title: Transamerica (film)

text: The film received generally positive reviews. The review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reported that 77% of critics gave "Transamerica" positive reviews, based on 145 reviews, and an average rating of 6.79/10, with the consensus that "a terrific performance by Felicity Huffman carries this unconventional but touching transgender road movie." Metacritic reported the film had an average score of 66 out of 100, based on 37 reviews. Film critic Roger Ebert stated that "Felicity Huffman brings great empathy and tact to her performance as Bree."


title: Transamerica (film)

text: The film was released on DVD on May 23, 2006, in North America. There are no plans for a North American Blu-ray release for it yet. However, the Blu-ray was released in Italy.


title: Transamerica (film)

text: The film is referenced in the comedy film "Knocked Up", when the character of Jason admits that he was attracted to Huffman, stating that ever since he saw "Transamerica", he can't get her out of his mind.


title: Allan Kournikova

text: Allan Kournikova (; born September 22, 2004) is a youth golfer. He won the U.S. Kids Golf European Championships in 2011–2015, and the U.S. Kids Golf World Championships from 2011 to 2013 and in 2015. He was also featured in the 2013 documentary film "The Short Game". He is the half-brother of former professional tennis player Anna Kournikova.


title: Allan Kournikova

text: Allan Kournikova was born in Russia on September 22, 2004, to Alla Kournikova and composer/instrumentalist Baron Michael Moog de Medici.


title: Allan Kournikova

text: When he was eight, Kournikova took classes at Palm Beach Virtual School to allow time for golf training.


title: Allan Kournikova

text: Kournikova won the U.S. Kids Golf European Championships in 2011–2015 and the U.S. Kids Golf World Championships from 2011 to 2013 and in 2015.


title: Allan Kournikova

text: His defense of his title at the 2012 U.S. Kids Golf World Championship was chronicled in the 2013 documentary film "The Short Game."


title: Allan Kournikova

text: In June and August 2013, Kournikova won three consecutive titles in the European and world championships in the division for 8-year-olds. In May 2014, Kournikova won the European championship by 22 strokes. He won the 10-year-old divisions of the 2015 European World Championship and 2015 U.S. Kids World Championship by four strokes and nine strokes, respectively.


title: Allan Kournikova

text: In January 2010, Kournikova's mother, Alla Kournikova, was convicted of third-degree felony child neglect for leaving him at home without supervision while she ran errands. The 5-year-old jumped from a second-floor window and was found wet, crying, bruised and bleeding by a neighbor, who called police. Kournikova was treated at a local hospital.


title: Redfish

text: Redfish is a common name for several species of fish. It is most commonly applied to certain deep-sea rockfish in the genus "Sebastes", red drum from the genus "Sciaenops" or the reef dwelling snappers in the genus "Lutjanus". It is also applied to the slimeheads or roughies (family Trachichthyidae), and the alfonsinos (Berycidae).


title: Lycopodium

text: Lycopodium (from Greek "lykos", wolf and "podion", diminutive of "pous", foot) is a genus of clubmosses, also known as ground pines or creeping cedars, in the family Lycopodiaceae. Two very different circumscriptions of the genus are in use. In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), "Lycopodium" is one of nine genera in the subfamily Lycopodioideae, and has from nine to 15 species. In other classifications, the genus is equivalent to the whole of the subfamily, since it includes all of the other genera. More than 40 species are accepted.


title: Lycopodium

text: They are flowerless, vascular, terrestrial or epiphytic plants, with widely branched, erect, prostrate, or creeping stems, with small, simple, needle-like or scale-like leaves that cover the stem and branches thickly. The leaves contain a single, unbranched vascular strand, and are microphylls by definition. The kidney-shaped (reniform) spore-cases (sporangia) contain spores of one kind only, (isosporous, homosporous), and are borne on the upper surface of the leaf blade of specialized leaves (sporophylls) arranged in a cone-like strobilus at the end of upright stems. The club-shaped appearance of these fertile stems gives the clubmosses their common name.


title: Lycopodium

text: Lycopods reproduce asexually by spores. The plants have an underground sexual phase that produces gametes, and this alternates in the lifecycle with the spore-producing plant. The prothallium developed from the spore is a subterranean mass of tissue of considerable size, and bears both the male and female organs (antheridia and archegonia). They are more commonly distributed vegetatively, though, through above- or below-ground rhizomes.


title: Lycopodium

text: The genus "Lycopodium" was first published by Carl Linnaeus in 1753. He placed it in the Musci (mosses) along with genera such as "Sphagnum", and included species such as "Lycopodium selaginoides", now placed in the genus "Selaginella" in a different order from "Lycopodium". Different sources use substantially different circumscriptions of the genus. Traditionally, "Lycopodium" was considered to be the only extant genus in the family Lycopodiaceae, so includes all the species in the family, although sometimes excluding one placed in the monotypic genus "Phylloglossum". Other sources divide Lycopodiaceae species into three broadly defined genera, "Lycopodium", "Huperzia" (including "Phylloglossum") and "Lycopodiella". In this approach, "Lycopodium" sensu lato has about 40 species. In the Pteridophyte Phylogeny Group classification of 2016 (PPG I), the broadly defined genus is equivalent to the subfamily Lycopodioideae, and "Lycopodium" is one of 16 genera in the family Lycopodiaceae, with between 9 and 15 species.


title: Lycopodium

text: Using the narrow circumscription of "Lycopodium", in which it is one of nine genera in the subfamily Lycopodioideae, the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" recognized the following species :


title: Lycopodium

text: Using the broader circumscription of the genus, "Plants of the World Online" recognized the following additional "Lycopodium" species . Using the narrow circumscription of the genus "Lycopodium", the "Checklist of Ferns and Lycophytes of the World" divided them among eight other genera:


title: Lycopodium

text: "Lycopodium " sp. herb has been used in the traditional Austrian medicine internally as tea or externally as compresses for treatment of disorders of the locomotor system, skin, liver and bile, kidneys and urinary tract, infections, rheumatism, and gout, though claims of efficacy are unproven. It has also been used in some United States government chemical warfare test programs such as Operation Dew. "Lycopodium" powder was also used to determine the molecular size of oleic acid.


