text: Mummification attributed to the preservation of the dead and the customs. In many regions, having the body displayed in their homes is a form of honoring them in the afterlife and is done so in places such as Kabayan, Benguet, where bodies are preserved through processes of dehydration and smoking.< Mummification in the Philippines is almost always due to intentional man-made preservation. The warm, wet climate of the islands is not favorable to natural mummification processes and naturally occurring mummies are very rare as a result.


title: Funeral practices and burial customs in the Philippines

text: Enclosed burials most often refers to the different types of jar enclosed burials. There are three types: primary, secondary, and multiple jar burials. These same three categories also exist for log coffin burials. A primary burial is when the cadaver is completely disposed of. A secondary burial involves a corpse being removed from its initial grave location and being placed in another grave or ossuary. Multiple burials signify bones of different skeleton being placed in the same grave. Jar burials can also obtain anthropomorphic features on them to represent the person that died, and was then placed into the jar. These features can give hints about the sex and age of the corpse.


text: When a Filipino dies, the family of the deceased often chooses to commemorate the person with a religious burial ritual. Filipino Catholics, such as Tagalog Catholics, generally hold a wake known as "lamay" or "paglalamay", a vigil that typically lasts for three to seven nights and may last longer if the bereaved family is waiting for a relative traveling from afar. During this time, the cleaned and embalmed corpse is placed in a coffin and displayed at the house of deceased or a funeral home. The coffin is traditionally surrounded by funeral lights, a guest registry book, a contribution box, and flowers. Family members, relatives, and acquaintances participate in the vigil.


text: Apart from offering condolences, mourners and visitors provide financial donations ("abuloy") to help assuage the funeral and burial expenses. Food and drinks are customarily served by the bereaved during the night vigil, and typical activities conducted outside or near the vigil area include engaging in conversation, singing, guitar playing, and gambling – such as playing card games – to keep mourners awake.


text: On the funeral day, the coffin is generally loaded into a hearse or borne by family members, relatives, or friends in procession towards the church and later the cemetery. Other mourners follow the hearse during the funeral march. Catholic funerals involve the celebration of the Mass, while Protestant funerals include singing of hymns and recitation of prayers by a minister.


text: The traditional color worn at memorial services and interments is black, save for Chinese Filipinos and Ilocanos, who both customarily don white. If white clothing is worn, it is customary to have a small, rectangular black mourning pin on the left breast. Some funerals have men wear the Barong Tagalog and black trousers while sporting a black armband as it is formal wear; other traditionally acceptable colors include shades of white. Women are often dressed in either black or white, with more conservative traditions adding veils and headbands that match their dresses.


text: After the entombment, mourners offer prayers such as the rosary for the dead every evening for nine days, a custom called the "pasiyam" or "pagsisiyam" (literally, “that which is done for nine days”). This novena period often ends with a service followed by formal meal with family and close friends. The custom is based on the pre-colonial folk belief that the soul of the departed enters the spirit world on the ninth day following death. This is followed by another Mass on the fortieth day after death to acknowledge the "waksi", or death anniversary, when the soul is believed to end its earthly wandering and ascend to the afterlife, evoking the time period between Christ's Resurrection and Ascension. The bereavement period extends for a period of one year when another service is held on the first death anniversary, called the "babang luksâ" (lit., "descent from mourning").


text: Filipino Muslims do not practice wakes like the Christians do; their religious customs mandate burial of the dead 24 hours after the time of death. This custom dates back to when the spread of disease was a prominent risk. Muslims were prompted to bury the corpse as soon as possible for sanitary reasons, such as avoiding the diseases that could come from the body. However, the burial and mourning periods are similar among the different religions. Both follow traditions of wearing black clothing and praying over the deceased during the burial. In addition, both have a custom of acknowledging the fortieth day after death. Muslims do not partake in the "pasiyam" or "pagsisiyam" nor hold a death anniversary service, but often wear black clothing for the entirety of the forty-day mourning period.


text: It is socially acceptable for visitors to ask the bereaved questions deemed sensitive in other cultures. These include how the decedent died, if he or she suffered, or the cost of hospitalization or treatment. Such personal questions are intended to convey valid affection and concern for the deceased and the bereaved. People customarily offer masses, novenas, and prayers for the benefit of the deceased and their family.


text: Halloween is celebrated by Filipinos regardless of religious background, while Catholic and Aglipayan Filipinos pay respects to the ancestors on All Saints' Day and All Souls' Day, with celebrations lasting from October 21 to November 2. People gather in graveyards to clean and decorate the family grave as early as All Hallow's Eve to offer the dead prayers, candles, flowers and sometimes food. More often than not, mourners keep vigil overnight at graves, eating and making merry to pass the time and keep the dead company, reflecting the indigenous and modern traditions of venerating ancestors. A popular children's pastime during the vigils is to gather candle wax from melted candles to either play with or sell to candlemakers.


text: Due in part to external influences from the Philippines' colonial periods, the islands' death-centric holidays and associated traditions are similar to those of Spain, the United States of America, and Mexico. In particular, the Latin American holiday "Dia de Los Muertos", or "Day of the Dead", is very similar in its cultural meaning and celebrations.


text: The Apayaos-also known as the Isnegs or Isnags-of the Cordillera Administrative Region, wrap the deceased person in a mat ("ikamen"), and is then carried on the shoulders of the immediate male family members. Items are placed inside the coffin in order to help the deceased person throughout his/her journey. For example, a jar (basi) is placed in the coffin to quench the deceased one's thirst. Another example is a spear and shield also being put inside in order to help him/her protect himself/herself from enemies during the journey. The coffin is then lowered into either the kitchen area of their families home or in a burial site owned by his/her family.


text: For eight consecutive days, the indigenous people from Benguet blindfold the dead and then place it on a chair that is located next to their house's main entrance. The arms and legs are tied together in a sitting position. A "bangil" rite is performed by the elders on the eve of the funeral, which is a chanted narration of the biography of the deceased. During interment, the departed is directed towards heaven by hitting bamboo sticks together.


text: The deceased person is buried vertically in a hollowed out tree that is previously chosen by themselves. Sometimes, the person is also put into a sarcophagus in the tree trunk if they are of higher social status.


text: The Ifugao people practice "bogwa", which is the practice of exhuming the bones of the deceased person, cleaning and rewrapping them, and then returning them to the grave.


text: The Tagalog people have had numerous burial practices prior to Spanish colonization and Catholic introduction. In rural areas of Cavite, trees are used as burial places. The dying person chooses the tree beforehand, thus when he or she becomes terminally ill or is evidently going to die because old age, a hut is built close to the said tree. The deceased's corpse is then entombed vertically inside the hollowed-out tree trunk. Before colonization, a statue known as "likha" is also entombed with the dead inside the tree trunk. In Mulanay, Quezon and nearby areas, the dead are entombed inside limestone sarcophagi along with a "likha" statue. However, the practice vanished in the 16th century due to Spanish colonization. In Calatagan, Batangas and nearby areas, the dead are buried under the earth along with "likha" statues. The statues, measuring 6–12 inches, are personified depictions of "anitos". "Likha" statues are not limited to burial practices as they are also used in homes, prayers, agriculture, medicine, travel, and other means.


text: Filipinos in Ilocos have funeral and burial traditions known as the "pompon" or "burial rites". The wife of the deceased person prepares the body with specially chosen clothes by herself, and is placed in a coffin in the center of the house when done. A wood log is then lit in the front of the house and is burned during the entire wake, and is completed by all the family members washing their hair with a special shampoo.


text: The dead person is prepped by his/her significant other for the wake, known in Ilocano as the "bagongon". Typically, only the wife will clothe the corpse, believing that the spirit of the dead man can convey messages through her. There are many customs and beliefs that are followed, such as coffin placement, lighting a wooden log called "atong" in front of the house, chanting while crying ("dung-aw)", in order to give the deceased one respects and ensuring a safe travel to heaven. During the wake, immediate family members of the deceased one are not allowed to work, cook, or carry heavy objects. The ceremonial attire of mourners for the vigil is black clothing, while their heads and shoulders are covered in a black veil called a "manto". The manto is specially worn by the close relatives of the deceased to signify their mourning.


text: Windows are closed before the casket exits the house, with extreme care in order to prevent the casket from touching any part of the house. This is to prevent the deceased's spirit from loitering and bringing misfortune to the household; to some Filipinos, a casket hitting any object during a funeral means that another person will die soon. The clothing and possessions belonging to the deceased are burned and thrown into the river. After the burial service, family members wash their hair with a shampoo made from burnt rice stalks, water, and "basi", called "gulgol" to remove the influence of the deceased's spirit. Rice cakes and "basi" are offered to attendees after each prayer session. On the ninth night, the family holds a feast after praying the novena, and does so again after offering prayers on the first death anniversary.


text: The Ilongot is buried in a sitting position, and if a woman, has her hands tied to her feet, to prevent her "ghost" from roaming. The wife of the deceased person prepares the body with specially chosen clothes by herself, and is placed in a coffin in the center of the house when done. A wood log is then lit in the front of the house and is burned during the entire wake, and is completed by all the family members washing their hair with a special shampoo.


text: One of the ancient customs for burying the dead in the Philippines is through the use of burial jars known as "Manunggul jars". These ancient potteries were found in the Manunggul Cave on the island of Palawan. A characteristic of the jars for the dead is the presence of anthropomorphic human figures on the pot covers. These figures embody souls riding a boat for the dead while seafaring towards their sanctuary in the afterlife. These containers have been dated from 710 BC to 890 BC. There are also figures of boating people steering paddles, wearing headbands, jaw-bands, and persons with hands folded across the chest area. The latter is a method of arranging the remains of the dead.


