title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: With preparations for T.M.Revolution's tenth anniversary in May 2006 and other commitments, Nishikawa was unable to visit North America in 2005. In April 2005, he began cohosting NHK's music variety show "Pop Jam" with NHK Broadcasting Center announcer and comedy duo . Nishikawa's twenty-first single, , was released in August 2005. It was his fourth single, and second consecutive, to reach #1 on the Oricon charts. "Vestige" was used as an insert song for "Gundam SEED Destiny". "Crosswise", the other track, was used as the theme song for PlayStation 2 game "Sengoku BASARA". "Vestige" was #54 on the 2005 Oricon Top 100 Singles chart, with 176,028 copies sold that year. The "Vestige" single came with a unique password that was used to vote online (on T.M.Revolution's official website) for which songs would appear on an upcoming self-cover album. These songs would be rearranged and re-recorded. Ten songs were originally planned for this album, but due to the overwhelming number of votes, fifteen tracks were recorded instead. The “self-cover best album”, titled "UNDER:COVER", was released on January 1, 2006 and was ranked #8 on the Oricon charts. "UNDER:COVER" came in two editions, limited (or first press) and regular. The regular edition contained fourteen tracks. The limited edition came with fourteen tracks, a bonus track on a separate disc (instrumental version of “Meteor”, Daisuke Asakura's only contribution to the album), and a poster which listed the names of all the people who selected the tracks. The rearrangement of “Zips” was used as an insert song to the first "" movie.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Nishikawa performed the "UNDER:COVER" mix of “WHITE BREATH” at the 56th edition of "Kōhaku Uta Gassen", his third appearance and his first since 1998. His cohosting duties on "Pop Jam" came to an end in March 2006. His tenth anniversary celebration was held at Universal Studios Japan in Osaka on May 13, 2006. That day, it was announced that Nishikawa will perform at USJ, near Peter Pan's Neverland, on his 36th birthday on September 19, 2006. His second compilation album, "1000000000000" (a one followed by 12 zeroes), was released on June 7, 2006. It was a two disc set that contained the A-sides of all twenty-one singles released to date, and was ranked #1 on the Oricon charts. The corresponding DVD, released three weeks later, contained all twenty-four TMR PVs made. Nishikawa has also starred in a drama called "Nursing Étoile" in autumn 2006.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Nishikawa established a new band called Abingdon Boys School in 2005. Named after the school where Radiohead met, ex-Wands guitarist Hiroshi Shibasaki joined the band alongside Sunao and Toshiyuki Kishi. Abingdon Boys School scored seven straight top ten hits and released two albums, as well as touring throughout Europe and having their albums, including English language songs, released through a German record label. The band also performed at the Live Earth concert in Tokyo, Japan, on July 7, 2007.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Nishikawa held the Real Time Countdown Party Revolution, a live concert he did with all of his fans on New Year's Eve, to make up for the lack of new T.M. Revolution material. Although in a recent magazine interview, Nishikawa has stated that he will make a comeback in 2008 as T.M. Revolution. His first new single, 'Resonance', which features all his past famous hit song music videos and promotes Sony products in its Music Video, is the Anime theme song for the anime "Soul Eater" and was released on June 11. Resonance reached #4 on Oricon Singles Chart on its release day. "Soul's Crossing", the B-side of the "Resonance" single, was used as the theme song for the "Soul Eater" video game for the Wii console.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: T.M.Revolution took part in the "hide memorial summit", a music festival to honor the tenth anniversary of the death of X Japan guitarist hide.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: At the New York Anime Festival 2008, and official TMR and ABS panel hinted at some 'surprise projects' involving Nishikawa. However, no further news on a new album were made. And on March 23, 2009 T.M.Revolution released a Memorial Box featuring the songs from his debut single, Dokusai monopolize through eleventh single, WILD RUSH. These singles were originally released on 8 cm minidiscs but will now be in high-fidelity Blu-spec CD format (fully compatible with standard CD players). The box also contains a bonus DVD from his T.M.R. YEAR COUNTDOWN LIVE, a photo book and logo sticker set. The box's price is 17 800 yen, but the singles are also sold separately.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: T.M.Revolution is going to release a single dedicated to a beautiful regional lake. From 2009 the song has been performed during live shows known under the title [Lakers] and for the first time ever, it will be a single only available for download, scheduled for March 3. The song [Lakers] will also be the image song of the 65th Biwako Marathon. The lyrics have been written by Inoue Akio, the music arrangement is made by Asakura Daisuke.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: On March 24 T.M.Revolution will release a collaboration work with the Gundam franchise called "T.M.R.×GUNDAM SEED SPECIAL PROJECT [X42S-REVOLUTION]"


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: The CD will contain all the 5 songs he made for the series. 'Invoke', 'Ignited', 'Meteor', 'Zips' and 'Vestige'. But there will be a 6th track on the CD called 'imaginary ark' and this is the 30th Anniversary song for Gunpla. The CD comes in 3 versions.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: On August 11, a double A-side single 'Naked Arms/Sword Summit' will be released. Naked arms will be the opening song for the new Sengoku Basara game. An English version of the song will be able on the regular edition of this single. That song will be the opening for the game outside Japan. SWORD SUMMIT is the new opening for the second season of the Sengoku Basara anime.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: In 2013, Nishikawa teamed up with Nana Mizuki in a collaboration called T.M.Revolution X Nana Mizuki, and they released two singles, Preserved Roses and 革命デュアリズム (Kakumei Dyuarizumu, lit. Revolution Dualism), both recorded as the opening theme songs of Valvrave the Liberator, 1st and 2nd Season respectively.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Takanori announced his new album Ten (天)(Heaven). His 10th album and first album in four years came on three editions scheduled for release on his 19th anniversary at May 13, 2015.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: This album comes about 4 years after his last original album "Cloud Nine". It consists of 15 tracks including "Flags", "The party must go on", and "Count Zero", which are all songs he collaborated with Sengoku BASARA, as well as "Summer Blizzard" and "Heaven Only Knows ～Get the Power～", which were only released digitally. It also includes brand new songs such as "Double-Deal" and "Amakaze".


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: The album comes in 2 limited editions (A & B) and a regular edition. Limited edition A comes with a DVD featuring live footage of 'Inazuma Rock Fes 2014', while limited edition B DVD contains a digest of 'T.M.R. Live Revolution'14 in Taipei' and an interview.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Afterwards T.M.Revolution held a long tour titled "T.M.R. Live Revolution '15 -Ten-" kicking off on April 4 and 5 at Harmony Zama Hall in Kanagawa.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: On April 6, 2016, Nishikawa released the single "Committed RED / Inherit the Force" . The song "Committed RED" was used for the theme song of the PS4 game Sengoku Basara: Sanada Yukimura-Den (Sengoku Basara: The Legend of Sanada Yukimura), while the song "Inherit the force" was used for the theme song of the PS Vita game Kidou Senshi Gundam EXTREME VS-FORCE


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: On May 11, 2016, he released the best album "2020 -T.M.Revolution All Time Best-". The album was released to celebrate 20 years of his career. The album contains 3 discs. In Disc 1, it contains all of the singles that released from his first single until his single that released in 2000 (all singles that released before and in 2000). In Disc 2, it contains all of the singles that released from 2001 to 2010. And in Disc 3, it contains all of the singles that released from 2011 until his new singles of that year (2016), "Inherit the Force" and "Committed Red". On the DVD track list, it contains the video "20 Years of Nishikawa in 2020 Seconds", a video that told the story of his career from 20 years before until now.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: On August 31, 2016, he released the single "Raimei". The song was used as the opening theme for the live-action puppetry collaboration between Japan and Taiwan, "Thunderbolt Fantasy".


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: On September 19, 2017, he released a digital single titled "BIRI x BIRI" collaborating with Shuta Sueyoshi from AAA; the song itself is used as the theme song of the film "Overdrive", known in Japan as "Scramble". This single is also marked as a single that uses his real name, instead of using his stage name. In various articles promoting the movie and his contribution to it, he stated that he wished to try more and different styles of music under his own name. On March 7, 2018, he will release a single titled "Bright Burning Shout", which was released digitally on January 28, 2018; the song is used as the opening theme to the 2018 anime "Fate/Extra Last Encore".


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: He covered "Ever Free" for the June 6, 2018 hide tribute album "Tribute Impulse". On March 6, 2019, Nishikawa was released the album "Singularity", which will include "Be Affected", his collaboration with Fear, and Loathing in Las Vegas, the Hiroyuki Sawano-produced tracks "His/Story" and "Roll The Dice", and the digital single "UNBROKEN" feat. Tomoyasu Hotei, which will be used as the theme for the live action film, "Million Arthur vs. Touken Ranbu the Movie".


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: By August 2019, Takanori, along with J from the band Luna Sea, was collaborated to perform a theme song titled 'REALxEYEZ' for 2019 tokusatsu series, "Kamen Rider Zero-One"., along with Another Daybreak, the theme song for Kamen Rider Reiwa The First Generation. Both songs was released as a single on January 22, 2020.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: He collaborated with ASCA in performing the song that was released on May 27, 2020; the song is used as the opening theme of anime series "White Cat Project: Zero Chronicle". Later that year, he collaborated with Shō Kiryūin of the band Golden Bomber in performing a cover of the song "1・2・3" originally sung by Mafumafu and Soraru under the unit After the Rain; the cover was used as the second opening theme of the anime series "".


