. By 1993, the number of troops had risen to 4,000. Initial training was provided by the South African Defence Force, and despite its diplomatic isolation, the government of Transkei received advice from and collaborated with Israeli counterinsurgency experts. Armscor/Krygkor was its main supplier of weaponry.


title: Transkei

text: After breaking all diplomatic ties with South Africa, President Matanzima announced construction-plans for an international airport by an unnamed French consortium in order for "arms and troops from other countries" to be brought into Transkei without touching South African soil, but did not elaborate on where those resources would originate.


title: Transkei

text: During its last days in 1994, the "Transkei Police" had 4,993 police officers, operating from 61 police stations throughout the territory.


title: Transkei

text: With the dissolution of Transkei in 1994, the "TDF" and the "Transkei Police" were incorporated into the South African National Defence Force and the South African Police Service, respectively.


title: Dental degree

text: A number of professional degrees in dentistry are offered by dental schools in various countries around the world.


title: Dental degree

text: All of the degrees listed in this section are acknowledged worldwide and are considered equivalent despite the differing titles. They are:


title: Dental degree

text: In Commonwealth countries, the Royal Colleges of dentistry (or Faculty of Dentistry of the College) awards postnominals upon completion of a series of examinations.


title: Dental degree

text: In the U.S., most dental specialists attain Board Certification (Diplomate Status) by completing a series of written and oral examinations with the appropriate Boards. e.g. Diplomate, American Board of Periodontics.


title: Dental degree

text: Each fully qualifies the holder to practice dentistry in at least the jurisdiction in which the degree was presented, assuming local and federal government licensure requirements are met.


title: Dental degree

text: (*) indicates new university dental programs that have opened up to aim at increasing the number of rural dental students entering and to return to rural practice. Traditional "sandstone" universities have been Sydney, Melbourne, Queensland, Adelaide and Western Australia.


title: Dental degree

text: Sydney (as of 2001), Melbourne (as of 2010) and Western Australia (as of 2013) have switched to 4-year graduate program that require a previous bachelor's degree for admission.


title: Dental degree

text: Postgraduate training is available in all dental specialties. Degrees awarded used to be Master of Dental Surgery/Science (MDS/MDSc), but lately have changed to Doctorate in Clinical Dentistry (DClinDent).


title: Dental degree

text: The Faculty of Dentistry awards Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) and Master of Community Dentistry (MComDent) for public health & community dentistry, and Doctorate in Clinical Dentistry (DClinDent) for the other dental specialties.


title: Dental degree

text: The body responsible for registering dental practitioners is the Dental Council of New Zealand (DCNZ).


title: Dental degree

text: Both Australia and New Zealand recognize the educational and professional qualifications and grant professional licenses via reciprocity identical to the United States and Canada.


title: Dental degree

text: The United Kingdom General Dental Council had been recognizing the Australian and New Zealand dental qualification as registrable degree until 2000. Graduates who have applied for dental license registration in the United Kingdom now have to sit the Overseas Registration Exam (ORE), a three-part examination.


title: Dental degree

text: Australia and Canada have a reciprocal accreditation agreement, which allows graduates of Canadian or Australian dental schools to register in either country. However, this only applies to the graduates of 2011 class and does not apply to the previous years' graduates.


title: Dental degree

text: Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons (RACDS) is a postgraduate body that focuses on postgraduate training of general practitioners and specialist dentists. Additional postgraduate qualifications can be obtained through the college after the candidate has completed the Primary Examination (basic science examination in Anatomy, Histology, Physiology, Biochemistry, Pathology and Microbiology) and the Final Examination (clinical subjects in dentistry). After the successful completion of the examinations and meeting the College requirements, the candidate is awarded the title of Fellow of Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons (FRACDS). For the dental specialists, the exam pathway is similar (Primary Examinations) and then clinical/oral examinations just prior to completing the specialist training leads to the award of the title Member of Royal Australasian College of Dental Surgeons in Special Field Stream (MRACDS (SFS)). For the busy GP dentists, MRACDS in general stream is also available.


title: Dental degree

text: The graduation in Dentistry is named here as Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) also have diploma in Dentistry. At present there are three universities that have medical faculty that offer dental degrees: The University of Dhaka, the University of Chittagong , the University of Rajshahi, and diplomas also by the state medical faculty. These public universities have dental colleges and hospitals that may be publicly or privately funded, that offer education for the degree. The list of dentals school providing graduate/diploma education in dentistry includes:


title: Dental degree

text: The FCPS degree, which requires four years of residency training, is awarded by Bangladesh College of Physician and Surgeons. It considered the most prestigious specialized degree in dentistry at present. Also, MS degrees in Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Prosthodontics, Conservative Dentistry and Endodontics and Orthodontics are awarded by the University of Dhaka. Very recently, MS degrees in paediatric dentistry also were started in Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujib Medical University (BSMMU), the first batch of whom started in 2016.


title: Dental degree

text: Several universities in Canada offer the DDS degree, including the University of Toronto, the University of Western Ontario, the University of Alberta, and Dalhousie University, while the remaining Canadian dental schools offer the Doctor of Dental Medicine degree to their graduates.


title: Dental degree

text: Additional qualifications can be obtained through the Royal College of Dentists of Canada (RCDC), which administers examinations for qualified dental specialists as part of the dentistry profession in Canada. The current examinations are known as the "National Dental Specialty Examination" (NDSE). Successful completion may lead to "Fellowship" in the College (FRCD(C)) and may be used for provincial registration purposes.


title: Dental degree

text: Canada has a reciprocal accreditation agreement with Australia, Ireland, and the United States, which recognize the dental training of graduates of Canadian dental schools. Obtaining licensure to work in any of the three other countries often requires additional steps, such as successfully completing national board examinations and fulfilling requirements of local governing bodies.


title: Dental degree

text: China has many universities teaching dental degrees both at undergraduate and postgraduate level. Chinese universities have adapted the programmes of American and European degrees. The undergraduate degree is Bachelor of Medicine with a major in stomatology or dental surgery, and the postgraduate degree is Master of Medicine in stomatology (). Recently, China has a new name for its master's degree as Master of Stomatological Medicine (MSM). The MSM has been offered by top class Chinese universities. This program includes a comprehensive syllabus to produce graduates with extensive knowledge in respective specialties, skills in clinical practice, and research potential. The other branches of dentistry remain the same as American universities.


title: Dental degree

text: In Finland, education in dentistry is through a 5.5-year Licenciate of Dental Medicine (DMD or DDS) course, which is offered after high school graduation. Application is by a national combined dental and medical school entry examination. As of 2011, dentistry is provided by Faculties of Medicine in four universities:


title: Dental degree

text: The first phase of training begins with a unified two-year preclinical training for dentists and physicians. Problem-based learning (PBL) is employed depending on university. The third year-autumn consists of clinico,theoretical phase in pathology, genetics, radiology and public health, and is partially combined with physicians' second phase. Third-phase clinical training lasts for the remaining three years and includes periods of being on call at University Central Hospital Trauma Centre, Clinic of Oral and Maxillofacial Diseases, and the Children's clinic. Candidates who successfully complete the fourth year of training qualify for a paid summer rotation in a Community health center of their choice. Annual intake of dentists into Faculties of Medicine is a national total 160 students.