title: Exequiel Palacios

text: Exequiel Alejandro Palacios (; born 5 October 1998) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Bundesliga club Bayer Leverkusen and the Argentina national team.


title: Exequiel Palacios

text: Palacios is a youth exponent from Club Atlético River Plate. He made his league debut on 8 November 2015 against Newell's Old Boys.


title: Exequiel Palacios

text: Palacios made his final appearance for his boyhood club in the final of the Copa Argentina on 13 December 2019, playing 79 minutes of a 3–0 victory over Central Córdoba.


title: Exequiel Palacios

text: On 16 December 2019, Bayer Leverkusen announced that Palacios would join the club on 1 January 2020, signing a five-and-a-half year deal.


title: Exequiel Palacios

text: Palacios made his international debut for Argentina on 8 September 2018 in a 3–0 international friendly against the Guatemala national football team.


title: Exequiel Palacios

text: On 12 November 2020, Palacios fractured a bone in his spine during a 1–1 draw with Paraguay in a World Cup qualifier and was expected be out for three months. Palacios sustained the injury in an aerial duel with Angel Romero in the first half of the contest at La Bombonera and was replaced by Giovani Lo Celso, who took the corner from which Nicolas Gonzalez headed home Argentina's equaliser.


title: Exequiel Palacios

text: Palacios initially was noticed by the media in August 2018 with his well publicized relationship with Instagram model Sol Pérez. It quickly became public though that around the same time Palacios and Pérez had started their relationship, Palacios had also begun dating amateur actress, singer, and dancer Juliana Orellano. Both Pérez and Orellano quickly ended their relationship with Palacios after finding out that he was dating the other. There was more drama however as on 21 August it became known that Palacios had been in relationship with a neighborhood friend Karen Gramajo, a manicurist, for four years. All three women angrily took to social media to protest Palacios' disloyalty.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The Douglas F3D Skyknight (later designated F-10 Skyknight) is an American twin-engined, mid-wing jet fighter aircraft manufactured by the Douglas Aircraft Company in El Segundo, California. The F3D was designed as a carrier-based all-weather night fighter and saw service with the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps. The mission of the F3D was to search out and destroy enemy aircraft at night.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The F3D Skyknight was never produced in great numbers but it did achieve many firsts in its role as a night fighter over Korea. While it never achieved the fame of the North American F-86 Sabre, it did down several Soviet-built MiG-15s as a night fighter over Korea with only one air-to-air loss of its own against a Chinese MiG-15, which occurred on the night of 29 May 1953.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The Skyknight played an important role in the development of the radar-guided AIM-7 Sparrow missile which led to further guided air-to-air missile developments. It also served as an electronic warfare platform in the Vietnam War as a precursor to the EA-6A Intruder and EA-6B Prowler. The aircraft is sometimes unofficially called "Skynight", dropping the second "k". The unusual, portly profile earned it the nickname "Willie the Whale". Some Vietnam War U.S. Marine veterans have referred to the Skyknight as "Drut", whose meaning becomes obvious when read backwards. This may be in reference to its age, unflattering looks or its low-slung air intakes that made it vulnerable to foreign object damage (FOD).