text: Other similar anthropomorphic jars were also found at Pinol (also spelled as Piñol), Maitum, in the Saranggani Province of the island of Mindanao. These funeral jars dates back from the Metal Age.


text: In addition to these jars, the 1965 archaeological excavations conducted by Robert Fox at Langen Island in El Nido, Palawan found that a cave known as Leta-leta Cave was a burial site that dates to the Late Neolithic Period.


text: The more common burial custom of the Kankanaey people in Sagada, Mountain Province is for coffins to be tucked into crevices or stacked on top of each other inside limestone caves. The location depends on the status of the deceased as well as the cause of death. The coffins are small because the body inside the coffins are in a fetal position. This is due to the belief that people should leave the world in the same position as they entered it, a tradition common throughout the various pre-colonial cultures of the Philippines. The coffins are usually carved by their eventual occupants while they were still alive.


text: The Kankanaey also practice interring their dead in hanging coffins, a custom unique to the Sagada Kankanaey within the Philippines. In this practice, the coffins are placed underneath natural overhangs, either on natural rock shelves/crevices or on projecting beams slotted into holes dug into the cliff-side.


text: Hanging coffins are reserved for distinguished or honorable leaders of the community. They must have performed acts of merit, made wise decisions, and led traditional rituals during their lifetimes. The height at which their coffins are placed reflected their social status. Most people interred in hanging coffins are the most prominent members of the "amam-a", the council of male elders in the traditional "dap-ay". There is also one documented case of a woman being accorded the honor of a hanging coffin interment.


text: All of these burial customs require specific pre-interment rituals known as the "sangadil". The Kankanaey believe that interring the dead in caves or cliffs ensures that their spirits ("anito") can roam around and continue to protect the living.


text: For many weeks, the Tinguian people dress the dead body with the best garments, sit it on a chair, and sometimes put a lit tobacco source between the dead person's lips.


text: The Visayas has six major islands, namely: Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Samar, and Leyte. The islands are home to different ethnic groups, and have similarities and differences in their traditions.


text: The "paguli" was a ritual performed when all efforts to heal the moribund had failed, in an effort to call back the departed soul. A coconut shell of water was set upon the dying person's stomach and was rotated to the chant: “Come back, soul, come back” as noted by Alcina in 1668. In the case of a datu, some slaves could be sacrificed to appease ancestor spirits.


text: A cadaver was anointed and groomed, and shrouded in gold and jewelry. The deceased was dressed in gold to assure ready reception in the afterlife, and gold was placed within the mouth and between the layers of the many blankets that covered the body.


text: Visayan coffins called "longon" were made out of hardwood made out of a single tree trunk, which was fitted and pegged with a lid cut out of the same tree and sealed with resin. Persons of prominence and datus could be buried in a coffin with decorative carvings, and the carvings often executed by the future occupant himself. Poor Visayans were buried wrapped in banana leaves or simple caskets made out of thin boards or bamboo.


text: A corpse was placed within the coffin with all body cavities filled with betel sap, along with finery and heirlooms. Plates and saucers could be placed under the head like a pillow, or over the face and chest, in some areas some corpses could be adorned with masks or mouthpieces made of gold. Deceased infants, newborns, or aborted babies were buried in crocks or jars, even Chinese porcelain.


text: Grave sites varied considerably in the Visayas. Some graveyards were outside village borders, dug into banks of rivers or at the seacoast. Caves, or small islands would be used when available. Spiritual leaders and members of the datu class were not buried in public graveyards, and were buried under their houses or in the case of the babaylan, were exposed to the elements hanging from the branches of the balete tree.


text: Wakes lasted for as long as the bereaved family could offer food and drink for guests. Professional mourners who were generally old women, sang dirges to emphasize the grief of the survivors, and eulogized the qualities of the dead. The eulogies were considered a form of ancestor worship as they were addressed directly to the dead and included prayers of petition.


text: Widows and widowers observed three days of fasting and silence, wherein they did not bathe or comb their hair, and may even shave their hair and eyebrows as a special sign of grief. They abstained from eating cooked food until the mourning period ended. In the case of the death of a datu, his wives, or children: the community was placed under a strict mourning requirement called the "pumaraw" where no one was to wear colored clothes, climb coconut trees, or fish in certain streams; and spears were to be carried point down and side arms blade up. A mournful silence was to be conserved, and families could be enslaved as punishment for breaking the mourning interdict.


text: Funeral traditions of the Cebuano people also include nine-day recitation of the rosary, litanies, novenas, and Latin prayers after the burial, additionally chanting the "Pahulayng Dayon" or “Eternal Rest” (also known as ""Gozos" for the Dead"). Cebuanos also have superstitious beliefs related to funerals that include: placing funeral alms or "limos" into a container, refraining from sweeping the floor of the deceased's home (wastes are collected by hand instead of being swept by brooms; other Filipinos also have this superstition), no bathing and no combing of hair on the part of relatives (other Filipinos too believe in this), placing worn mourning pins into the coffin during interment, preventing tears from dropping onto the glass plate of the casket (in order for the departed soul to travel in peace), placing a chick on top of the coffin of an individual who died due to a transgression (to hasten justice for the dead victim), wearing black or white clothes during the interment (except for a child who is dressed with a red-colored garment, as a deterrent from seeing the ghost of the dead relative), urging relatives to pass through under the casket before it is loaded onto the funeral hearse (to assist the surviving relatives in moving on with their life), marching the dead towards the church and the cemetery (known as the "hatod", or “carrying the departed to his destination” on foot), consuming food only at the cemetery after the interment, and passing through smoke while still within the cemetery or by the gates of the cemetery (to untangle the spirits of the dead from the bodies of the living).


text: Merriment, singing, and poem recitations are components of funerals in Iloilo. Gambling is also permitted because gaming contributions help defray expenses incurred in burying the dead.


text: For those in Leyte, Samar and Biliran, practices are similar to the Cebuano and Ilonggo. A similar "palina" is practiced called "tobas" or "kalipayan" which is composed of water and some leaves of different plants, components of whose are known only to those who know how to create one.


text: Mindanao, as the second largest island in the Philippines, consist of several ethnic tribes influenced by Islamic culture. It consists of ARMM, Caraga, Davao, Northern Mindanao, Soccsksargen and Zamboanga Peninsula, marking 8 degrees North and 125 degrees East on the map.


text: T’boli tribe thrive near Lake Sebu and has an interesting philosophy of death and life. They believed that death occurs if his/her spirit leave the body permanently by the evil spirit, "Busao". So their burial custom starts with laying the corpse on the boat-shaped coffin, which will be celebrated from a week to five months (and even a year for respected people like datu). The tribe often throws feast for commemoration in a positive vibe. This body, together with the wooden boat will be burnt at the end of the long wake, where the liquid extract from burnt woods will be collected for eatery. The tribe believes that the good qualities of the dead will be passed over through that liquid extract.


text: This tribe occupying Surigao del Norte has customs that fear the spirit of dead. The tribe community move their settlements when a death occurs, because they believed that the spirit of dead will come back for revenge. Therefore, the corpse is buried as close to his/her death as possible. This is accomplished using leaves, a mat and a coffin to cover the body either in the sitting or standing position. Just like usual burial, this coffin is buried under the soil or it is sometimes displayed on the platform for people in high positions within their community. The community mourns and prays for the dead for approximately 9 days.


text: The Tausug people, primarily occupying Sulu, are mostly Muslims, thus, they have defined set of burial customs in the strong influence of their religion. The process of burial contains four steps: "sutchihun" (cleaning the body), "saputan" (wrapping the body), "sambayanganun" (obligatory prayer), and "hikubul" (burial). The grave is created hollow under 6 to 9 feet depth in north–south direction, which will be prayed upon by a religious man for a peaceful rest of the dead. Afterwards, the grave will be closed using "ding ding hali" (means “wall of the rest”) made of huge flat slab.


text: Manobos occupied hinterland areas which today are within Davao. Originally, they either wrapped the corpse in mat and bamboo slats to hang up on the tree or laid the dead on an elevated station (such as platform) beside the trees. Placing the body on an elevated place was believed to help the dead's soul reach the heaven. However, after the Americans introducing Abaca plantation system in the 20th century, the custom changed to burying the corpse under the house. Due to the plantation, it became impossible to simply move out from their places like how they did before. For Ata-Manobos occupying the forest areas of Davao, have the unique superstition in teaching "Antuk" (riddles) other than for wake ceremony will bring misfortune. So in Ata-manobos' joyful wake custom, close people of the deceased gather and sit around the corpse (in laid down position) and chat, tell stories, sing, dance, play instruments and more to elevate the atmosphere of grief.


text: Similar to Manobo, Badjao tribe also carries out religious process to burying the dead. First, the body of dead will be positioned in the center of Umboh (floating hut) where it is laid parallel to the side wall. The preparation until the burial itself happens during the wake; first, food as homage will be brought, and the Song of the Dead will be sung. Second, the corpse-wrapping bandages are cut and washed in water while Imam (religious man) cleanses the body. Third, the dead will be dressed and decorated, which will later position itself lying on the floor. Next, Imam finally prays for the dead before the bandage completely covers the corpse. Then batik (a decoration) will be spread all over the cocoon. After finishing this ceremony within a day, Imam finally prays at the four corners of the buried site, then place "Sundok" (oblong stone that is believed to contain the spirit) near the head of the dead).


