title: Sigurd Ring

text: One possibility is thus that the struggle of 812 is reflected in the legendary Battle of the Brávellir, fought by Sigurd Ring, nephew of Harald Wartooth. Other scholars have suggested that the original name of the ruler was Ring, that he was a historical king of the Swedes, and that he won a battle against a Danish or East Geatic host in the 8th century. Still others regard the battle as mythical or purely legendary. Modern Swedish historians are skeptical to the prospects of establishing a chronology from the information of the High Medieval saga literature, and generally decline to discuss the possible historicity of Sigurd Ring or the Brávellir battle.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: The name Ring occurs in the royal Swedish clan in the Viking Age, since the ecclesiastic chronicle of Adam of Bremen (c. 1075) says that a ruler in the first half of the 10th century bore that name.


title: Maxentius

text: Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c. 283 – 28 October 312) was a Roman emperor, who reigned from 306 until his death in 312. Despite ruling in Italy and North Africa, and having the recognition of the Senate in Rome, he was not recognized as a legitimate emperor by his fellow emperors.


title: Maxentius

text: He was the son of former Emperor Maximian and the son-in-law of Emperor Galerius. The latter part of his reign was preoccupied with civil war, allying with Maximinus against Licinius and Constantine. The latter defeated him at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312, where Maxentius, with his army in flight, purportedly perished by drowning in the Tiber river.


title: Maxentius

text: Maxentius was the last emperor to permanently reside in Rome. He attempted to embellish, restore and improve the ancient capital, carrying out important building works, including the Temple of the Divine Romulus (dedicated to his deceased son), the Basilica of Maxentius, which was completed by Constantine, the villa and the circus of Maxentius.


title: Maxentius

text: Maxentius was the son of the Emperor Maximian and his wife Eutropia. As his father became emperor in 285, he was regarded as crown prince who would eventually follow his father on the throne. He seems not to have served, however, in any important military or administrative position during the reign of Diocletian and his father. The exact date of his marriage to Valeria Maximilla, daughter of Galerius, is unknown. He had two sons, Valerius Romulus (ca. 295 – 309) and an unknown one.


title: Maxentius

text: In 305, Diocletian and Maximian abdicated, and the former "Caesares" Constantius and Galerius became "Augusti". Although two sons of emperors – Constantine and Maxentius – were available, they were passed over for the new tetrarchy, and Valerius Severus and Maximinus Daza were appointed Caesars. Lactantius' "Epitome" states that Galerius hated Maxentius and used his influence with Diocletian to see that Maxentius was ignored in the succession; perhaps Diocletian also thought Maxentius was not qualified for the military duties of the imperial office. Maxentius retired to an estate some miles from Rome.


title: Maxentius

text: When Constantius died in 306, his son Constantine was crowned emperor on July 25 and subsequently accepted by Galerius into the Tetrarchy as "Caesar". This set the precedent for Maxentius' accession later in the same year.


title: Maxentius

text: When rumours reached the capital that the emperors tried to subject the Roman population to the capitation tax, like every other city of the empire, and wanted to dissolve the remains of the Praetorian Guard which were still stationed at Rome, riots broke out. A group of officers of the city's garrisons (Zosimus calls them Marcellianus, Marcellus and Lucianus) turned to Maxentius to accept the imperial purple, probably judging that the official recognition which was granted to Constantine would not be withheld from Maxentius, son of an emperor as well. Maxentius accepted the honour, promised donations to the city's troops, and was publicly acclaimed emperor on 28 October 306. The usurpation obviously went largely without bloodshed (Zosimus names only one victim); the prefect of Rome went over to Maxentius and retained his office. Apparently the conspirators turned to Maximian as well, who had retired to a palace in Lucania, but he declined to resume power for the time being.


title: Maxentius

text: Maxentius managed to be recognized as emperor in central and southern Italy, the islands of Corsica and Sardinia and Sicily, and the African provinces. Northern Italy remained under the control of the western Augustus Valerius Severus, who resided in Mediolanum (Milan).


title: Maxentius

text: Maxentius refrained from using the titles "Augustus" or "Caesar a"t first and styled himself "princeps invictus" ("undefeated prince"), in the hope of obtaining recognition of his reign by the senior emperor Galerius. However, the latter refused to do so. Apart from his alleged antipathy towards Maxentius, Galerius probably wanted to deter others from following the examples of Constantine and Maxentius and declaring themselves emperors. Constantine firmly controlled his father's army and territories, and Galerius could pretend that his accession was part of the regular succession in the tetrarchy, but neither was the case with Maxentius: he would be the fifth emperor, and he had only few troops at his command. Galerius reckoned that it would be not too difficult to quell the usurpation, and early in 307, the Augustus Severus marched on Rome with a large army.


title: Maxentius

text: The majority of this army consisted of soldiers who had fought under Maxentius' father Maximian for years, and as Severus reached Rome, the majority of his army went over to Maxentius, rightful heir of their former commander, who dealt out a large amount of money. When Maximian himself finally left his retreat and returned to Rome to assume the imperial office once again and support his son, Severus with the rest of his army retreated to Ravenna. Shortly after, he surrendered to Maximian, who promised that his life would be spared.


title: Maxentius

text: After the defeat of Severus, Maxentius took possession of northern Italy up to the Alps and the Istrian peninsula to the east, and assumed the title of Augustus, which (in his eyes) had become vacant with the surrender of Severus.


title: Maxentius

text: The joint rule of Maxentius and Maximian in Rome was tested further when Galerius marched to Italy in the summer of 307 with an even larger army. While negotiating with the invader, Maxentius could repeat what he did to Severus, by the promise of large sums of money and the authority of Maximian, many soldiers of Galerius defected to him. Galerius was forced to withdraw, plundering Italy on his way. Some time during the invasion, Severus was put to death by Maxentius, probably at Tres Tabernae near Rome (the exact circumstances of his death are not certain). After the failed campaign of Galerius, Maxentius' reign over Italy and Africa was firmly established. Beginning in 307, he tried to arrange friendly contacts with Constantine and in the summer of that year, Maximian travelled to Gaul, where Constantine married his daughter Fausta and was in turn appointed "Augustus" by the senior emperor. Constantine tried to avoid breaking with Galerius and did not openly support Maxentius during the invasion.


title: Maxentius

text: In 308, probably April, Maximian tried to depose his son in an assembly of soldiers in Rome; surprisingly to him, the present troops remained faithful to his son and he had to flee to Constantine. In the conference of Carnuntum, in the autumn of that same year, Maxentius was once again denied recognition as legitimate emperor, and Licinius was appointed "Augustus" with the task of regaining the usurper's domain. Late in 308, Domitius Alexander was acclaimed emperor in Carthage, and the African provinces seceded from Maxentian rule. This produced a dangerous situation for Maxentius, as Africa was critical to Rome's food supply.


title: Maxentius

text: Maxentius' eldest son Valerius Romulus died in 309, at the age of about fourteen, was deified and buried in a mausoleum in the Villa of Maxentius at the Via Appia. Nearby, Maxentius also constructed the Circus of Maxentius. After the death of Maximian in 309 or 310, relations with Constantine rapidly deteriorated and Maxentius allied with Maximinus to counter an alliance between Constantine and Licinius. He allegedly tried to secure the province of Raetia north of the Alps, thereby dividing the realms of Constantine and Licinius (reported by Zosimus); the plan was not carried out, as Constantine acted first.


title: Maxentius

text: In 310, Maxentius lost Istria to Licinius, who could not continue the campaign. By the middle of 310 Galerius had become too ill to involve himself in imperial politics and he died soon after April 30, 311. Galerius' death destabilized what remained of the Tetrarchic system. On hearing the news, Maximinus mobilized against Licinius and seized Asia Minor before meeting Licinius on the Bosphorus to arrange terms for peace. In the meantime, Maxentius fortified northern Italy against potential invasions and sent a small army to Africa under the command of his praetorian prefect Rufius Volusianus which defeated and executed the usurper Domitius Alexander in 310 or 311. Maxentius used the opportunity to seize the wealth of his supporters, and to bring large amounts of grain to Rome. He also strengthened his support among the Christians of Italy by allowing them to elect a new Bishop of Rome, Eusebius.


title: Maxentius

text: Maxentius was far from secure, his early support was dissolving into open protest; by 312, he was a man barely tolerated. Without the revenues of the empire, Maxentius was forced to resume taxation in Italy to support his army and his building projects in Rome. The election of a bishop did not aid much, either, as Diocletian's persecution had split the Italian church into competing factions over the issue of apostasy (see Donatism). The Christians of Italy could easily see that Constantine was more sympathetic to their plight than Maxentius. In the summer of 311, Maxentius mobilized against Constantine while Licinius was occupied with affairs in the East. He declared war on Constantine, vowing to avenge his father's "murder". Constantine, to prevent Maxentius from forming a hostile alliance with Licinius, forged his own alliance with the man over the winter of 311–12 by offering to him his sister Constantia in marriage. Maximinus Daza considered Constantine's arrangement with Licinius an affront to his authority. In response, he sent ambassadors to Rome, offering political recognition to Maxentius in exchange for military support. Two alliances, Maximinus and Maxentius, Constantine and Licinius, lined up against one another. The emperors prepared for war.


title: Maxentius

text: Maxentius expected an attack along his eastern flank from Licinius and stationed an army in Verona. Constantine had smaller forces than his opponent: with his forces withdrawn from Africa, with the praetorian and Imperial Horse Guard, and with the troops he had taken from Severus, Maxentius had an army equal to approximately 100,000 soldiers to use against his opponents in the north. Many of these he used to garrison fortified towns across the region, keeping most stationed with him in Verona. Against this, Constantine could only bring a force of between twenty-five and forty thousand men. The bulk of his troops simply could not be withdrawn from the Rhine frontiers without negative consequences. It was against the recommendations of his advisers and generals, against popular expectation, that Constantine anticipated Maxentius, and struck first.


title: Maxentius

text: As early as weather permitted, late in the spring of 312, Constantine crossed the Alps with a quarter of his army, a force equivalent to something less than forty thousand men. Having crossed the Cottian Alps at the Mont Cenis pass, he first came to Segusium (Susa, Italy), a heavily fortified town containing a military garrison, which shut its gates to him. Constantine ordered his forces to set its gates on fire and scale its walls, and took the town quickly. Constantine forbade the plunder of the town and advanced into northern Italy.