title: Dental degree

text: Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) research is strongly encouraged alongside postgraduate training, which is available in all four universities and lasts an additional 3–6 years. Starting in 2014, the University of Helsinki introduced a new doctoral training system. In this new system, all doctoral candidates belong to a doctoral programme within a doctoral school. FINDOS Helsinki – Doctoral Programme in Oral Sciences – is a programme in the Doctoral School in Health Sciences.


title: Dental degree

text: In India, training in dentistry is through a five-year Bachelor of Dental Surgery (BDS) course, which includes four years of study followed by one year of internship. As of 2019, 310 colleges (40 run by the government and 292 in the private sector) were offering dental education. This amounts to an annual intake of 33500 graduates.


title: Dental degree

text: The three-year, full-time postgraduate Master of Dental Surgery (MDS) is the highest degree in dentistry awarded in India, and its holders are bestowed as consultants in one of these specialties:


title: Dental degree

text: Israel has two dental schools, the Hebrew University-Hadassah School of Dental Medicine in Jerusalem, founded by the Alpha Omega Fraternity and the Tel Aviv University School of Dental Medicine in Tel Aviv. The two schools have six-year program and grant the Doctor of Dental Medicine (DMD) degrees. In recent decades, students are eligible for the Bachelor of Medical Sciences (BMedSc) degree after the first three years of training.


title: Dental degree

text: Training in South Africa generally comprises the five-year Bachelor of Dental Surgery, followed by one year's compulsory medical service/internship. The country has five universities with dental faculties:


title: Dental degree

text: Until 2003, Stellenbosch University offered the BChD degree. In 2004, the dental faculties of the University of the Western Cape and Stellenbosch University merged and moved to the University of the Western Cape, which is currently the largest dental school in Africa.


title: Dental degree

text: Specialisation is through one of the universities as a Master of Dentistry, or through the "College of Dentistry" within the Colleges of Medicine of South Africa, with certifications offered in oral medicine and periodontics, orthodontics, and prosthodontics. Research degrees are the M.Sc.(Dent) / MDS and Ph.D.(Dent).


title: Dental degree

text: Many universities award BDS degrees, including the University of Sheffield, the University of Bristol, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, the University of Birmingham, the University of Liverpool, the University of Manchester, the University of Glasgow, the University of Dundee, the University of Aberdeen, King's College London, the University of Cardiff, Newcastle University, Queen's University Belfast, the University of Central Lancashire, and Peninsula College of Medicine and Dentistry.


title: Dental degree

text: In the Republic of Ireland, the University College Cork awards BDS degrees and Trinity College Dublin awards BDentSc degrees.


title: Dental degree

text: The Royal College of Surgeons of England, Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Ireland award LDS (Licence/Licentiate in Dental Surgery) degrees.


title: Dental degree

text: Many universities award BDS and a few BChD (Baccalaureus Chirurgiae Dental) degrees. In Nigeria, training in dentistry is through a six-year course, typically, three years of preclinical training followed by three years of clinical training after passing part I exams comprising anatomy, biochemistry, and physiology. This is followed by one year of internship or housemanship, after which graduates can go into clinical practice as general dentists. Some go on to specialty training by completing a residency program, to become hospital consultants.


title: Dental degree

text: As of 2022, 11 dental schools, were active, including two with partial accreditations. Fully accredited programs are at the University of Lagos, University of Ibadan, University of Benin, University of Port-Harcourt, University of Nigeria (Enugu), University of Maiduguri, Bayero University (Kano), Lagos State University, and Obafemi Awolowo University (Ile-Ife).


title: Dental degree

text: In the United States, at least three years of undergraduate education are required to be admitted to a dental school; however, most dental schools require at least a bachelor's degree. No particular course of study is required as an undergraduate other than completing the requisite "predental" courses, which generally includes one year of general biology, chemistry, organic chemistry, physics, English, and higher-level mathematics such as statistics and calculus. Some dental schools have requirements that go beyond the basic requirements such as psychology, sociology, biochemistry, anatomy, physiology, etc. The majority of predental students major in a science, but this is not required as some students elect to major in a nonscience-related field.


title: Dental degree

text: In addition to core prerequisites, the Dental Admission Test, a multiple-choice standardized examination, is also required for potential dental students. The DAT is usually taken during the spring semester of one's junior year. The vast majority of dental schools require an interview before admissions can be granted. The interview is designed to evaluate the motivation, character, and personality of the applicant.


title: Dental degree

text: For the 2009–2010 application cycle, 11,632 applicants applied for admission to dental schools in the United States. Just 4,067 were eventually accepted. The average dental school applicant entering the school year in 2009 had an overall GPA of 3.54 and a science GPA of 3.46. Additionally, their mean DAT Academic Average (AA) was 19.00, while their DAT Perceptual Ability Test (PAT) score was 19.40.


title: Dental degree

text: Dental school is four academic years in duration and is similar in format to medical school: two years of basic medical and dental sciences, followed by two years of clinical training (with continued didactic coursework). Before graduating, every dental student must successfully complete the National Board Dental Examination Part I and II (commonly referred to as NBDE I & II). The NBDE Part I is usually taken at the end of the second year after the majority of the didactic courses have been completed. The NBDE Part I covers Gross Anatomy, biochemistry, physiology, microbiology, pathology, and dental anatomy and occlusion. The NBDE Part II is usually taken during winter of the last year of dental school and consists of operative dentistry, pharmacology, endodontics, periodontics, oral surgery, pain control, prosthodontics, orthodontics, pedodontics, oral pathology, and radiology. NBDE Part I scores are Pass/Fail since 2012.


title: Dental degree

text: After graduating, the vast majority of new dentists go directly into practice, while others enter a residency program. Some residency programs train dentists in advanced general dentistry such as General Practice Residencies and Advanced Education in General Dentistry Residencies, commonly referred to as GPR and AEGD. Most GPR and AEGD programs are one year in duration, but several are two years long or provide an optional second year. GPR programs are usually affiliated with a hospital and thus require the dentist to treat a wide variety of patients including trauma, critically ill, and medically compromised patients. Additionally, GPR programs require residents to rotate through various departments within the hospital, such as anesthesia, internal medicine, and emergency medicine, to name a few. AEGD programs are usually in a dental-school setting where the focus is treating complex cases in a comprehensive manner.


title: Dental degree

text: In the United States, the Doctor of Dental Surgery and Doctor of Dental Medicine are terminal professional doctorates, which qualify a professional for licensure. The DDS and DMD degrees are considered equivalent. The American Dental Association specifies:


title: Dental degree

text: Harvard University was the first dental school to award the DMD degree. Harvard only grants degrees in Latin, and the Latin translation of Doctor of Dental Surgery, "Chirurgiae Dentium Doctoris", did not share the "DDS" initials of the English term. "The degree 'Scientiae Dentium Doctoris', which would leave the initials of DDS unchanged, was then considered, but was rejected on the ground that dentistry was not a science." (The word order in Latin is not fixed, only the inflections; "Scientiae Dentium Doctoris" = "Doctoris Dentium Scientiae".) A Latin scholar was consulted. It was finally decided that "Medicinae Doctoris" be modified with "Dentariae". This is how the DMD, or "Doctor Medicinae Dentariae" degree, was started. (The genitive inflection "-is" on "Doctoris" instead of the nominative "Doctor" simply reflects that the syntax on the diploma was "the degree of Doctor of Dental Medicine"; they are both correct.) The assertion that "dentistry was not a science" reflected the view that dental surgery was an art informed by science, not a science "per se"—notwithstanding that the scientific component of dentistry is today recognized in the Doctor of Dental Science (DDSc) degree.