text: The Subanu people had different burial procedure depending on the causes of death. For ordinary cause (dying due to age), the body was placed in the cemetery for common families. However, if for special cause (like contagion and illnesses), "Balian" or shaman is called to apply herbs and prayers on the dead for driving away evil spirits. After then, would they prepare for the wake by sculpting tree trunk to create coffin. Sometimes, bodies are merely placed in the empty cave or under the house, so that they could prevent stray dogs digging out the graveyard. It is a unique custom of Subanu to place Chinese jars containing offerings or food with the dead body, so that the afterlife journey of the dead will be successful. For the highly respected members of the community, two people (one being Balian) chant "Geloy" (funeral song) during "Gukas" (ritual ceremony to special people). Just like mass, this ritual ceremony is accompanied by food and wine called Pangasi offered to the dead.


text: B’laan tribe is probably the most popular Mindanao occupants of Mountain provinces for Hanging Coffins of Sagada. Even before the influence of Christianity, the elders feared being buried on the ground, since they wanted to reach heaven in their afterlife. Out of love and concern, the family would hang the coffins on the wall of the cave (such as "Lumiang cave"). However, this kind of burial procedure was similar to other fishing communities like Banton of Romblon. Another unique characteristic of this pre-colonial burial custom contains the tradition of inserting jars in the coffin. This was similar to the Manunggul jar discovered in Tabon cave, Palawan, making the custom pre-existing even before the pre-colonial era. For B'laan people, trees served as a zone of final rest, which is a unique pattern for most of the Mindanao tribes' burial custom as well.


text: The Davao people are mostly known for placing objects in the coffin of the person, such as cutting rosaries and placing them in the hands of the deceased person and placing a chick in the coffin during the wake. The Davao people also have other superstitions such as preventing teardrops from touching the coffin, breaking plates before taking the coffin out of any edifice, making children walk under the coffin before its put into a hearse, and smoking feet when the coffin is leaving the burial ground from burning dried leaves.


text: Indigenous Filipinos have harbored their own religions long before the Spanish had arrived at their shores. Along with these religions, are corresponding burial practices to accompany such religions. Given that the Spanish occupancy in the Philippines had lasted almost four-hundred years, it would not be a rash assumption that Catholicism should have become widespread or have become the primary religion for the entire nation. This inference, however would be highly problematic as it is quite a ways from the actual truth. Persisting through the Spanish occupation, indigenous Filipino tribes continued with their respective religions and hence, with their customary burial practices. The Spanish influence however, highly affected the religious traditions and customs in the areas surrounding large trade cities and the capital. These influences include the location of the burials, position of the body, and the decoration of burial goods.


text: Pre-Hispanic Filipinos held their funeral rights in high regard, as most tribes believed that if the funeral process was not accomplished properly, the dead would return to the land of the living. The Spanish also held care for the deceased in high regard, although not for the same reasons as the indigenous Filipinos. Nevertheless, this similarity served as a starting point, a fulcrum per se, to slowly infuse Catholic culture into the burial practices of the native Filipinos. One of the areas wherein the Spanish government immediately took action was the banning of crematory practices. This was due to the fact that "cremations were banned by the Catholic Church as it is against the belief that the dead will be resurrected by the second coming of Christ, which required the body to be intact." This idea of resurrection would not be taken well by the Filipinos at that time however, and as a result the Spanish enlisted the help of Jesuits to attempt and convert Filipinos to Catholicism. This was accompanied by the fact that the conversions had to be supplemented by reassurance that this resurrection was by no means evil. With the slow spread of Catholic beliefs and practices, there was much more uniformity with regard to burials in the areas that had been affected by the Spanish influence. These new standard of burials were then subject to the criterion and requirements set by the Roman Catholic Church.


text: In the beginning of the nineteenth century, the implementation of cemeteries apart from the central church would become widespread, mainly due to cholera epidemics and public health. The creation of cemeteries was another move from the traditional burial locations that the Filipinos were accustomed to, formerly being "burials beneath houses, within houses, or inside rock and cave shelters." This was the case for the indigenous Filipinos as they felt that the dead were still in some way part of the community, albeit their drastically changed participance and presence. This move by the Spanish government was in lieu of the sacred space to be offered to the dead, a solemn sanctity that must be respected in order for the deceased to pass on. Yet, up until the twenty-first century, many, if not all, of these religious practices have now become widespread and openly accepted in Philippine society.


text: After the three-century rule of the Spaniards in the Philippines, came the American occupation. American culture and influence started to find a place in a Philippine context by using various mediums, specifically the use of free trade. In this trading for and with the American market, a co-dependence between America and the Philippines was established. Another medium of cultural assimilation from America was their implementation of their education system during the first decade of their occupation, all in which showing more prevalent effects in the political and cultural development of the Filipinos. With the then-new educational system, young Filipinos were taught different American cultural devices such as their songs, values and ideals, and their subsequent assimilation of many of their traditions. All these factors brought about by America allowed for a heterogeneous assimilation between the two distinct cultures that resulted in a unique outcome of specific American influence forming a distinct Filipino image. From here, this is a rich source to understand the nation in its present situation and its historical context.


text: In relation to burial practices, the Philippine culture has borrowed heavily from the Americans. In the Philippine wake for example, also known as a "novena," it is tradition that the family and friends hold the body of the deceased in a casket for 5 to 7 days for viewing; this is patterned from the v"isitation" practiced in American wakes, in which they host the deceased's body clothed and treated with various cosmetics in a funeral home for display and presentability. Both cultures adapting to a similar execution of ritual grief. Another turning point courtesy of the American influence is the practice of cremation. Drawing heavily from the Catholic faith, many Filipinos do not practice cremation as they believe that the body must remain intact in order to fulfill and prepare for the resurrection of the dead. Filipinos claimed that cremation must not be observed due to the Catholic church banning this practice, however as early as 1963 the ban was lifted and this point was emphasized in the 1983 revised Canon Law.


text: Chinese-Filipino funeral and burial customs mainly depend on the religion of the family of the deceased. There is a mix of religions, such as Buddhist, Catholic, Born-Again Christian, within the Chinese-Filipino sector of the Philippines. This is mainly due to the fact that initial Chinese settlers in the country were Buddhist, while their children and grandchildren would incorporate the mainstream religion of the country because of their Filipino-based education and exposure. Therefore, most Chinese-Filipino funeral practices are a mix of the fundamental funeral practices of such religions stated above.


text: Chinese-Filipino families, casually called "Tsinoys", practice a number of rituals whenever a loved one passes away. Most of these practices are derived from Chinese tradition and Buddhism with a slight incorporation of other religions. Traditional Chinese practices involve the burning of paper versions of material goods such as houses, cars, helicopters, yachts, and money, so that the deceased will be able to enjoy such in the afterlife. Loved ones are not also allowed to cut their locks for forty days and are encouraged to wear white from head to toe. The idea of color representation exists in both cultures and not only encourages the use of white, but also black, the more-known color associated with funerals and death. The Buddhism aspect that is combined with these customs would be the burning of the incense and the offering of fruits as a sign of respect to the dead. The factor of other religions highly depends on the religion of the deceased and his/her loved one. If he/she is a Catholic/Protestant, then there would be a mass/sermon held during his/her funeral.


text: Certain Chinese items were found in several Filipino burials and were often a symbol of hierarchy and status. Status was often linked to objects that were found in burials. The elite, also known as "datu" and "catalonan," were often found with foreign objects, such as the Chinese porcelain, that required a higher degree of technicality and skill. In elite burials, it can also be denoted that the amount of prestige goods and their placement were markers that not only suggested social classification, but an undeniable transoceanic trade partnership between the Filipino and Chinese people. It can be accounted that some sort of relationship existed and immersion/inclusion of each other's culture was a factor that could not be avoided.


text: Superstitious beliefs surrounding death entail the sudden appearance of certain animals, particularly those that are black in color. For example, the appearance of a lingering black butterfly around an individual is an omen, that a person's next of kin has died. Another example is a sick person heading toward the hospital, and sees a black-hued cat. This person will not survive their condition. Furthermore, seeing an owl near the home of a sick individual signifies the infirm's imminent death.


text: Other beliefs pertaining to death are related to dreams, dining etiquette, odors, unusual shapes of certain objects, children, and odd numbers. Examples of these types are: not allowing family members to leave the home until used utensils have been cleansed (it is believed a family member may pass away if this habit is not followed), consuming sour fruit in the evenings (to avoid early parental demise), avoiding taking photographs of three persons together (to avoid the early death of the individual placed in the middle), sudden scent of a burning candle – without a lit candle anywhere – hints that a relative just died, losing a tooth during a dream is an omen that a relative will soon die, a headless shadow of an individual forewarns that that person will pass away soon, preventing all family members from viewing the face of a dead person at funerals (to prevent the ghost of the departed from visiting the family resulting in the death of every family member), and lifting children related to the deceased over caskets before the entombment (to hinder the ghost of the dead relative from visiting the children).


text: Objects found alongside a burial are indicative of status and power. These objects are also referred to as grave goods, and they are representative of the complexity that existed in the societies, and the social identities among groups as well as individuals. Items of prestige in the Philippines were put into various groups such as, unusual materials/non-local materials/rare materials, trade materials, items that certain people had access to, and non-utilitarian objects. Stones, shells, gold, silk, bones (human and animal), bracelets and beads are a few examples of ornaments that held great prestige in the Philippines. For example, gold was a rare non-local material object that not many people in the Philippines had access to; therefore, granting people with gold, an elite status. Barretto-Tesoro created a measuring technique for assigning grave goods with prestige value. The three methods that are further described are used for assessing grave good assemblages in correlation to its prestige value, and are all indicative of a wealthier individual. The more objects found in a grave, the more variety of artifacts in a grave, and lastly the lower frequency of objects in assemblage of grave goods, all indicate a wealthy individual. It is also important to note that not all objects carried the same value between various cultures. The prestige that was assigned to a grave good was variable depending on the culture it belonged to; therefore, something that was highly valuable to one culture could mean nothing to another culture.