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The F3D was not intended to be a typical sleek and nimble dogfighter, but as a standoff night fighter, packing a powerful radar system and a second crew member. It originated in 1945 with a US Navy requirement for a jet-powered, radar-equipped, carrier-based night fighter. The Douglas team led by Ed Heinemann designed around the bulky air intercept radar systems of the time, with side-by-side seating for the pilot and radar operator. The result was an aircraft with a wide, deep, and roomy fuselage. Instead of ejection seats, an escape tunnel was used, similar to the type used in the Douglas A-3 Skywarrior.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The XF3D-1 beat out Grumman Aircraft Engineering Corporation's G-75 two-seat, four-engined, Westinghouse J30-powered night fighter design (similar layout to their Tigercat), and a contract was issued on 3 April 1946. The US Navy's Bureau of Aeronautics (BuAer) also issued a contract to Grumman for two G-75 (BuAer designation XF9F-1) experimental aircraft on 11 April 1946 in case the Skyknight ran into problems. Grumman soon realized that the G-75 was a losing design but had been working on a completely different, single-engined day fighter known as the Grumman G-79 which became the Grumman F9F Panther.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The first flight of the XF3D-1 was on 23 March 1948 at Douglas' El Segundo facility with test pilot Russell Thaw at the controls. Further flight testing followed at El Segundo until October 1948. Three prototypes were then taken to Muroc Air Force Base (later renamed Edwards Air Force Base) for service trials. These units were powered by two Westinghouse J34-WE-24 turbojets of thrust, mounted under the roots of then-standard straight wings of the early jet era. A production contract for 28 F3D-1 J34-WE-32 powered production aircraft was issued in June 1948 with the first production aircraft flying on 13 February 1950.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: As a night fighter that was not expected to be as fast as smaller daylight fighters, the expectation was to have a stable platform for its radar system and the four 20 mm cannon mounted in the lower fuselage. The F3D was, however, able to outturn a MiG-15. The fire control system in the F3D-1 was the Westinghouse AN/APQ-35. The AN/APQ-35 was advanced for the time, a combination of three different radars, each performing separate functions: an AN/APS-21 search radar, an AN/APG-26 tracking radar, both located in the nose, and an AN/APS-28 tail warning radar. The complexity of this vacuum tube-based radar system, which was produced before the advent of semiconductor electronics, required intensive maintenance to keep it operating properly.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The F3D-1 was followed by the F3D-2, which was first ordered in August 1949. The F3D-2 was intended to have Westinghouse J46 engines in enlarged nacelles to replace the J34-WE-32 engines of the F3D-1, but because of development problems with the J46, the F3D-2 was initially fitted with J34-WE-36 engines instead. Higher-thrust J34-WE-38 engines which increased aircraft performance were installed later. The F3D-2 also incorporated an improved Westinghouse AN/APQ-36 fire control system. A total of 237 F3D-2s were built before production ended on 23 March 1952. A higher performance F3D-3 version with swept wings and J46 engines was planned, but was cancelled when the trouble-plagued J46 engine program was terminated.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The 28 F3D-1 aircraft were used primarily to train F3D crews and did not see combat in the Korean War. The F3D-2 Skyknight was only deployed to Korea by USMC land–based squadrons, beginning in September 1952. The Skyknight downed more enemy aircraft in Korea than any other single type of naval aircraft. The first air-to-air victory occurred on the night of 2 November 1952 in a USMC F3D-2 piloted by Major William T. Stratton Jr., and his radar operator, Master Sergeant Hans C. Hoglind of VMF(N)-513 Flying Nightmares, Major Stratton shot down what he believed was a Yakovlev Yak-15 (even though no Yak-15s were reported in Korea) which was the first successful night radar interception by a jet of a jet. The Skyknight claimed its first MiG-15 jet fighter on 8 November 1952, when Captain O.R. Davis and Warrant Officer D.F. "Ding" Fessler downed a MiG-15 northwest of Pyongyang. USMC pilot Lt. Joseph Corvi and his radar operator Sergeant Dan George set another record with the Skyknight on the night of 10 December 1952, when they downed the first aircraft by an aircraft with a radar track and lock-on and without visual contact; they performed the feat by using their radar to lock onto a Polikarpov Po-2 biplane. They were also credited with another probable kill that night.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The number of USMC Skyknights in Korea was doubled in January 1953 to 24 which allowed them to effectively escort B-29 Superfortresses on night bombing missions. On 12 January 1953, an F3D-2 of VMF(N)-513 that was escorting B-29s on a night bombing mission was vectored to a contact and shot down the fourth aircraft by a Skyknight. By the end of the war, Skyknights had claimed six enemy aircraft (one Polikarpov Po-2, one Yakovlev Yak-15 and four MiG-15s). One aircraft was lost to enemy fire, which was piloted by LTJG Bob Bick and his crewman, Chief Petty Officer Linton Smith, on 2 July 1953. This aircraft was with a detachment from Fleet Composite Squadron FOUR (VC-4) at NAS Atlantic City, and was attached to Marine Fighter Squadron 513 (VMF(N)-513). While the Skyknight lacked the swept wings and high subsonic performance of the MiG-15, its powerful fire control system enabled it to find and shoot down other fighters at night, while most MiG-15s could only be guided by ground-based radar.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: After the Korean War, the F3D was gradually replaced by more powerful aircraft with better radar systems. Its career was not over though; its stability and spacious fuselage made it easily adaptable to other roles. The F3D (under the designations F3D-1M and F3D-2M) was used to support development of a number of air-to-air missile systems during the 1950s, including the Sparrow I, II, and III and Meteor missiles. The Sparrow missile was developed at Pacific Missile Test Center and early test firings were conducted at Naval Ordnance Test Station China Lake.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: In 1954, the F3D-2M was the first Navy jet aircraft to be fitted with an operational air-to-air missile: the Sparrow I, an all weather day/night beyond-visual-range missile that used beam riding guidance for the aircrew to control the missile's track. Only 28 aircraft (12 F3D-1Ms, and 16 F3D-2Ms) were modified to use the missiles.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: In the late 1950s, a number of the Marine F3D-2 aircraft were re-configured as electronic warfare aircraft and were designated F3D-2Q (later EF-10B). A few aircraft were also converted for use as trainers and were designated F3D-2T. Some of these aircraft were fitted with a single 10" aerial reconnaissance photography camera, which was mounted in the tail section.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: In 1959, Ed Heinemann proposed that Douglas refurbish retired F3Ds for civil use, envisioning that former military aircraft could be offered at a much lower price than newly designed business jets such as Lockheed JetStar; however, the project was canceled due to the generally poor condition of aircraft then in storage.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: When the U.S. Navy issued a requirement for a fleet defense missile fighter in 1959, Douglas responded with the F6D Missileer, essentially an updated and enlarged F3D that would carry the AAM-N-10 Eagle long-range air-to-air missile, with the most important characteristics being its generous fuel capacity, its considerable time-on-station, a crew of two and sophisticated electronics, rather than speed or maneuverability. This concept which kept the straight wings in an age of supersonic jets was soon cancelled because it would not be able to defend itself against more nimble fighters. The supersonic General Dynamics-Grumman F-111B was subsequently developed to carry long-range missiles, only to be cancelled due to excessive weight and changing tactical requirements; the Grumman F-14 Tomcat would later enter service in this role.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: Skyknights continued in service through the 1960s in a gull white color scheme, when their contemporaries had long since been retired. In 1962, when the U.S. Navy and U.S. Air Force unified their designation systems, the F3D-1 was redesignated F-10A and the F3D-2 was re-designated F-10B.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The Skyknight was the only Korean War jet fighter that also flew in Vietnam. EF-10Bs served in the Electronic warfare role during the Vietnam War until 1969. The large interior provided ample room for electronic equipment. U.S. Marine Marine Composite Reconnaissance Squadron One (VMCJ-1) "Golden Hawks" began operating the EF-10B on 17 April 1965 under Lt. Col Wes Corman at Da Nang Air Base Republic of Vietnam with six aircraft. No more than 10 EF-10Bs were in Vietnam at one time. The Electronic Warfare (EW) Skyknight was a valuable Electronic countermeasure (ECM) asset to jam the SA-2 surface-to-air missiles (SAM) tracking and guidance systems. VMCJ-1 made history when its EF-10Bs conducted the first USMC airborne radar jamming mission on 29 April 1965 to support a USAF strike mission. Four EF-10Bs also supported a massive strike on the SAM sites near Hanoi on 27 July 1965.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: Many U.S. aircraft were lost to SA-2s in Vietnam and the electronic attack on the associated radar systems was known as "Fogbound" missions. The F3D also dropped chaff over the radar sites. The first EF-10B lost in Vietnam was to an SA-2 on 18 March 1966, while four more EF-10Bs were lost in Vietnam to accidents and unknown causes. Their mission was gradually taken over by the more capable EA-6A "Electric Intruder", an Electronic Warfare/Electronic Countermeasures (EW/ECM) variant of the Grumman A-6 Intruder attack bomber. The EF-10B Skyknight continued to fly lower–threat EW missions until they were withdrawn from South Vietnam in October 1969. The U.S. Navy's EKA-3 Skywarrior and the USAF's Douglas RB-66 Destroyer also took on EW missions.