title: Dental degree

text: Other dental schools made the switch to this notation, and in 1989, 23 of the 66 North American dental schools awarded the DMD. No meaningful difference exists between the DMD and DDS degrees, and all dentists must meet the same national and regional certification standards to practice.


title: Dental degree

text: Some other prominent dental schools that award the DMD degree are the University of Florida, Midwestern University-IL, Midwestern University-AZ, Medical University of South Carolina, Augusta University (formerly Medical College of Georgia), University of Connecticut, University of Alabama at Birmingham, University of Louisville, University of Puerto Rico, Rutgers University, Tufts University, Oregon Health and Sciences University, University of Pennsylvania, Case Western Reserve University, University of Illinois at Chicago, Boston University, Temple University, Western University of Health Sciences, University of Pittsburgh, University of Nevada, Las Vegas, and East Carolina University.


title: Dental degree

text: The United States Department of Education and the National Science Foundation do not include the DDS and DMD among the degrees that are equivalent to research doctorates.


title: Dental degree

text: To practice, a dentist must pass a licensing examination administered by an individual state or more commonly a region. A handful of states maintain independent dental licensing examinations, while the majority accept a regional board examination. The Northeast Regional Board (NERB), Western Regional Board (WREB), Central Regional Dental Testing Service (CRDTS), and Southern Regional Testing Agency (SRTA), Council of Interstate Testing Agencies (CITA) are the five regional testing agencies that administer licensing examinations. Once the examination is passed, the dentist may then apply to individual states that accept the regional board test passed. Each state requires prospective practitioners to pass an ethics/jurisprudence examination, as well, before a license is granted. To maintain one's dental license, the doctor must complete Continuing Dental Education (CDE) courses periodically (usually annually). This promotes the continued exploration of knowledge. The amount of CE required varies from state to state, but is generally 10-25 CE hours a year.


title: Dental degree

text: The completion of a dental degree can be followed by either an entrance into private practice, further postgraduate study and training, or research and academics.


title: Dental degree

text: Twelve dental specialties are recognized in the United States. Becoming a specialist requires one to train in a residency or advanced graduate training program. Once residency is completed, the doctor is granted a certificate of specialty training. Many specialty programs have optional or required advanced degrees such as a master's degree: (MS, MSc, MDS, MSD, MDSc, MMSc, MPhil, or MDent), doctoral degree: (DClinDent, DChDent, DMSc, PhD), or medical degree: (MD/MBBS specific to maxillofacial surgery).


title: Dental degree

text: The following are currently recognized as dental specialties in the US under the American Board of Dental Specialties (ABDS):


title: Dental degree

text: Dentists who have completed accredited specialty training programs in these fields are designated registrable (U.S. "Board Eligible") and warrant exclusive titles such as anesthesiologist, orthodontist, oral and maxillofacial surgeon, endodontist, pedodontist, periodontist, or prosthodontist upon satisfying certain local (U.S. "Board Certified"), (Australia/NZ: "FRACDS"), or (Canada: "FRCD(C)") registry requirements.


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: The Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme is an internet meme which circulated in 2015. A facetious conspiracy theory, the meme suggests that Ted Cruz, a United States senator and 2016 US presidential candidate, is the Zodiac Killer, an unidentified serial killer active in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Cruz, born in 1970, could not have committed these murders, which began before his birth. Circulators of the meme do not genuinely believe that he was the Zodiac Killer, citing the absurdity of its premise; NPR wrote that the meme captured "a feeling they have about Cruz: they think he's creepy. And they want to point that out, as clearly as they can."


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: A January 2016 investigation by Miles Klee of "The Daily Dot" found the first use of the meme to be by a Twitter user in March 2013, as Cruz was speaking at the Conservative Political Action Conference and vowing to repeal the Affordable Care Act. The actual Tweet was, "Alert: Ted Cruz is speaking!! His speech is titled: 'This Is The Zodiac Speaking'" The meme was not repeated until November 2014, by another Twitter user writing about Cruz's proposal against net neutrality.


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: It continued in obscurity up to February 2016, when another Twitter user edited a picture of a Republican debate in order to include "Is Ted Cruz the Zodiac Killer?" in the interactive ticker at the bottom. That month, "is ted cruz the zodiac killer" was the second highest suggestion in Google's autocomplete for "is ted", but by April it was not in the autocomplete at all. News.com.au writer Matthew Dunn suggested that Google was censoring the search term, showing evidence that it accounted for 89% of total searches when compared to other terms in the autocomplete.


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: In April 2016, the "Houston Chronicle" said the meme "has a following. A Facebook group named for the meme has more than 27,000 members. A Google search turns up 621,000 hits, including exploratory articles by some of the biggest news publications on the web".


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: Cruz himself has jocularly alluded to the meme by tweeting one of the Zodiac Killer's cryptograms; first in October 2017 responding to a retweet from Senator Ben Sasse referring to Cruz as "the son of the guy who killed Kennedy" (a reference to a conspiracy theory involving Rafael Cruz) and then wishing a "Happy Halloween" in 2018. In December 2020, after the 340-character Zodiac cipher was cracked, Cruz retweeted an article about the cipher with the caption "uh oh".


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: After the edited image showing the question on Google trended, the meme spread into popular culture. Books about Cruz being the Zodiac Killer, including romantic ones, were listed on Amazon.com.


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: In February 2016, Public Policy Polling asked registered voters in Florida ahead of the Republican primary if they believed Cruz to be the Zodiac Killer; 10% believed and 28% were not sure. The other 62% did not think he was.


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: Comedian Larry Wilmore made references to the meme in his April 2016 routine at the White House Correspondents' Dinner, including a joke that Cruz was not campaigning to win the nomination, but to continue a murder spree.


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: The meme has been repeated, without disclaimer, in anti-Cruz opinion pieces in "GQ" and the "Chicago Tribune".