text: There were three significant time periods that exposed grave goods, and their value to the Philippine culture. The early Neolithic age relied heavily on utilitarian objects and was dominated by the shell adze, which was found among many of the burial sites. Next, during the late Neolithic age, trade had already been established, and the burials were dominated by earthenware pottery. Lastly, the Metal Age arrived, which was dominated by iron objects such as coins, metal, etc.


text: It was very rare for children to be buried with objects in the Philippines because status was achieved through one's lifetime; children are too young to have earned any power or status. There are rare cases where prestige items are in fact found in a child's burial, and this indicates ascribed status through family ties.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: James Hudson Taylor (; 21 May 1832 – 3 June 1905) was a British Baptist Christian missionary to China and founder of the China Inland Mission (CIM, now OMF International). Taylor spent 51 years in China. The society that he began was responsible for bringing over 800 missionaries to the country who started 125 schools and directly resulted in 18,000 Christian conversions, as well as the establishment of more than 300 stations of work with more than 500 local helpers in all eighteen provinces.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Taylor was known for his sensitivity to Chinese culture and zeal for evangelism. He adopted wearing native Chinese clothing even though this was rare among missionaries of that time. Under his leadership, the CIM was singularly non-denominational in practice and accepted members from all Protestant groups, including individuals from the working class, and single women as well as multinational recruits. Primarily because of the CIM's campaign against the opium trade, Taylor has been referred to as one of the most significant Europeans to visit China in the 19th century. Historian Ruth Tucker summarizes the theme of his life:


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Taylor was able to preach in several varieties of Chinese, including Mandarin, Chaozhou, and the Wu dialects of Shanghai and Ningbo. The last of these he knew well enough to help prepare a colloquial edition of the New Testament written in it.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Taylor was born on 21 May 1832 in Barnsley, Yorkshire, the son of a chemist (pharmacist) and Methodist lay preacher James Taylor and his wife, Amelia (Hudson), but as a young man he ran away from the Christian beliefs of his parents. At the age of 16, after reading an evangelistic tract pamphlet entitled "Poor Richard", he professed faith in Christ, and in December 1849, he committed himself to going to China as a missionary.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: At this time he came into contact with Edward Cronin of Kensington—one of the members of the first missionary party of the Plymouth Brethren to Baghdad. It is believed that Taylor learned his faith mission principles from his contact with the Brethren. Taylor was able to borrow a copy of "China: Its State and Prospects" by Walter Henry Medhurst, which he quickly read. About this time, he began studying the languages of Mandarin, Greek, Hebrew, and Latin.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: In 1851, he moved to a poor neighborhood in Kingston upon Hull to be a medical assistant with Robert Hardey, and began preparing himself for a life of faith and service, devoting himself to the poor and exercising faith that God would provide for his needs. He practiced distributing gospel tracts and open-air preaching among the poor. He was baptized by Andrew John Jukes of the Plymouth Brethren in the Hull Brethren Assembly in 1852, and convinced his sister Amelia to also take adult baptism.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: In 1852 he began studying medicine at the Royal London Hospital in Whitechapel, London, as preparation for working in China. The great interest awakened in England about China through the civil war, which was then erroneously supposed to be a mass movement toward Christianity, together with the glowing but exaggerated reports made by Karl Gützlaff concerning China's accessibility, led to the founding of the Chinese Evangelisation Society, to the service of which Hudson Taylor offered himself as their first missionary.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Taylor left England on 19 September 1853 before completing his medical studies, departing from Liverpool and arriving in Shanghai, China, on 1 March 1854. The nearly disastrous voyage aboard the clipper "Dumfries" through an Easterly passage near Buru Island lasted about five months. In China, he was immediately faced with civil war, throwing his first year there into turmoil.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Taylor made 18 preaching tours in the vicinity of Shanghai starting in 1855, and was often poorly received by the people, even though he brought with him medical supplies and skills. He made a decision to adopt the native Chinese clothes and queue (pigtail) with shaven forehead, and was then able to gain an audience without creating a disturbance. Previous to this, Taylor realised that wherever he went he was being referred to as a "black devil" because of the overcoat he wore. He distributed thousands of Chinese Gospel tracts and portions of Scripture in and around Shanghai. During his stay in Shanghai, he also adopted and cared for a Chinese boy named Hanban.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Scottish evangelist, William Chalmers Burns, of the English Presbyterian Mission began work in Shantou, and for a period Taylor joined him there. After leaving he later found that all of his medical supplies, being stored in Shanghai, had been destroyed by a fire. Then in October 1856, while traveling across China he was robbed of nearly everything he owned.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Relocated in Ningbo by 1857, Taylor received a letter from a supportive George Müller which led to Taylor and his co-worker John Jones deciding to resign from the problematic mission board which had sent them, and instead work independently in what came to be called the "Ningbo Mission". Four Chinese men joined them in their work: Ni Yongfa, Feng Ninggui, Wang Laijun, and Qiu Guogui.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: In 1858, Taylor married Maria Jane Dyer, the orphaned daughter of the Rev. Samuel Dyer of the London Missionary Society, who had been a pioneer missionary to the Chinese in Penang, Malaysia. Hudson met Maria in Ningbo where she lived and worked at a school for girls which was run by one of the first female missionaries to the Chinese, Mary Ann Aldersey and they were married at the British Consulate there.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: As a married couple the Taylors took care of an adopted boy named Tianxi while living in Ningbo. They had a baby of their own that died late in 1858. Their first surviving child, Grace, was born in 1859. Shortly after she was born, the Taylors took over all of the operations at the hospital in Ningbo that had been run by William Parker. In a letter to his sister Amelia Hudson Taylor he wrote on 14 February 1860,


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Because of health problems, in 1860 Taylor decided to return to England for a furlough with his family. The Taylors sailed back to England aboard the tea clipper "Jubilee" along with their daughter, Grace and a young man, Wang Laijun, from the Bridge Street church in Ningbo, who would help with the Bible translation work that would continue in England.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Taylor used his time in England to continue his work, in company with Frederick Foster Gough of the Church Mission Society translating the New Testament into a Romanised Ningbo dialect for the British and Foreign Bible Society. He completed his diploma (and a course in midwifery) at the Royal London Hospital with the Royal College of Surgeons in 1862, and with Maria's help, wrote a book called "" in 1865 which was instrumental in generating sympathy for China and volunteers for the mission field, who began to go out in 1862, the first being James Joseph Meadows. In the book Taylor wrote:


title: Hudson Taylor

text: He travelled extensively around the British Isles speaking at churches and promoting the needs of China. At home in the East End of London he also ministered at Newgate Prison. During this time he became friends with Charles Haddon Spurgeon, who pastored the Metropolitan Tabernacle and became a lifelong supporter of Taylor. Also, the Taylors hosted the young Thomas John Barnardo at their house as a potential missionary candidate between 1865 and 1866.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Their second child, Herbert, was born in London in 1861. More children were born to the Taylors, in 1862 Frederick, in 1864 Samuel, and in 1865 Jane, who died at birth.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: On 25 June 1865, at Brighton, Taylor definitely dedicated himself to God for the founding of a new society to undertake the evangelisation of the "unreached" inland provinces of China. He founded the China Inland Mission together with William Thomas Berger shortly thereafter. In less than one year, they had accepted 21 missionaries and raised over £2,000 (about £181,800 in 2018 terms). In early 1866 Taylor published the first edition of the "Occasional Paper of the China Inland Mission" which later became "China's Millions".


title: Hudson Taylor

text: The following summary by Taylor came to be held as the core values of the CIM in what came to be a classic description of future faith missions:


title: Hudson Taylor

text: In 1866 he and the missionaries went to China. They set out on 26 May 1866, after more than five years of working in England, Taylor and family set sail for China with their new missions team "the Lammermuir Party" aboard the tea clipper Lammermuir. A four-month voyage was considered speedy at the time. While in the South China Sea and also the Pacific Ocean the ship was nearly wrecked but survived two typhoons. They arrived safely in Shanghai on 30 September 1866.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: The arrival of the largest party of missionaries ever sent to China, as well as their intent to be dressed in native clothing, gave the foreign settlement in Shanghai much to talk about and some criticism began for the young China Inland Mission. The party donned Chinese clothing, notwithstanding, even the women missionaries, which was deemed semi-scandalous at the time. When other missionaries sought to preserve their British ways, Taylor was convinced that the Gospel would only take root on Chinese soil if missionaries were willing to affirm the culture of the people they were seeking to reach. He argued, from the example of the Apostle Paul, that in everything "not sinful" missionaries should become like the Chinese, "that by all means we may save some."