title: Maxentius

text: At the approach to the west of the important city of Augusta Taurinorum (Turin, Italy), Constantine encountered a large force of heavily armed Maxentian cavalry, labeled "clibanarii" or "cataphracti" in the ancient sources. In the ensuing battle Constantine spread his forces into a line, allowing Maxentius' cavalry to ride into the middle of his forces. As his forces broadly encircled the enemy cavalry, Constantine's own cavalry charged at the sides of the Maxentian cataphracts, beating them with iron-tipped clubs. Many Maxentian cavalrymen were dismounted, while most others were variously incapacitated by the blows. Constantine then commanded his foot soldiers to advance against the surviving Maxentian infantry, cutting them down as they fled. Victory, the panegyrist who speaks of the events declares, came easily. Turin refused to give refuge to the retreating forces of Maxentius. It opened its gates to Constantine instead. Other cities of the north Italian plain, recognizing Constantine's quick and clement victories, sent him embassies of congratulation for his victory. He moved on to Milan, where he was met with open gates and jubilant rejoicing. He resided there until the middle of the summer of 312 before moving on.


title: Maxentius

text: It was expected that Maxentius would try the same strategy as against Severus and Galerius earlier; that is, remaining in the well-defended city of Rome, and sit out a siege which would cost his enemy much more. For somewhat uncertain reasons, he abandoned this plan, however, and offered battle to Constantine near the Milvian Bridge on 28 October 312. Ancient sources usually attribute this action to superstition or (if pro-Constantinian) divine providence. Maxentius of course had consulted soothsayers before battle, as was customary practice, and it can be assumed that they reported favourable omens, especially as the day of battle would be his "dies imperii", the day of his accession to the throne (which was 28 October 306). What else may have motivated him, is open to speculation.


title: Maxentius

text: The armies of Maxentius and Constantine met north of the city, some distance outside the walls, beyond the Tiber river on the Via Flaminia. Christian tradition, especially Lactantius and Eusebius of Caesarea, claims that Constantine fought under the labarum in that battle, revealed to him in a dream. Of the battle itself, not much is known – Constantine's forces defeated Maxentius's troops, who retreated to the Tiber, and in the chaos of the fleeing army trying to cross the river, Maxentius fell into the water and drowned. His body was found the next day and paraded through the city, and later sent to Africa, as a sign that he had surely perished.


title: Maxentius

text: After Constantine's victory, Maxentius was systematically vilified and presented as a cruel, bloodthirsty and incompetent tyrant. While he was not counted under the persecutors of the Christians by early sources like Lactantius, under the influence of the official propaganda later Christian tradition framed Maxentius as hostile to Christianity as well. This image has left its traces in all of our sources and has dominated the view of Maxentius well into the 20th century, when a more extensive use and analysis of non-literary sources like coins and inscriptions have led to a more balanced image.


title: Maxentius

text: Maxentius was a prolific builder, whose achievements were overshadowed by Constantine's issue of a "damnatio memoriae" against him. Many buildings in Rome that are commonly associated with Constantine, such as the great basilica in the forum Romanum, were in fact built by Maxentius.


title: Maxentius

text: In December 2006, Italian archaeologists announced that an excavation under a shrine near the Palatine Hill had unearthed several items in wooden boxes, which they identified as the imperial "regalia", possibly belonging to Maxentius. The items in these boxes, which were wrapped in linen and what appears to be silk, include three complete lances, four javelins, what appears to be a base for standards, and three glass and chalcedony spheres. The most important find was a sceptre of a flower holding a blue-green globe, which is believed to have belonged to the Emperor himself because of its intricate workmanship, and has been dated to his rule.


title: Maxentius

text: These are the only known imperial insignia so far recovered, which hitherto had only been known from representations on coins and in relief sculptures. Clementina Panella, the archaeologist who made the discovery, states that "These artifacts clearly belonged to the emperor, especially the sceptre, which is very elaborate. It's not an item you would let someone else have." Panella notes that the insignia were likely hidden by Maxentius' supporters in an attempt to preserve the emperor's memory after he was defeated at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge by Constantine. The items have been restored and are on temporary display at the Museo Nazionale Romano at the Palazzo Massimo alle Terme.


title: Still Crazy After All These Years

text: Still Crazy After All These Years is the fourth solo studio album by Paul Simon. Recorded and released in 1975, the album produced four U.S. Top 40 hits: "50 Ways to Leave Your Lover" (No. 1), "Gone at Last" (No. 23), "My Little Town" (No. 9, credited to Simon & Garfunkel), and the title track (No. 40). It won two Grammy Awards for Album of the Year and Best Male Pop Vocal Performance in 1976.


title: Still Crazy After All These Years

text: "My Little Town" reunited Simon with former partner Art Garfunkel on record for the first time since 1970, while "Gone at Last" was a duet between Simon and Phoebe Snow. Two tracks featured members of the Muscle Shoals Rhythm Section as a backing band.


title: Still Crazy After All These Years

text: The title track has been recorded by Rosemary Clooney (on her 1993 album "Still on the Road"), Ray Charles (on his 1993 album "My World"), Karen Carpenter (on her self-titled solo album released posthumously in 1996), and Willie Nelson (on the soundtrack of the 2000 motion picture "Space Cowboys").


title: Physical vapor deposition

text: Physical vapor deposition (PVD), sometimes called physical vapor transport (PVT), describes a variety of vacuum deposition methods which can be used to produce thin films and coatings on substrates including metals, ceramics, glass, and polymers. PVD is characterized by a process in which the material transitions from a condensed phase to a vapor phase and then back to a thin film condensed phase. The most common PVD processes are sputtering and evaporation. PVD is used in the manufacturing of items which require thin films for optical, mechanical, electrical, acoustic or chemical functions. Examples include semiconductor devices such as thin-film solar cells, microelectromechanical devices such as thin film bulk acoustic resonator, aluminized PET film for food packaging and balloons, and titanium nitride coated cutting tools for metalworking. Besides PVD tools for fabrication, special smaller tools used mainly for scientific purposes have been developed.


title: Physical vapor deposition

text: The source material is unavoidably also deposited on most other surfaces interior to the vacuum chamber, including the fixturing used to hold the parts.


title: Physical vapor deposition

text: Various thin film characterization techniques can be used to measure the physical properties of PVD coatings, such as:


title: Physical vapor deposition

text: PVD can be used as an application to make anisotropic glasses of low molecular weight for organic semiconductors. The parameter needed to allow the formation of this type of glass is molecular mobility and anisotropic structure at the free surface of the glass. The configuration of the polymer is important where it needs to be positioned in a lower energy state before the added molecules bury the material through a deposition. This process of adding molecules to the structure starts to equilibrate and gain mass and bulk out to have more kinetic stability. The packing of molecules here through PVD is face-on, meaning not at the long tail end, allows further overlap of pi orbitals as well which also increases the stability of added molecules and the bonds. The orientation of these added materials is dependent mainly on temperature for when molecules will be deposited or extracted from the molecule. The equilibration of the molecules is what provides the glass with its anisotropic characteristics. The anisotropy of these glasses is valuable as it allows a higher charge carrier mobility. This process of packing in glass in an anisotropic way is valuable due to its versatility and the fact that glass provides added benefits beyond crystals, such as homogeneity and flexibility of composition.


title: Physical vapor deposition

text: By varying the composition and duration of the process, a range of colors can be produced by PVD on stainless steel. The resulting colored stainless steel product can appear as brass, bronze, and other metals or alloys.


title: Physical vapor deposition

text: This PVD-colored stainless steel can be used as exterior cladding for buildings and structures, such as the "Vessel" sculpture in New York City and The Bund in Shanghai. It is also used for interior hardware, paneling, and fixtures, and is even used on some consumer electronics, like the Space Gray and Gold finishes of the iPhone and Apple Watch.


title: Physical vapor deposition

text: PVD is used to enhance the wear resistance of steel cutting tools' surfaces and decrease the risk of adhesion and sticking between tools and a workpiece. This includes tools used in metalworking or plastic injection molding. The coating is typically a thin ceramic layer less than 4µm that has very high hardness and low friction. It is necessary to have high hardness of workpieces to ensure dimensional stability of coating to avoid brittling. It is possible to combine PVD with a plasma nitriding treatment of steel to increase the load bearing capacity of the coating. Chromium nitride (CrN), titanium nitride (TiN), and Titanium Carbonitride (TiCN) may be used for PVD coating for plastic molding dies.


title: Physical vapor deposition

text: PVD coatings are generally used to improve hardness, increase wear resistance, and prevent oxidation. They can also be used for aesthetic purposes. Thus, such coatings are used in a wide range of applications such as:


title: Cars (song)

text: "Cars" is the debut solo single by English musician Gary Numan. It was released on 21 August 1979 and is from his debut studio album, "The Pleasure Principle". The song reached the top of the charts in several countries and was considered one of the first big new wave hits. Today, Numan is considered as an early pioneer of the genre.


title: Cars (song)

text: The song was the first release credited solely to Gary Numan after he dropped the band name Tubeway Army, under which he had released four singles and two LPs, including the number one UK hit "Are 'Friends' Electric?", and its parent album, "Replicas". Musically, the new song was somewhat lighter and more pop-oriented than its predecessors, Numan later conceding that he had chart success in mind: "This was the first time I had written a song with the intention of 'maybe it could be a hit single'; I was writing this before 'Are "Friends" Electric?' happened." He has since described "Cars" as "a pretty average song".


title: Cars (song)

text: In the UK charts, it reached number 1 in 1979, and in 1980 hit number 1 in Canada two weeks running on the "RPM" national singles chart (29 weeks in the top 100). It was his only single to chart there. It rose to #4 on the US "Cash Box" Top 100 and #9 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100. Though Numan had a string of hits in the UK, "Cars" was his only song in the American Pop charts.