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: In October of 2022, satirical news outlet The Babylon Bee produced a sketch as part of a series following the lives of two Californians who had moved to Texas. In the sketch titled 'Episode 3 - The Church' , the Californians are canvassing for Beto O'Rourke as part of the 2022 US midterm elections and Cruz answers the door. In response to the canvasers, Cruz states he is short on time having 'letters to write' before closing the door and inadvertently dropping one of the letters. The canvassers quickly flee after seeing that the letter is printed with a cypher. Ted Cruz plays himself in the video.


title: Ted Cruz–Zodiac Killer meme

text: Lindsey Martin, a Twitter user who helped circulate the meme, told NPR that she did so because it is "so obviously untrue... if there was any way that it could possibly be true I would be scared to joke about it just because of the repercussions.” "The Verge" writer Kaitlyn Tiffany opined that some may consider the subject of the meme to be "distasteful and irresponsible, even dangerous". Leigh Alexander considered its spread an example of the growing political engagement of youth, writing that in such memes, "the political figure is exaggerated, his context made grotesque or fantastical, just as in traditional political cartooning." According to Lozano, the point of the meme is to "[demonize] his character". Heidi Cruz responded to the meme by stating that she has "been married to him for 15 years, and I know pretty well who he is, so it doesn't bother me at all. There's a lot of garbage out there". Ted Cruz acknowledged the meme on his official Twitter account on October 18, 2017, by tweeting an image of one of the Zodiac Killer's encrypted messages. He did so again on October 31 of the following year.


title: History of cosmetics

text: The history of cosmetics spans at least 7,000 years and is present in almost every society on earth. Cosmetic body art is argued to have been the earliest form of a ritual in human culture. The evidence for this comes in the form of utilised red mineral pigments (red ochre) including crayons associated with the emergence of "Homo sapiens" in Africa. Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament—2 Kings 9:30 where Jezebel painted her eyelids—approximately 840 BC—and the book of Esther describes various beauty treatments as well.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Cosmetics were also used in ancient Rome, although much of Roman literature suggests that it was frowned upon. It is known that some women in ancient Rome invented make up including lead-based formulas, to whiten the skin, and kohl to line the eyes.


title: History of cosmetics

text: One of the earliest cultures to use cosmetics was ancient Egypt, where both Egyptian men and women used makeup to enhance their appearance. The first cosmetics appeared 5,000 years ago in Egypt. To achieve a pleasant smell and softness of the skin, incense oils were used, and women applied white to protect their faces from the sun. The Egyptians were also the first to use black antimony-based paint as eyeliner. And to create a natural blush, crushed flowers were used.


title: History of cosmetics

text: The use of cosmetics in Ancient Egypt is well documented. Kohl has its roots in north Africa. The use of black kohl eyeliner and eyeshadows in dark colours such as blue, red, and black was common, and was commonly recorded and represented in Egyptian art, as well as being seen in Egyptian hieroglyphs. Ancient Egyptians also extracted red dye from fucus-algin, 0.01% iodine, and some bromine mannite, but this dye resulted in serious illness. Lipsticks with shimmering effects were initially made using a pearlescent substance found in fish scales, which are still used extensively today. Despite the hazardous nature of some Egyptian cosmetics, ancient Egyptian makeup was also thought to have antibacterial properties that helped prevent infections. Remedies to treat wrinkles contained ingredients such as gum of frankincense and fresh moringa. For scars and burns, a special ointment was made of red ochre, kohl, and sycamore juice. An alternative treatment was a poultice of carob grounds and honey, or an ointment made of knotgrass and powdered root of wormwood. To improve breath the ancient Egyptians chewed herbs or frankincense which is still in use today. Jars of what could be compared with setting lotion have been found to contain a mixture of beeswax and resin. These doubled as remedies for problems such as baldness and greying hair. They also used these products on their mummies, because they believed that it would make them irresistible in the after life.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Cosmetics are mentioned in the Old Testament, such as in 2 Kings , where the biblical figure Jezebel painted her eyelids (approximately 840 BC). Cosmetics are also mentioned in the book of Esther, where beauty treatments are described.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Flowers play an important decorative role in China. Legend has it that once on the 7th day of the 1st lunar month, while Princess Shouyang, daughter of Emperor Wu of Liu Song, was resting under the eaves of Hanzhang Palace near the plum trees after wandering in the gardens, a plum blossom drifted down onto her fair face, leaving a floral imprint on her forehead that enhanced her beauty further. The court ladies were said to be so impressed, that they started decorating their own foreheads with a small delicate plum blossom design. This is also the mythical origin of the floral fashion, "meihua zhuang" (梅花妝; literally "plum blossom makeup"), that originated in the Southern Dynasties (420–589) and became popular amongst ladies in the Tang (618–907) and Song (960–1279) dynasties.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Women of royal families painted red spots on the center of their cheeks, right under their eyes. However, it is a mystery why. They said that red cheeks are a reason of happy queen.


title: History of cosmetics

text: In Japan, geisha wore lipstick made of crushed safflower petals to paint the eyebrows and edges of the eyes as well as the lips, and sticks of "bintsuke" wax, a softer version of the sumo wrestlers' hair wax, were used by geisha as a makeup base. Rice powder colors the face and back; rouge contours the eye socket and defines the nose. Ohaguro (black paint) colours the teeth for the ceremony, called Erikae, when "maiko" (apprentice geisha) graduate and become independent. The geisha would also sometimes use bird droppings to compile a lighter color.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Both sexes used cosmetics throughout the pre-Islamic Near East, going back to the civilizations of ancient Mesopotamia, Ancient Egypt, and Iran. Cosmetics, especially eye makeup in the form of "kohl", were used in Persia and what today is Iran from ancient periods. Kohl is a black powder that was used widely across the Persian Empire. It was used as a powder or smeared to darken the edges of the eyelids similar to eyeliner.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Cosmetics were also used throughout the Middle East and Near East after the advent of Islam. Women used cosmetics widely in the private sphere, while only female slaves and singers tended to use them in public. Ointments, powders, and pastes were used as skin-lightening agents to comply with the era's beauty standards. Perfumed creams were also used on the face, as were sandalwood-based pastes to protect the skin from sunlight. Decorative henna was used during wedding celebrations to beautify the bride. Men and children used kohl on their eyes and henna as a natural dye for their hair, but rarely used other cosmetic items.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Cultures to use cosmetics include the ancient Greeks and the Romans. In the Roman Empire, the use of cosmetics was common amongst prostitutes and rich women. Such adornment was sometimes lamented by certain Roman writers, who thought it to be against the "castitas" required of women by what they considered traditional Roman values; and later by Christian writers who expressed similar sentiments in a slightly different context. Pliny the Elder mentioned cosmetics in his "Naturalis Historia", and Ovid wrote a book on the topic.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Pale faces were a trend during the European Middle Ages. In the 16th century, women would bleed themselves to achieve pale skin. Spanish prostitutes wore pink makeup to contrast pale skin. 13th century Italian women wore red lipstick to show that they were upper class. Use of cosmetics continued in Middle Ages, where the face was whitened and the cheeks rouged; during the later 16th century in the West, the personal attributes of the women who used makeup created a demand for the product among the upper class. Cosmetics continued to be used in the following centuries, though attitudes towards cosmetics varied throughout time, with the use of cosmetics being openly frowned upon at many points in Western history. In the 19th century, Queen Victoria publicly declared makeup improper, vulgar, and acceptable only for use by actors, with many famous actresses of the time, such as Sarah Bernhardt and Lillie Langtry using makeup.


title: History of cosmetics

text: 19th-century fashion ideals of women appearing delicate, feminine and pale were achieved by some through the use of makeup, with some women discreetly using rouge on their cheeks and drops of "belladonna" to dilate their eyes to appear larger. Though cosmetics were used discreetly by many women, makeup in Western cultures during this time was generally frowned upon, particularly during the 1870s, when Western social etiquette increased in rigidity. Teachers and clergy were specifically forbidden from the use of cosmetic products.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Some Native American tribes painted their faces for ceremonial events or battle. Similar practices were followed by Aboriginals in Australia.