title: Hudson Taylor

text: They travelled down the Grand Canal of China to make the first settlement in the war-torn city of Hangzhou. Another daughter was born to them in China (Maria Hudson Taylor). Taylor began practising much sought-after medical work and preaching every day under an exhausting schedule. Hundreds came to hear and be treated.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Conflicts within the Lammermuir team limited their effectiveness, but when Taylor's daughter Grace died of meningitis in 1867, they united for a time and sorted out their discord after witnessing Taylor place the cares of his fellow missionaries above even the concern that he had for his ailing daughter. Many of the Lammermuir crew were converted to Christianity.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: In 1868 the Taylors took a party of missionaries up to Yangzhou to start a new work. But problems continued in 1868, when their mission premises were attacked, looted and burned during the Yangzhou riot. Despite the violence and injuries, no one was killed. Unfortunately, the international outrage at the Chinese for the attack on these British nationals (and the subsequent arrival of the Royal Navy) caused also the China Inland Mission and Taylor to be criticised in the British press for almost starting a war. Taylor never requested military intervention, but some voices in the British Parliament called for "the withdrawal of all missionaries from China". However, the Taylors returned to Yangzhou later that year to continue in the work and many converts to Christianity were made.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: In 1869 Hudson was influenced by a passage on personal holiness from a book called "Christ Is All" by Henry Law that was sent to him by a fellow missionary, John McCarthy. "The Lord Jesus received is holiness begun; the Lord Jesus cherished is holiness advancing; the Lord Jesus counted upon as never absent would be holiness complete." This new understanding of continually abiding in Christ endured for the rest of his life. At the time, he was quoted by fellow missionary Charles Henry Judd as saying: "Oh, Mr. Judd, God has made me a new man!" Taylor later sent out "How to live on Christ", a booklet by Harriet Beecher Stowe, that first appeared as an introduction to "Religion As It Should Be", a book written by Christopher Dean and published in 1847.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: In 1868 another child, Charles, was born into the Taylor family, and in 1870, Taylor and his wife made the difficult decision to send their older three surviving children (Bertie, Freddie, and Maria—Samuel died earlier that year) home to England with Miss Emily Blatchley. In July, Noel was born, though he died of malnutrition and deprivation two weeks later due to Maria's inability to nurse him. Maria herself died several days later, with the official cause of death being cholera. Her death shook Taylor deeply, and in 1871, his own health began deteriorating further, leading to his return to England later that year to recuperate and take care of business items.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Back in England, Taylor was married to Jane Elizabeth Faulding who had been a fellow missionary since 1866. Hudson and "Jennie" returned to China in late 1872 aboard the MM Tigre. They were in Nanjing when Jennie gave birth to stillborn twins—a boy and a girl in 1873. Two years later, the Taylors were forced to return once again to England because of the death of the mission secretary and their children's caretaker, Emily Blatchley.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: During the winter of 1874 and 1875 Taylor was practically paralysed from a fall he had taken on a river boat while in China. In this state of crippling physical hindrance, Taylor confidently published an appeal for 18 new workers to join the work. When he did recover his strength, Jennie remained with the children, (including a new son and daughter, Ernest Hamilton and Amy, as well as the orphaned daughter of fellow missionary George Duncan) while in 1876 Hudson Taylor returned to China, followed by the 18 requested missionaries. Meanwhile, in England, the work of General Secretary of the China Inland Mission was done by Benjamin Broomhall, who had married Hudson's sister, Amelia.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: It was at this time that Hudson's evangelical work in England profoundly affected various members of the famous cricketing Studd family, resulting in three of the brothers converting and becoming deeply religious themselves; one of them, cricketer Charles Studd, became a missionary to China along with fellow Cambridge University converts, known as the Cambridge Seven.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: From 1876 to 1878 Taylor travelled throughout inland China, opening missions stations. This was made possible by the signing on 13 September 1876 of the Chefoo Convention, a settlement between Britain and China that made it possible for missionary work to take place legally in inland China. In 1878, Jennie returned to China and began working to promote female missionary service there. Their son Ernest Hamilton Taylor joined them at the China Inland Mission in 1898 where he remained as a missionary for much of his working life. By 1881 there were 100 missionaries in the CIM.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Taylor returned to England in 1883 to recruit more missionaries speaking of China's needs, and returned to China, working now with a total of 225 missionaries and 59 churches. In 1887 their numbers increased by another 102 with The Hundred missionaries, and in 1888, Taylor brought 14 missionaries from the United States. In the US he travelled and spoke at many places, including the Niagara Bible Conference where he befriended Cyrus Scofield and later Taylor filled the pulpit of Dwight Lyman Moody as a guest in Chicago. Moody and Scofield thereafter actively supported the work of the China Inland Mission of North America.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: In 1897 Hudson's and Maria's only surviving daughter, Maria died in Wenzhou, leaving four little children and her missionary husband, John Joseph Coulthard . She had been instrumental in leading many Chinese women to Christianity during her short life.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: News of the Boxer Rebellion and the resulting disruption of missionary work in 1900 distressed Taylor, even though it led to further interest in missions in the area and additional growth of his China Inland Mission. Though the CIM suffered more than any other mission in China (58 missionaries, 21 children were killed), Taylor refused to accept payment for loss of property or life, to show the 'meekness and gentleness of Christ'. He was criticised by some but was commended by the British Foreign Office, whose minister in Beijing donated £200 to the CIM, expressing his 'admiration' and sympathy. The Chinese were also touched by Taylor's attitude.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Due to health issues, Taylor remained in Switzerland, semi-retired with his wife. In 1900, Dixon Edward Hoste was appointed the Acting General Director of the CIM, and in 1902, Taylor formally resigned. His wife, Jennie, died of cancer in 1904 in Les Chevalleyres, Switzerland, and in 1905, Taylor returned to China for the eleventh and final time. There he visited Yangzhou and Zhenjiang and other cities, before dying suddenly while reading at home in Changsha. He was buried next to his first wife, Maria, in Zhenjiang, in the small English Cemetery near the Yangtze River.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: The small cemetery was built over with industrial buildings in the 1960s and the grave markers were destroyed. However, the marker for Hudson Taylor was stored away in a local museum for years. His great-grandson, James Hudson Taylor III, found the marker and was able to help a local Chinese church re-erect it within their building in 1999.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: In 2013 the land for the cemetery was re-developed and the demolition of the old industrial buildings revealed that the Taylors' tombs were still intact. On 28 August the graves were excavated with the surrounding soil and moved to a local church where they were to be reburied in a memorial garden. The Gravestone was underground in a pit where the church was awaiting construction of a proper memorial hall. A dedication marker was outside under a tarp, covered up unless visitors know it is there. It was in the possession of 宣德堂(镇江市) as of July 2016.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: The beginning of "faith missions" (the sending of missionaries with no promises of temporal support, but instead a reliance "through prayer to move Men by God") has had a wide impact among evangelical churches to this day. After his death, China Inland Mission gained the notable distinction of being the largest Protestant mission agency in the world. The biographies of Hudson Taylor inspired generations of Christians to follow his example of service and sacrifice. Notable examples are: missionary to India Amy Carmichael, Olympic Gold Medalist Eric Liddell, twentieth-century missionary and martyr Jim Elliot, founder of Bible Study Fellowship Audrey Wetherell Johnson, as well as international evangelists Billy Graham and Luis Palau.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Descendants of James Hudson Taylor continued his full-time ministry into the 21st century in Chinese communities in East Asia. James Hudson Taylor III (1929–2009) in Hong Kong, and his son, James Hudson Taylor IV 戴繼宗, who married Yeh Min Ke (the first Taiwanese member of the Taylor family), who is involved in full-time ministries in Taiwan. James H. Taylor V continued the family legacy by singing with a middle school choir.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Chinese tourists have started visiting his home town of Barnsley to see where their hero grew up and the town is planning a trail to guide visitors to landmarks around the town.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Taylor was raised in the Methodist tradition but in the course of his life he was a member of the Baptist Westbourne Grove Church pastored by William Garrett Lewis, and he also kept strong ties to the "Open Brethren" such as George Müller.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Ernest (died 1948) and Amy (died 1953) are buried in the same grave plot at the Kent & Sussex Cemetery, Royal Tunbridge Wells


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Manuscripts and letters relating to James Hudson Taylor are held as part of the China Inland Mission collection by the Archives of the School of Oriental and African Studies in London.


title: Hudson Taylor

text: Taylor House in YMCA of Hong Kong Christian College, which was founded by YMCA of Hong Kong, was named in commemoration of Taylor.


title: Gryffin

text: Dan Griffith (born September 29, 1987), known by his stage name Gryffin (often stylized in all caps), is an American musician, DJ, songwriter, and record producer. He gained recognition for remixing some well-known songs such as Tove Lo's "Talking Body", Maroon 5's "Animals" and Years & Years' "Desire".


title: Gryffin

text: Gryffin was born in San Francisco, California to an American father and a Japanese mother. Gryffin grew up as a classically trained pianist and learned to play the guitar at an early age. He played in bands to initially hone his instrumental abilities. He is a graduate of Saint Francis High School in Mountain View, California. He studied electrical engineering at the University of Southern California where he spent much of his leisure time in his dorm room to work on music.


title: Gryffin

text: When asked on his key lessons of music production, he said: "At the beginning, I just released music with the main goal of having my friends play it at college parties and I never would have imagined it would get to this point". He made his 'world' debut as Gryffin at the SnowGlobe Music Festival 2015.


title: Gryffin

text: On January 22, 2016, Gryffin released his debut single titled "Heading Home" featuring Australian singer Josef Salvat via Darkroom/Interscope Records. On May 2, 2016, an official music video was uploaded on his YouTube channel. The song peaked at number 22 on the Hot Dance/Electronic Songs chart, number 21 on the Dance/Electronic Digital Songs chart, number 1 on Spotify Viral 50 chart and number 5 on the "Billboard" Twitter Emerging Artists chart. On August 26, 2016, he released a song titled "Whole Heart" with Bipolar Sunshine. In an interview, about the song "Whole Heart", Gryffin said "'Whole Heart’ is a big step for me as an artist, as it represents a developing maturity of my sound and depth of songwriting".


title: Gryffin

text: 2017 saw three singles for Gryffin. "Feel Good", a collaboration with DJ Illenium and singer Daya, was released on March 3. "Love in Ruins" with singer Sinéad Harnett was released on July 7 and "Nobody Compares to You" with Katie Pearlman was released on October 6.