title: Douglas F3D Skyknight

text: The U.S. Navy continued to use the F-10s for avionics systems testing. The F-10 was used as a radar testbed to develop the APQ-72 radar. The nose of an F-4 Phantom was added to the front of an F-10B. Another F-10 had a modified radome installed by the radar manufacturer Westinghouse. Yet another TF-10B was modified with the nose from an A-4 Skyhawk. In 1968, three Skyknights were transferred to the U.S. Army. These aircraft were operated by the Raytheon Corporation at Holloman AFB where they were used testing at the White Sands Missile Range into the 1980s; they were the last flyable Skyknights.


title: Doxazosin

text: Doxazosin, sold under the brand names Cardura among others, is a medication used to treat symptoms of benign prostatic hyperplasia (enlarged prostate) and hypertension (high blood pressure). For high blood pressure, it is a less preferred option. It is taken by mouth.


title: Doxazosin

text: Common side effects include dizziness, sleepiness, swelling, nausea, shortness of breath, and abdominal pain. Severe side effects may include low blood pressure with standing, an irregular heart beat, and priapism. It is a α-selective adrenergic blocker in the quinazoline class of compounds.


title: Doxazosin

text: Doxazosin was patented in 1977 and came into medical use in 1988. It is available as a generic medication. In 2020, it was the 209th most commonly prescribed medication in the United States, with more than 2million prescriptions.


title: Doxazosin

text: Doxazosin is usually added to other antihypertensive therapy such as calcium channel antagonists, diuretics, beta-adrenoreceptor antagonists, angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin-2 receptor blockers.


title: Doxazosin

text: Doxazosin is generally considered to be safe, well tolerated and effective as an add-on antihypertensive drug.


title: Doxazosin

text: Like other alpha-1 receptor antagonists, it has a role in the peri-operative management of pheochromocytoma.


title: Doxazosin

text: Doxazosin is considered to be effective in reducing urinary symptom scores and improving peak urinary flow in men with benign prostatic hypertrophy.


title: Doxazosin

text: The Antihypertensive and Lipid Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT) study stopped its arm of the trial looking at alpha blockers, because doxazosin was less effective than a simple diuretic, and because patients on doxazosin had a 25% higher rate of cardiovascular disease and twice the rate of congestive heart failure as patients on diuretics. Pfizer, aware of the results before publication, launched a marketing campaign in early 2000, and sales were largely unaffected, despite the dangers highlighted by the study.


title: NATO Medal

text: The NATO Medal is an international military decoration which is awarded to various militaries of the world under the authority of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). It is manufactured by Eekelers-Centini Intl, of Hemiksem, Belgium.


title: NATO Medal

text: The NATO Medal was first established in 1996 to recognize individuals who had served in the Implementation Force (IFOR) as part of Operation Joint Endeavor in Former Yugoslavia. A new ribbon was established in 1999 for participants in Operation Allied Force in Kosovo. As NATO operations became more common, different ribbons were established for each operation.


title: NATO Medal

text: In early 2003 NATO settled on only three ribbon styles - one for the NATO Meritorious Service Medal, one for Article 5 operations, and one for non-Article 5 operations. Participation in specific operations is distinguished by bars worn on the ribbons with the name of the operation. This change affects those who began a tour of duty after 2 December 2002. As a result, an individual who began his or her tour of duty in one of the Balkan NATO operational areas after 2 December 2002 will qualify only for the Non-Article 5 medal for the Balkans.


title: NATO Medal

text: United States Armed Forces regulations do not permit the wearing of operation bars on the NATO Medal ribbon. Instead, the recipient wears the ribbon without a bar attached to it. In the event that a US service member is entitled to more than one NATO medal, they wear the ribbon of the first NATO medal they received and the appropriate number of bronze service stars to indicate the number of NATO medals they have been awarded. For example - a service member who served in Former Yugoslavia, Kosovo and ISAF in Afghanistan would wear the Former Yugoslavia ribbon with two bronze service stars.


title: NATO Medal

text: In contrast, the Armed Forces of the United Kingdom permit a service member to wear all the NATO medals they are entitled to, provided that the operation the NATO Medal is awarded for is not recognized by another medal awarded by the United Kingdom.


title: NATO Medal

text: There are currently fourteen versions of the NATO Medal in existence, for service in the former Yugoslavia, Kosovo, North Macedonia, two for service during Article 5 operations (Eagle Assist, Active Endeavour), and eight for Non-Article 5 NATO operations (International Security Assistance Force Afghanistan (ISAF), Resolute Support, Balkans, NATO Training Mission-Iraq (NTM-I), Africa, AMIS, OUP-Libya, and Pakistan). In addition, there are corresponding clasps for operations such as ISAF, Kosovo, the former Yugoslavia, NTM-I, and clasps designating Article 5, and Non-Article 5 designations. There is also a NATO Meritorious Service Medal, with a "Meritorious Service" clasp as well. However, U.S. military personnel do not wear the clasps on the NATO Medals, since the U.S. has its own devices that are used instead.