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: In early 2008, Nishikawa starred in the movie Corazon de Melon. It premiered at NYU's Cantor Film Center in New York City on September 28, 2008 as part of the film festival.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Takanori now has a new title for his resume: first Cultural Ambassador for Shiga prefecture, his home region. At the inauguration ceremony, he said that "I want to return a favor for my hometown by music" and realized his plan. In 2009, he took place a two-day event called "Inazuma Rock Fes" ("inazuma" means "lightning" associated with a shape of , the first kanji character of Shiga) at a lakeside park in Kusatsu city near his hometown on September 19 (Takanori's birthday) and 20th. It was the first large-scale open-air music festival in history of Shiga. The Inazuma Rock Fes was a big hit, and became an annual event.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Takanori has established his own indies record label called Defrock Records. The first artist on the label is the four-member rock band Agitato, who will release a mini-album titled "Colors" on January 20.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Agitato formed in 2004. This past October, they served as the opening act for Nishikawa's band, abingdon boys school, at the Ebisu Liquid Room.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Nishikawa described the label as "borderless," saying that he hopes to deliver a variety of high quality music to the world.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: was a radio show Nishikawa hosted on "All Night Nippon". Listeners, who were unable to meet him at his concerts, had a chance to talk to Nishikawa on air. Nishikawa's radio show was broadcast on Monday nights and ran for eight years and nine months, from January 6, 1997 to September 26, 2005. The show was called from April 1999 to March 2003. A two-hour television special with Masaharu Fukuyama, called , was aired on September 30, 2001 on Fuji Television.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Established on April 7, 1998, Diesel Corporation is a company run by Nishikawa. The company is responsible for artist management & promotion, operating Nishikawa's fan club, and marketing the DEFRÖCK brand (see next section).


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Launched in 2001, Defröck is Nishikawa's clothing line. The name comes from a play on words, most notably the near-phonetic indifference between "l” and "r” in Japanese. Cars, which Nishikawa likes, use a device called differential lock. Nishikawa's favourite music genre is rock (although he does enjoy various kinds of music). He took the first few syllables of “differential”, changed “lock” into “rock”, and combined the two together to form this name. On a side note, in "Gundam SEED", the Defröck label appears on Nishikawa's character's mobile suit as a custom sticker.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Babel Fish, which opened in 2004, was a shop (in Shibuya) that sold Defröck clothes. It closed on July 31, 2006.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: He did a comeback tour as T.M. Revolution from the end of 2008 to March 2009. A photobook, , has been released, documenting the tour.


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Nishikawa has released 12 studio albums, 1 pre-debut singles, 41 singles, 15 digital single, 8 compilations, 1 remix album, and 2 "self-cover bests" album as T.M.Revolution. He also recorded a cover of dance group TRF's song "Silver and Gold dance", from their 2006 album "Lif-e-Motions".


title: Takanori Nishikawa

text: Five Hello Kitty keychains were released as promotional items for TMR's tenth anniversary in 2005. They are based on the costume used in the respective song's PV.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: Gipuzkoa (, , ; ; ) is a province of Spain and a historical territory of the autonomous community of the Basque Country. Its capital city is Donostia-San Sebastián. Gipuzkoa shares borders with the French department of Pyrénées-Atlantiques at the northeast, with the province and autonomous community of Navarre at east, Biscay at west, Álava at southwest and the Bay of Biscay to its north. It is located at the easternmost extreme of the Cantabric Sea, in the Bay of Biscay. It has of coast land.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: With a total area of , Gipuzkoa is the smallest province of Spain. The province has 89 municipalities and a population of 720,592 inhabitants (2018), from which more than half live in the Donostia-San Sebastián metropolitan area. Apart from the capital, other important cities are Irun, Errenteria, Zarautz, Mondragón, Eibar, Hondarribia, Oñati, Tolosa, Beasain and Pasaia.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The oceanic climate gives the province an intense green colour with little thermic oscillation. Gipuzkoa is the province of the Basque Country in which the Basque language is the most extensively used since 49.1% of its population spoke Basque in 2006.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The first recorded name of the province was "Ipuscoa" in a document from the year 1025. During the following years, and in various documents, several similar names appear, such as "Ipuzcoa", "Ipuçcha", "Ipuzka", among others.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The full etymology the word Gipuzkoa has not been fully ascertained, but links have been made with the Basque word "Giputz", containing the root "ip-" which is related to the word "ipar" (north), "ipurdi" (back) and "ipuin" (tale). According to this, "ipuzko" (one of the several first known denominations) might refer to something "to the north" or "in the north".


title: Gipuzkoa

text: Gipuzkoa is the Basque spelling recommended by the Royal Academy of the Basque Language, and it is commonly used in official documents in that language. The Basque spelling is also mandatory in official texts from the various Spanish public administrations, even in documents written in Spanish. It is the spelling most frequently used by the Spanish-language media in the Basque Country.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: It is also the spelling used in the Basque version of the Spanish constitution and in the Basque version of the Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Country. Gipuzkoa is also the only official spelling approved for the historical territory by the Juntas Generales of the province.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: "Guipúzcoa" is the spelling in Spanish, and it has been determined by the Association of Spanish Language Academies as being the only correct use outside official Spanish documents in which the Basque spelling is mandatory. It is also the Spanish spelling used in the Spanish version of the Constitution and in the Spanish version of the Statute of Autonomy of the Basque Country.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: At Gipuzkoa is the smallest province in Spain. The province has 88 municipalities and 709,607 inhabitants (2011), a quarter of whom live in the capital, San Sebastián. Other important towns are Irun, Errenteria, Zarautz, Arrasate, Oñati with an old university, Eibar, Tolosa which was the provincial capital for a short time, Beasain, Pasaia, the main port and Hondarribia, an old fort town across from the French Atlantic coast.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: Gipuzkoa is hilly and green linking mountain and sea, and heavily populated with numerous urban nuclei that dot the whole territory. The conspicuous presence of hills and rugged terrain has added to a special leaning towards hiking, nature and mountains on the part of Gipuzkoans. Some mountains have an emblematic or iconic significance in the local tradition, their summits being topped with crosses, memorials and mountaineer postboxes. In addition, pilgrimages which have gradually lost their former religious zeal and taken on a more secular slant are sometimes held to their summits. Some renowned mountains are Aiako Harria, Hernio, Txindoki, Aizkorri and Izarraitz, amongst others.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The Aralar Natural Park is a conservation area on the border of Gipuzkoa and Navarre in the Aralar Range.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The rivers of Gipuzkoa are distinctly different from other Bay of Biscay rivers. They arise in the hilly Basque inland landscape ("Basque Mountains"), flow in a south- north direction, forming close, narrow valleys before joining the ocean. The rivers extend for a short length with only a small fluctuation in the volume of water thanks to the stable rainfall all year round, and they show an abrupt drop between origin and mouth as far as the length of the river is concerned. From west to east the rivers are the Deba, Urola, Oria, Urumea, Oiartzun and Bidasoa. Except for a narrow strip extending east from the hamlet "Otzaurte" (Zegama) and the tunnel of San Adrian, the province drains its waters to the Atlantic basin.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The region's communication layout is in step with its geographical features, with the main lines of infrastructure along a north -south axis up to recent times along the rivers heading to the ocean. Accordingly, the inland Way of St. James, i.e. the Tunnel Route penetrated the province via Irun and turned south-west along the Oria River towards the provincial limits at the tunnel of San Adrian. This stretch was in operation up to 1765 when the Royal Road moved to the western Deba Valley. A minor St. James route crossed Gipuzkoa east to west along the coast.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: Currently, the main road cutting through Gipuzkoa largely follows that layout, i.e. the N-1 E-5 from Irun to Donostia and on to Altsasu all along the Oria River for the most part (gateway to Navarre through the pass of Etxegarate). Also, the major Irun-Madrid railway runs close to the river up to its very origin on the slopes of Aizkorri at train stop Otzaurte in Zegama. By 1973 engineering works for the Bilbao-Behobia A-8 E-70 motorway had been completed, with the new road cutting across the valleys east to west and turning into the main axis between Donostia and Bilbao, besides enabling heavy load traffic to access the west and south of Spain as a toll road. The regional railway network Euskotren Trena also follows along the coast from east to west, while it proves impractical for long distance on the grounds of its tortuous layout and as it serves small towns. The railway network reaches the border town Hendaia before it changes to SNCF. Within the Donostialdea region, the San Sebastián Metro provides service.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The stretch of the A-15 motorway serving Gipuzkoa and Pamplona opened in 1995 embroiled in controversy under protest and an attack campaign led by ecologists, Basque leftist nationalists and eventually ETA. Conflict resolved after a deal about the definitive layout was struck. In January 2010, following a scheme drawn up by the regional government of Gipuzkoa to improve provisions for the ever-increasing road traffic, the Maltzaga-Urbina AP-1 motorway stretch leading to Gasteiz was completed, providing likewise access to the industrial areas of Arrasate and Bergara, the gateway to Álava by village Landa. AP-1 and N-1 E-5 are connected by a highway east to west from Bergara and Beasain. European traffic to south of Spain avoids Donostia's metropolitan area by means of the southern outer road ring.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The AVE high-speed rail is currently under construction, with an Y-type layout and links to the SNCF network in Hendaia (NE), Vitoria (SE), Bilbao (W) and Pamplona (S) to be completeted by 2022. Contractors were appointed, works are in place although past schedule, while strong opposition (ecologists, Basque leftist nationalists...) and serious financial tensions made its future uncertain.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The only airport in Gipuzkoa serving just domestic flights is the San Sebastian Airport located in Hondarribia, while the air transportation needs are usually served by the nearby Bilbao and Biarritz airports.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: Gipuzkera, a dialect of the Basque language spoken in most of the region, shows a considerable vitality and holds a prominent position among other dialects. The Basque cultural element is apparent, including traditional dances and singing, bertsolaritza, trikiti and txistu music, baserris dotting the rural landscape, town festivals, and its signature heavy sculptures (stone, steel, iron) from the industrial tradition, all blending with the latest Basque, Spanish and international pop culture events and design trends centred in major urban areas (Donostia, Tolosa, etc.).


title: Gipuzkoa

text: Traditionally a Catholic province, its patron saints are the Society of Jesus' Ignatius of Loyola, a native of this province born in the neighborhood of Loyola (Azpeitia), and Our Lady of Arantzazu.


title: Gipuzkoa

text: The region has produced many famous Basque athletes for example: Jose Maria Olazabal (golfer), José Ángel Iribar, Mikel Arteta and Xabi Alonso (footballers), Abraham Olano and Domingo Perurena (cyclists), Edurne Pasaban and Alberto Iñurrategi (mountaineers), Iñaki Urdangarin (handball player), Maite Zúñiga (runner) and Paulino Uzcudun (boxer). Professional tennis player Garbiñe Muguruza's father is also a native of Gipuzkoa.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi (; ; Latinized as Micius ; – ), original name Mo Di (), was a Chinese philosopher who founded the school of Mohism during the Hundred Schools of Thought period (the early portion of the Warring States period, –221 BCE). The ancient text "Mozi" contains material ascribed to him and his followers.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi taught that everyone is equal in the eyes of heaven. He believed that the decision of who is in power should be based on meritocracy, or those who are worthy of power should receive power. Mozi invoked heaven and called upon the Sage Kings to support his precedents.