title: Gryffin

text: 2018 proved to be a big year for Gryffin, releasing five singles throughout the year. His first single of the year, "Winnebago" with Quinn XCII and Daniel Wilson was released on April 20. He followed this up with single "Just for a Moment" with Iselin, released June 22, and "Tie Me Down" with Elley Duhé, released on August 3. Two months following the release of "Tie Me Down", Gryffin released a song with Zohara. "Remember" was released on October 26 and eventually topped the US Dance Charts, marking Griffith's first number one hit song.


title: Gryffin

text: On July 26, 2020, Gryffin announced the release of "Cry", with John Martin, on his Instagram page. He hinted that the track would be the first single from his upcoming second album, and announced July 30, 2020 as the single's release date. On November 19, 2020, Gryffin released “Safe With Me” with Audrey Mika.


title: Gryffin

text: Gryffin released "I Want Love" featuring Two Feet on Feb 10, 2021. He announced the release one day prior on his instagram page.


title: Gryffin

text: He moved to Los Angeles in 2016 to be closer to his label and management. He married his wife, Stephanie, in April 2018. He moved to Las Vegas, Nevada in January 2020 where he currently resides and plays at various nightclubs when he is not making an appearance out of state.


title: Gryffin

text: Gryffin produces music in a melodic house style and classifies himself as a melodic house artist. He incorporates sounds of piano and guitar for a 'hybrid of electric and organic' musical style.


title: Oracle bone

text: Oracle bones () are pieces of ox scapula and turtle plastron, which were used for pyromancy – a form of divination – in ancient China, mainly during the late Shang dynasty. "Scapulimancy" is the correct term if ox scapulae were used for the divination, "plastromancy" if turtle plastrons were used.


title: Oracle bone

text: Diviners would submit questions to deities regarding future weather, crop planting, the fortunes of members of the royal family, military endeavors, and other similar topics. These questions were carved onto the bone or shell in oracle bone script using a sharp tool. Intense heat was then applied with a metal rod until the bone or shell cracked due to thermal expansion. The diviner would then interpret the pattern of cracks and write the prognostication upon the piece as well. Pyromancy with bones continued in China into the Zhou dynasty, but the questions and prognostications were increasingly written with brushes and cinnabar ink, which degraded over time.


title: Oracle bone

text: The oracle bones bear the earliest known significant corpus of ancient Chinese writing, using an early form of Chinese characters. The inscriptions contain around 5,000 different characters, though only about 1,200 of them have been identified with certainty. They provide important information on the late Shang period, and scholars have reconstructed the Shang royal genealogy from the cycle of ancestral sacrifices they record. When they were discovered in the end of the nineteenth century and deciphered in the early twentieth century, these records confirmed the existence of the Shang, which some scholars had until then doubted.


title: Oracle bone

text: The Shang-dynasty oracle bones are thought to have been unearthed periodically by local farmers since as early as the Sui and Tang dynasties and perhaps starting as early as the Han dynasty, but local inhabitants did not realize what the bones were and generally reburied them. During the 19th century, villagers in the area digging in the fields discovered a number of bones and used them as "dragon bones" (), a reference to the traditional Chinese medicine practice of grinding up Pleistocene fossils into tonics or poultices. The turtle shell fragments were prescribed for malaria, while the other animal bones were used in powdered form to treat knife wounds.


title: Oracle bone

text: In 1899, an antiques dealer from Shandong Province searching for Chinese bronzes in the area acquired a number of oracle bones from locals, several of which he sold to Wang Yirong, the chancellor of the Imperial Academy in Beijing. Wang was a knowledgeable collector of Chinese bronzes and is believed to be the first person in modern times to recognize the oracle bones' markings as ancient Chinese writing similar to that on Zhou dynasty bronzes. A legendary tale relates that Wang was sick with malaria, and his scholar friend Liu E was visiting him and helped examine his medicine. They discovered, before it was ground into powder, that it bore strange glyphs, which they, having studied the ancient bronze inscriptions, recognized as ancient writing. As Xu Yahui states:


title: Oracle bone

text: It is not known how Wang and Liu actually came across these "dragon bones", but Wang is credited with being the first to recognize their significance. Wang committed suicide in 1900 in connection with his involvement in the Boxer Rebellion, and his son later sold the bones to friend Liu E, who published the first book of rubbings of the oracle bone inscriptions in 1903. News of the discovery of the oracle bones spread quickly throughout China and among foreign collectors and scholars, and the market for oracle bones exploded, though many collectors sought to keep the location of the bones' source a secret. Although scholars tried to find their source, antique dealers falsely claimed that the bones came from Tangyin in Henan. In 1908, scholar Luo Zhenyu discovered the source of the bones near Anyang and realized that the area was the site of the last Shang dynasty capital.


title: Oracle bone

text: Decades of uncontrolled digs followed to fuel the antiques trade, and many of these pieces eventually entered collections in Europe, the US, Canada and Japan. The first Western collector was the American missionary Frank H. Chalfant (1862–1914). Chalfant also first coined the term "oracle bone" in his 1906 book "Early Chinese Writing", which was then calqued into Chinese as in the 1930s.


title: Oracle bone

text: Only a small number of dealers and collectors knew the location of the source of the oracle bones or visited it until they were found by Canadian missionary James Mellon Menzies, the first person to scientifically excavate, study, and decipher them. He was the first to conclude that the bones were records of divination from the Shang dynasty, and was the first to come up with a method of dating them (in order to avoid being fooled by fakes). In 1917 he published the first scientific study of the bones, including 2,369 drawings and inscriptions and thousands of ink rubbings. Through the donation of local people and his own archaeological excavations, he acquired the largest private collection in the world, over 35,000 pieces. He insisted that his collection remain in China, though some were sent to Canada by colleagues who were worried that they would be either destroyed or stolen during the Japanese invasion of China in 1937. The Chinese still acknowledge the pioneering contribution of Menzies as "the foremost western scholar of Yin-Shang culture and oracle bone inscriptions". His former residence in Anyang was declared a "Protected Treasure" in 2004, and the James Mellon Menzies Memorial Museum for Oracle Bone Studies was established.


title: Oracle bone

text: By the time of the establishment of the Institute of History and Philology headed by Fu Sinian at the Academia Sinica in 1928, the source of the oracle bones had been traced back to modern Xiǎotún () village at Anyang in Henan Province. Official archaeological excavations in 1928–1937 led by Li Ji, the father of Chinese archaeology, discovered 20,000 oracle bone pieces, which now form the bulk of the Academia Sinica's collection in Taiwan and constitute about 1/5 of the total discovered. When deciphered, the inscriptions on the oracle bones turned out to be the records of the divinations performed for or by the royal household. These, together with royal-sized tombs, proved beyond a doubt for the first time the existence of the Shang dynasty, which had recently been doubted, and the location of its last capital, Yin. Today, Xiǎotún at Anyang is thus also known as the Ruins of Yin, or Yinxu.


title: Oracle bone

text: Oracle bone inscriptions were published as they were discovered, in fascicles. Subsequently, many collections of inscriptions were also published. The following are the main collections.


title: Oracle bone

text: Observing that the citation of these different works was becoming unwieldy, an effort was made to comprehensively publish all bones hitherto discovered. The result—the (, 1978–1982) edited by Hu Houxuan, with its supplement (1999) edited by Peng Bangjiong, is the most comprehensive catalogue of oracle bone fragments. The 20 volumes contain reproductions of over 55,000 fragments. A separate work published in 1999 contains transcriptions of the inscriptions into standard characters.


title: Oracle bone

text: The vast majority of the inscribed oracle bones were found at the Yinxu site in modern Anyang, and date to the reigns of the last nine kings of the Shang dynasty. The diviners named on the bones have been assigned to five periods by Dong Zuobin:


title: Oracle bone

text: The kings were involved in divination in all periods, but in later periods most divinations were done personally by the king.


title: Oracle bone

text: The extant inscriptions are not evenly distributed across these periods, with 55% coming from period I and 31% from periods III and IV.


title: Oracle bone

text: The earliest oracle bones (corresponding to the reigns of Wu Ding and Zu Geng) record dates using only the 60-day cycle of stems and branches, though sometimes the month was also given.


title: Oracle bone

text: Attempts to determine an absolute chronology focus on a number of lunar eclipses recorded in inscriptions by the Bīn group, who worked during the reign of Wu Ding, possibly extending into the reign of Zu Geng.


title: Oracle bone

text: Assuming that the 60-day cycle continued uninterrupted into the securely dated period, scholars have sought to match the recorded dates with calculated dates of eclipses.


title: Oracle bone

text: From these data, the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project, relying on the statement in the "Against Luxurious Ease" chapter of the "Book of Documents" that the reign of Wu Ding lasted 59 years, dated it from 1250 to 1192 BCE. David Keightley argued that the "Against Luxurious Ease" chapter should not be treated as a historical text, because was composed much later, presents reign lengths as moral judgements, and gives other reign lengths that are contradicted by oracle bone evidence.


title: Oracle bone

text: He dated the reign of Wu Ding as approximately from 1200 to 1181 BCE. Ken-ichi Takashima dates the earliest oracle bone inscriptions to 1230 BCE. Twenty-six oracle bone divinations of Wu Ding's reign have been radiocarbon dated to 1254–1197 BC±10 years.


title: Oracle bone

text: Period V inscriptions often identify numbered ritual cycles, making it easier to estimate the reign lengths of the last two kings.


title: Oracle bone

text: Most scholars now agree that the Zhou conquest of the Shang took place close to 1046 or 1045 BCE, over a century later than the traditional date.


title: Oracle bone

text: Since divination ("-mancy") was by heat or fire ("pyro-") and most often on plastrons or scapulae, the terms "pyromancy", "plastromancy" and "scapulimancy" are often used for this process.