title: Cars (song)

text: "Cars" is based on two musical sections: a verse/instrumental break and a bridge. The recording features a conventional rock rhythm section of bass guitar and drums, although the rest of the instruments used are analogue synthesisers, principally the Minimoog (augmenting the song's recognisable bass riff) and the Polymoog keyboard, providing austere synthetic string lines over the bass riff. The bridge section also includes a tambourine part. Numan's vocal part is sung in an almost expressionless, synthesized style. There is no "chorus" as such. The song becomes instrumental from the 1:30-point until its conclusion.


title: Cars (song)

text: The music video featured Numan's then-current backing band, including Billy Currie from the band Ultravox, though he had not actually played on the recording of "Cars". It is perhaps notable that the video for "Cars" depicts no images of actual cars. At 2:43 in the video, five Gary Numans appear to be "driving" (in a standing position, holding an imaginary steering wheel) along a Polymoog keyboard.


title: Cars (song)

text: The original UK single was released in August 1979, backed with a non-album instrumental track called "Asylum". The US B-side was "Metal", from "The Pleasure Principle" album. The track has been a UK Top 20 hit for Numan in 3 successive decades: on its original release in 1979 (reaching number 1), in 1987 as the 'E Reg Model' remix (reaching number 16), and finally in 1996 following its use in an advertisement for Carling Premier beer (reaching number 17). Numan has regularly performed the song onstage since its original release and it appears on all but one of his official live albums to date.


title: Cars (song)

text: Numan performed "Cars" using a set of two dozen automobiles and their horns in an innovative 2010 commercial for DieHard. All of the cars were powered from one single battery. James Frost of Zoo Films directed the video, and Synn Labs, which had previously worked with the band OK Go, engineered the cars.


title: Cars (song)

text: Fear Factory, an American heavy metal band, recorded a version of "Cars" and released it as the second single from their third studio album, "Obsolete". The song was only included as a bonus track on the limited edition digipak re-release of "Obsolete" and would be instrumental in breaking Fear Factory into the mainstream. In their rendition, Gary Numan performs a duet with frontman Burton C. Bell.


title: Cars (song)

text: According to Bell, around 1996, the band started performing "Cars" as an encore at European concerts. Word spread that Fear Factory was performing the song and as a result Gary Numan's manager contacted them. Upon request, Numan's management flew him out to the Vancouver studio for a three-day span to record vocals on "Cars." The band also asked Numan to record a spoken word piece for the introduction of "Obsolete".


title: Cars (song)

text: Numan had a long-standing dislike for being associated with what he perceived as dated music, and this initially made him apprehensive of working with Fear Factory until realizing "there was a chance that it could introduce me to a new generation of people who didn't know my history. And that can be useful, because my music's got a lot heavier and darker anyway." The result would be satisfactory for both parties, and Numan praised the band as "brilliant, really easy to work with. They didn't have a bad word to say about anyone."


title: Cars (song)

text: The uncharacteristically bouncy and bright rendition somewhat contrasts with Fear Factory's reputation for intense, grinding metal, while the heavy use of synthesizer and other electronic elements corresponds with the band's industrial style. Drummer Raymond Herrera described the cover as "basically like a blueprint of a futuristic car." He added that, while other songs were considered, the band chose "Cars" because all the band members knew and appreciated it and because the keyboards suited Fear Factory's sound. Herrera later noted that the group initially wanted to record U2's "New Year's Day" but chose "Cars" because they were fortunate enough to have Numan participate. Fear Factory would later cover a different U2 song, "I Will Follow," in 2005.


title: Cars (song)

text: "Cars" played a significant part in "Obsolete"s status as Fear Factory's highest-selling album. By 2001, it had sold over 750,000 copies. According to Herrera, the cover received greater enthusiasm in the UK than in the band's native US, which was validated by its chart status. During the song's promotion, Gary Numan joined the band for a concert performance in Brixton, London to much enthusiasm.


title: Cars (song)

text: After the radio trade publication "R&R" listed "Cars" as the most added track on both active rock and mainstream rock in May 1999, the song earned "Breaker" status and continued to surge up the chart. "Cars" debuted and peaked at number 57 in the UK Singles Chart on 9 October.


title: Cars (song)

text: Numan also appears in the sci-fi music video, directed by John S. Bartley and filmed in Vancouver, which debuted in June 1999. Bell enthusiastically described the ambitious video as having a "Stanley Kubrick-type of vibe to it":


title: Cars (song)

text: In 1980, Frank Zappa played "Cars" during some live shows, but sang the lyrics to his song "In France" instead of the original ones. When "In France" was released on his 1984 album "Them or Us", it got its own blues background instead. The Barron Knights used the melody and background music to "Cars" in "We Know Who Done It", their 1980 parody and spoof of "Who shot J.R.?".


title: Cars (song)

text: Kool G. Rap & DJ Polo released their own hip hop version of "Cars" on their debut "Road to the Riches" album in 1989. "Cars" was covered by the Judybats on the 1991 single "Daylight" and by Shampoo on the "Girl Power" single in 1995. Dave Clarke performed the song on the "Random" tribute album in 1997. Nine Inch Nails performed "Cars" several times during their Wave Goodbye Tour in 2009, featuring Numan on vocals.


title: Cars (song)

text: On 21 December 1999, during a performance of "Let It Snow! Let It Snow! Let It Snow!" on "The Tonight Show with Jay Leno", the group Luscious Jackson segued into a variation on "Cars" entitled "Sleds", using the same music but changing the lyrics to describe winter activities.


title: Cars (song)

text: In 2009, Chicane sampled "Cars" in "Hiding All the Stars" which reached No. 42 in the UK and No. 23 in Belgium.


title: Cars (song)

text: The song "New Car" by Cledus T. Judd used the instrumental portion of "Cars" after each chorus, partially performed with car horns. The song was remixed with "Technologic" by Daft Punk and with "Here Comes My DJ" by Grandmaster Flash to be featured as a playable track in "DJ Hero". Toronto-based alternative rock quartet Sloan performed a version of the song in June 2011 for "The A.V. Club" A.V. Undercover series.


title: Ian Shaw (actor)

text: Ian Shaw (born 18 December 1969) is an English stage and screen actor. He is the son of actress Mary Ure and actor Robert Shaw.


title: Ian Shaw (actor)

text: After studying American Studies at Sussex University, Shaw trained as an actor at the Webber Douglas Academy of Dramatic Art.


title: Ian Shaw (actor)

text: On stage, Shaw played Friedrich in "War Horse" (National Theatre) and also appeared in several plays in Rep at the "Royal Exchange Manchester" (Widowers' Houses, The Importance of Being Earnest, Nude With Violin, The Philadelphia Story, The Brothers Karamazov). He was also in Much Ado About Nothing (West End), Three Sisters (Nuffield/Bath), Private Lives and Closer (Birmingham Rep), and The Rivals (Derby Playhouse & Philadelphia Walnut St).


title: Ian Shaw (actor)

text: His first television role was in 1993 in an episode of "Casualty". Since then he has appeared in the films "Century" (1993), "Moondance" (1995), "The Boys From County Clare" (2003), "The Contract" (2006), and "Johnny English Reborn" (2011). He has also appeared in many TV series including "EastEnders", "Soldier, Soldier", "The Bill", "The Queen", "Sharpe", "Ultimate Force", "Ghosts", "Silent Witness" and "Medics".


title: Ian Shaw (actor)

text: Shaw is the co-author, with Joseph Nixon, of "The Shark is Broken", a play about the making of "Jaws" in which he plays his father. The play, directed by Guy Masterson, was the hit of the 2019 Edinburgh Fringe, selling out its run and receiving glowing reviews, several saying, 'They're going to need a bigger theatre.' The play was due to re-open at the "Ambassadors Theatre (London)" on 11 May 2020, produced by Sonia Friedman, with Ian as Robert Shaw, Demetri Goritsas as Roy Scheider and Liam Murray Scott as Richard Dreyfuss. The COVID-19 pandemic forced Britain's theatres to close in March 2020 and the production was halted. The play re-opened in October 2021.


title: Ian Shaw (actor)

text: Jessie Thomson, reviewing the London production in the Evening Standard, wrote that Shaw 'gives what is undoubtedly one of the best theatrical performances of the year. Flitting between machismo and vulnerability, he delivers a hilarious and moving performance that’s exhilarating to watch, in a show that begins as a rollicking comedy before turning into something deeper.'


title: Tower

text: A tower is a tall structure, taller than it is wide, often by a significant factor. Towers are distinguished from masts by their lack of guy-wires and are therefore, along with tall buildings, self-supporting structures.


title: Tower

text: Towers are specifically distinguished from buildings in that they are built not to be habitable but to serve other functions using the height of the tower. For example, the height of a clock tower improves the visibility of the clock, and the height of a tower in a fortified building such as a castle increases the visibility of the surroundings for defensive purposes. Towers may also be built for observation, leisure, or telecommunication purposes. A tower can stand alone or be supported by adjacent buildings, or it may be a feature on top of a larger structure or building.


title: Tower

text: Old English "torr" is from Latin "turris" via Old French "tor". The Latin term together with Greek τύρσις was loaned from a pre-Indo-European Mediterranean language, connected with the Illyrian toponym


title: Tower

text: Βου-δοργίς. With the Lydian toponyms Τύρρα, Τύρσα, it has been connected with the ethnonym Τυρρήνιοι as well as with "Tusci" (from "*Turs-ci"), the Greek and Latin names for the Etruscans (Kretschmer Glotta 22, 110ff.)


title: Tower

text: Towers have been used by mankind since prehistoric times. The oldest known may be the circular stone tower in walls of Neolithic Jericho (8000 BC). Some of the earliest towers were ziggurats, which existed in Sumerian architecture since the 4th millennium BC. The most famous ziggurats include the Sumerian Ziggurat of Ur, built in the 3rd millennium BC, and the Etemenanki, one of the most famous examples of Babylonian architecture.


title: Tower

text: Some of the earliest surviving examples are the broch structures in northern Scotland, which are conical tower houses. These and other examples from Phoenician and Roman cultures emphasised the use of a tower in fortification and sentinel roles. For example, the name of the Moroccan city of Mogador, founded in the first millennium BC, is derived from the Phoenician word for watchtower ('migdol'). The Romans utilised octagonal towers as elements of Diocletian's Palace in Croatia, which monument dates to approximately 300 AD, while the Servian Walls (4th century BC) and the Aurelian Walls (3rd century AD) featured square ones. The Chinese used towers as integrated elements of the Great Wall of China in 210 BC during the Qin Dynasty. Towers were also an important element of castles.