title: Mozi

text: Born in what is now Tengzhou, Shandong Province, Mozi founded the school of Mohism, which argued strongly against both Confucianism and Daoism. Mozi's philosophy emphasized universal love, social order, the will of heaven, sharing, and honoring the worthy. During the Warring States period, Mohism was actively developed and practiced in many states, but fell out of favor when the legalist Qin dynasty came to power in 221 BCE. During the Qin period, many Mohist classics are thought to have been destroyed when the emperor Qin Shi Huang supposedly carried out the burning of books and burying of scholars. The importance of Mohism further declined when Confucianism became the dominant school of thought during the Han Dynasty, disappearing almost entirely by the middle of the Western Han dynasty.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi is referenced in the "Thousand Character Classic", which records that he was saddened when he saw the dyeing of pure white silk, which embodied his conception of austerity (i.e., simplicity and chastity).


title: Mozi

text: The concept of Love () was developed by Mozi in the 4th century BCE in reaction to the Confucian concept of benevolent love. Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese over-attachment to family and clan structures with the concept of "universal love" (, "jiān'ài"). In this, he argued directly against Confucians who believed that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees. Mozi, by contrast, believed people in principle should care for all people equally. Mozi stressed that rather than adopting different attitudes towards different people, love should be unconditional and offered to everyone without regard to reciprocation, not just to friends, family and other Confucian relations. Later in Chinese Buddhism, the term "Ai" () was adopted to refer to a passionate, caring love, and was considered a fundamental desire. In Buddhism, "Ai" was seen as capable of being either selfish or selfless, the latter being a key element in growth towards spiritual enlightenment.


title: Mozi

text: Most historians believe that Mozi was a member of the lower artisan class who managed to climb his way to an official post. It is known, however, that his parents were not affectionate towards him and showed him very little attention. Mozi was a native of the State of Lu (modern Tengzhou, Shandong), although for a time he served as a minister in the State of Song. Similar to Confucius, Mozi was known to have maintained a school for those who desired to become officials serving in the different ruling courts of the Warring States.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi was a carpenter and was extremely skilled in creating devices (see Lu Ban). Though he did not hold a high official position, Mozi was sought out by various rulers as an expert on fortification. He was schooled in Confucianism in his early years, although he viewed Confucianism as being too fatalistic, with an overemphasis on elaborate celebrations and funerals, which Mozi considered to be detrimental to the livelihood and productivity of the common people. Mozi managed to attract a large following during his lifetime, rivaling that of Confucius. His followers — mostly technicians and craftspeople — were organized in a disciplined order that studied both Mozi's philosophical and technical writings.


title: Mozi

text: According to some accounts of the popular understanding of Mozi at the time, he had been hailed by many as the greatest hero to come from Henan. His passion was said to be for the good of the people, without concern for personal gain or even for his own life or death. His tireless contribution to society was praised by many, including Confucius's disciple Mencius. Mencius wrote in "Jinxin" () that Mozi believed in love for all mankind, noting that, as long as something benefitted mankind, Mozi would pursue it even if it meant "hurting his head or his feet". Zhang Tai Yan said that, in terms of moral virtue, even Confucius and Laozi could not compare to Mozi.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi travelled from one crisis zone to another throughout the ravaged landscape of the Warring States, trying to dissuade rulers from their plans of conquest. According to the chapter "Gongshu" in the "Mozi", he once walked for ten days to the State of Chu in order to forestall an attack on the State of Song. At the Chu court, Mozi engaged in nine simulated war games with Gongshu Ban, the chief military strategist of Chu, and overturned each one of his stratagems. When Gongshu Ban threatened him with death, Mozi informed the king that his disciples had already trained the soldiers of Song in his fortification methods, so it would be useless to kill him. The Chu king was forced to call off the war. On the way back, however, the soldiers of Song, not recognizing Mozi, would not allow him to enter their city, and he had to spend a night freezing in the rain. After this episode, he also prevented the State of Qi from attacking the State of Lu. He taught that the defense of a city did not depend only on fortification, weaponry, and food supply, but rather that it was also important to keep talented people close by and to put trust in them.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi's moral teachings emphasized introspection, self-reflection, and authenticity, rather than obedience to rituals. He observed that people often learned about the world through adversity. By reflecting on one's own successes and failures, one attains true self-knowledge rather than mere conformity to ritual. Mozi exhorted people to lead a life of asceticism and self-restraint, renouncing both material and spiritual extravagance.


title: Mozi

text: Like Confucius, Mozi idealized the Xia Dynasty and the ancients of Chinese mythology, but he also criticized the Confucian belief that modern life should be patterned on the ways of the ancients. Mozi argued that what is thought of as "ancient" was actually innovative in its time, and thus should not be used to hinder present-day innovation. Though Mozi did not believe that history necessarily progresses, as did Han Fei Zi, he shared the latter's critique of fate (, "mìng"). Mozi believed that people were capable of changing their circumstances and directing their own lives, which could be achieved by applying one's senses to observing the world, as well as judging objects and events by their causes, functions, and historical bases. This was the "three-prong method" Mozi recommended for testing the truth or falsehood of statements. His students later expanded upon this theory to form the School of Names.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi tried to replace what he considered to be the long-entrenched Chinese ideal of strong attachments to family and clan structures with the concept of "impartial caring" or "universal love" (, "jiān ài"). He argued directly against Confucians, who had philosophized that it was natural and correct for people to care about different people in different degrees. Mozi, in contrast, argued that people in principle should care for all people equally, a notion that philosophers in other schools found absurd, as they interpreted this notion as implying no special amount of care or duty towards one's parents and family.


title: Mozi

text: Overlooked by those critics, however, was a passage in the chapter on "Self-Cultivation" which stated, "When people near-by are not befriended, there is no use endeavoring to attract those at a distance." This point was also precisely articulated by a Mohist in a debate with Mencius (in the "Mengzi"), where the Mohist argued, in relation to carrying out universal love, that "we begin with what is near." Also, in the first chapter in the "Mozi" on the topic of universal love, Mozi argued that the best way of being filial to one's parents is to be filial to the parents of others. The foundational principle was therefore that benevolence, as well as malevolence, is requited, and that one would be treated by others as one treats others. Mozi quoted a popular passage from the "Book of Odes" to bring home this point: "When one throws to me a peach, I return to him a plum." One's parents will be treated by others as one treats the parents of others. Mozi also differentiated between "intention" and "actuality", thereby placing a central importance on the will to love, even though in practice it might very well be impossible to bring benefit to everyone.


title: Mozi

text: In addition, Mozi argued that benevolence comes to human beings "as naturally as fire turns upward or water turns downward", provided that persons in positions of authority illustrate benevolence in their own lives. In differentiating between the ideas of "universal" ("jian") and "differential" ("bie"), Mozi said that "universal" originated from righteousness while "differential" entailed human effort.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi also held a belief in the power of ghosts and spirits, although he is often thought to have only worshipped them pragmatically. In fact, in his discussion on ghosts and spirits, he remarked that, even if they did not exist, communal gatherings for the sake of making sacrificial offering would play a role in strengthening social bonds. Furthermore, for Mozi the will of Heaven (, "tiān") was that people should love one another, and that mutual love by all would bring benefit to all. Therefore, it was in everyone's interest that they would love others "as they love themselves". According to Mozi, Heaven should be respected because failing to do so would subject one to punishment. For Mozi, Heaven was not the "amoral", mystical nature of the Daoists; rather, it was a benevolent, moral force that rewarded good and punished evil. Similar in some ways to the beliefs systems found in the Abrahamic religions, Mozi believed that all living things lived in a realm ruled by Heaven, and Heaven possessed a will which was independent from, and higher than, the will of people. Thus Mozi wrote that "Universal love is the Way of Heaven", since "Heaven nourishes and sustains all life without regard to status." Mozi's ideal of government, which advocated a meritocracy based on talent rather than background, also followed his idea of Heaven.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi opposed the Confucian idea of "Destiny", promoting instead an idea of "anti-fatalism" (). Where the Confucian philosophy held that a person's life, death, wealth, poverty, and social status were entirely dependent upon destiny and therefore could not be changed, Mozi argued that hard work and virtuous acts could change one's position in life.


title: Mozi

text: Mohist ethics is considered a form of consequentialism, according to which the morality of an action, statement, teaching, policy, judgment, and so on, is determined by the consequences that it brings about. In particular, Mozi thought that actions should be measured by the way they contribute to the benefit of all members of society. With this criterion, Mozi denounced things as diverse as offensive warfare, expensive funerals, and even music and dance, which he saw as serving no useful purpose. According to the "Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy", Mohist consequentialism, dating back to the 5th century BCE, is the "world's earliest form of consequentialism, a remarkably sophisticated version based on a plurality of intrinsic goods taken as constitutive of human welfare". Consequentialist theories vary over exactly which consequences are relevant, though they all share the same basic outcome-based structure. With Mozi's overwhelming focus on "benefit" (, "li") among other ends, and his explicit focus on making moral evaluations in light of them, Mozi's ethics indeed shares this consequentalist structure. For interpreting Mozi, however, there is some debate over how to understand the consequences Mozi seems most concerned with, and therefore over which kind of consequentialism to ascribe to him.