title: Oracle bone

text: The oracle bones are mostly tortoise plastrons (ventral or belly shells, probably female) and ox scapulae (shoulder blades), although some are the carapace (dorsal or back shells) of tortoises, and a few are ox rib bones, scapulae of sheep, boars, horses and deer, and some other animal bones. The skulls of deer, oxen and humans have also been found with inscriptions on them, although these are very rare and appear to have been inscribed for record keeping or practice rather than for actual divination; in one case, inscribed deer antlers were reported, but Keightley (1978) reports that they are fake. Neolithic diviners in China had long been heating the bones of deer, sheep, pigs and cattle for similar purposes; evidence for this in Liaoning has been found dating to the late fourth millennium BCE. However, over time, the use of ox bones increased, and use of tortoise shells does not appear until early Shang culture. The earliest tortoise shells found that had been prepared for divinatory use (i.e., with chiseled pits) date to the earliest Shang stratum at Erligang (Zhengzhou, Henan). By the end of the Erligang, the plastrons were numerous, and at Anyang, scapulae and plastrons were used in roughly equal numbers. Due to the use of these shells in addition to bones, early references to the oracle bone script often used the term "shell and bone script", but since tortoise shells are actually a bony material, the more concise term "oracle bones" is applied to them as well.


title: Oracle bone

text: The bones or shells were first sourced and then prepared for use. Their sourcing is significant because some of them (especially many of the shells) are believed to have been presented as tribute to the Shang, which is valuable information about diplomatic relations of the time. We know this because notations were often made on them recording their provenance (e.g., tribute of how many shells from where and on what date). For example, one notation records that " () sent 250 (tortoise shells)", identifying this as, perhaps, a statelet within the Shang sphere of influence. These notations were generally made on the back of the shell's bridge (called bridge notations), the lower carapace, or the xiphiplastron (tail edge). Some shells may have been from locally raised tortoises, however. Scapula notations were near the socket or a lower edge. Some of these notations were not carved after being written with a brush, proving (along with other evidence) the use of the writing brush in Shang times. Scapulae are assumed to have generally come from the Shang's own livestock, perhaps those used in ritual sacrifice, although there are records of cattle sent as tribute as well, including some recorded via marginal notations.


title: Oracle bone

text: The bones or shells were cleaned of meat and then prepared by sawing, scraping, smoothing and even polishing to create convenient, flat surfaces. The predominance of scapulae and later of plastrons is also thought to be related to their convenience as large, flat surfaces needing minimal preparation. There is also speculation that only female tortoise shells were used, as these are significantly less concave. Pits or hollows were then drilled or chiseled partway through the bone or shell in orderly series. At least one such drill has been unearthed at Erligang, exactly matching the pits in size and shape. The shape of these pits evolved over time and is an important indicator for dating the oracle bones within various sub-periods in the Shang dynasty. The shape and depth also helped determine the nature of the crack that would appear. The number of pits per bone or shell varied widely.


title: Oracle bone

text: Divinations were typically carried out for the Shang kings in the presence of a diviner. A very few oracle bones were used in divination by other members of the royal family or nobles close to the king. By the latest periods, the Shang kings took over the role of diviner personally.


title: Oracle bone

text: During a divination session, the shell or bone was anointed with blood, and in an inscription section called the "preface", the date was recorded using the Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches, and the diviner name was noted. Next, the topic of divination (called the "charge") was posed, such as whether a particular ancestor was causing a king's toothache. The divination charges were often directed at ancestors, whom the ancient Chinese revered and worshiped, as well as natural powers and (), the highest god in the Shang society. A wide variety of topics were asked, essentially anything of concern to the royal house of Shang, from illness, birth and death, to weather, warfare, agriculture, tribute and so on. One of the most common topics was whether performing rituals in a certain manner would be satisfactory.


title: Oracle bone

text: An intense heat source was then inserted in a pit until it cracked. Due to the shape of the pit, the front side of the bone cracked in a rough shape. The character (pinyin: or ; Old Chinese: "*puk"; "to divine") may be a pictogram of such a crack; the reading of the character may also be an onomatopoeia for the cracking. A number of cracks were typically made in one session, sometimes on more than one bone, and these were typically numbered. The diviner in charge of the ceremony read the cracks to learn the answer to the divination. How exactly the cracks were interpreted is not known. The topic of divination was raised multiple times, and often in different ways, such as in the negative, or by changing the date being divined about. One oracle bone might be used for one session or for many, and one session could be recorded on a number of bones. The divined answer was sometimes then marked either "auspicious" or "inauspicious", and the king occasionally added a "prognostication", his reading on the nature of the omen. On very rare occasions, the actual outcome was later added to the bone in what is known as a "verification". A complete record of all the above elements is rare; most bones contain just the date, diviner and topic of divination, and many remained uninscribed after the divination.


title: Oracle bone

text: The uninscribed divination is thought to have been brush-written with ink or cinnabar on the oracle bones or accompanying documents, as a few of the oracle bones found still bear their brush-written divinations without carving, while some have been found partially carved. After use, shells and bones used ritually were buried in separate pits (some for shells only; others for scapulae only), in groups of up to hundreds or even thousands (one pit unearthed in 1936 contained over 17,000 pieces along with a human skeleton).


title: Oracle bone

text: The targets and purposes of divination changed over time. In the reign of Wu Ding diviners were likely to ask the powers or ancestors about things like the weather, success in battle, or building settlements. Offerings were promised if they would help with earthly affairs.


title: Oracle bone

text: "Crack-making on jiazi (day 1) Zheng divined “In praying for harvest to the Sun (we) will cleave ten dappled cows and pledge one hundred dappled cows.”"


title: Oracle bone

text: Keightley explains that this divination is unique in being addressed to the Sun, but typical in that 10 cattle are being offered, with 100 more to follow if the harvest is good.


title: Oracle bone

text: Later divinations were more likely to be perfunctory, optimistic, made by the king himself, addressed to his ancestors, on a regular cycle, and unlikely to ask the ancestors to do anything. Keighley suggests that this reflects a change in ideas about what the powers and ancestors could do and the extent to which the living could influence them.


title: Oracle bone

text: While the use of bones in divination has been practiced almost globally, such divination involving fire or heat has generally been found in Asia and the Asian-derived North American cultures. The use of heat to crack scapulae (pyro-scapulimancy) originated in ancient China, the earliest evidence of which extends back to the 4th millennium BCE, with archaeological finds from Liaoning, but these were not inscribed. In Neolithic China at a variety of sites, the scapulae of cattle, sheep, pigs and deer used in pyromancy have been found, and the practice appears to have become quite common by the end of the third millennium BCE. Scapulae were unearthed along with smaller numbers of pitless plastrons in the Nánguānwài () stage at Zhengzhou, Henan; scapulae as well as smaller numbers of plastrons with chiseled pits were also discovered in the Lower and Upper Erligang stages.


title: Oracle bone

text: Significant use of tortoise plastrons does not appear until the Shang culture sites. Ox scapulae and plastrons, both prepared for divination, were found at the Shang culture sites of Táixīcūn () in Hebei and Qiūwān () in Jiangsu. One or more pitted scapulae were found at Lùsìcūn () in Henan, while unpitted scapulae have been found at Erlitou in Henan, Cíxiàn () in Hebei, Níngchéng () in Liaoning, and Qíjiā () in Gansu. Plastrons do not become more numerous than scapulae until the Rénmín () Park phase.


title: Oracle bone

text: Four inscribed bones have been found at Zhengzhou in Henan: three with numbers 310, 311 and 312 in the "Hebu" corpus, and one containing a single character () which also appears in late Shang inscriptions. HB 310, which contained two brief divinations, has been lost, but is recorded in a rubbing and two photographs. HB 311 and 312 each contain a short sentence similar to the late Shang script. HB 312 was found in an upper layer of the Erligang culture. The others were found accidentally in river management earthworks, and so lack archaeological context. Pei Mingxiang argued that they predated the Anyang site. Takashima, referring to character forms and syntax, argues that they were contemporaneous with the reign of Wu Ding.


title: Oracle bone

text: A few inscribed oracle bones have also been unearthed in the Zhōuyuán, the original political center of the Zhou in Shaanxi and in Daxinzhuang, Jinan, Shandong.


title: Oracle bone

text: Some bones from the Zhouyuan are believed to be contemporaneous with the reign of Di Xin, the last Shang king.