title: NATO Medal

text: The NATO Meritorious Service Medal (MSM) was first awarded in 2003 to commend NATO staff whose personal initiative and dedication went beyond their duty to make a difference both to their colleagues, and to NATO as an organisation. The Medal is the personal award of the Secretary General of NATO, who signs each citation. Although authorized up to 150, fewer medals are awarded each year and it remains the only significant award for individual personal effort for NATO staff; this Medal can be awarded to military and civilian staff alike. When assessing nominations for the award, there are several criteria taken into consideration: the performance of acts of courage in difficult or dangerous circumstances; showing exceptional leadership or personal example; making an outstanding individual contribution to a NATO sponsored programme or activity; or enduring particular hardship or deprivation in the interest of NATO. The NATO Meritorious Service Medal is now authorized for wear on U.S., Canadian and British military uniforms.


title: NATO Medal

text: For Canadian and U.S. military members, the NATO MSM is considered a foreign personal decoration and would be placed in the order of receipt within that category, followed by foreign unit awards, then non-U.S. service and campaign awards (such as the standard NATO Medal). This arrangement may lead to some U.S. military personnel with the NATO MSM separated by the United Nations Medal from the standard NATO Medal. As it is a personal foreign decoration, the NATO MSM is the only NATO medal that can be worn concurrently with the standard NATO Medal.


title: NATO Medal

text: To differentiate between the versions of the NATO Medal, a different ribbon pattern scheme is used for each of the decorations. The NATO Medal for Yugoslavia service consists of a blue ribbon with two thin white stripes on each side, very similar in appearance to the United Nations Medal. The NATO Medal for Kosovo service appears as a mixed blue and white stripped ribbon, with white stripes on the side as well as a wide white central stripe. The NATO Medal for North Macedonia service appears as a blue and white mixed ribbon with four white stripes. The Article 5 NATO Medal for Operation Eagle Assist has a blue background with a thin central golden stripe surrounded by white stripes. The Article 5 Medal for Operation Active Endeavour has a blue background with two thin golden colored stripes surrounded by white stripes. The Non-Article 5 Medal for the Balkans operations consists of a blue background with a central silver stripe surrounded by white stripes. The Non-Article 5 Medal for both ISAF and NTM-I operations consists of a blue background with two silver stripes surrounded by white stripes.


title: NATO Medal

text: The NATO Meritorious Service Medal consists of a blue background with gold, silver and three narrow white stripes on each outer most portion of the ribbon, and the medallion color is changed from bronze in appearance to a silver medallion for this medal only. All medals except North Macedonia's NATO Medal have corresponding campaign clasps, however some militaries (such as the United States) prohibit the wearing of the medal with a clasp and instead authorize service stars for wear on any NATO Medal while wearing any US military uniform (although the various clasps may be accepted from NATO and retained by the service member as a memento).


title: NATO Medal

text: For the U.S. military, a bronze service star indicates additional awards of the service and mission-related NATO Medals. As of May 2013, only the NATO MSM ribbon bar (as a personal foreign decoration) and the basic NATO ribbon (as a non-US service and campaign medal) may be worn for U.S. services (at least this is true for the U.S. Army). The basic NATO Medal ribbon bar worn will be the first NATO campaign medal awarded, with subsequent campaigns indicated with a bronze service star. Most military services besides the U.S. will allow multiple service and mission-related NATO medal decorations to be worn simultaneously as they are considered separate awards.


title: NATO Medal

text: NATO medals authorized for wear include the NATO Medal for Former Yugoslavia, the NATO Medal for Kosovo Service, both of the Article 5 Medals, the Non-Article 5 medals for the Balkans and Afghanistan (ISAF), The NATO Meritorious Service Medal and the North Macedonia NATO Medal and the Non-Article 5 Medal for service in Iraq, under the NTM-I.


title: NATO Medal

text: The reverse of the medals state "IN SERVICE OF PEACE AND FREEDOM" in English and French, as well as the full name of NATO in English and French. The ribbon bar and suspension bar are both chiefly blue, specifically Reflex Blue on the Pantone Matching System.


title: NATO Medal

text: For U.S. forces, eligibility for the Non-Article 5 Medal for the Balkans remains the same as those previous NATO medals with the exception of the dates of service. Those members entering the Balkan theatre on or after 1 January 2003 will be eligible for the Non-Article 5 medal. The service must be 30 days either continuous or accumulated. Aircrew members will accumulate one day of service for the first sortie during any day of the operation. Additional sorties on the same day will receive no further credit. The Balkans area is delineated as the political boundaries and airspace of Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Yugoslavia (including Kosovo), the Republic of North Macedonia, and Albania, based on the detailed description contained in the SFOR, KFOR, and Task Force Fox Operational Plans. Service members who are entitled to more than one NATO medal during the same period will only be awarded one NATO Medal. The NATO chain of command will deem which medal is appropriate. This medal may also be awarded with the "ISAF" clasp for service in Afghanistan, as well as the "NTM-I" clasp for service in Iraq with NATO forces.


title: NATO Medal

text: For U.S. forces the eligibility for the Non-Article 5 Medal for service with the ISAF is thus: those who are members of units or staffs as set out in the Joint Operations Area taking part in operations in Afghanistan. The area of eligibility is delineated by ISAF's political boundaries. The service must be a minimum of 30 days either continuous or accumulated, from 1 June 2003 to 31 December 2014. Effective 1 January 2015, service members receive the Non-Article 5 Medal for service in Afghanistan for the Resolute Support mission. The medal is awarded with the "Afghanistan" clasp. The British government does not allow its personnel to accept or wear the medal, as a separate British Operational Service Medal for Afghanistan has been issued and, due to a long-standing ruling, British personnel are not allowed to wear two medals for the same campaign or operation. NATO campaign medals where a British decoration has not been issued, such as the award for Operation Unified Protector, may be worn.