title: Tower

text: Other well known towers include the Leaning Tower of Pisa in Pisa, Italy built from 1173 until 1372, the Two Towers in Bologna, Italy built from 1109 until 1119 and the Towers of Pavia (25 survive), built between 11th and 13th century. The Himalayan Towers are stone towers located chiefly in Tibet built approximately 14th to 15th century.


title: Tower

text: Up to a certain height, a tower can be made with the supporting structure with parallel sides. However, above a certain height, the compressive load of the material is exceeded, and the tower will fail. This can be avoided if the tower's support structure tapers up the building.


title: Tower

text: A second limit is that of buckling—the structure requires sufficient stiffness to avoid breaking under the loads it faces, especially those due to winds. Many very tall towers have their support structures at the periphery of the building, which greatly increases the overall stiffness.


title: Tower

text: A third limit is dynamic; a tower is subject to varying winds, vortex shedding, seismic disturbances etc. These are often dealt with through a combination of simple strength and stiffness, as well as in some cases tuned mass dampers to damp out movements. Varying or tapering the outer aspect of the tower with height avoids vibrations due to vortex shedding occurring along the entire building simultaneously.


title: Tower

text: Although not correctly defined as towers, many modern high-rise buildings (in particular skyscraper) have 'tower' in their name or are colloquially called 'towers'. Skyscrapers are more properly classified as 'buildings'. In the United Kingdom, tall domestic buildings are referred to as tower blocks. In the United States, the original World Trade Center had the nickname the Twin Towers, a name shared with the Petronas Twin Towers in Kuala Lumpur. In addition some of the structures listed below do not follow the strict criteria used at List of tallest towers.


title: Tower

text: The tower throughout history has provided its users with an advantage in surveying defensive positions and obtaining a better view of the surrounding areas, including battlefields. They were constructed on defensive walls, or rolled near a target (see siege tower). Today, strategic-use towers are still used at prisons, military camps, and defensive perimeters.


title: Tower

text: By using gravity to move objects or substances downward, a tower can be used to store items or liquids like a storage silo or a water tower, or aim an object into the earth such as a drilling tower. Ski-jump ramps use the same idea, and in the absence of a natural mountain slope or hill, can be human-made.


title: Tower

text: In history, simple towers like lighthouses, bell towers, clock towers, signal towers and minarets were used to communicate information over greater distances. In more recent years, radio masts and cell phone towers facilitate communication by expanding the range of the transmitter. The CN Tower in Toronto, Ontario, Canada was built as a communications tower, with the capability to act as both a transmitter and repeater.


title: Tower

text: Towers can also be used to support bridges, and can reach heights that rival some of the tallest buildings above-water. Their use is most prevalent in suspension bridges and cable-stayed bridges. The use of the pylon, a simple tower structure, has also helped to build railroad bridges, mass-transit systems, and harbors.


title: Tower

text: The term "tower" is also sometimes used to refer to firefighting equipment with an extremely tall ladder designed for use in firefighting/rescue operations involving high-rise buildings.


title: Hampton Fancher

text: Hampton Lansden Fancher (born July 18, 1938) is an American actor, screenwriter, and filmmaker, best known for co-writing the 1982 neo-noir science fiction film "Blade Runner" and its 2017 sequel "Blade Runner 2049," based on the novel "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?" by Philip K. Dick. His 1999 directorial debut, "The Minus Man," won the Special Grand Prize of the Jury at the Montreal World Film Festival.


title: Hampton Fancher

text: Fancher was born to a Mexican-Danish mother and an English-American father, a physician, in East Los Angeles, California. At 15, he ran away to Spain to become a flamenco dancer and renamed himself "Mario Montejo". Following the breakup of his marriage to Joann McNabb, he was married to Sue Lyon from 1963 to 1965.


title: Hampton Fancher

text: Fancher played Deputy Lon Gillis in seven episodes of the ABC western "Black Saddle" with Peter Breck. He guest-starred on other westerns: "Have Gun, Will Travel", "Tate", "Stagecoach West", "Outlaws", "Maverick" (in the fourth-season episode "Last Stop: Oblivion"), "Lawman", "Temple Houston", "Cheyenne" (1961 episode "Incident at Dawson Flats"), and also "Bonanza" (1966 episode "A Dollar's Worth of Trouble").


title: Hampton Fancher

text: Fancher appeared in two Troy Donahue films, 1961's "Parrish" and 1962's "Rome Adventure", and was cast as Larry Wilson in the 1963 episode "Little Richard" of the CBS anthology series "GE True", hosted by Jack Webb. In 1965, he played the role of Hamp Fisher in the "Perry Mason" episode "The Case of the Silent Six." Fancher acted in more than 50 movies and television shows. During this time, he also had relationships with a variety of women, including Barbara Hershey and Teri Garr. Although he showed interest in screenwriting, it took until 1977 for Fancher to transition fully into it. He continues to act occasionally.


title: Hampton Fancher

text: After trying to option Philip K. Dick's 1968 science fiction novel "Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep?" in 1975, when the rights were not available, Fancher sent his friend Brian Kelly, a prospective film producer, to negotiate with Dick. Dick agreed, and Fancher was brought on to write a screenplay before Kelly would later enlist the support of producer Michael Deeley. This made Fancher the executive producer, which led to disagreements with eventual director Ridley Scott, who then brought in David Peoples to continue reworking the script. Scott and Fancher had already clashed concerning the movie, as Scott felt the original script did not sufficiently explore the world of the movie, choosing instead to focus on the interior drama. Fancher's rewriting process was too slow for the production crew, which nicknamed him "Happen Faster". The movie was ultimately filmed and released as "Blade Runner" (1982).


title: Hampton Fancher

text: Fancher wrote two films following "Blade Runner". "The Mighty Quinn" (1989) starred Denzel Washington and "The Minus Man" (1999) starred Owen Wilson. Fancher also directed the latter. More recently, he wrote the story and co-wrote, with Michael Green, the screenplay for "Blade Runner 2049" (2017), a sequel to the 1982 film.


title: Hampton Fancher

text: In the early 1980s, Fancher lived outside of Los Angeles in Topanga Canyon. Fancher appeared in a cameo role in the independent film "Tonight at Noon" (2009), directed by Michael Almereyda and starring Rutger Hauer.


title: Hampton Fancher

text: In 2019, Fancher published "The Wall Will Tell You", a screenwriting manual. The book draws from his personal experiences.


title: Hampton Fancher

text: Fancher provided voiceover commentary for The Criterion Collection edition DVD extras of the film noir adaptations of Ernest Hemingway's short story "The Killers", which included the 1946, 1956 and 1964 versions.


title: Hampton Fancher

text: His life was the subject of "Escapes", a documentary directed by Michael Almereyda and executive-produced by Wes Anderson.


title: History of education in the Indian subcontinent

text: Education in the Indian subcontinent began with teaching of traditional elements such as Indian religions, Indian mathematics, Indian logic at early Hindu and Buddhist centres of learning such as ancient Takshashila (in modern-day Pakistan) and Nalanda (in India). Islamic education became ingrained with the establishment of Islamic empires in the Indian subcontinent in the Middle Ages while the coming of the Europeans later brought western education to colonial India.


text: Several Western-style universities were established during the period of British rule in the 19th century. A series of measures continuing throughout the early half of the 20th century ultimately laid the foundation of the educational system of the Republic of India, Pakistan and much of the Indian subcontinent.


text: Early education in India commenced under the supervision of a "guru" or "prabhu". Initially, education was open to all and seen as one of the methods to achieve Moksha in those days, or enlightenment. As time progressed, due to a decentralised social structure, the education was imparted on the basis of varna and the related duties that one had to perform as a member of a specific caste. The "Brahmans" learned about scriptures and religion while the "Kshatriya" were educated in the various aspects of warfare. The "Vaishya" caste learned commerce and other specific vocational courses. The other caste "Shudras", were men of working class and they were trained on skills to carry out these jobs. The earliest venues of education in India were often secluded from the main population. Students were expected to follow strict monastic guidelines prescribed by the "guru" and stay away from cities in "ashrams". However, as population increased under the Gupta empire centres of urban learning became increasingly common and Cities such as Varanasi and the Buddhist centre at Nalanda became increasingly visible.


text: Education in India is a piece of education traditional form was closely related to religion. Among the Heterodox schools of belief were the Jain and Buddhist schools. Heterodox Buddhist education was more inclusive and aside of the monastic orders the Buddhist education centres were urban institutes of learning such as Taxila and Nalanda where grammar, medicine, philosophy, logic, metaphysics, arts and crafts etc. were also taught. Early secular Buddhist institutions of higher learning like Taxila and Nalanda continued to function well into the common era and were attended by students from China and Central Asia.


text: On the subject of education for the nobility Joseph Prabhu writes: "Outside the religious framework, kings and princes were educated in the arts and sciences related to government: politics ("danda-nıti"), economics ("vartta"), philosophy ("anvıksiki"), and historical traditions ("itihasa"). Here the authoritative source was Kautilya’s "Arthashastra", often compared to Niccolò Machiavelli’s "The Prince" for its worldly outlook and political scheming." The "Rigveda" (1700-1500 BCE) mentions female poets called "brahmavadinis", specifically Lopamudra and Ghosha. By 800 BCE women such as Gargi and Maitreyi were mentioned as scholars in the religious "Upnishads". Maya, mother of the historic Buddha, was an educated queen while other women in India contributed to writing of the "Pali canon". Out of the composers of the Sangam literature 154 were women. However, the education and society of the era continued to be dominated by educated male population.


text: Chinese scholars such as Xuanzang and Yi Jing arrived on Indian institutions of learning to survey Buddhist texts. Yi Jing additionally noted the arrival of 56 scholars from India, Japan, and Korea. However, the Buddhist institutions of learning were slowly giving way to a resurgent tradition of Brahmanism during that era. Scholars from India also journeyed to China to translate Buddhist texts. During the 10th century a monk named Dharmadeva from Nalanda journeyed to China and translated a number of texts. Another centre at Vikramshila maintained close relations with Tibet. The Buddhist teacher Atisa was the head monk in Vikramshila before his journey to Tibet.