title: Oracle bone

text: After the founding of Zhou, the Shang practices of bronze casting, pyromancy and writing continued. Oracle bones found in the 1970s have been dated to the Zhou dynasty, with some dating to the Spring and Autumn period. However, very few of those were inscribed. It is thought that other methods of divination supplanted pyromancy, such as numerological divination using milfoil (yarrow) in connection with the hexagrams of the "I Ching", leading to the decline in inscribed oracle bones. However, evidence for the continued use of plastromancy exists for the Eastern Zhou, Han, Tang and Qing dynasty periods, and Keightley mentions use in Taiwan as late as 1972.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The International Workingmen's Association (IWA), often called the First International (1864–1876), was an international organisation which aimed at uniting a variety of different left-wing socialist, communist and anarchist groups and trade unions that were based on the working class and class struggle. It was founded in 1864 in a workmen's meeting held in St. Martin's Hall, London. Its first congress was held in 1866 in Geneva.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: In Europe, a period of harsh reaction followed the widespread Revolutions of 1848. The next major phase of revolutionary activity began almost twenty years later with the founding of the IWA in 1864. At its peak, the IWA reported having 8 million members while police reported 5 million. In 1872, it split in two over conflicts between statist and anarchist factions and dissolved in 1876. The Second International was founded in 1889.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: Following the January Uprising in Poland in 1863, French and British workers started to discuss developing a closer working relationship. Henri Tolain, Joseph Perrachon and Charles Limousin visited London in July 1863, attending a meeting in St. James's Hall in honour of the Polish uprising. They discussed the need for an international organisation, which would amongst other things prevent the import of foreign workers to break strikes. In September 1864, French and British delegates again met in London, this time to set up an organization for sharing labor information across borders.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: On 28 September an international crowd of workers gathered to welcome the French delegates in St. Martin’s Hall in London. Among the many European radicals were English Owenites, followers of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Louis Auguste Blanqui, Irish and Polish nationalists, Italian republicans and German socialists. Included among the last-mentioned of this eclectic band was a somewhat obscure 46-year-old émigré journalist Karl Marx, who would soon come to play a decisive role in the organisation.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The positivist historian Edward Spencer Beesly, a professor at London University, was in the chair. His speech pilloried the violent proceedings of the governments and referred to their flagrant breaches of international law and advocated a union of the workers of the world for the realisation of justice on earth. George Odger, Secretary of the London Trades Council, read a speech calling for international co-operation.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The meeting unanimously decided to found an international organisation of workers. The centre was to be in London, directed by a committee of 21, which was instructed to draft a programme and constitution. Most of the British members of the committee were drawn from the Universal League for the Material Elevation of the Industrious Classes and were noted trade-union leaders like Odger, George Howell (former secretary of the London Trades Council, which itself declined affiliation to the IWA, although remaining close to it), Cyrenus Osborne Ward and Benjamin Lucraft and included Owenites and Chartists. The French members were Denoual, Victor Le Lubez and Bosquet. Italy was represented by Fontana. Other members were Louis Wolff, Johann Eccarius and at the foot of the list Marx, who participated in his individual capacity and did not speak during the meeting.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: This executive committee in turn selected a subcommittee to do the actual writing of the organisational programme—a group which included Marx and which met at his home about a week after the conclusion of the St. Martin's Hall assembly. This subcommittee deferred the task of collective writing in favour of sole authorship by Marx and it was he who ultimately drew up the fundamental documents of the new organisation.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: On 5 October, the General Council was formed with co-opted additional members representing other nationalities. It was based at the headquarters of the Universal League for the Material Elevation of the Industrious Classes at 18 Greek Street. Different groups offered proposals for the organisation. Louis Wolff (Mazzini's secretary) offered a proposal based on the rules and constitution of the Italian Workingmen’s Association (a Mazzinist organisation) and John Weston, an Owenite, also tabled a programme. Wolff left for Italy and Lubez rewrote it in a way which appalled Marx. Marx then set about writing the Address to the Working Classes to which was attached a simplified set of rules.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: At first, the IWA had mostly male membership, although in April 1865 it was agreed that women could become members. The initial leadership was exclusively male. At the IWA General Council meeting on 16 April 1867, a letter from the secularist speaker Harriet Law about women's rights was read and it was agreed to ask her if she would be willing to attend council meetings. On 25 June 1867, Law was admitted to the General Council and for the next five years was the only woman representative.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: Due to the wide variety of philosophies present in the First International, there was conflict from the start. The first objections to Marx's influence came from the mutualists, who opposed communism and statism. However, shortly after Mikhail Bakunin and his followers (called collectivists while in the International) joined in 1868, the First International became polarised into two camps, with Marx and Bakunin as their respective figureheads. Perhaps the clearest differences between the groups emerged over their proposed strategies for achieving their visions of socialism. The anarchists grouped around Bakunin favoured (in Peter Kropotkin's words) "direct economical struggle against capitalism, without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation". Marxist thinking at that time focused on parliamentary activity. For example, when the new German Empire of 1871 introduced male suffrage, many German socialists became active in the Marxist Social Democratic Party of Germany.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: During the Geneva Congress, the Paris group of Proudhonians dominated the discussions. Six Blanquists from Paris came to the Congress to denounce the French representatives as emissaries of Napoleon III, but they were thrown out.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: A significant decision at this event was the adoption of the eight-hour work day as one of the IWA's fundamental demands.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The Lausanne Congress of the International was held on 2–8 September 1867. Marx was unable to attend as he was working on the final proofs of "Das Kapital". The Congress was attended by 64 delegates from Great Britain, France, Germany, Belgium, Italy and Switzerland. The reports delivered recorded the increased influence of the International on the working classes in various countries. The Proudhonist delegates, primarily from France, influenced the orientation of the International's activity and its programmatic principles. Despite the efforts of the General Council's delegates, they succeeded in revising the resolutions of the Geneva Congress, passing a number of their resolutions, in particular on cooperation and credit.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The Lausanne Congress confirmed the Geneva Congress resolutions on the economic struggle and strikes and passed a resolution on political freedom which emphasised that the social emancipation of workers was inseparable from political liberation. The Proudhonists also failed to seize the leadership of the International as the Congress re-elected the General Council in its former composition and retained London as its seat.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The Lausanne Congress ignored the General Council's resolution and resolved officially to take part in the Congress of the League of Peace and Freedom. However, this Congress was attended by several General Council and some other International members and failed to resolve its political differences.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The Brussels Congress of the International in 1868 approved Marx's tactics in regard to the League, opposing official affiliation to the League, but calling upon the working class to combine efforts with all progressive anti-military forces.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The Basel Congress took place on 6–12 September 1869. According to Yuri Mikhailovich Steklov's account:


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: Seventy-five delegates assembled: from Great Britain, the 6 members of the General Council, Applegarth, Eccarius, Cowell Stepney, Lessner, Lucraft, and Jung; from France, which sent 26 delegates, among whom we may mention Dereure, Landrin, Chémalé, Murat, Aubry, Tolain, A. Richard, Palix, Varlin, and Bakunin: Belgium sent 5 delegates, among whom were Hins, Brismée, and De Paepe; Austria 2 delegates, Neumayer and Oberwinder; Germany sent 10 delegates, among whom were Becker, Liebknecht, Rittinghausen, and Hess; Switzerland had 22 representatives, among whom were Burkly, Greulich, Fritz Robert, Guillaume, Schwitzguébel, and Perret; Italy sent but one delegate, Caporusso; from Spain there came Farga-Pellicer and Sentinon; and the United States of America was represented by Cameron. Jung was elected chairman of the congress.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The conference was mainly noted for the confrontation between the Proudhonist mutualists and the collectivist position, defended by Marx's envoy for the General Council and Bakunin both. However, the Belgian socialist de Paepe played a decisive role in bringing the Belgian delegation across to the collectivist side and isolating the mainly French Proudhonists.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The fifth Congress of the IWA was held in early September 1872 in The Hague, the Netherlands. After the Paris Commune (1871), Bakunin characterised Marx's ideas as authoritarian and argued that if a Marxist party came to power its leaders would end up as bad as the ruling class they had fought against (notably in his "Statism and Anarchy"). In 1874, Marx wrote some decisive notes rebutting Bakunin's affirmations on this book, referring to them as mere political rhetoric without a theory of the State and without the knowledge about social classes struggles and the economic factor. In 1872, the conflict in the First International climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the Hague Congress. This clash is often cited as the origin of the long-running conflict between anarchists and Marxists.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The Hague Congress was notable for the attempted expulsion of Bakunin and Guillaume and for the decision to relocate the General Council to New York City. The main resolutions passed centred on committing the International to building political parties, aimed at capturing state power as an indispensable condition for socialist transformation.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: From then on, the Marxist and anarchist currents of socialism had distinct organisations, at various points including rival internationals.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: This split is sometimes called the "red" and "black" divide, red referring to the Marxists and black referring to the anarchists. Otto von Bismarck remarked upon hearing of the split at the First International that "[c]rowned heads, wealth and privilege may well tremble should ever again the Black and Red unite!".


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The anarchist wing of the First International held a separate congress in September 1872 at St. Imier, Switzerland. The anarchists rejected the claim that Bakunin and Guillaume had been expelled and repudiated The Hague Congress as unrepresentative and improperly conducted. Over two days on 15–16 September 1872 at Saint-Imier, the Anarchist St. Imier International declared itself to be the true heir of the International. The Spanish Regional Federation of the IWA formed the largest national chapter of the anarchist bloc.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: Bakunin's programme was adopted, Marx was implicitly excluded and the anarchist First International ran until 1877, with some early growth in areas like Egypt and Turkey.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The sixth Congress of the Marxist wing of the International was held in Geneva in September 1873, but it was generally considered to be a failure. The Marxist wing hobbled on until it disbanded three years later at the 1876 Philadelphia conference. Attempts to revive the organisation over the next five years failed.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: Since scholarship on the International is heavily shaped by different assessments of the importance and the effects of the Marx–Bakunin conflict, different accounts emphasise different wings of the International and give different dates of its final closure (1876 or 1877).


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The Second International was established in 1889 as a successor. Both anarchists and Marxists were involved in the new body in its early years.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: The International Working People's Association (the so-called Black International), an anarchist International, appeared in 1881, was mainly influential in the United States and Mexico and gradually disappeared after the late 1880s.


title: International Workingmen's Association

text: At a congress in Berlin in 1922, the anarcho-syndicalists decided to re-found the First International as the International Workers' Association, from which the International Confederation of Labour split in 2018.


title: History of Chinese Americans

text: The history of Chinese Americans or the history of ethnic Chinese in the United States includes three major waves of Chinese immigration to the United States, beginning in the 19th century. Chinese immigrants in the 19th century worked in the California Gold Rush of the 1850s and the Central Pacific Railroad in the 1860s. They also worked as laborers in Western mines. They suffered racial discrimination at every level of society. The white people were stirred to anger by the "yellow peril" rhetoric . Despite provisions for equal treatment of Chinese immigrants in the 1868 Burlingame Treaty between the US and China, political and labor organizations rallied against "cheap Chinese labor."