title: NATO Medal

text: On 24 July 2012, the United States Department of Defense announced that NATO medals for operations in Libya and Africa have been approved for acceptance and wear by eligible U.S. service members and DOD civilian personnel.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya (18 November 1888 – 28 February 1989) was an Indian yoga teacher, ayurvedic healer and scholar. He is seen as one of the most important gurus of modern yoga, and is often called "the father of modern yoga" for his wide influence on the development of postural yoga. Like earlier pioneers influenced by physical culture such as Yogendra and Kuvalayananda, he contributed to the revival of hatha yoga.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya held degrees in all the six Vedic "darśanas", or Indian philosophies. While under the patronage of the King of Mysore, Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV, Krishnamacharya traveled around India giving lectures and demonstrations to promote yoga, including such feats as apparently stopping his heartbeat. He is widely considered as the architect of "vinyāsa", in the sense of combining breathing with movement; the style of yoga he created has come to be called Viniyoga or Vinyasa Krama Yoga. Underlying all of Krishnamacharya's teachings was the principle "Teach what is appropriate for an individual." While he is revered in other parts of the world as a yogi, in India Krishnamacharya is mainly known as a healer who drew from both ayurvedic and yogic traditions to restore health and well-being to those he treated. He wrote four books on yoga—"Yoga Makaranda" (1934), "Yogaasanagalu" (c. 1941), "Yoga Rahasya", and "Yogavalli" (Chapter 1 – 1988)—as well as several essays and poetic compositions.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya's students included many of yoga's most renowned and influential teachers: Indra Devi (1899–2002); K. Pattabhi Jois (1915–2009); B. K. S. Iyengar (1918-2014); his son T. K. V. Desikachar (1938-2016); Srivatsa Ramaswami (born 1939); and A. G. Mohan (born 1945). Iyengar, his brother-in-law and founder of Iyengar Yoga, credits Krishnamacharya with encouraging him to learn yoga as a boy in 1934.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya was born on 18 November 1888 in Muchukundapura, situated in the Chitradurga district of present-day Karnataka, in South India, to an orthodox Iyengar family. His first language was Telugu, which means that according to Telugu name style, "Tirumalai" is the family name, which is usually abbreviated, and "Krishnamacharya" the significant given name. His parents were Sri Tirumalai Srinivasa Tatacharya, a well-known teacher of the Vedas, and Shrimati Ranganayakiamma. Krishnamacharya was the eldest of six children. He had two brothers and three sisters. At the age of six, he underwent upanayana. He then began learning to speak and write Sanskrit, from texts such as the "Amarakosha" and to chant the Vedas under the strict tutelage of his father.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: When Krishnamacharya was ten, his father died, and the family had to move to Mysore, at the time largest city in Karnataka, where his great-grandfather, Sri Srinivasa Brahmatantra Parakala Swami, was the head of the Parakala Math.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya spent much of his youth traveling through India studying the six "darśana" or Indian philosophies: "vaiśeṣika", "nyāya", "sāṃkhya", "yoga", "mīmāṃsā" and "vedānta". In 1906, at the age of eighteen, Krishnamacharya left Mysore to attend university at Banaras, also known as Vārānasī, a city of hundreds of temples and a highly regarded North Indian center of traditional learning. While at university, he studied logic and Sanskrit, working with Brahmashri Shivakumar Shastry, "one of the greatest grammarians of the age". He also learned the Mimamsa from Brahmasri Trilinga Rama Shastri.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: In 1914, he once again left for Banaras to attend classes at Queens College, where he eventually earned a number of teaching certificates. During the first year he had little or no financial support from his family. In order to eat, he followed the rules that were laid down for religious beggars: he was to approach only seven households each day and offer a prayer "in return for wheat flour to mix with water for cakes". Krishnamacharya eventually left Queens College to study the "ṣaḍdarśana" (six darshanas) in Vedic philosophy at Patna University, in Bihar, a state in eastern India. He received a scholarship to study Ayurveda under Vaidya Krishnakumar of Bengal.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya claimed that he was invited to the coronation of the Rajah of Dikkanghat (a principality within Darbhanga), at which he defeated a scholar called Bihari Lal in a debate, and received rewards and honors from the Rajah. He stated that his stay in Banaras lasted 11 years. He further claimed that he studied with the yoga master Sri Babu Bhagavan Das and passed the Samkhya Yoga Examination of Patna, and that many of his instructors recognized his outstanding abilities in yoga, some asking that he teach their children.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya told his pupils, including Iyengar, "an imagined history, it turns out, of thousands of asanas". Mark Singleton and Tara Fraser note that he provided contradictory descriptions of the facts of his own life, sometimes denying tales he had told earlier, and sometimes mischievously adding new versions. According to one such tale, recounted by Mohan, during the vacations, which would last about three months, Krishnamacharya made pilgrimages into the Himalayas. Krishnamacharya claimed in his "Yoga Makaranda" that at the suggestion of Gaṅgānāth Jhā, he sought to further his yoga studies by seeking a master named Yogeshwara Ramamohana Brahmachari, who was rumored to live in the mountains beyond Nepal and had supposedly mastered 7000 asanas. For this venture, Krishnamacharya had to obtain the permission of the Viceroy in Simla, Lord Irwin, who was then suffering from diabetes. At the request of the Viceroy, Krishnamacharya travelled to Simla and taught him yogic practices for six months. The viceroy's health improved and he developed respect and affection for Krishnamacharya. In 1919, the Viceroy made arrangements for Krishnamacharya's travel to Tibet, supplying three aides and taking care of the expenses. After two and a half months of walking, Krishnamacharya arrived at Sri Brahmachari's school, supposedly a cave at the foot of Mount Kailash, where the master lived with his wife and three children. Under Brahmachari's tutelage, Krishnamacharya claimed to have spent seven and a half years studying the "Yoga Sūtras" of Patañjali, learning asanas and pranayama, and studying the therapeutic aspects of yoga. He was supposedly made to memorize the whole of the "Yoga Korunta" in the Gurkha language, though no evidence of that text exists. As tradition holds, at the end of his studies with the guru, Krishnamacharya asked what his payment would be. The master responded that Krishnamacharya was to "take a wife, raise children and be a teacher of Yoga".