text: Examples of royal patronage include construction of buildings under the Rastrakuta dynasty in 945 CE. The institutions arranged for multiple residences for educators as well as state sponsored education and arrangements for students and scholars. Similar arrangements were made by the Chola dynasty in 1024 CE, which provided state support to selected students in educational establishments. Temple schools from 12–13th centuries included the school at the Nataraja temple situated at Chidambaram which employed 20 librarians, out of whom 8 were copiers of manuscripts and 2 were employed for verification of the copied manuscripts. The remaining staff conducted other duties, including preservation and maintained of reference material.


text: Another establishment during this period is the Uddandapura institute established during the 8th century under the patronage of the Pala dynasty. The institution developed ties with Tibet and became a centre of Tantric Buddhism. During the 10–11th centuries the number of monks reached a thousand, equaling the strength of monks at the sacred Mahabodhi complex. By the time of the arrival of the Islamic scholar Al Biruni India already had an established system of science and technology in place. Also by the 12th century, invasions from India's northern borders disrupted traditional education systems as foreign armies raided educational institutes, among other establishments.


text: With the advent of Islam in India the traditional methods of education increasingly came under Islamic influence. Pre-Mughal rulers such as Qutb-ud-din Aybak and other Muslim rulers initiated institutions which imparted religious knowledge. Scholars such as Nizamuddin Auliya and Moinuddin Chishti became prominent educators and established Islamic monasteries. Students from Bukhara and Afghanistan visited India to study humanities and science.


text: Islamic institution of education in India included traditional "madrassas" and "maktabs" which taught grammar, philosophy, mathematics, and law influenced by the Greek traditions inherited by Persia and the Middle East before Islam spread from these regions into India. A feature of this traditional Islamic education was its emphasis on the connection between science and humanities. Among the centres of education in India was 18th century Delhi was the Madrasah-i Rahimiyah under the supervision of Shah Waliullah, an educator who favored an approach balancing the Islamic scriptures and science. The course at the Madrasa Rahimiya prescribed two books on grammar, one on philosophy, two on logic, two on astronomy and mathematics, and five on mysticism. Another centre of prominence arose in Lucknow under Mulla Nizamuddin Sahlawi, who educated at the Firangi Mahal and prescribed a course called the Dars-i-Nizami which combined traditional studies with modern and laid emphasis on logic.


text: The education system under the rule of Akbar adopted an inclusive approach with the monarch favoring additional courses: medicine, agriculture, geography, and texts from other languages and religions, such as Patanjali's work in Sanskrit. The traditional science in this period was influenced by the ideas of Aristotle, Bhāskara II, Charaka and Ibn Sina. This inclusive approach was not uncommon in Mughal India. The more conservative monarch Aurangzeb also favored teaching of subjects which could be applied to administration. The Mughals, in fact, adopted a liberal approach to sciences and as contact with Persia increased the more intolerant Ottoman school of "manqul" education came to be gradually substituted by the more relaxed "maqul" school.


text: The Middle Ages also saw the rise of private tuition in India as state failed to invest in public education system. A tutor, or "riyazi", was an educated professional who could earn a suitable living by performing tasks such as creating calendars or generating revenue estimates for nobility. Another trend in this era is the mobility among professions, exemplified by Qaim Khan, a prince famous for his mastery in crafting leather shoes and forging cannons.


text: Male education in India commenced under the supervision of a guru in traditional schools called gurukuls. The gurukuls were supported by public donation and were one of the earliest forms of public school offices. However these Gurukuls catered only to the Upper castes of the Indian society and the overwhelming masses were denied any formal education.


text: The Jesuits introduced India to both the European college system and the printing of books, through founding Saint Paul's College, Goa in 1542. The French traveler François Pyrard de Laval, who visited Goa c. 1608, described the College of St Paul, praising the variety of the subjects taught there free of charge. Like many other European travelers who visited the college, he recorded that at this time it had 3,000 students, from all the missions of Asia. Its library was one of the biggest in Asia, and the first printing press was mounted there.


text: In 19th century India, "English education" meant "modern education". Most taught a curriculum similar to public schools. Britain at the time through English as a medium of instruction, especially those sponsored by missionaries. Some taught the curriculum through vernacular languages with English as a second language. The term "pre-modern" was used for three kinds of schools. The Arabic and Sanskrit schools taught Muslim or Hindu sacred literature, while the Persian schools taught Persian literature. The vernacular schools across India taught reading and writing the vernacular language and arithmetic.


text: As a result of decades of lobbying by the likes of William Wilberforce, and Charles Grant, the 1813 renewal of East India Company's charter carried a duty to educate, and assist previously excluded Christian missionaries to educate the population, in addition to the Company's corporate activities. The Company's officers were divided as to how to implement this imposed duty, with the orientalists, who believed that education should happen in Indian languages (of which they favored classical or court languages like Sanskrit or Persian), while the utilitarians (also called anglicists) like Lord William Bentinck, and Thomas Macaulay, strongly believed that traditional India had nothing to teach regarding modern skills; the best education for them would happen in English. Macaulay called for an educational system - now known as Macaulayism - that would create a class of anglicised Indians who would serve as cultural intermediaries between the British and the Indians.


text: According to Sir Thomas Munro's "Minutes on Native Education, in 1822 and 1826", the Madras Presidency had 11,758 schools, and 740 centers for higher education in the Presidency, and with the exception of a few European missionary schools were funded and managed at a community level. The number of students was recorded as 161,667, with 157,644 boys, and 4,023 girls, or approximately 1 in 6 boys of school-age, which was better than the 1 in 8 boys identified by a similar exercise in the Bombay Presidency. According to the Adam's enquiry, around 1835 there existed approximately 100,000 village schools in the Bengal Presidency, offering an education to 13.2% of boys. Though the standard of instruction was criticized as rudimentary, well below European standards, and cultivating little more than memory. In the Punjab, Dr Leitner, the Principal of the Oriental College and Government College, Lahore, estimated that in 1854-1855 there were at least 30 thousand schools, and assuming 13 pupils per school the total number of pupils was approximately four hundred thousand, in the region.


text: Munro's 1826 critique also covered the funding, and teacher quality in the traditional system, with a claim that due to the average teacher earning no more than 6 or 7 Rupees monthly, from fees of 4 to 8 Annas per pupil, the calibre of the teachers was wanting, before suggesting the East India Company (EIC) fund both the construction of new schools, textbooks, and offer a 9 to 15 Rupee stipend to the teachers in the new schools, to supplement their incomes derived from tuition fees, in the Madras Presidency. After the introduction of Western-style education, the numbers of these indigenous educational institutions began to drastically decline.


text: British education became solidified into India as missionary schools were established during the 1820s.


text: Macaulay succeeded in replacing Persian with English, as the administrative language, the use of English as the medium of instruction, and the training of English-speaking Indians as teachers, through the English Education Act 1835. He was inspired by utilitarian ideas and called for "useful learning."


text: In 1854 the Wood's despatch to the then Governor General Dalhousie stipulated a number of reforms be made to the Companies Education system, in British India.


text: The effectiveness of the measures stipulated in the Wood's despatch were subsequently reviewed and a number of subsequent changes made following the publication of William Hunter's Report of the Indian Education Commission 1882, in 1883


text: India established a dense educational network (very largely for males) with a Western curriculum based on instruction in English. To further advance their careers many ambitious upper-class men with money, including Gandhi, Nehru and Muhammad Ali Jinnah went to England, especially to obtain a legal education at the Inns of Court. By 1890 some 60,000 Indians had matriculated, chiefly in the liberal arts or law. About a third entered public administration, and another third became lawyers. The result was a very well educated professional state bureaucracy. By 1887 of 21,000 mid-level civil service appointments, 45% were held by Hindus, 7% by Muslims, 19% by Eurasians (one European parent and one Indian), and 29% by Europeans. Of the 1000 top -level positions, almost all were held by Britons, typically with an Oxbridge degree. Today also the same old syllabus is followed in India which was introduced by the Indian National Congress.


text: The Raj, often working with local philanthropists, opened 186 colleges and universities. Starting with 600 students scattered across 4 universities and 67 colleges in 1882, the system expanded rapidly. More exactly, there never was a "system" under the Raj, as each state acted independently and funded schools for Indians from mostly private sources. By 1901 there were 5 universities and 145 colleges, with 18,000 students (almost all male). The curriculum was Western. By 1922 most schools were under the control of elected provincial authorities, with little role for the national government. In 1922 there were 14 universities and 167 colleges, with 46,000 students. In 1947, 21 universities and 496 colleges were in operation. Universities at first did no teaching or research; they only conducted examinations and gave out degrees.


text: The Madras Medical College opened in 1835, and admitted women so that they could treat the female population who traditionally shied away from medical treatments under qualified male professionals. The concept of educated women among medical professionals gained popularity during the late 19th century and by 1894, the Women's Christian Medical College, an exclusive medical school for women, was established in Ludhiana in Punjab.


text: The British established the Government College University in Lahore, of present-day Pakistan in 1864. The institution was initially affiliated with the University of Calcutta for examination. The prestigious University of the Punjab, also in Lahore, was the fourth university established by the colonials in South Asia, in the year 1882.


text: Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College, founded in 1875, was the first modern institution of higher education for Muslims in India. By 1920 it became The Aligarh Muslim University and was the leading intellectual center of Muslim political activity. The original goals were to train Muslims for British service and prepare an elite that would attend universities in Britain. After 1920 it became a centre of political activism. Before 1939, the faculty and students supported an all-India nationalist movement. However, when the Second World War began political sentiment shifted toward demands for a Muslim separatist movement. The intellectual support it provided proved significant in the success of Jinnah and the Muslim League.


text: At the 21st Conference of the Indian National Congress in Benares in December 1905, Madan Mohan Malaviya publicly announced his intent to establish a university in Varanasi. On 22 November 1911, he registered the Hindu University Society to gather support and raise funds for building the university. Malaviya sought and received early support from the Kashi Naresh Prabhu Narayan Singh, Thakur Jadunath Singh of Arkha and Rameshwar Singh Bahadur of Raj Darbhanga. BHU Banaras Hindu University was finally established in 1916, the first university in India that was the result of a private individual's efforts.