title: History of cosmetics

text: During the late 1800s, the Western cosmetics industry began to grow due to a rise in “visual self-awareness,” a shift in the perception of color cosmetics, and improvements in the safety of products. Prior to the 19th century, limitations in lighting technology and access to reflective devices stifled people’s ability to regularly perceive their appearance. This, in turn, limited the need for a cosmetic market and resulted in individuals creating and applying their own products at home. Several technological advancements in the latter half of the century, including the innovation of mirrors, commercial photography, marketing and electricity in the home and in public, increased consciousness of one’s appearance and created a demand for cosmetic products that improved one’s image.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Face powders, rouges, lipstick and similar products made from home were found to have toxic ingredients, which deterred customers from their use. Discoveries of non-toxic cosmetic ingredients, such as Henry Tetlow’s 1866 use of zinc oxide as a face powder, and the distribution of cosmetic products by established companies such as Rimmel, Guerlain, and Hudnut helped popularize cosmetics to the broader public. Skincare, along with “face painting” products like powders, also became in-demand products of the cosmetics industry. The mass advertisements of cold cream brands such as Pond’s through billboards, magazines, and newspapers created a high demand for the product. These advertisement and cosmetic marketing styles were soon replicated in European countries, which further increased the popularity of the advertised products in Europe.


title: History of cosmetics

text: During the early 1900s, makeup was not excessively popular. In fact, women hardly wore makeup at all. Make-up at this time was still mostly the territory of prostitutes, those in cabarets and on the black & white screen. Face enameling (applying actual paint to the face) became popular among the rich at this time in an attempt to look paler. This practice was dangerous due to the main ingredient often being arsenic. Pale skin was associated with wealth because it meant that one was not out working in the sun and could afford to stay inside all day. Cosmetics were so unpopular that they could not be bought in department stores; they could only be bought at theatrical costume stores. A woman's "makeup routine" often only consisted of using papier poudré, a powdered paper/oil blotting sheet, to whiten the nose in the winter and shine their cheeks in the summer. Rouge was considered provocative, so was only seen on "women of the night." Some women used burnt matchsticks to darken eyelashes, and geranium and poppy petals to stain the lips. Vaseline became high in demand because it was used on chapped lips, as a base for hair tonic, and soap. Toilet waters were introduced in the early 1900s, but only lavender water or refined cologne was admissible for women to wear. Cosmetic deodorant was invented in 1888, by an unknown inventor from Philadelphia and was trademarked under the name "Mum". Roll-on deodorant was launched in 1952, and aerosol deodorant in 1965.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Around 1910, make-up became fashionable in the United States of America and Europe owing to the influence of ballet and theatre stars such as Mathilde Kschessinska and Sarah Bernhardt. Colored makeup was introduced in Paris upon the arrival of the Russian Ballet in 1910, where ochers and crimsons were the most typical shades. The "Daily Mirror" beauty book showed that cosmetics were now acceptable for the literate classes to wear. With that said, men often saw rouge as a mark of sex and sin, and rouging was considered an admission of ugliness. In 1915, a Kansas legislature proposed to make it a misdemeanor for women under the age of forty-four to wear cosmetics "for the purpose of creating a false impression." The "Daily Mirror" was one of the first to suggest using a pencil line (eyeliner) to elongate the eye and an eyelash curler to accentuate the lashes. Eyebrow darkener was also presented in this beauty book, created from gum Arabic, Indian ink, and rosewater. George Burchett developed cosmetic tattooing during this time period. He was able to tattoo on pink blushes, red lips, and dark eyebrows. He also was able to tattoo men disfigured in the First World War by inserting skin tones in damaged faces and by covering scars with colors more pleasing to the eye. Max Factor opened up a professional makeup studio for stage and screen actors in Los Angeles in 1909. Even though his store was intended for actors, ordinary women came in to purchase theatrical eye shadow and eyebrow pencils for their home use.


title: History of cosmetics

text: In the 1920s, the film industry in Hollywood had the most influential impact on cosmetics. Stars such as Theda Bara had a substantial effect on the makeup industry. Helena Rubinstein was Bara's makeup artist; she created mascara for the actress, relying on her experiments with kohl. Others who saw the opportunity for the mass-market of cosmetics during this time were Max Factor Sr. and Elizabeth Arden. Many of the present day makeup manufacturers were established during the 1920s and 1930s. Lipsticks were one of the most popular cosmetics of this time, more so than rouge and powder, because they were colorful and cheap. In 1915, Maurice Levy invented the metal container for lipstick, which gave license to its mass production. The Flapper style also influenced the cosmetics of the 1920s, which embraced dark eyes, red lipstick, red nail polish, and the suntan, invented as a fashion statement by Coco Chanel. The eyebrow pencil became vastly popular in the 1920s, in part because it was technologically superior to what it had been, due to a new ingredient: hydrogenated cottonseed oil (also the key constituent of another wonder product of that era Crisco Oil). The early commercial mascaras, like Maybelline, were simply pressed cakes containing soap and pigments. A woman would dip a tiny brush into hot water, rub the bristles on the cake, remove the excess by rolling the brush onto some blotting paper or a sponge, and then apply the mascara as if her eyelashes were a watercolor canvas. Eugène Schueller, founder of L'Oréal, invented modern synthetic hair dye in 1907 and he also invented sunscreen in 1936. The first patent for a nail polish was granted in 1919. Its color was a very faint pink. It's not clear how dark this rose was, but any girl whose nails were tipped in any pink darker than a baby's blush risked gossip about being "fast." Previously, only agricultural workers had sported suntans, while fashionable women kept their skins as pale as possible. In the wake of Chanel's adoption of the suntan, dozens of new fake tan products were produced to help both men and women achieve the "sun-kissed" look. In Asia, skin whitening continued to represent the ideal of beauty, as it does to this day.


title: History of cosmetics

text: In the time period after the First World War, there was a boom in cosmetic surgery. During the 1920s and 1930s, facial configuration and social identity dominated a plastic surgeon's world. Face-lifts were performed as early as 1920, but it wasn't until the 1960s when cosmetic surgery was used to reduce the signs of aging. During the twentieth century, cosmetic surgery mainly revolved around women. Men only participated in the practice if they had been disfigured by the war. Silicone implants were introduced in 1962. In the 1980s, the American Society of Plastic Surgeons made efforts to increase public awareness about plastic surgery. As a result, in 1982, the United States Supreme Court granted physicians the legal right to advertise their procedures. The optimistic and simplified nature of narrative advertisements often made the surgeries seem hazard-free, even though they were anything but. The American Society for Aesthetic Plastic Surgery reported that more than two million Americans elected to undergo cosmetic procedures, both surgical and non-surgical, in 1998, liposuction being the most popular. Breast augmentations ranked second, while numbers three, four, and five went to eye surgery, face-lifts, and chemical peels.