title: Mozi

text: Some believe the best descriptor to be state consequentialism. According to this reading, Mohist ethics makes moral evaluations based on how well the action, statement, etc., in question contributes to the stability of a state. Such state-related goods include social order, material wealth, and population growth. By centering his ethical theory around the promotion of such state-related ends, Mozi shows himself to be a state consequentialist. Unlike hedonistic utilitarianism, which views pleasure as a moral good, "the basic goods in Mohist consequentialist thinking are ... order, material wealth, and increase in population". During Mozi's era, war and famines were common, and population growth was seen as a moral necessity for a harmonious society. Mozi opposed wars because they wasted life and resources while interfering with the fair distribution of wealth, yet he recognized the need for strong urban defenses so he could maintain the harmonious society he desired. The "material wealth" of Mohist consequentialism refers to basic needs like shelter and clothing, and the "order" of Mohist consequentialism refers to Mozi's stance against warfare and violence, which he viewed as pointless and a threat to social stability. Stanford sinologist David Shepherd Nivison, in "The Cambridge History of Ancient China", writes that the moral goods of Mohism "are interrelated: more basic wealth, then more reproduction; more people, then more production and wealth ... if people have plenty, they would be good, filial, kind, and so on unproblematically". In contrast to Jeremy Bentham, Mozi did not believe that individual happiness was important; the consequences of the state outweigh the consequences of individual actions.


title: Mozi

text: Alternative readings locate the main focus of Mozi's consequentialism in the welfare of the people themselves rather than that of the state as a whole. Such interpretations as Chris Fraser's argue that it is a mistake to view Mozi's focus on the collective well-being of a population as a focus on the well-being of the state itself rather than its constituents. In this way, Mozi tended to evaluate actions based on whether they provide benefit to the people, which he measured in terms of an enlarged population (states were sparsely populated in his day), a prosperous economy, and social order. Indeed these are collective goods rather than individual ones, which is a major difference between Mohist consequentialism and modern, Western versions. However, this reading emphasizes that collective goods are better considered as aggregated individual goods rather than as state goods.


title: Mozi

text: This consequentialist structure supports Mohist ethics and politics, which survives in the form of 10 core doctrines. These doctrines are as follows:


title: Mozi

text: Each of these doctrines is justified on the grounds that it produces the best consequences for society, and that all people stand to benefit from adopting them. Promoting the worthy, for example, encourages people in positions of power to hire competent and worthy subordinates to fill posts, rather than hire friends and relatives instead. The reasoning here is that someone better qualified for the job will perform better and enable society as a whole to benefit. Identifying upward refers to the idea that people in subordinate positions in society must look to their superiors as models for their own conduct. Provided that the superiors are indeed morally competent and worthy of emulation, the rest of society will always have a reliable guide for their own actions, thereby giving rise to social benefits.


title: Mozi

text: Universal love refers to the basic normative attitude the Mohists encourage us to adopt towards others. The idea is that people ought to consider all others as being part of their scope of moral concern. Indeed this is perhaps the most infamous of Mohist doctrines, and was criticized early on by philosophers such as Mengzi, who held that the doctrine was akin to renouncing one's family. However, close readings of the texts by modern scholars have shown the demands of Mohist universal love to be much more mild and reasonable. Additionally, given the accretional nature of the texts, the audience of such texts may have changed depending upon the Mohists' social influence, and so the demands for universal love made on rulers, for example, is considerably higher than that made on the masses. At its most basic, however, the doctrine merely encourages a general attitude of care towards others. However, this does not require that we renounce all forms of special relationships we have with our families and friends. In fact, the Mohists introduce the problem that universal love is meant to solve by lamenting the fact that fathers and sons don't care for each other, and so must instead adopt an attitude of universal love. Conversely, the Mohists hope, when people adopt an attitude of universal love, society as a whole will benefit.


title: Mozi

text: Dovetailing with this idea is that of condemning aggression. The main targets of this doctrine are undoubtedly the rulers of the various warring states in China, who regularly embarked on expansionist military campaigns in order to increase their territory, power, and influence. However, such campaigns were enormously taxing on the population, disrupting regular farming cycles by conscripting able-bodied people for these military ends. Additionally, the practices is ethically wrong for the same reason that robbery and murder are wrong. In fact, according to Mozi, the two are actually one and the same; for what is an expansionist war of aggression other than robbery and murder on a grand scale? And yet, Mozi laments, those rulers who execute robbers and murderers engage in the very same practices. With respect to universal love, indeed part of the reason why rulers believe it is acceptable to invade and conquer other states while it is not acceptable for their own subjects to rob and steal from one another is that the people in neighboring states are not part of the rulers' scope of moral concern. If rulers were to instead include these people and refrain from wars of aggression, all states, those attacking and those defending, will benefit.


title: Mozi

text: Moderation in use and moderation in burials are the main Mohist ideas about frugality. In one's own projects, utility ought to be the only consideration. The Mohists took particular offense to the practice of extremely lavished funerals and demanding mourning rituals. Such funerals and rituals would potentially bankrupt an entire clan, at least temporarily, and disrupt its farming practices. For the dead in higher positions of authority, this disruption would affect an even greater number of people. Again, the point here is to promote benefit across society, and the Mohists believe that adopting frugal practices will do so.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi's ideas about ghosts and spirits follow from their religious beliefs in a morally consistent universe. Heaven, it is argued, is the ultimate moral standard, while ghosts and spirits serve as Heaven's enforcers. Both doctrines, when adopted, promote societal benefit both by enabling people to rely upon an objective standard to guide their actions (namely, Heaven), and by acting as a sort of cosmic authority capable of enacting rewards and punishments.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi's condemnation of music rests on the same economic considerations as their general ideas of frugality. In ancient China, grand musical ceremonies established by rulers would place enormous financial and human strains on populations, and so Mozi condemned such ceremonies for this reason. It's worth noting that Mozi did not object to music in principle—"It's not that I don't like the sound of the drum" ("Against Music")—but only because of the heavy tax burden such activities placed on commoners and also due to the fact that officials tended to indulge in them at the expense of their duties.


title: Mozi

text: Finally, the Mohists rejected the idea of fatalism, or the idea that there is fate. The Mohists reject this idea on the grounds that it encourages lazy and irresponsible behavior. When people believe that there is fate, and that the consequences of their actions lie beyond their control, people will not be encouraged to improve themselves, nor will they be willing to take responsibility for disasters. As a result, society will suffer, and so the doctrine that there is fate ought to be rejected.


title: Mozi

text: ""Mozi"" is also the name of the philosophical anthology written and compiled by followers of Mozi. The text was formed by an accretional process that took place over a period of hundreds of years, beginning perhaps during or shortly after Mozi's lifetime, and lasting until perhaps the early Han dynasty. During the Han dynasty, as Confucianism came to be the official school of political thought, Mohism gradually lost both its adherents and influence while simultaneously being partly incorporated into more mainstream political thought. The text was eventually neglected, and only 58 of the text's original 71 books ("pian") survive, some of which, notably the later Mohist "Canons", contain significant textual corruptions and are fragmentary in nature. The anthology can be divided into 5 main groups, which are determined on the basis of both chronological and thematic features:


title: Mozi

text: The "Mozi" is a rich source of insight into early Chinese dynastic history, culture, and philosophy. The text frequently cites ancient classics, such as the "Shang Shu", and at times departs from the received version, giving scholars insight into the textual development of such classics as well.


title: Mozi

text: The texts portray Mozi as a mouthpiece for Mohist philosophy and not much else. This picture contrasts that of Confucius and Mencius found in the "Lunyu" ("Analects") and "Mengzi" respectively, wherein the thinkers in question are portrayed as expressing emotions, chiding students, and even making mistakes. (Consider Mengzi's disastrous advice to the King of Qi to invade the state of Yan.) To contrast, Mozi has little if any personality in the text, instead serving only as a mouthpiece for Mohist philosophy.


title: Mozi

text: Mohism, like other schools of thought at the time, was suppressed under the Qin and died out completely under the Han, as its more radical adherents gradually dissolved and its most compelling ideas became absorbed by mainstream political thought. The influence of Mozi is still visible in many Han dynasty works written hundreds of years later. For example, the Confucian scholar Gongsun Hong describes the Confucian virtue of "ren" ("benevolence") in Mohist terms. Additionally, Mohist epistemology and philosophy of language had a profound influence on the development of classical Chinese philosophy in general. In fact, Mohism was so prominent during the Warring States period that philosophical opponents, including Mencius and some authors of the Daoist anthology, the "Zhuangzi", lament the very prevalence and widespread influence of their ideas.


title: Mozi

text: In modern times, Mohism has been given a fresh analysis. Sun Yat-Sen used "universal love" as one of the foundations for his idea of Chinese democracy. More recently, Chinese scholars under Communism have tried to rehabilitate Mozi as a "philosopher of the people", highlighting his rational-empirical approach to the world as well as his "proletarian" background. The body in the Mozi is constructed by "xing" (, 'body'), "xin" (, 'heart'), "qi" (, 'energy') 'which is in accord with the Pre-Qin thinkers' understanding to the body. While xing refers to the flesh-bloody part of human being, the concept of xin focuses on the aspect of cognition and is closely related to the concept of shan (, 'goodness'), ai (, 'love'), zhi (, 'will') and xing.


title: Mozi

text: Some views claim that Mozi's philosophy was at once more advanced and less so than that of Confucius. Indeed the Mohists were radical political reformers who sought primarily to benefit the masses and challenge the practices of the ruling orthodoxy, often targeting a perceived wasteful aristocracy whom they referred to as "the gentlemen of the world." The Mohist idea of "universal love" embraced a broader idea of human community than that of the Confucians, arguing that the scope of individuals' moral concern should include all people. Opponents of this idea often claimed that "universal love" was akin to renouncing one's family, and indeed more strict Mohists living in Mohist communities as the school flourished may have exhibited such behavior. However, there is some scholarly debate over just how radical the provisions of universal love actually are, and, as can be seen from the example of Gongsun Hong above, the less radical components of the doctrine were eventually absorbed by mainstream thought.


title: Mozi

text: Mozi is also famous for his ideas about frugality, such as those concerning moderating expenses and eliminating wasteful ceremonies including music and funerals. A common misconception is that the Mohists eschewed all forms of art, but of course the Mohists' targets are more specifically elaborate, state-sponsored rituals that would place incredible financial burdens upon a mostly peasant population. This can be seen from Xunzi's own arguments against Mozi in book 10 of the "Xunzi" "Enriching the State," where Xunzi argues against Mozi that prominent displays of wealth on the part of the state is necessary to maintaining social order.