text: Amongst the Universities founded in the period are the: University of Bombay 1857, University of Calcutta 1857, University of Madras 1857, University of the Punjab 1882, Allahabad University 1887, University of Mysore 1916, Patna University 1917, Osmania University 1918, Rangoon University 1920, University of Lucknow 1921, University of Dhaka 1921, University of Delhi 1922, Nagpur University 1923, Andhra University 1926, Agra University 1927, Annamalai University 1929, University of Kerala 1937, Utkal University 1943, Panjab University 1947, University of Rajputana 1947


text: The East India Company in 1806 set up Haileybury College in England to train administrators. In India, there were four colleges of civil engineering; the first was Thomason College (Now IIT Roorkee), founded in 1847. The second was Bengal Engineering College (now Indian Institute of Engineering, Science and Technology, IIEST). Their role was to provide civil engineers for the Indian Public Works Department. Both in Britain and in India, the administration and management of science, technical and engineering education was undertaken by officers from the Royal Engineers and the Indian Army equivalent, (commonly referred to as sapper officers). This trend in civil/military relationships continued with the establishment of the Royal Indian Engineering College (also known as Cooper's Hill College) in 1870, specifically to train civil engineers in England for duties with the Indian Public Works Department. The Indian Public Works Department, although technically a civilian organisation, relied on military engineers until 1947 and after.


text: Growing awareness for the need of technical education in India gave rise to establishment of institutions such as the Indian Institute of Science, established by philanthropist Jamshetji Tata in 1909. In 1919 Banaras Hindu University Founded the Banaras Engineering College, it became the Institute of Technology, Banaras Hindu University in 1968, It was designated an Indian Institute of Technology in 2012. By the 1930s India had 10 institutions offering engineering courses. However, with the advent of the Second World War in 1939 the "War Technicians Training Scheme" under Ernest Bevin was initiated, thereby laying the foundation of modern technical education in India. Later, planned development of scientific education under Ardeshir Dalal was initiated in 1944.


text: In 1919, president of the Indian National Congress (INC) C. Sankaran Nair criticised the colonial education system:


text: Frykenberg examines the 1784 to 1854 period to argue that the colonial education system helped integrate the diverse elements Indian society, thereby creating a new common bond from among conflicting loyalties. The native elite demanded modern education. The University of Madras, founded in 1857, became the single most important recruiting ground for generations of ever more highly trained officials. This exclusive and select leadership was almost entirely "clean-caste" and mainly Brahman. It held sway in both the imperial administration and within princely governments to the south. The position of this mandarin class was never seriously challenged until well into the twentieth century.


text: Ellis argues that historians of Indian education have generally confined their arguments to very narrow themes linked to colonial dominance and education as a means of control, resistance, and dialogue. Ellis emphasizes the need to evaluate the education actually experienced by most Indian children, which was outside the classroom. Public education expenditures varied dramatically across regions with the western and southern provinces spending three to four times as much as the eastern provinces. The reason involved historical differences in land taxes. However the rates of attendance and literacy were not nearly as skewed.


text: Jha argues that local schools for pre-adolescent children were in a flourishing state in thousands of villages of Bihar and Bengal until the early decades of the nineteenth century. They were village institutions, maintained by village elders with local funds, where their children (from all caste clusters and communities) could, if the father wished, receive useful skills. However, British colonial policies in respect of education and land control adversely affected both the village structure and the village institutions of secular education. The colonial legal system and the rise of caste consciousness since the second half of the nineteenth century only accentuated the problem. Gradually, village as the base of secular identity and solidarity became too weak to create and maintain its own institution by the end of the nineteenth century and the traditional system decayed.


text: Deepak Kumar argues British colonial rule during the 19th century did not take adequate measures to help develop Western science and technology in India and instead focused more on arts and humanities. Till 1899 only the University of Bombay offered a separate degree in sciences. In 1899 B.Sc and M.Sc. courses were also supported by the University of Calcutta.


text: By the late 19th century India had lagged behind in Western science and technology and related education. However, the nobility and aristocracy in India largely continued to encourage the development of sciences and technical education, both traditional and western.


text: While some science related subjects were not allowed in the government curriculum in the 1850s the private institutions could also not follow science courses due to lack of funds required to establish laboratories etc. The fees for scientific education under the British rule were also high. The salary that one would get in the colonial administration was meager and made the prospect of attaining higher education bleak since the native population was not employed for high positions in the colonial setup. Even the natives who did manage to attain higher education faced issues of discrimination in terms of wages and privileges.


text: Deepak Kumar goes on to argue that the British detachment towards the study of Western science in India is that England itself was gradually outpaced in science and technology by European rival Germany and a fast-growing United States so the prospects of the British Raj adopting a world class science policy towards its colonies increasingly decreased. However, Deepak Kumar notes the British turn to professional education during the 1860s and the French initiatives at raising awareness on science and technology in French colonies.


text: In 1906, the Maharaja of Baroda State introduced measures to implement compulsory primary education in his territory, for both sexes. Schools were built, and parents fined, and occasionally imprisoned for non-attendance, where schools existed. This program tripled the kingdoms literacy, from 9% to 27%, in the 1906-1939 period, and resulted in primary school provision for approximately 80% of target population, by the end of the period.


text: The first Indian Institutes of Technology were established in the 1950s to promote technical education in India. Now, there are 23 IITs in India that are considered to be the premier engineering universities of the country.


text: The Sarva Shikhsha Abhiyan is aimed at free and compulsory education as a fundamental right to children between the ages of 6 and 14. The Right to Education Act was passed in 2009.


text: Pakistan for centuries has had an elaborate network of religious educational institutions, known as madāris or madrasahs. Madinat al-Hikmah is a prominent center for education, science and culture in Bund Murad Khan, Pakistan. It was founded in 1981 by Shaheed Hakim Mohammed Said (1920-1998). Today it includes many cultural and educational institutions including the Bait al-Hikmah Library, Hamdard Public School, Hamdard Village School, and Hamdard University. However, other more traditional madrasahs have been the target of criticism by both political elites and religious scholars for their conservatism and resistance to change. They have been the scene of student revolts, especially in 1968 and 1969.


text: In the early 1970s President Ali Bhutto imposed a new educational policy which nationalized all private educational institutions and placed greater emphasis upon "agro-technical" education. The Bhutto government established a large number of rural and urban schools, including around 6,500 elementary schools, 900 middle schools, 407 high schools, 51 intermediate colleges and 21 junior colleges. At the top he created Quaid-i-Azam University and the nation wide Allama Iqbal Open University based in Islamabad, and Gomal University Dera Ismail Khan in 1973. Ali Bhutto was himself educated in elite American and British universities.


title: 'Till I Collapse

text: "Till I Collapse" is a song by American rapper Eminem featuring fellow American rapper and singer Nate Dogg, released from his fourth studio album "The Eminem Show" (2002). Despite never being released as a single, the song has managed to chart numerous times worldwide and is now Eminem's second most streamed song on Spotify, with over 1.5 billion streams, as of December 12, 2022.


title: 'Till I Collapse

text: Although it has never been released as a single, it has charted on a few occasions when other Eminem albums have been released. In 2012 it was certified double-platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling 2,000,000 copies in the United States. This was followed by quintuple-platinum in 2018 and octuple-platinum in 2022.


title: 'Till I Collapse

text: When Eminem's single "Shake That" (also featuring Nate Dogg) was released in 2006, several Eminem songs re-charted that same week, including "Till I Collapse". It charted in the UK at number 192 on April 15, 2006. In 2008, it appeared in HBO's series "De La Hoya/Pacquiao 24/7".


title: 'Till I Collapse

text: In 2009, it was used in an advertisement for the then-upcoming game "". It raised digital download sales of the song worldwide considerably, but in Britain the song sold so many copies after the ad aired that it re-charted that week (November 21, 2009) at number 73, a new peak. Shane Mosley used this song as an entrance theme with his bout with Floyd Mayweather as did Shane Carwin for his bout against Junior dos Santos. Major League Baseball pitcher Jesse Litsch used the song as his entrance music during the 2011 season. The song has also been used in the credits of the Season 8 premiere of "Entourage". It was also used in September 2011 in the trailer and soundtrack for the film "Real Steel", and in trailers and TV spots for the Oliver Stone-directed film "Savages". During the 2013–14 NBA season, the song was used during the Brooklyn Nets' team introductions. It has been in use for a few years by the Portuguese soccer team Sport Lisboa e Benfica in home matches when the team first enters the field of play to warm up.


title: The Norm Show

text: The Norm Show is an American television sitcom that ran on ABC from March 24, 1999, to April 6, 2001. Starting in September 1999, the show's title was shortened to Norm. The series starred Norm Macdonald, who created the series with Bruce Helford.


title: The Norm Show

text: The show focused on the life of Norm Henderson (Norm Macdonald), a former NHL hockey player who is banned for life from the league because of gambling and tax evasion. To avoid jail time for these crimes, Norm must perform five years of community service as a full-time social worker. Other characters in the show included fellow social workers Laurie Freeman (Laurie Metcalf), Danny Sanchez (Ian Gomez), and Danny's sometime girlfriend and former prostitute Taylor Clayton (Nikki Cox). Norm's boss on the program for the first several episodes was named Anthony Curtis (Bruce Jarchow). This character was quickly replaced by a new boss, Max Denby (Max Wright), whom Norm frequently antagonized and pranked.


title: The Norm Show

text: The second season of the show added Artie Lange as Norm's half-brother Artie, and Faith Ford as Shelly Kilmartin, Norm's probation officer and love interest.


title: The Norm Show

text: Jack Warden guest-stars in one episode as father of Ian Gomez's character, and fakes a grab at Norm's crotch (as he did in "Dirty Work").


title: The Norm Show

text: Originally airing on Wednesday nights after "The Drew Carey Show", the series was one of the top-rated sitcoms on ABC among adults 18-49 during its first season. In between the first and second seasons, ABC shortened the series' title to "Norm" to avoid a legal conflict with Michael Jantze's comic strip "The Norm". ABC continued to keep the series on Wednesdays for its second season, though initially moved it an hour earlier. In November, the series moved back to its original timeslot, before moving back again in January. This caused ratings in the second season to fluctuate. When the series was renewed for a third season, ABC moved "Norm" to Friday nights (also known as the Friday night death slot), in an effort to create a new "Working Comedy" Friday night comedy lineup after the network disbanded "TGIF". The third season saw even more time changes and ratings fluctuations. This, in addition to low ratings, caused ABC to cancel the series in May 2001.