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: According to the tale, Krishnamacharya then returned to Varanasi. The Maharajah of Jaipur called him to serve as principal of the Vidyā Śālā in Jaipur; but as he did not like being answerable to many people, Krishnamacharya shortly returned to Varanasi. In accordance with his guru's wish that he live the life of a householder, Krishnamacharya married Namagiriamma in 1925. After his marriage, Krishnamacharya was forced by circumstance to work in a coffee plantation in the Hasan district. It was after a lecture on the Upanishads in Mysore town hall in 1931 that he attracted the attention as a learned scholar that eventually led to his employment at the palace.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: In 1926, the Maharaja of Mysore, Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV (1884–1940) was in Varanasi to celebrate his mother's 60th birthday and heard about Krishnamacharya's learning and skill as a yoga therapist. The Maharaja met Krishnamacharya and was so impressed by the young man's demeanor, authority, and scholarship that he engaged Krishnamacharya to teach him and his family. Initially, Krishnamacharya taught yoga at the Mysore Palace. He soon became a trusted advisor of the Maharajah, and was given the recognition of Asthana Vidwan — the intelligentsia of the palace.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: During the 1920s, Krishnamacharya held many demonstrations to stimulate popular interest in yoga. These included suspending his pulse, stopping cars with his bare hands, performing difficult asanas, and lifting heavy objects with his teeth. The Palace archive records show that the Maharaja was interested in the promotion of yoga and continually sent Krishnamacharya around the country to give lectures and demonstrations.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: In 1931, Krishnamacharya was invited to teach at the Sanskrit College in Mysore. The Maharaja, who felt that yoga had helped cure his many ailments, asked Krishnamacharya to open a yoga school under his patronage and was subsequently given the wing of a nearby palace, the Jaganmohan Palace, to start the Yogashala, an independent yoga institution, which opened on 11 August 1933.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: In 1934, he wrote the book "Yoga Makaranda" ("Essence of Yoga"), which was published by Mysore University. In the introduction to "Yoga Makaranda", Krishnamacharya lists the "Sritattvanidhi", a 19th-century treatise containing a yoga section by Maharaja of Mysore, Krishnaraja Wodeyar III (1794–1868) as one of the sources for his book. In "The Yoga Tradition of the Mysore Palace", Norman Sjoman asserts that Krishnamacharya was influenced by the "Sritattvanidhi" and by the "Vyayama Dipika", a Western-based gymnastics manual written by the Mysore Palace gymnasts. Mark Singleton argues that he was influenced by the 20th century yoga pioneers Yogendra and Kuvalayananda, and that all three "seamlessly incorporate[d] elements of physical culture into their systems of 'yoga'."


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya, unlike earlier yoga gurus such as Yogendra, "severely criticized his students" including his young brother-in-law, B. K. S. Iyengar. He was equally bad-tempered at home with his family. In the view of the historian of yoga Elliott Goldberg, Iyengar "would never recover from or anywhere near comprehend the damage inflicted on him by Krishnamacharya's abuse" during his teenage years.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: In 1940, Krishna Raja Wadiyar IV died. His nephew and successor, Jayachamarajendra Wadiyar (1919–1974), less interested in yoga, no longer provided support for publishing texts and sending teams of teachers to surrounding areas. Following political changes in 1946, around the time that India gained independence, a new government came into being and the powers of the maharajas were curtailed. Funding for the yoga school was cut off, and Krishnamacharya struggled to maintain the school. At the age of 60 (1948), Krishnamacharya was forced to travel extensively to find students and provide for his family. The yogashala in Mysore was ordered to be closed by K.C. Reddy, the first Chief Minister of Mysore State, and the school eventually closed in 1950.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: After leaving Mysore, Krishnamacharya moved to Bangalore for a couple of years and then was invited in 1952 to relocate to Madras (now Chennai), by a well-known lawyer who sought Krishnamacharya's help in healing from a stroke. By now, Krishnamacharya was in his sixties, and his reputation for being a strict and intimidating teacher had mellowed somewhat. In Madras, Krishnamacharya accepted a job as a lecturer at Vivekananda College. He also began to acquire yoga students from diverse backgrounds and in various physical conditions, which required him to adapt his teaching to each student's abilities. For the remainder of his teaching life, Krishnamacharya continued to refine this individualized approach, which came to be known as Viniyoga. Many considered Krishnamacharya a yoga master, but he continued to call himself a student because he felt that he was always "studying, exploring and experimenting" with the practice. Throughout his life, Krishnamacharya refused to take credit for his innovative teachings but instead attributed the knowledge to his guru or to ancient texts. Although his knowledge and teaching has influenced yoga throughout the world, Krishnamacharya never left his native India. "Yoga Journal" wrote:


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: By developing and refining different approaches, Krishnamacharya made yoga accessible to millions around the world.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya was a physician of Ayurvedic medicine. He "possessed enormous knowledge of nutrition, herbal medicine, the use of oils, and other remedies". Krishnamacharya's custom as an Ayurvedic practitioner was to begin with a detailed examination to determine the most efficient path to take for a patient. According to Krishnamacharya, even though the source or focus of a disease is in a particular area of the body, he assumed that many other systems in the body, both mental and physical, would also be affected. At some point during or after an initial examination, Krishnamacharya would ask if the patient was willing to follow his guidance. This question was important to a patient's treatment, because Krishnamacharya felt that if the person could not trust him fully there was little chance of his or her being healed.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Once a person began seeing Krishnamacharya, he would work with him or her on a number of levels including adjusting their diet; creating herbal medicines; and setting up a series of yoga postures that would be most beneficial. When instructing a person on the practice of yoga, Krishnamacharya particularly stressed the importance of combining breath work (pranayama) with the postures (asanas) of yoga and meditation (dhyana) to reach the desired goal.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya "believed Yoga to be India's greatest gift to the world." His yoga instruction reflected his conviction that yoga could be both a spiritual practice and a mode of physical healing. His style of yoga is now known as Vinyasa Krama Yoga. Krishnamacharya based his teachings on the "Yoga Sutras" of Patanjali and the "Yoga Yajnavalkya". Whereas Krishnamacharya was deeply devoted to Vaishnavism, he also respected his students' varying religious beliefs, or nonbeliefs. A former student recalls that while leading a meditation, Krishnamacharya instructed students to close their eyes and "think of God. If not God, the sun. If not the sun, your parents." As a result of the teachings he received from his father and other instructors, Krishnamacharya approached every student as "absolutely unique", in the belief that the most important aspect of teaching yoga was that the student be "taught according to his or her individual capacity at any given time". For Krishnamacharya, the path of yoga meant different things for different people, and each person ought to be taught in a manner that he or she understood clearly.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya's students included many of 20th century yoga's most renowned and influential teachers: Indra Devi; K. Pattabhi Jois; B. K. S. Iyengar; T. K. V. Desikachar; Srivatsa Ramaswami; and A. G. Mohan (born 1945).