title: Mozi

text: Some modern-day supporters for Mozi (as well as Communism) make the claim that Mohism and modern Communism share a lot in terms of ideals for community life. Others would claim that Mohism shares more with the central ideas of Christianity, especially in terms of the idea of "universal love" (in Greek, "agape"), the "Golden Rule", and the relation of humanity to the supernatural realm. However, Mohism is undoubtedly a product of Warring States China, a period of tremendous political violence and turmoil. The Mohists were political reformers, but they did not seek to challenge the monarchical model of government that prevailed during that time, and sought instead to reform from within by encouraging governments to hire competent people to carry out political tasks, care for their people inclusively, eliminate frivolous government spending, and halt all wars of aggression.


title: Mozi

text: In many ways the influence of Mohism was a victim of its own successes, and it is fairly easy to understand its decline. The Mohists' ideas about the importance of meritocracy and universal love were gradually absorbed by mainstream Confucian thinking. Their opposition to offensive warfare became irrelevant once the various Warring States were unified under the Qin and later Han dynasty, and their religious superstitions were eventually replaced with less supernatural accounts. So their most promising ideas were metabolized by the tradition, while their more radical and anachronistic ones were gradually discarded, leading to their demise during the Han dynasty.


title: Mozi

text: According to Joseph Needham, "Mozi" (collected writings of those in the tradition of Mozi, some of which might have been by Mozi himself) contains the following sentence: 'The cessation of motion is due to the opposing force... If there is no opposing force... the motion will never stop. This is as true as that an ox is not a horse.' which, he claims, is a precursor to Newton's first law of motion. "Mozi" also contains speculations in optics and mechanics that are similarly strikingly original, although their ideas were not taken up by later Chinese philosophers. The Mohist tradition is also highly unusual in Chinese thought in that it devoted time to developing principles of logic.


title: Mozi

text: He is the first to describe the physical principle behind the camera, also known as the camera obscura.


title: Mozi

text: In 2016, a joint Austrian-Chinese initiative between the experimental physics groups of Anton Zeilinger and former graduate student Pan Jianwei known as Quantum Experiments at Space Scale launched a quantum communications satellite nicknamed "Micius" or "Mozi" in homage to the philosopher's writings on optics.


title: Mick Aston

text: Michael Antony Aston (1 July 1946 – 24 June 2013) was an English archaeologist who specialised in Early Medieval landscape archaeology. Over the course of his career, he lectured at both the University of Bristol and University of Oxford and published fifteen books on archaeological subjects. A keen populariser of the discipline, Aston was widely known for appearing as the resident academic on the Channel 4 television series "Time Team" from 1994 to 2011.


title: Mick Aston

text: Born in Oldbury, Worcestershire, to a working-class family, Aston developed an early interest in archaeology, studying it as a subsidiary to geography at the University of Birmingham. In 1970, he began his career working for the Oxford City and County Museum and there began his work in public outreach by running extramural classes in archaeology and presenting a series on the subject for Radio Oxford. In 1974, he was appointed the first County Archaeologist for Somerset, there developing an interest in aerial archaeology and establishing a reputation as a pioneer in landscape archaeology—a term that he co-invented with Trevor Rowley—by authoring some of the earliest books on the subject. In 1978 he began lecturing at the University of Oxford and in 1979 became a tutor at the University of Bristol, supplementing these activities by working as an archaeological tour guide in Greece.


title: Mick Aston

text: In 1988, Aston teamed up with television producer Tim Taylor and together they created two shows which focused on bringing archaeology into British popular consciousness. The first was the short-lived "Time Signs" (1991), although this was followed by the more successful "Time Team", which was produced for Channel 4 from 1994 to 2013. Aston was responsible for identifying sites for excavation and for selecting specialists to appear on the show, and through the programme became well known to the viewing public for his trademark colourful jumpers and flowing, untidy hairstyle. In 1996 he was appointed to the specially-created post of Professor of Landscape Archaeology at Bristol University, and undertook a ten-year project investigating the manor at Shapwick, Somerset.


title: Mick Aston

text: He retired from his university posts in 2004, but continued working on "Time Team" until 2011 and in 2006 commenced writing regular articles for "British Archaeology" magazine until his death. Although Aston did not believe that he would leave a significant legacy behind him, after his death various archaeologists claimed that he had a major impact in helping to popularise the discipline among the British public.


title: Mick Aston

text: Aston was born on 1 July 1946 into a working-class family in Oldbury, Worcestershire, to cabinet-maker Harold Aston and his wife Gladys. He developed an early interest in archaeology, although teachers at Oldbury Grammar School attempted to dissuade him from pursuing it. His father gave him two books on archaeology as a Christmas present, and he subsequently spent much time visiting archaeological sites, sometimes playing truant to do so. The first of his family to attend university, Aston studied geography at the University of Birmingham, albeit with a subsidiary in archaeology, graduating in 1967. He taught himself more about archaeology by enrolling in various excavations, and was influenced by such figures as his thesis supervisor Harry Thorpe, as well as the geographer Trevor Rowley and archaeologists Philip Rahtz and Philip Barker. His dissertation was on the development of settlement in the West Penwith peninsula in Cornwall.


title: Mick Aston

text: Aston first gained full-time employment in 1970, working as a field officer at the Oxford City and County Museum in Oxfordshire. For a time living in a tent, he worked on the sites and monuments record and taught several extramural classes while based at the museum. This extramural teaching fitted closely with Aston's staunch belief that archaeology should be open to all who were interested in it. As part of this devotion to public outreach, he presented a radio series on archaeology that was broadcast on Radio Oxford. In 1974 he moved to Taunton to become the first County Archaeologist for Somerset, where he set up a new site record and oversaw the excavation of sites revealed by the construction of the M5 motorway. Again he also taught extramural adult education classes, this time for the University of Bristol. It was here that he developed a passion for aerial archaeology, and would often charter private planes in order to undertake aerial photography. Becoming a pioneer of landscape archaeology, along with Trevor Rowley he was responsible for coining the term in their 1974 book, "Landscape Archaeology". With archaeologist James Bond he authored "The Landscape of Towns" (1976), in which he extended his use of landscape archaeology to urban areas. Recognising his contribution to the discipline, in 1976, he was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries of London.


title: Mick Aston

text: Tiring of his position as county archaeologist, finding it "too safe, pensionable and superannuable", in 1978 he returned to Oxfordshire to take up a temporary position as a tutor in archaeology and local studies at Oxford University's External Studies Department. That year he co-ran his first study tour to Greece with Peter Hardy; he would continue to run these annually for a number of years, most often visiting Santorini. In 1979 he returned to the West Country as tutor in archaeology at the University of Bristol's Extra-Mural Department, through which he organised weekend and evening courses throughout the region, introducing thousands of interested people to archaeology. During this period he also authored "Interpreting the Landscape" (1985).


title: Mick Aston

text: In June 1988 the producer Tim Taylor invited Aston to work on a new four-episode television series for Channel 4 called "Time Signs", broadcast in June and July 1991. The series focused on the historical development of the area about to be flooded by the Roadford Reservoir in Devon, making heavy use of archaeological data. Aston brought archaeologist Phil Harding into the project in order to explain techniques of experimental archaeology to the audience. Meanwhile, in August 1989, Aston was promoted to the position of Reader in Landscape Archaeology at Bristol University. He also continued to write on the subject, authoring the book "Monasteries" (1993); he had initially planned to title the volume "Monasteries in the Landscape" but his publisher, Batsford, had insisted on the shorter title.


title: Mick Aston

text: Aston and Taylor subsequently decided to work together on a new archaeological television series, devising the format for "Time Team". Whilst Taylor organised the film production side of the project with Channel 4, Aston located suitable sites to excavate, and gathered together a team of specialists to appear on the show, among them field archaeologists Harding and Carenza Lewis, artist Victor Ambrus, and historian Robin Bush. He knew the actor and television presenter Tony Robinson after they had met on an archaeological course in Greece, and successfully requested that he present the show. From an early stage, they had agreed that every episode would feature a practical process or a re-enactment alongside the field archaeology.


title: Mick Aston

text: "Time Team" was first broadcast in 1994, and would attract around four million viewers per episode, with Aston becoming "an icon to the viewing public." Writing in "The Guardian", Christopher Dyer noted that Aston's "unkempt hair and beard, multicoloured sweaters and Black Country accent made him instantly recognisable" to the British public, describing him as "a popular success" who had attracted "a large public following". Aston acted as chief archaeological adviser to the programme until the end of series nineteen, appearing in almost every episode, although he would later comment that when it first started he had no idea it would continue for so long. Aston enjoyed working with the "Time Team" crew, commenting that they were "a great gang ... There are some real party people."


title: Mick Aston

text: Aston saw "Time Team" as an extension of his work as an extramural tutor, telling a 2013 interviewer that it was "a way of reaching 3 million people rather than 30 people in the village hall." Commenting on the popularity of "Time Team", and its role in exposing the British public to archaeology, in a 2010 interview Aston remarked that "My motive was to get as many people as possible interested in archaeology, because we [in the profession] all enjoy it and think it interesting. That was my personal aim ... and on that basis I think it is a success." "Time Team" encouraged wider public interest in archaeology and led to increasing numbers of students applying to study archaeological courses at British universities, while subscriptions to "Current Archaeology" magazine quadrupled to 18,000 in the show's first five years. In autumn 1998, Channel 4 started a "Time Team" fan club, which had 16,000 members within a few months, while Aston became a supporter of the Council for British Archaeology's Young Archaeologists' Club (YAC), and with Harding gave regular talks to YAC branches. Aston found himself giving up to 20 public lectures a year on the subject of "Time Team", describing the public feedback as "embarrassingly encouraging".


title: Mick Aston

text: In 1996, Aston was appointed to the position of Professor of Landscape Archaeology at Bristol University's Department of Continuing Education, a post designed explicitly for him. In 1998 the post was moved to the Centre for the Historic Environment within the Department of Archaeology. He would subsequently be instrumental in setting up the master's degree in archaeology and screen media at the department. By 1996, Aston was feeling "a bit frustrated" with "Time Team", primarily because he was always "number two" to Robinson. He proceeded to present his own six-episode series, "Time Traveller", in which he explored various archaeological sites in the counties around Bristol. It was broadcast on HTV over July and August 1997, and gained the largest local audiences for its time slot.