title: The Norm Show

text: On September 7, 2010, Shout! Factory released "The Norm Show: The Complete Series" on DVD in Region 1 for the very first time. The 8-disc set features all 54 episodes of the series as well as a handful of running commentaries (only in seasons 1 and 2) by Norm Macdonald and Bruce Helford. The set has since been taken out of print.


title: Olomouc

text: Olomouc (, , ; ; ; or "Iuliomontium") is a city in the Czech Republic. It has about 99,000 inhabitants, and its larger urban zone has a population of about 384,000 inhabitants (2019).


title: Olomouc

text: Located on the Morava River, the city is the ecclesiastical metropolis and was a historical capital city of Moravia, before having been sacked by the Swedish army during the Thirty Years' War. Today, it is the administrative centre of the Olomouc Region and the sixth largest city in the Czech Republic. The historic city centre is well preserved and is protected by law as urban monument reservation. The Holy Trinity Column was listed as a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 2000 for its quintessential Baroque style and symbolic value.


title: Olomouc

text: Olomouc is said to occupy the site of a Roman fort founded in the imperial period, the original name of which, "Iuliomontium" (Mount Julius), would be gradually changed to the present form. Although this account is not documented except as oral history, archaeological excavations close to the city have revealed the remains of a Roman military camp dating from the time of the Marcomannic Wars of the late 2nd century.


title: Olomouc

text: During the 6th century, Slavs migrated into the area. As early as the 7th century, a centre of political power developed in the present-day quarter of Povel (in lowland, south of the city centre). Around 810 the local Slavonic ruler was defeated by troops of Great Moravian rulers and the settlement in Olomouc-Povel was destroyed.


title: Olomouc

text: A new centre, where the Great Moravian governor resided, developed at the gord at Předhradí, a quarter of the inner city (the eastern, smaller part of the medieval centre). This settlement survived the defeat of the Great Moravia (c. 907) and gradually became the capital of the province of Moravia.


title: Olomouc

text: Around 981–990, the Polish Duke Mieszko I took the Moravian Gate and Olomouc as an important place at the intersection of trade routes. Olomouc probably was mentioned in the Dagome iudex document (ca 991) as "Alemura". All of Moravia was part of Poland between 1003 and 1031 during the reign of Bolesław I the Brave and partly Mieszko II Lambert. The first certain mention of the city dates back to 1017. Moravia was under Bohemian rule since 1031 (according to some Czech historians, since 1019 or 1021).


title: Olomouc

text: The bishopric of Olomouc was founded in 1063. It was possibly re-founded because there are some unclear references to bishops of Moravia in the 10th century—if they were not only missionary bishops, but representatives of some remains of regular church organization, then it is very likely that these bishops had their seat in Olomouc. Centuries later in 1777, it was raised to the rank of an archbishopric. The bishopric was moved from the church of St. Peter (since destroyed) to the church of Saint Wenceslas in 1141 (the date is still disputed, other suggestions are 1131, 1134) under bishop Jindřich Zdík. The bishop's palace was built in the Romanesque architectural style. The bishopric acquired large tracts of land, especially in northern Moravia, and was one of the richest in the area.


title: Olomouc

text: Olomouc became one of the most important settlements in Moravia and a seat of the Přemyslid government and one of the "appanage" princes. In 1306 King Wenceslas III stopped here on his way to Poland. He was going to fight Władysław I the Elbow-high to claim his rights to the Polish crown and was assassinated. With his death, the whole Přemyslid dynasty died out.


title: Olomouc

text: The city was officially founded in the mid-13th century and became one of the most important trade and power centres in the region. In the Middle Ages, it was the biggest town in Moravia and competed with Brno for the position of capital. Olomouc finally lost after the Swedes took the city and held it for eight years (1642–1650).


title: Olomouc

text: In 1235, the Mongols launched an invasion of Europe. After the Battle of Legnica in Poland, the Mongols carried their raids into Moravia, but were defensively defeated at the fortified town of Olomouc. The Mongols subsequently invaded and defeated Hungary.


title: Olomouc

text: In 1454 the city expelled its Jewish population as part of a wave of anti-Semitism, also seen in Spain and Portugal. The second half of the 15th century is considered the start of Olomouc's golden age. It hosted several royal meetings, and Matthias Corvinus was elected here as King of Bohemia (in fact anti-king) by the estates in 1469. In 1479 two kings of Bohemia (Vladislaus II and Matthias Corvinus) met here and concluded an agreement (Peace of Olomouc of 1479) for splitting the country.


title: Olomouc

text: Participating in the Protestant Reformation, Moravia became mostly Protestant. During the Thirty Years' War, in 1640 Olomouc was occupied by the Swedes for eight years. They left the city in ruins, and as a result it lost its predominant place in Moravia, becoming second to Brno.


title: Olomouc

text: In 1740 the town was captured and briefly held by the Prussians. Olomouc was fortified by Maria Theresa during the wars with Frederick the Great, who besieged the city unsuccessfully for seven weeks in 1758. In 1848 Olomouc was the scene of the emperor Ferdinand's abdication. Two years later, Austrian and German statesmen held a conference here called the Punctation of Olmütz. At the conference, they agreed to restore the German Confederation and Prussia accepted leadership by the Austrians.


title: Olomouc

text: In 1746 the first learned society in the lands under control of the Austrian Habsburgs, the "Societas eruditorum incognitorum in terris Austriacis", was founded in Olomouc to spread Enlightenment ideas. Its monthly "Monatliche Auszüge" was the first scientific journal published in the Habsburg empire.


title: Olomouc

text: Largely because of its ecclesiastical links to Austria, Salzburg in particular, the city was influenced by German culture since the Middle Ages. Demographics before censuses can only be interpreted from other documents. The town's ecclesiastical constitution, the meetings of the Diet and the locally printed hymnal, were recorded in Czech in the mid-16th and 17th centuries. The first treatise on music in Czech was published in Olomouc in the mid-16th century. The political and social changes that followed the Thirty Years' War increased the influence of courtly Habsburg and Austrian/German-language culture. The "Germanification" of the town likely resulted from the cosmopolitan nature of the city; as the cultural, administrative and religious centre of the region, it drew officials, musicians and traders from all over Europe.


title: Olomouc

text: Despite these influences, Czech dominated, particularly in ecclesiastical publications throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. When the Austrian-born composer and musician Philip J. Rittler accepted a post at the Wenceslas Cathedral in the latter 17th century, he felt it necessary to learn Czech. With the continued dominance of the Habsburgs and migration of ethnic Germans into the area, the use of Czech declined. By the 19th century, the number of ethnic Germans in the city were recorded as three times higher than the number of Czechs.


title: Olomouc

text: After the 1848 revolution, the government rescinded its Jewish expulsion order of 1454. Jews returned to the city and, in 1897, built a synagogue. The Jewish population reached 1,676 in 1900.


title: Olomouc

text: Olomouc retained its defensive city walls almost until the end of the 19th century. This suited the city council, because demolishing the walls would have allowed for expansion of the city and attracted more Czechs from neighbouring villages. The city council preferred Olomouc to be smaller and predominantly German. Greater expansion came after World War I and the establishment of Czechoslovakia. In 1919 Olomouc annexed two neighbouring towns and 11 surrounding villages, gaining new space for additional growth and development.


title: Olomouc

text: Serious tensions arose between ethnic Czechs and Germans during both world wars. During World War II, the city was under German occupation and most of the city's ethnic German residents sided with the Nazis; the German-run city council renamed the main square (until then named after president T. G. Masaryk) after Adolf Hitler. World War II brought a rise in anti-semitism and attacks on the Jews that reflected what was happening in Germany. On Kristallnacht (10 November 1938), townspeople destroyed the synagogue. In March 1939, city police arrested 800 Jewish men, and had some deported to the Dachau concentration camp. During 1942–1943, ethnic Germans sent the remaining Jews to Theresienstadt and other German concentration camps in occupied Poland. Fewer than 300 of the city's Jews survived the Holocaust. The Germans also established and operated a Gestapo prison in the city, and a forced labour camp in the Chválkovice district.


title: Olomouc

text: After Olomouc was liberated, Czech residents took back the original name of the city square. When the retreating German army passed through the city in the final weeks of the war, they shot at its 15th-century astronomical clock, leaving only a few pieces intact (these are held in the local museum). The city was restored to Czechoslovakia, although with a Soviet-installed communist regime with stayed in power until the Fall of Communism in the 1980s. In the 1950s, the clock was reconstructed under the influence of Soviet government; it features a procession of proletarians rather than saints. After the war, the government participated in the expulsion of ethnic Germans from the country, following the Allied leaders' Potsdam Agreement, which redefined the Central European borders, although many of these people's families had lived for two centuries in the region. There were the statue of the first president T. G. Masaryk reconstructed as a symbol of come back of democracy on Masaryk street after "velvet revolution" in 1990. Its inner city is the third-largest urban monument reservation in the country, after Prague.


title: Olomouc

text: Public transport in Olomouc is provided by trams and buses. Local railway services from Olomouc main railway station to Senice na Hané and Prostějov make stops around the city.


title: Olomouc

text: The first train arrived in Olomouc on 17 October 1841 from Vienna. In 1845, the first omnibuses connected the railway station and the center of Olomouc. In 1899, omnibuses were replaced with trams.


title: Olomouc

text: The main railway station in Olomouc ("Olomouc hlavní nádraží", or "Olomouc hl.n") is an important railway junction. The city is connected with Prague, Ostrava, Brno, Zlín and Břeclav. The main train station in Olomouc is quite busy; passenger trains of all categories operated by České dráhy, RegioJet and LEO Express make stops there.


title: Olomouc

text: The city is the home of the Moravian Theatre ("Moravské divadlo") and the Moravian Philharmonic ("Moravská filharmonie"). Olomouc is also the centre of the ethnographic region of Haná.