title: History of cosmetics

text: During the 1920s, numerous African Americans participated in skin bleaching in an attempt to lighten their complexion as well as hair straightening to appear whiter. Skin bleaches and hair straighteners created fortunes worth millions and accounted for a massive thirty to fifty percent of all advertisements in the black press of the decade. Oftentimes, these bleaches and straighteners were created and marketed by African American women themselves. Skin bleaches contained caustic chemicals such as hydroquinone, which suppressed the production of melanin in the skin. These bleaches could cause severe dermatitis and even death in high dosages. Many times these regimens were used daily, increasing an individual's risk. In the 1970s, at least five companies started producing make-up for African American women. Before the 1970s, makeup shades for Black women were limited. Face makeup and lipstick did not work for dark skin types because they were created for pale skin tones. These cosmetics that were created for pale skin tones only made dark skin appear grey. Eventually, makeup companies created makeup that worked for richer skin tones, such as foundations and powders that provided a natural match. Popular companies like Astarté, Afram, Libra, Flori Roberts and Fashion Fair priced the cosmetics reasonably due to the fact that they wanted to reach out to the masses.


title: History of cosmetics

text: From 1939 to 1945, during the Second World War, cosmetics were in short supply. Petroleum and alcohol, basic ingredients of many cosmetics, were diverted into war supply. Ironically, at this time when they were restricted, lipstick, powder, and face cream were most desirable and most experimentation was carried out for the post war period. Cosmetic developers realized that the war would result in a phenomenal boom afterwards, so they began preparing. Yardley, Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and the French manufacturing company became associated with "quality" after the war because they were the oldest established. Pond's had this same appeal in the lower price range. Gala cosmetics were one of the first to give its products fantasy names, such as the lipsticks in "lantern red" and "sea coral."


title: History of cosmetics

text: During the 1960s and 1970s, many women in the western world influenced by feminism decided to go without any cosmetics. In 1968 at the feminist Miss America protest, protestors symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a "Freedom Trash Can." This included cosmetics, which were among items the protestors called "instruments of female torture" and accouterments of what they perceived to be enforced femininity.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Cosmetics in the 1970s were divided into a "natural look" for day and a more sexualized image for evening. Non-allergic makeup appeared when the bare face was in fashion as women became more interested in the chemical value of their makeup. Modern developments in technology, such as the High-shear mixer facilitated the production of cosmetics which were more natural looking and had greater staying power in wear than their predecessors. The prime cosmetic of the time was eye shadow, though; women also were interested in new lipstick colors such as lilac, green, and silver. These lipsticks were often mixed with pale pinks and whites, so women could create their own individual shades. "Blush-ons" came into the market in this decade, with Revlon giving them wide publicity. This product was applied to the forehead, lower cheeks, and chin. Contouring and highlighting the face with white eye shadow cream also became popular. Avon introduced the lady saleswoman. In fact, the whole cosmetic industry in general opened opportunities for women in business as entrepreneurs, inventors, manufacturers, distributors, and promoters.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Beauty products are now widely available from dedicated internet-only retailers, who have more recently been joined online by established outlets, including major department stores and traditional brick-and-mortar beauty retailers.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Like most industries, cosmetic companies resist regulation by government agencies. In the U.S., the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) does not approve or review cosmetics, although it does regulate the colors that can be used in hair dyes. Cosmetic companies are not required to report injuries resulting from use of their products.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Although modern makeup has been used mainly by women traditionally, gradually an increasing number of males are using cosmetics usually associated to women to enhance their own facial features. Concealer is commonly used by cosmetic-conscious men. Cosmetics brands are releasing cosmetic products especially tailored for men, and men are using such products more commonly. There is some controversy over this, however, as many feel that men who wear makeup are neglecting traditional gender roles, and do not view men wearing cosmetics in a positive light. Others, however, view this as a sign of increasing gender equality and feel that men also have the right to enhance their facial features with cosmetics if women do.


title: History of cosmetics

text: Today the market of cosmetics has a different dynamic compared to the 20th century. Some countries are driving this economy:


title: History of cosmetics

text: With the imposition of lockdowns due to the COVID-19 pandemic and the consequent wariness to return to salons, trends that imitate salon procedures started to emerge, such as more complicated home skin-care regimens, hair color preserving products, and beauty tools. Early in the pandemic, sales on makeup essentials, like foundation and lipstick, decreased by up to 70% because of quarantining and face-covering mandates.


title: Index.hr

text: Index.hr is a Croatian online newspaper, launched in December 2002 and based in Zagreb. The news site covers politics, business, sports, show business, and features columns covering everything from gossip to political commentary. , it is the leading Croatian news website. According to Alexa Internet, Index.hr is one of the top sites in Croatia and in Bosnia and Herzegovina.


title: Index.hr

text: Index.hr was founded by Matija Babić and was originally designed as a news aggregation website, providing news content from Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina. The website quickly grew in popularity, and over time more original content produced by the growing staff was being added to the site, until it became a popular media outlet in its own right. Index.hr gained public recognition by exposing a series of scandals, the two most notable being the 2003 controversy stirred by a discovered recording of popular singer Marko Perković in which Perković allegedly performed a song praising the World War II fascist Ustaše regime, and the 2004 celebrity sex tape scandal involving Severina Vučković, a pop singer.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The Conservative Party of New York State is an American political party founded in 1962 following conservative dissatisfaction with the Republican Party in New York. Running on the Conservative Party line, James L. Buckley won election to the U.S. Senate in 1970 and served for one term. Since 2010, the party has held "Row C" on New York ballots—the third-place ballot position, directly below the Democratic and Republican parties—because it received the third-highest number of votes of any political party in the 2010, 2014 and 2018 New York gubernatorial elections. The party is known for its strategy of attempting to influence the Republican Party in a more conservative direction.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The Conservative Party of New York State was founded in 1962 by a group including J. Daniel Mahoney, Kieran O'Doherty, Charles E. Rice, Raymond R. Walker and Charles Edison, out of frustration with the perceived liberalism of the state's Republican Party. A key consideration was New York's fusion voting, unusual among U.S. states, which allows individual candidates to appear on multiple party lines in the same election. The Liberal Party of New York, founded in 1944, had benefited from this system; the Conservative Party desired to balance the Liberal Party's influence. According to "The New York Times", the party's support "came mainly from those who would later be called Reagan Democrats—working-class, urban and suburban, often Catholic."