title: Mick Aston

text: The archaeology students of King Alfred's College, Winchester also participated in a 10-year project led by Aston to investigate the manor of Shapwick in Somerset. It became the "type site for the study of the development of medieval villages". Aston published the results of the project in "The Shapwick Project, Somerset: A Rural Landscape Explored" (2007), co-written with Christopher Gerrard, and this was followed by a more popular account of the project, "Interpreting the English Village", in 2013.


title: Mick Aston

text: Alongside his academic publications, Aston wrote two books on archaeology for a more general audience, both of which were published by Channel 4 Books as a spin-off from the "Time Team" television series. The first of these was "Time Team's Timechester: A Companion to Archaeology", co-written with Carenza Lewis and Phil Harding and first published in 2000. Based around the fictional British town of Timechester, the book looks at how the settlement would have progressed from the Palaeolithic through to the modern day, and examines the remains that each period would have left behind in the archaeological record. This was followed in 2002 by "Archaeology is Rubbish: A Beginner's Guide", which Aston co-wrote with Tony Robinson and dedicated to Harding. "Archaeology is Rubbish" describes a fictional excavation site in an ordinary suburban back garden, and discusses the evidence from different archaeological periods, the field methods and techniques used by the excavators, and the legal proceedings and problems that archaeologists in Britain face.


title: Mick Aston

text: Aston retired from Bristol University in 2004, subsequently becoming Professor Emeritus. He was also appointed an Honorary Visiting Professor at the University of Exeter, University of Durham, and the University of Worcester. That year, the University of Winchester awarded him an honorary Doctor of Letters. In 2006 Aston began writing a regular column, "Mick's Travels", for the bimonthly journal "British Archaeology", the publication of the Council for British Archaeology. In 2007, Worcester University awarded Aston an honorary doctorate; that same year a number of his colleagues released a "festschrift" in his honour entitled "People and Places: Essays in Honour of Michael Aston".


title: Mick Aston

text: In February 2012 it was reported that Aston had left "Time Team". He explained his position to the "Western Daily Press", stating that the show's producers had made a number of changes to the series without consulting him, and that in the process "Time Team" had been "dumbed down", something he considered bad for archaeology. He was annoyed that a number of archaeologists—including surveyor Stewart Ainsworth, small finds specialist Helen Geake and illustrator Victor Ambrus—had seen their roles diminished while a new co-presenter, Mary-Ann Ochota (a former model with a bachelor's degree in archaeology and anthropology), had been introduced, and that as a result the episodes now contained "a lot of faffing about." In an interview with the magazine "British Archaeology" Aston said: "The time had come to leave. I never made any money out of it, but a lot of my soul went into it. I feel really, really angry about it."


title: Mick Aston

text: In July, 2012, Aston received a lifetime achievement award at the British Archaeological Awards, with Bristol University's Professor Mark Horton praising him for making "the past accessible to all". In October, Channel 4 announced that the twentieth series of "Time Team" would be its last as the show was being axed. In December Aston signed a petition advocating his support for the revamp of the Somerset Rural Life Museum in Glastonbury, which was then seeking financial backers.


title: Mick Aston

text: On 24 June 2013 it was announced that Aston had died unexpectedly of a brain haemorrhage at his home in Somerset. He had been due to receive an honorary doctorate in University College Dublin that September.


title: Mick Aston

text: Ralph Lee, head of Channel 4's factual programming, announced that they had been "terribly saddened" by the news, and that they were planning a "tribute night" to Aston consisting of "Time Team" episodes to be screened on More4 on 13 July.


title: Mick Aston

text: Aston was known for his "unfailing commitment and integrity", with his life being dominated by "old-fashioned idealism and loyalty". He was a vegetarian and a naturist, as well as an anarchist and an atheist. Describing himself as "a keen European", a friend of his noted that he "railed against right wing politics, reserving special venom for Margaret Thatcher, and fought against all manner of authority, including university paperwork, and most especially if it came in a uniform."


title: Mick Aston

text: His hobbies included gardening, pottery, astronomy, listening to classical music and cooking. He supported a number of charities and other causes, including Greenpeace, the Woodland Trust, Oxfam and Sightsavers International. He liked to live a private, hermit-like life, and once commented that "For some of the time I feel I could be a monk" but that he "couldn't cope with the celibacy." A self-described "solitary person", he found it somewhat annoying being a television celebrity and being recognised by members of the public.


title: Mick Aston

text: Aston had a son, James, and a stepdaughter, Kathryn, both children of his former partner Carinne Allinson, with whom he broke up in 1998. He later entered into a relationship with landscape historian Teresa Hall, who survived him on his death. He lived in what he called "a rather grotty '60s bungalow" in Somerset. The reporter Steve Eggington visited Aston's home in 2008, where he noted that it was filled with "a labyrinth of books and maps, seemingly with different projects at different stages in each room."


title: Mick Aston

text: Aston commented that throughout his life he suffered from poor health; he was afflicted with aspergillosis from the early 1980s, and was also asthmatic. He suffered a brain haemorrhage in March 2003, and was hospitalised for two weeks. The experience sent him into depression for eighteen months, during which time he read the autobiography of actress Jane Lapotaire, who had gone through the same experience, something which he believed aided his recovery more than anything else.


title: Mick Aston

text: Aston did not believe that he would leave a significant legacy behind him. He commented that this was the case because Britain's archaeological community had failed to develop the work that he had done with "Time Team" and with extramural teaching, and that all the public outreach he had accomplished would die with him. He felt that there was no "celebrity archaeologist" to replace him, and ultimately felt that the situation in British archaeology made him "angry and sad."


title: Mick Aston

text: In "British Archaeology" magazine, Aston was described as "the Mortimer Wheeler of our times" because, despite strong differences between their personalities, both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public. It went on to note that Aston reminded archaeologists that "their job is to do archaeology, and if that was an archaeology that meant nothing to ordinary people, there was no point in it—and government would be among the first to notice." Two of Aston's colleagues from Bristol University, Stuart Prior and Mark Horton, commented that "Mick brought archaeology into the living rooms of half the nation, and left a legacy that will shape the discipline for decades to come." Writing for the website of "Antiquity", Christopher Gerrard described him as "perhaps the best-known face in British archaeology", adding that "in so many different areas of medieval archaeology his legacy will live on." Emma McFarnon described Aston as "Somerset's premier archaeologist" in her obituary on the This is Somerset website.


title: Mick Aston

text: Following Aston's death, former colleague Francis Pryor noted that Aston was a "remarkable archaeologist who could really dig", being a "warm, loving, nice man." Another colleague, Phil Harding, commented on Aston's "incredible knowledge" and "effortless way of making archaeology accessible to people." Tony Robinson wrote of him: "Mick was a real child of the '60s and a bit of a rebel, but he was also a series of contradictions. He was one of the best academic archaeologists in the country, yet his real love was teaching ordinary people. He was the grumpiest old Black Country curmudgeon you could imagine, but he had a heart of absolute gold." He also noted that "archaeology is now a subject that tens of thousands of people enjoy and value, and this is almost solely down to him." Ralph Lee, head of Channel 4's factual programming, described Aston as a "brilliant communicator" who helped make archaeology "so popular" in the UK.


title: Mick Aston

text: A bronze bust of Mick Aston was unveiled at the University of Bristol on 26 March 2018. The bust, created by sculptor Alex Peter, has been installed at the Department of Anthropology and Archaeology in a ceremony that his former partner Teresa Hall and colleagues attended. Aston worked at the University for more than 25 years and was a familiar face on "Time Team" for 19 years. Sculptor Alex Peter said: "To acknowledge Aston for his academic contributions is a beautiful and a very meaningful thing." Fellow archaeologist Mark Horton stated: "Mick was such an amazing archaeologist in so many different ways." The public can view the bust by contacting the School of Arts.


title: Vanaheimr

text: In Norse cosmology, Vanaheimr (Old Norse for 'home of the Vanir') is a location associated with the Vanir, a group of gods themselves associated with fertility, wisdom, and the ability to see the future.


title: Vanaheimr

text: Vanaheimr is attested in the "Poetic Edda"; compiled in the 13th century from earlier traditional sources, and the "Prose Edda" and (in euhemerized form) "Heimskringla"; both written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. In the "Poetic Edda" and the "Prose Edda", Vanaheimr is described as the location where the god Njörðr was raised.


title: Vanaheimr

text: Vanaheimr is mentioned a single time in the "Poetic Edda"; in a stanza of the poem "Vafþrúðnismál". In "Vafþrúðnismál", Gagnráðr (the god Odin in disguise) engages in a game of wits with the jötunn Vafþrúðnir. Gagnráðr asks Vafþrúðnir whence the Van god Njörðr came, for, though he rules over many hofs and hörgrs, Njörðr was not raised among the Æsir. Vafþrúðnir responds that Njörðr was created in Vanaheimr by "wise powers" and references that Njörðr was exchanged as a hostage during the Æsir-Vanir War. In addition, Vafþrúðnir comments that, when the world ends (Ragnarök), Njörðr will return to the "wise Vanir" (Bellows here anglicizes "Vanir" to "Wanes"):


title: Vanaheimr

text: In chapter 23 of the "Prose Edda" book "Gylfaginning", the enthroned figure of High says that Njörðr was raised in Vanaheimr, but was later sent as a hostage to the Æsir.


title: Vanaheimr

text: The "Heimskringla" book "Ynglinga saga" records an euhemerized account of the origins of Norse mythology. In chapter 1, "Van Home or the Home of the Vanir" is described as located around the Don River (which Snorri writes was once called "Tana Fork" or "Vana Fork"). Chapter 4 describes the Æsir-Vanir War, noting that during a hostage exchange, the Æsir sent the god Hœnir to Vanaheim and there he was immediately made chieftain. In chapter 15, the king Sveigðir is recorded as having married a woman named Vana in "Vanaland", located in Sweden. The two produced a child, who they named Vanlandi (meaning "Man from the Land of the Vanir").