title: Olomouc

text: Palacký University, the oldest in Moravia and second oldest in the Czech Republic, was founded in 1573 as part of an effort to reestablish Roman Catholicism in the country. At the time, roughly nine out of ten inhabitants of the Czech Crown lands were Protestants. Most of its faculties were suppressed in the 1850s by the Habsburg régime in retaliation for professor and student support for the 1848 revolution and the Czech National Revival. The university was fully restored in 1946; it was renamed Palacký University of Olomouc.


title: Olomouc

text: The university plays a very important role in the life of the city: with over 25,200 students (including those at Moravian College Olomouc), Olomouc has the highest density of university students in Central Europe. Many of the city's services are student-oriented. They close during holidays and the university exam periods. During the summer holiday, the trams run solo (apart from rush-hours), while during the university sessions, the lines are served by two coupled trams.


title: Olomouc

text: The university buildings comprise about a third of the city's heritage centre; notable ones include the University Art Centre and the so-called Armoury (now Central Library).


title: Olomouc

text: Olomouc contains several large squares, the chief of which is adorned with the Holy Trinity Column, designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The column is high and was built between 1716 and 1754.


title: Olomouc

text: The city has numerous historic religious buildings. The most prominent church is Saint Wenceslas Cathedral founded before 1107 in the compound of the Olomouc Castle. At the end of the 19th century, the cathedral was rebuilt in the neo-Gothic style. It kept many features of the original church, which had renovations and additions reflecting styles of different ages: Romanesque crypt, Gothic cloister, Baroque chapels. The highest of the three spires is , the second-highest in the country (after Cathedral of St. Bartholomew in Plzeň). The church is next to the Bishop Zdík's Palace (also called the Přemyslid Palace), a Romanesque building built after 1141 by the bishop Jindřich Zdík. It remains one of the most precious monuments of Olomouc: Such an early bishop's palace is unique in Central Europe. The Přemyslid Palace, used as the residence of Olomouc dukes from the governing Přemyslid dynasty, stood nearby.


title: Olomouc

text: Church of Saint Maurice, a fine Gothic building of the 15th century, has the 6th-largest church organ in Central Europe.


title: Olomouc

text: Church of Saint Michael is notable. The Neo-baroque Chapel of Saint John Sarkander stands on the site of a former town prison. At the beginning of the Thirty Years' War, the Catholic priest John Sarkander was imprisoned here. Accused of collaboration with the enemy, he was tortured but did not reveal anything because of the Seal of Confession and died. The torture rack and Sarkander's gravestone are preserved here. He was canonized by Pope John Paul II during his visit in Olomouc in 1995.


title: Olomouc

text: John Paul II also visited "" ("The Holy Hillock"), which has the magnificent Baroque Church of the Visitation of the Virgin Mary. It overlooks the city. The Pope promoted the church to Minor Basilica. Several monasteries are in Olomouc, including Hradisko Monastery, Convent of Dominican Sisters in Olomouc and others.


title: Olomouc

text: Other notable destinations are the Olomouc Orthodox Church, consecrated to , and the Mausoleum of Yugoslav Soldiers. This monument commemorates 1,188 Yugoslav soldiers who died during World War I in local hospitals after being wounded on battlefields.


title: Olomouc

text: The principal secular building is the city hall, completed in the 15th century. It is flanked on one side by a gothic chapel, now adapted and operated as the Olomouc Museum of Art. It has a tower high, adorned with an astronomical clock in an uncommon Socialist Realist style. The original 15th-century clock was destroyed at the end of World War II. It was reconstructed in 1947–1955 by Karel Svolinský, who used the government-approved style of the time, featuring proletarians rather than saints. This is also the reason why the clock's calendar represents some of the most important days of the Communist regime.


title: Olomouc

text: Olomouc has unique set of six Baroque fountains. They survived in such number thanks to the city council's caution. While most European cities were removing old fountains after building water-supply piping, Olomouc decided to keep them as reservoirs in case of fire. The fountains feature ancient Roman motifs; five portray the Roman gods Jupiter , Mercury , Triton , Neptune and Hercules . One features Julius Caesar, the legendary founder of the city . In the 21st century, an Arion fountain was added to the main square, inspired by the older project.


title: Olomouc

text: In front of the astronomical clock on the Horní ("Upper") Square, which is the largest square in Olomouc, is a scale model of the entire old town in bronze.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: Anjem Choudary (, aka Abu Luqman; born 18 January 1967) is a Pakistani-British Islamist and a social and political activist who has been described as "the face" of militant Islamism or the "best known" Islamic extremist in Britain.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: Members of his group have been accused of being linked to between 25 and 40% of terrorist events in Britain up to 2015 (according to various researchers, journalists and others),


title: Anjem Choudary

text: After staying "just within the law" for many years (according to police), in summer of 2014 Choudary pledged allegiance to the Islamic State's "caliphate", and its "caliph" (Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi) by Skype. Two years later he was convicted under the Terrorism Act 2000 of inviting support for a proscribed organisation, i.e. for the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant. He was subsequently subject to sanctions by both the U.S. State Department and the U.N. Security Council freezing his assets. He has been denounced by mainstream Muslim groups and heavily criticised in the UK media.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: In 1996, Choudary, with Omar Bakri Muhammad, helped form the Islamist al-Muhajiroun organisation in Britain. The group organised several anti-Western demonstrations, including a banned protest march in London for which Choudary was summoned to appear in court. The UK government banned Al-Muhajiroun in 2010 and Choudary subsequently founded or help found a series of organizations considered by many to be Al-Muhajiroun under new names—such as Al Guraba', Islam4UK, Sharia4UK, Sharia4Belgium. Among the controversial causes espoused and statements made by Choudary and the group include implementation of Sharia throughout the UK, "Europe, and the wider world"; the conversion of famous British landmarks (Buckingham Palace, Nelson's Column) into palaces for a caliph, minarets, and mosques; praise for those responsible for the 11 September 2001 and 7 July 2005 attacks; calling for the execution of the Pope for criticizing the Islamic prophet Muhammad; and declaring that Muslims reject the concepts of freedom of expression,<ref name="Pandey-IBT-8/6/2015"></ref> democracy, and human rights.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: Following his conviction on terrorism charges on 6 September 2016, Choudary was sentenced to five years and six months in prison, and released automatically on licence in October 2018 with restrictions on speaking in public or to the media.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: On 18 July 2021, Choudary's ban on speaking in public was lifted, and as of October 2021 he has reportedly resumed his online campaigns.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: Anjem Choudary was born in Welling, Bexley in South East London on 18 January 1967 to Pakistani Muslim parents the son of market trader, his parents were Punjabi Muslims who migrated to what became Pakistan from East Punjab during the Partition of India in 1947. He attended Mulgrave Primary School, in Woolwich.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: In 1996, Choudary married Rubana Akhtar (or Akhgar), who had recently joined al-Muhajiroun, which he led at the time. She later became the group's head of women. The couple have four children.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: He enrolled as a medical student at Barts Medical School. While attending university, he was reputed to have indulged in drink and drugs. Responding to claims that he was a "party animal" who joined his friends in "getting stoned", in 2014 Choudary commented "I admit that I wasn't always practising... I committed many mistakes in my life."


title: Anjem Choudary

text: He switched to law at the University of Southampton and spent his final year as a legal student (1990–1991) at Guildford, before moving to London to teach ESL. He found work at a legal firm and completed his legal qualifications to become a lawyer. In the early 1990s, he worked in his spare time as an organizer for preacher/scholar Omar Bakri Muhammad, who also supported the reestablishment of the Sunni caliphate.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: Choudary became the chairman of the Society of Muslim Lawyers, but was removed from the roll of solicitors (the official register of legal practitioners) in 2002.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: On 7 November 1999, "The Sunday Telegraph" reported that Muslims were receiving weapons training at secret locations in Britain. Most of those who trained at these centres would then fight for Osama Bin Laden's International Islamic Front in Chechnya, while others would fight in such places as Kosovo, Sudan, Somalia, Afghanistan, Pakistan and Kashmir. The report identified Anjem Choudary as a key figure in recruiting for these training centres.


title: Anjem Choudary

text: Choudary was present at the launch of its intended successor, Ahlus Sunnah wal Jamaah, and after that he helped form Al Ghurabaa, which was banned in July 2006. Choudary then became the spokesman for Islam4UK until it was proscribed in 2010. (While some sources refer to the Al Guraba', Islam4UK, etc., as successors of Al-Muhajiroun, others describe them as "other names the organisation [Al-Muhajiroun] goes by" to circumvent the ban on the original group.)


title: Anjem Choudary

text: Choudary embraced Islamism and, with the Islamist militant leader Omar Bakri Muhammed, co-founded al-Muhajiroun, a Salafi organisation. The two men had met at a local mosque, where Bakri was giving a tafsir (an interpretation of the Qur'an). In 2002, following a bazaar organised by al-Muhajiroun (advertised by leaflet and word of mouth), Choudary gave a talk on education in Slough. His lecture outlined his ideas for a parallel system of Islamic education in the UK and included elements of the group's ideology. In the same year, although they were refused a permit by the then Mayor of London Ken Livingstone, on 25 August the group held a rally in London. Choudary was summonsed to Bow Street Magistrates' Court in January 2003, on charges which included "exhibiting a notice, advertisement or any other written or pictorial matter", "using apparatus for the amplification of sound", "making a public speech or address" and "organising an assembly".


title: Anjem Choudary

text: In 2003 or 2004, he organised an Islamic-themed camping trip, at which Bakri lectured, on the grounds of the Jameah Islamiyah School in East Sussex. Advertised by word-of-mouth, the trip was attended by 50 Muslim men, most of whom were members of al-Muhajiroun. Bakri later claimed the camp's activities included lectures on Islam, football and paintballing. In September 2006, following allegations that it was used in the training and recruitment of terrorists, police searched the school. According to testimony from Al Qaeda suspects held at the Guantanamo Bay detention camp, in 1997 and 1998 Abu Hamza and groups of around 30 of his followers held training camps at the school, which included training with AK47 rifles and handguns, and a mock rocket launcher. No arrests were made, and students and faculty were allowed to return on 23 September 2006, the first day of Ramadan.