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: Prominent conservative author and commentator William F. Buckley Jr. ran for Mayor of New York City on the Conservative Party line in 1965, winning 13.4% of the vote. An op-ed in "The New York Times" described the Buckley campaign as "a watershed campaign for the Conservatives, who gained heavy publicity and proved their strength in the overwhelmingly Democratic city." In 1966, Conservative candidate Paul L. Adams obtained more than half a million votes in his race for Governor of New York, winning Row C for the Party.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: In 1970, James Buckley, the brother of William F. Buckley Jr., ran for U.S. Senate as the candidate of the Conservative Party. Running only on the Conservative Party line and the Independent Alliance Party line, Buckley defeated Democratic Congressman Richard Ottinger and unelected incumbent Republican U.S. Senator Charles Goodell, receiving 39% of the vote. Buckley served one term in the Senate. According to the "New York Post", "Buckley's victory cemented, for a time, an electoral coalition of urban, ethnic Democrats with rural and suburban Republicans—all disgusted with excessive taxation, runaway government spending and the decline of traditional values." In 1976, Buckley ran for reelection to the U.S. Senate as the candidate of the Republican and Conservative parties, losing to Democrat Daniel Patrick Moynihan.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: In 1978, registered Conservative William Carney, a member of the Suffolk County legislature, was elected to the United States House of Representatives in New York's 1st congressional district, a long-time Democratic stronghold on Long Island, after winning the Republican primary and running on both party lines. He eventually served four terms before retiring.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: In 1980, the Conservative Party endorsed Al D'Amato in a U.S. Senate race in which he successfully challenged incumbent Sen. Jacob Javits in a Republican primary. D'Amato then narrowly prevailed in the general election over Democrat Elizabeth Holtzman; the 275,100 votes D'Amato received on the Conservative line exceeded his slim margin of victory.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: In the 1982 gubernatorial election, the party nominated Republican Lewis Lehrman, who was narrowly defeated by Democrat Mario Cuomo. In the 1986 gubernatorial election, the party nominated Republican Andrew P. O'Rourke, who was defeated by Cuomo in a landslide.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: Herbert London was the Conservative Party's nominee for Governor of New York in 1990; that year, the party broke from the Republican Party, declining to cross-endorse Republican nominee Pierre Rinfret. Conservatives leaders cited Rinfret's support for abortion, his perceived lack of seriousness about his candidacy, and his potential difficulties in attacking incumbent Democratic Governor Mario Cuomo on fiscal policies as reasons for their decision to support London instead. London ran a strong campaign statewide and finished one percentage point behind Rinfret, while Democratic Governor Mario Cuomo easily won re-election.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The party declined to endorse Republican Rudy Giuliani for Mayor of New York City in his successful 1993 and 1997 campaigns. In each of those elections, Giuliani accepted the endorsement of the Liberal Party. The Conservative Party endorsed George Marlin for Mayor in 1993 and left its line blank in the 1997 New York City mayoral race.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The party endorsed Republican George Pataki in his successful 1994 campaign to unseat incumbent Democratic Gov. Mario Cuomo. In that race, Pataki "drew more than 300,000 votes on the Conservative line, double his slender winning margin over Mr. Cuomo."


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The party ran its own candidates for Mayor of New York City in the 2001, 2005, and 2009, declining to support successful Republican candidate Michael Bloomberg.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: John Spencer, a former mayor of Yonkers, New York, was nominated for U.S. Senate by the Republican and Conservative Parties in the 2006 Senate election against Hillary Clinton. Spencer was defeated by Clinton.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: In the 2006 race for governor, Conservative Party Chairman Michael Long endorsed John Faso, the former Assembly Minority Leader and Republican State Comptroller nominee in 2002. Faso won the nomination at the Republican convention, defeating former Massachusetts Gov. Bill Weld, 61–39%. Following the convention, Weld withdrew from the race as senior party officials (including state Republican chairman Stephen Minarik, who endorsed Weld) urged party unity. In the general election, Faso was the nominee of both the Republican and Conservative parties, but was defeated by Eliot Spitzer.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The Conservative Party nominated Republican candidates John McCain and Sarah Palin for president and vice president in the 2008 election, which was won by Democrat Barack Obama.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The Conservative Party nominated Doug Hoffman for the 2009 special election in New York's 23rd congressional district, an election won by the Democratic nominee, Bill Owens. The Conservative Party chose Hoffman, a fiscal and social conservative, in reaction to the Republican Party's nomination of pro-choice, pro-same-sex-marriage, pro-union Assemblymember Dede Scozzafava, who Chairman Mike Long declared to be a "nice lady who is too liberal." On October 31, 2009, Scozzafava suspended her campaign, leading prominent Republicans such as national chairman Michael Steele to endorse Hoffman. On Election Day, Owens prevailed over Hoffman by a margin of 48.3% to 46%. The 2009 special election received significant national attention, and was alternately described as "a referendum on President Barack Obama" and "a fight over the identity of the Republican Party." According to one commentator, "tea party conservatives see the GOP loss as a victory for conservativism over mere political party loyalty. They're describing the defeat as a warning shot fired in defense of principle." In addition, elected officials and observers opined that the congressional race affected the New York State Senate's December 2, 2009 vote against same-sex marriage legislation.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: Party Chairman Michael Long endorsed Rick Lazio for the 2010 New York gubernatorial election and directed his allies to do the same. However, several county chairmen instead coalesced behind vice chairman Ralph Lorigo. Lazio defeated Lorigo in the primary election by a roughly 60–40% margin, but was defeated by Carl Paladino in the Republican primary. Lazio dropped out of the race on September 27, requiring a vacancy committee to convene and select a replacement for him on the Conservative line. Long eventually endorsed Paladino and the vacancy committee followed, placing Paladino on the Conservative Party line. Paladino lost the general election, but drew 232,264 votes on the Conservative Party line, which allowed the party to overtake the Independence Party of New York and retake Row C (the third place ballot position in New York elections) for the first time since the 1998 elections.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: Prior to the passage of same-sex marriage legislation in 2011, Long stated that the party would not endorse any candidate who supported same-sex marriage. Four Republican state senators—Sens. James Alesi, Mark Grisanti, Roy McDonald, and Stephen Saland—voted in favor of same-sex marriage. Alesi did not seek re-election in 2012, while Grisanti, McDonald, and Saland faced challengers in 2012 who received the Conservative Party's endorsement. Grisanti was re-elected to the State Senate, while McDonald was defeated in a Republican primary and Saland was defeated in a general election in which a Conservative Party-endorsed challenger acted as a spoiler.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: State Senator Mark Grisanti, the last remaining Republican state senator to have voted for the Marriage Equality Act, was again denied Conservative Party endorsement in 2014; the party instead endorsed dummy candidate Timothy Gallagher in State Senate District 60. Grisanti lost the Republican primary, but remained in the general election on the Independence line. In the general election, Gallagher—despite not campaigning at all—won 8 percent of the vote; the vote split between Gallagher, Grisanti, and Republican candidate Kevin Stocker allowed Democrat Marc Panepinto to win the election with only 34 percent of the vote.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The Party endorsed Rob Astorino very early in the 2014 gubernatorial election process. In the election for New York State Comptroller, the party threatened to nominate its own candidate if the Republicans could not find a candidate from their party to run on the line; the GOP eventually nominated Onondaga County Comptroller Rob Antonacci.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: In 2016, the Conservative Party nominated eventual winner Donald Trump for President of the United States.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: On April 13, 2018, the Conservative Party executive committee selected Marcus Molinaro as its candidate in the 2018 gubernatorial election in what Long termed a "not very easy" decision; the party chose Molinaro over Deputy State Senate Majority Leader John A. DeFrancisco and openly refused to consider Erie County Executive Joel Giambra.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The Conservative Party of Cattaraugus County is alleged to have been the target of a hostile takeover by members of the Republican Party, after 37 former Republicans abruptly changed party registration in October 2017. County party chairman Leonard Ciros alleged that the Republican Party violated state party loyalty laws and the federal Racketeer Influenced and Corrupt Organizations Act.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: As of 2018, the Party holds "Row C" on New York ballots—the third-place ballot position, directly below the Democratic and Republican parties—because it received the third-highest number of votes of any political party in the 2010, 2014, and 2018 gubernatorial elections.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: Long announced his retirement from the chairmanship of the Conservative Party on January 28, 2019 after having served in that role for 30 years. In February 2019, he was elected Chairman Emeritus of the Party. On February 23, 2019, the Party named Gerard Kassar of Brooklyn as its new chairman.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: In 2020, the Conservative Party nominated incumbent Republican President Donald Trump for re-election to the presidency. Trump was defeated by Democrat Joe Biden. In 2021, the Conservative Party successfully teamed up with the Republican Party to raise opposition among the state's voters and defeat three ballot initiatives proposed by Democrats.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: In 2012, "The New York Times" stated that the Conservative Party had "a successful electoral record in a decidedly blue state in which the Conservatives have elbowed the Republican Party to the right". Also in 2012, the "New York Post" asserted that the Party had "helped the GOP maintain its majority in the state Senate, even as New York has turned an ever-deeper blue over the last half century" and added that it had "forced the state Republican Party to (sometimes) remember what it stood for—by threatening its power".