title: Vanaheimr

text: The existence of Nine Worlds receive mention in some Old Norse texts. These worlds are nowhere specifically listed in sequence, but are generally assumed to include Vanaheimr. Henry Adams Bellows considers the other eight to be Asgard, Álfheimr, Midgard, Jötunheimr, Svartálfaheimr, Niflheim, Múspellsheimr, and possibly Niðavellir.


title: Vanaheimr

text: Hilda Ellis Davidson comments that exactly where Vanaheimr fall among the Nine Worlds isn't clear, since "the chief gods Freyr and Njord with a number of others, are represented along with the Æsir in Asgard, but it seems probable that it was in the underworld." Davidson notes a connection between the Vanir and "the land-spirits who dwelt in mounds and hills and in water [...].


title: Vanaheimr

text: Rudolf Simek claims that Snorri "unquestionably" invented the name "Vanaheimr" as a Vanir counterpart to Asgard, but does not mention the "Vafþrúðnismál" reference.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: A contraction is a shortened version of the spoken and written forms of a word, syllable, or word group, created by omission of internal letters and sounds.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In linguistic analysis, contractions should not be confused with crasis, abbreviations and initialisms (including acronyms), with which they share some semantic and phonetic functions, though all three are connoted by the term "abbreviation" in layman’s terms. Contraction is also distinguished from morphological clipping, where beginnings and endings are omitted.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The definition overlaps with the term portmanteau (a linguistic "blend"), but a distinction can be made between a portmanteau and a contraction by noting that contractions are formed from words that would otherwise appear together in sequence, such as "do" and "not", whereas a portmanteau word is formed by combining two or more existing words that all relate to a singular concept that the portmanteau describes.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: English has a number of contractions, mostly involving the elision of a vowel (which is replaced by an apostrophe in writing), as in "I'm" for "I am", and sometimes other changes as well, as in "won't" for "will not" or "ain't" for "am not". These contractions are common in speech and in informal writing, but tend to be avoided in more formal writing (with limited exceptions, such as the mandatory form of "o'clock").


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The main contractions are listed in the following table (for more explanation see English auxiliaries and contractions).


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Contraction is a type of elision, simplifying pronunciation through reducing (dropping or shortening) sounds occurring to a word group.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In subject–auxiliary inversion, the contracted negative forms behave as if they were auxiliaries themselves, changing place with the subject. For example, the interrogative form of "He won't go" is "Won't he go?", whereas the uncontracted equivalent is "Will he not go?", with "not" following the subject.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The Old Chinese writing system (oracle bone script and bronzeware script) is well suited for the (almost) one-to-one correspondence between morpheme and glyph. Contractions, in which one glyph represents two or more morphemes, are a notable exception to this rule. About twenty or so are noted to exist by traditional philologists, and are known as "jiāncí" (兼詞, lit. 'concurrent words'), while more words have been proposed to be contractions by recent scholars, based on recent reconstructions of Old Chinese phonology, epigraphic evidence, and syntactic considerations. For example, 非 [fēi] has been proposed to be a contraction of 不 (bù) + 唯/隹 (wéi/zhuī). These contractions are not generally graphically evident, nor is there a general rule for how a character representing a contraction might be formed. As a result, the identification of a character as a contraction, as well as the word(s) that are proposed to have been contracted, are sometimes disputed.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: As vernacular Chinese dialects use sets of function words that differ considerably from Classical Chinese, almost all classical contractions listed below are now archaic and have disappeared from everyday use. However, modern contractions have evolved from these new vernacular function words. Modern contractions appear in all the major modern dialect groups. For example, 别 (bié) 'don't' in Standard Mandarin is a contraction of 不要 (bùyào), while 覅 (fiào) 'don't' in Shanghainese is a contraction of 勿要 (wù yào), as is apparent graphically. Similarly, in Northeast Mandarin 甭 (béng) 'needn't' is both a phonological and graphical contraction of 不用 (bùyòng). Finally, Cantonese contracts 乜嘢 (mat1 ye5) 'what?' to 咩 (me1).


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Informal Belgian Dutch utilizes a wide range of non-standard contractions, such as, for example, "hoe's't" (from "hoe is het?" - how are you?), "hij's d'r" (from "hij is daar" - he's there), "w'ebbe' goe' g'ete'" (from "we hebben goed gegeten" - we had eaten well) and "wa's da'?" (from "wat is dat?" - what is that?. Some of these contractions:


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The French language has a variety of contractions, similar to English but mandatory, as in "C'est la vie" ("That's life"), where "c'est" stands for "ce" + "est" ("that is"). The formation of these contractions is called elision.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In general, any monosyllabic word ending in "e caduc" (schwa) will contract if the following word begins with a vowel, "h" or "y" (as "h" is silent and absorbed by the sound of the succeeding vowel; "y" sounds like "i"). In addition to "ce" → "c'-" (demonstrative pronoun "that"), these words are "que" → "qu'-" (conjunction, relative pronoun, or interrogative pronoun "that"), "ne" → "n'-" ("not"), "se" → "s'-" ("himself", "herself", "itself", "oneself" before a verb), "je" → "j'-" ("I"), "me" → "m'-" ("me" before a verb), "te" → "t'- " (informal singular "you" before a verb), "le" or "la" → "l'-" ("the"; or "he", "she", "it" before a verb or after an imperative verb and before the word "y" or "en"), and "de" → "d'-" ("of"). Unlike with English contractions, however, these contractions are mandatory: one would never say (or write) "*ce est" or "*que elle".


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: "Moi" ("me") and "toi" (informal "you") mandatorily contract to "m'-" and "t'-" respectively after an imperative verb and before the word "y" or "en".


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: It is also mandatory to avoid the repetition of a sound when the conjunction "si" ("if") is followed by "il" ("he", "it") or "ils" ("they"), which begin with the same vowel sound "i": "*si il" → "s'il" ("if it", if he"); "*si ils" → "s'ils" ("if they").


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Certain prepositions are also mandatorily merged with masculine and plural direct articles: "au" for "à le", "aux" for "à les", "du" for "de le", and "des" for "de les". However, the contraction of "cela" (demonstrative pronoun "that") to "ça" is optional and informal.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In informal speech, a personal pronoun may sometimes be contracted onto a following verb. For example, "je ne sais pas" (, "I don't know") may be pronounced roughly "chais pas" (), with the "ne" being completely elided and the of "je" being mixed with the of "sais". It is also common in informal contexts to contract "tu" to "t'-" before a vowel, e.g., "t'as mangé" for "tu as mangé".


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In Modern Hebrew, the prepositional prefixes -בְּ /bə-/ 'in' and -לְ /lə-/ 'to' contract with the definite article prefix -ה (/ha-/) to form the prefixes -ב /ba/ 'in the' and -ל /la/ 'to the'. In colloquial Israeli Hebrew, the preposition את (/ʔet/), which indicates a definite direct object, and the definite article prefix -ה (/ha-/) are often contracted to 'ת (/ta-/) when the former immediately precedes the latter. Thus ראיתי את הכלב (/ʁaˈʔiti ʔet haˈkelev/, "I saw the dog") may become ראיתי ת'כלב (/ʁaˈʔiti taˈkelev/).


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In Italian, prepositions merge with direct articles in predictable ways. The prepositions "a", "da", "di", "in", "su", "con" and "per" combine with the various forms of the definite article, namely "il", "lo", "la", "l'," "i", "gli", "gl'," and "le".


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The words "ci" and "è" (form of "essere", to be) and the words "vi" and "è" are contracted into "c'è" and "v'è" (both meaning "there is").


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The words "dove" and "come" are contracted with any word that begins with "e", deleting the "-e" of the principal word, as in "Com'era bello!" – "How handsome he / it was!", "Dov'è il tuo amico?" – "Where's your friend?" The same is often true of other words of similar form, e.g. "quale".


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The direct object pronouns "lo" and "la" may also contract to form "l'" with a form of "avere", such as "L'ho comprato" - "I have bought it", or "L'abbiamo vista" - "We have seen her".


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Spanish has two mandatory phonetic contractions between prepositions and articles: "al" (to the) for "a el", and "del" (of the) for "de el" (not to be confused with "a él", meaning "to him", and "de él", meaning "his" or, more literally, "of him").


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Other contractions were common in writing until the 17th century, the most usual being "de" + personal and demonstrative pronouns: "destas" for "de estas" (of these, fem.), "daquel" for "de aquel" (of that, masc.), "dél" for "de él" (of him) etc.; and the feminine article before words beginning with "a-": "l'alma" for "la alma", now "el alma" (the soul). Several sets of demonstrative pronouns originated as contractions of "aquí" (here) + pronoun, or pronoun + "otro/a" (other): "aqueste", "aqueso", "estotro" etc. The modern "aquel" (that, masc.) is the only survivor of the first pattern; the personal pronouns "nosotros" (we) and "vosotros" (pl. you) are remnants of the second. In medieval texts, unstressed words very often appear contracted: "todol" for "todo el" (all the, masc.), "ques" for "que es" (which is); etc. including with common words, like d'ome (d'home/d'homme) instead de ome (home/homme), and so on.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Though not strictly a contraction, a special form is used when combining con with mí, ti, or sí, which is written as "conmigo" for *"con mí" (with me), "contigo" for *"con ti" (with you sing.), "consigo" for *"con sí" (with himself/herself/itself/themselves (themself).)


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Finally, one can hear "pa"' for "para", deriving as "pa'l" for "para el", but these forms are only considered appropriate in informal speech.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In Portuguese, contractions are common and much more numerous than those in Spanish. Several prepositions regularly contract with certain articles and pronouns. For instance, "de" (of) and "por" (by; formerly "per") combine with the definite articles "o" and "a" (masculine and feminine forms of "the" respectively), producing "do", "da" (of the), "pelo", "pela" (by the). The preposition "de" contracts with the pronouns "ele" and "ela" (he, she), producing "dele", "dela" (his, her). In addition, some verb forms contract with enclitic object pronouns: e.g., the verb "amar" (to love) combines with the pronoun "a" (her), giving "amá-la" (to love her).


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Another contraction in Portuguese that is similar to English ones is the combination of the pronoun "da" with words starting in "a", resulting in changing the first letter "a" for an apostrophe and joining both words. Examples: "Estrela d'alva" (A popular phrase to refer to Venus that means "Alb star", as a reference to its brightness) ; "Caixa d'água" (water tank).


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In informal, spoken German prepositional phrases, one can often merge the preposition and the article; for example, "von dem" becomes "vom", "zu dem" becomes "zum", or "an das" becomes "ans". Some of these are so common that they are mandatory. In informal speech, "aufm" for "auf dem", "unterm" for "unter dem", etc. are also used, but would be considered to be incorrect if written, except maybe in quoted direct speech, in appropriate context and style.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The pronoun "es" often contracts to "s" (usually written with the apostrophe) in certain contexts. For example, the greeting "Wie geht es?" is usually encountered in the contracted form "Wie geht's?".


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Regional dialects of German, and various local languages that usually were already used long before today's Standard German was created, do use contractions usually more frequently than German, but varying widely between different local languages. The informally spoken German contractions are observed almost everywhere, most often accompanied by additional ones, such as "in den" becoming "in'n" (sometimes "im") or "haben wir" becoming "hamwer", "hammor", "hemmer", or "hamma" depending on local intonation preferences. Bavarian German features several more contractions such as "gesund sind wir" becoming "xund samma", which are schematically applied to all word or combinations of similar sound. (One must remember, however, that German "wir" exists alongside Bavarian "mir", or "mia", with the same meaning.) The Munich-born footballer Franz Beckenbauer has as his catchphrase "Schau mer mal" ("Schauen wir einmal" - in English "We shall see."). A book about his career had as its title the slightly longer version of the phrase, "Schau'n Mer Mal".


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Such features are found in all central and southern language regions. A sample from Berlin: "Sag einmal, Meister, kann man hier einmal hinein?" is spoken as "Samma, Meesta, kamma hier ma rin?"


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Several West Central German dialects along the Rhine River have built contraction patterns involving long phrases and entire sentences. In speech, words are often concatenated, and frequently the process of "liaison" is used. So, "[Dat] kriegst Du nicht" may become "Kressenit", or "Lass mich gehen, habe ich gesagt" may become "Lomejon haschjesaat".


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Mostly, there are no binding orthographies for local dialects of German, hence writing is left to a great extent to authors and their publishers. Outside quotations, at least, they usually pay little attention to print more than the most commonly spoken contractions, so as not to degrade their readability. The use of apostrophes to indicate omissions is a varying and considerably less frequent process than in English-language publications.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In standard Indonesian, there are no contractions applied, although Indonesian contractions exist in Indonesian slang. Many of these contractions are "terima kasih" to "makasih" ("thank you"), "kenapa" to "napa" ("why"), "nggak" to "gak" ("not"), and "sebentar" to "tar" ("a moment").


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The use of contractions is not allowed in any form of standard Norwegian spelling; however, it is fairly common to shorten or contract words in spoken language. Yet, the commonness varies from dialect to dialect and from sociolect to sociolect—it depends on the formality etc. of the setting. Some common, and quite drastic, contractions found in Norwegian speech are "jakke" for "jeg har ikke", meaning "I do not have" and "dække" for "det er ikke", meaning "there is not". The most frequently used of these contractions—usually consisting of two or three words contracted into one word, contain short, common and often monosyllabic words like , , , , or . The use of the apostrophe (') is much less common than in English, but is sometimes used in contractions to show where letters have been dropped.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In extreme cases, long, entire sentences may be written as one word. An example of this is "Det ordner seg av seg selv" in standard written Bokmål, meaning "It will sort itself out" could become "dånesæsæsjæl" (note the letters Å and Æ, and the word "sjæl", as an eye dialect spelling of ). R-dropping, being present in the example, is especially common in speech in many areas of Norway , but plays out in different ways, as does elision of word-final phonemes like .


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Because of the many dialects of Norwegian and their widespread use it is often difficult to distinguish between non-standard writing of standard Norwegian and eye dialect spelling. It is almost universally true that these spellings try to convey the way each word is pronounced, but it is rare to see language written that does not adhere to at least some of the rules of the official orthography. Reasons for this include words spelled unphonemically, ignorance of conventional spelling rules, or adaptation for better transcription of that dialect's phonemes.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Latin contains several examples of contractions. One such case is preserved in the verb "nolo" (I am unwilling/do not want), which was formed by a contraction of "non volo" ("volo" meaning "I want"). Similarly this is observed in the first person plural and third person plural forms (nolumus and nolunt respectively).


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Some contractions in rapid speech include ～っす ("-ssu") for です ("desu") and すいません ("suimasen") for すみません ("sumimasen"). では ("dewa") is often contracted to じゃ ("ja"). In certain grammatical contexts the particle の ("no") is contracted to simply ん ("n").


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: When used after verbs ending in the conjunctive form ～て ("-te"), certain auxiliary verbs and their derivations are often abbreviated. Examples:


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> this abbreviation is never used in the polite conjugation, to avoid the resultant ambiguity between an abbreviated "ikimasu" (go) and the verb "kimasu" (come).


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: The ending ～なければ ("-nakereba") can be contracted to ～なきゃ ("-nakya") when it is used to indicate obligation. It is often used without an auxiliary, e.g., 行かなきゃ（いけない） ("ikanakya (ikenai)") "I have to go."


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Various dialects of Japanese also use their own specific contractions that are often unintelligible to speakers of other dialects.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In the Polish language pronouns have contracted forms that are more prevalent in their colloquial usage. Examples are "go" and "mu". The non-contracted forms are "jego" (unless it is used as a possessive pronoun) and "jemu", respectively. The clitic "-ń", which stands for "niego" (him) as in "dlań" ("dla niego"), is more common in literature. The non-contracted forms are generally used as a means to accentuate.


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: Uyghur, a Turkic language spoken in Central Asia, includes some verbal suffixes that are actually contracted forms of compound verbs (serial verbs). For instance, "sëtip alidu" (sell-manage, "manage to sell") is usually written and pronounced "sëtivaldu", with the two words forming a contraction and the [p] leniting into a [v] or [w].


title: Contraction (grammar)

text: In Filipino, most contractions need other words to be contracted correctly. Only words that end with vowels can make a contraction with words like "at" and "ay." In this chart, the "@" represents any vowel.


title: Klystron

text: A klystron is a specialized linear-beam vacuum tube, invented in 1937 by American electrical engineers Russell and Sigurd Varian, which is used as an amplifier for high radio frequencies, from UHF up into the microwave range. Low-power klystrons are used as oscillators in terrestrial microwave relay communications links, while high-power klystrons are used as output tubes in UHF television transmitters, satellite communication, radar transmitters, and to generate the drive power for modern particle accelerators.


title: Klystron

text: In a klystron, an electron beam interacts with radio waves as it passes through resonant cavities, metal boxes along the length of a tube. The electron beam first passes through a cavity to which the input signal is applied. The energy of the electron beam amplifies the signal, and the amplified signal is taken from a cavity at the other end of the tube. The output signal can be coupled back into the input cavity to make an electronic oscillator to generate radio waves. The gain of klystrons can be high, 60 dB (an increase in signal power by a factor of one million) or more, with output power up to tens of megawatts, but the bandwidth is narrow, usually a few percent although it can be up to 10% in some devices.


title: Klystron

text: A "reflex klystron" is an obsolete type in which the electron beam was reflected back along its path by a high potential electrode, used as an oscillator.


title: Klystron

text: The name "klystron" comes from the Greek verb κλύζω ("klyzo") referring to the action of waves breaking against a shore, and the suffix -τρον ("tron") meaning the place where the action happens. The name "klystron" was suggested by Hermann Fränkel, a professor in the classics department at Stanford University when the klystron was under development.


title: Klystron

text: The klystron was the first significantly powerful source of radio waves in the microwave range; before its invention the only sources were the Barkhausen–Kurz tube and split-anode magnetron, which were limited to very low power. It was invented by the brothers Russell and Sigurd Varian at Stanford University. Their prototype was completed and demonstrated successfully on August 30, 1937. Upon publication in 1939, news of the klystron immediately influenced the work of US and UK researchers working on radar equipment. The Varians went on to found Varian Associates to commercialize the technology (for example, to make small linear accelerators to generate photons for external beam radiation therapy). Their work was preceded by the description of velocity modulation by A. Arsenjewa-Heil and Oskar Heil (wife and husband) in 1935, though the Varians were probably unaware of the Heils' work.


title: Klystron

text: The work of physicist W. W. Hansen was instrumental in the development of the klystron and was cited by the Varian brothers in their 1939 paper. His resonator analysis, which dealt with the problem of accelerating electrons toward a target, could be used just as well to decelerate electrons (i.e., transfer their kinetic energy to RF energy in a resonator). During the Second World War, Hansen lectured at the MIT Radiation labs two days a week, commuting to Boston from Sperry Gyroscope Company on Long Island. His resonator was called a "rhumbatron" by the Varian brothers. Hansen died of beryllium disease in 1949 as a result of exposure to beryllium oxide (BeO).


title: Klystron

text: During the Second World War, the Axis powers relied mostly on (then low-powered and long wavelength) klystron technology for their radar system microwave generation, while the Allies used the far more powerful but frequency-drifting technology of the cavity magnetron for much shorter-wavelength centimetric microwave generation. Klystron tube technologies for very high-power applications, such as synchrotrons and radar systems, have since been developed.


title: Klystron

text: Right after the war, AT&T used 4-watt klystrons in its brand new network of microwave relay links that covered the US continent. The network provided long-distance telephone service and also carried television signals for the major TV networks. Western Union Telegraph Company also built point-to-point microwave communication links using intermediate repeater stations at about 40 mile intervals at that time, using 2K25 reflex klystrons in both the transmitters and receivers.


title: Klystron

text: Klystrons amplify RF signals by converting the kinetic energy in a DC electron beam into radio frequency power. In a vacuum, a beam of electrons is emitted by an electron gun or thermionic cathode and accelerated by high-voltage electrodes (typically in the tens of kilovolts).