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: Rather than nominating its own candidates, the Conservative Party usually endorses the same candidates as the Republican Party and campaigns against the Democratic candidates. However, the party has withheld support from Republican candidates if it deems them too liberal. For example, the Conservative Party withheld its support from Republican Rudy Giuliani's fusion campaigns with endorsement from the Liberal Party for New York City mayor in 1989, 1993 and 1997. In the 2004 U.S. Senate election, the Conservative Party endorsed Marilyn O'Grady to oppose Republican candidate Howard Mills and incumbent Democratic Senator Charles Schumer. Also in 2004, the Party's decision to endorse Tom Dadey rather than incumbent Republican State Senator Nancy Larraine Hoffmann in State Senate District 49 helped bring about the victory of Democrat David Valesky in that race. After losing to Hoffmann in the Republican primary, Dadey—with the support of the Conservative Party and the Independence Party—remained in the race; Hoffmann lost the general election by 742 votes.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: Following the passage of same-sex marriage legislation in 2011, the Conservative Party stated that it would withdraw support for any candidate who had voted for the bill; two Republican senators who voted for same-sex marriage—Roy McDonald and Stephen Saland—lost their seats in 2012.


title: Conservative Party of New York State

text: The party has also endorsed Democratic candidates, including controversial former Buffalo mayor and presidential candidate Jimmy Griffin, who was initially elected mayor solely on the Conservative ticket but had Republican support as well for his subsequent campaigns. It also cross-endorsed such Democrats as Asms. Michael Cusick, Michael P. Kearns, and Robin Schimminger and former Capital District Congressman Michael McNulty.


title: Church architecture

text: Church architecture refers to the architecture of buildings of churches, convents, seminaries etc. It has evolved over the two thousand years of the Christian religion, partly by innovation and partly by borrowing other architectural styles as well as responding to changing beliefs, practices and local traditions. From the birth of Christianity to the present, the most significant objects of transformation for Christian architecture and design were the great churches of Byzantium, the Romanesque abbey churches, Gothic cathedrals and Renaissance basilicas with its emphasis on harmony. These large, often ornate and architecturally prestigious buildings were dominant features of the towns and countryside in which they stood. However, far more numerous were the parish churches in Christendom, the focus of Christian devotion in every town and village. While a few are counted as sublime works of architecture to equal the great cathedrals and churches, the majority developed along simpler lines, showing great regional diversity and often demonstrating local vernacular technology and decoration.


title: Church architecture

text: Buildings were at first from those originally intended for other purposes but, with the rise of distinctively ecclesiastical architecture, church buildings came to influence secular ones which have often imitated religious architecture. In the 20th century, the use of new materials, such as steel and concrete, has had an effect upon the design of churches. The history of church architecture divides itself into periods, and into countries or regions and by religious affiliation. The matter is complicated by the fact that buildings put up for one purpose may have been re-used for another, that new building techniques may permit changes in style and size, that changes in liturgical practice may result in the alteration of existing buildings and that a building built by one religious group may be used by a successor group with different purposes.


title: Church architecture

text: The simplest church building comprises a single meeting space, built of locally available material and using the same skills of construction as the local domestic buildings. Such churches are generally rectangular, but in African countries where circular dwellings are the norm, vernacular churches may be circular as well. A simple church may be built of mud brick, wattle and daub, split logs or rubble. It may be roofed with thatch, shingles, corrugated iron or banana leaves. However, church congregations, from the 4th century onwards, have sought to construct church buildings that were both permanent and aesthetically pleasing. This had led to a tradition in which congregations and local leaders have invested time, money and personal prestige into the building and decoration of churches.


title: Church architecture

text: Within any parish, the local church is often the oldest building and is larger than any pre-19th-century structure except perhaps a barn. The church is often built of the most durable material available, often dressed stone or brick. The requirements of liturgy have generally demanded that the church should extend beyond a single meeting room to two main spaces, one for the congregation and one in which the priest performs the rituals of the Mass. To the two-room structure is often added aisles, a tower, chapels, and vestries and sometimes transepts and mortuary chapels. The additional chambers may be part of the original plan, but in the case of a great many old churches, the building has been extended piecemeal, its various parts testifying to its long architectural history.


title: Church architecture

text: In the first three centuries of the Early Livia Christian Church, the practice of Christianity was illegal and few churches were constructed. In the beginning, Christians worshipped along with Jews in synagogues and in private houses. After the separation of Jews and Christians, the latter continued to worship in people's houses, known as house churches. These were often the homes of the wealthier members of the faith. Saint Paul, in his first letter to the Corinthians writes: "The churches of Asia send greetings. Aquila and Prisca, together with the church in their house, greet you warmly in the Lord."


title: Church architecture

text: Some domestic buildings were adapted to function as churches. One of the earliest of adapted residences is at Dura Europos church, built shortly after 200 AD, where two rooms were made into one, by removing a wall, and a dais was set up. To the right of the entrance a small room was made into a baptistry.


title: Church architecture

text: Some church buildings were specifically built as church assemblies, such as that opposite the emperor Diocletian's palace in Nicomedia. Its destruction was recorded thus:


title: Church architecture

text: When that day dawned, in the eighth consulship of Diocletian and seventh of Maximian, suddenly, while it was yet hardly light, the prefect, together with chief commanders, tribunes, and officers of the treasury, came to the church in Nicomedia, and the gates having been forced open, they searched everywhere for an idol of the Divinity. The books of the Holy Scriptures were found, and they were committed to the flames; the utensils and furniture of the church were abandoned to pillage: all was rapine, confusion, tumult. That church, situated on rising ground, was within view of the palace; and Diocletian and Galerius stood as if on a watchtower, disputing long whether it ought to be set on fire. The sentiment of Diocletian prevailed, who dreaded lest, so great a fire being once kindled, some part of the city might he burnt; for there were many and large buildings that surrounded the church. Then the Pretorian Guards came in battle array, with axes and other iron instruments, and having been let loose everywhere, they in a few hours leveled that very lofty edifice with the ground.


title: Church architecture

text: From the first to the early fourth centuries most Christian communities worshipped in private homes, often secretly. Some Roman churches, such as the Basilica of San Clemente in Rome, are built directly over the houses where early Christians worshipped. Other early Roman churches are built on the sites of Christian martyrdom or at the entrance to catacombs where Christians were buried.