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: Krishnamacharya was highly regarded as a scholar. He earned degrees in philosophy, logic, divinity, philology, and music. He was twice offered the position of Acharya in the Srivaishnava sampradaya, but he declined in order to stay with his family, in accordance with his guru's wishes.


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: He also had extensive knowledge of orthodox Hindu rituals. His scholarship in various darshanas of orthodox Indian philosophy earned him titles such as "Sāṃkhya-yoga-śikhāmaṇi", "Mīmāṃsā-ratna", "Mīmāṃsā-thīrtha", "Nyāyācārya", "Vedāntavāgīśa", "Veda-kesari" and "Yogācārya".


title: Tirumalai Krishnamacharya

text: One of Krishnamacharya's most distinctive teachings was about kuṇḍalinī. To him, kuṇḍalinī is not an energy that rises. Rather, it is a blockage that prevents prāṇa (breath) from rising.


title: Major League Baseball Rookie of the Year Award

text: In Major League Baseball, the Rookie of the Year Award is given annually to two outstanding rookie players, one each for the American League (AL) and National League (NL), as voted on by the Baseball Writers' Association of America (BBWAA). The award was established in 1940 by the Chicago chapter of the BBWAA, which selected an annual winner from 1940 through 1946. The award became national in 1947; Jackie Robinson, the Brooklyn Dodgers' second baseman, won the inaugural award. One award was presented for all of MLB in 1947 and 1948; since 1949, the honor has been given to one player each in the NL and AL. Originally, the award was known as the J. Louis Comiskey Memorial Award, named after the Chicago White Sox owner of the 1930s. The award was renamed the Jackie Robinson Award in July 1987, 40 years after Robinson broke the baseball color line.


text: Seventeen players have been elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame—Robinson, six AL players, and ten others from the NL. The award has been shared twice: once by Butch Metzger and Pat Zachry of the NL in 1976; and once by John Castino and Alfredo Griffin of the AL in 1979. Members of the Brooklyn and Los Angeles Dodgers have won the most awards of any franchise (with 18), twice the total of the New York Yankees, and members of the Philadelphia and Oakland Athletics (eight), who have produced the most in the AL. Fred Lynn and Ichiro Suzuki are the only two players who have been named Rookie of the Year and Most Valuable Player in the same year, and Fernando Valenzuela is the only player to have won Rookie of the Year and the Cy Young Award in the same year. Sam Jethroe is the oldest player to have won the award, at age 32, 33 days older than 2000 winner Kazuhiro Sasaki (also 32). Julio Rodríguez of the Seattle Mariners and Michael Harris II of the Atlanta Braves are the most recent winners.


text: From 1947 through 1956, each BBWAA voter used discretion as to who qualified as a rookie. In 1957, the term was first defined as someone with fewer than 75 at-bats or 45 innings pitched in any previous Major League season. This guideline was later amended to 90 at-bats, 45 innings pitched, or 45 days on a Major League roster before September 1 of the previous year. The current standard of 130 at-bats, 50 innings pitched or 45 days on the active roster of a Major League club (excluding time in military service or on the injury list) before September 1 was adopted in 1971.


text: Since 1980, each voter names three rookies: a first-place choice is given five points, a second-place choice three points, and a third-place choice one point. The award goes to the player who receives the most overall points. Edinson Vólquez received three second-place votes in 2008 balloting despite no longer being a rookie under the award's definition.


text: The award has drawn criticism in recent years because several players with experience in Nippon Professional Baseball (NPB) have won the award, such as Hideo Nomo in 1995, Kazuhiro Sasaki in 2000, Ichiro Suzuki in 2001, and Shohei Ohtani in 2018. The current definition of rookie status for the award is based only on Major League experience, but some feel that past NPB players are not true rookies because of their past professional experience. Others, however, believe it should make no difference since the first recipient and the award's namesake played for the Negro leagues before his MLB career and thus could also not be considered a "true rookie". This issue arose in 2003 when Hideki Matsui narrowly lost the AL award to Ángel Berroa. Jim Souhan of the "Minneapolis Star Tribune" said he did not see Matsui as a rookie in 2003 because "it would be an insult to the Japanese league to pretend that experience didn't count." "The Japan Times" ran a story in 2007 on the labeling of Daisuke Matsuzaka, Kei Igawa, and Hideki Okajima as rookies, saying "[t]hese guys aren't rookies." Past winners such as Jackie Robinson, Don Newcombe, and Sam Jethroe had professional experience in the Negro leagues.


text: Only the Arizona Diamondbacks have never had a player win the Rookie of the Year Award. The Brooklyn/Los Angeles Dodgers have won more than any other team with 18.


title: Tree frog

text: A tree frog (or treefrog) is any species of frog that spends a major portion of its lifespan in trees, known as an arboreal state. Several lineages of frogs among the Neobatrachia have given rise to treefrogs, although they are not closely related to each other.


title: Tree frog

text: Millions of years of convergent evolution have resulted in very similar morphology even in species that are not very closely related.


title: Tree frog

text: Furthermore, tree frogs in seasonally arid environments have adapted an extra-epidermal layer of lipid and mucus as an evolutionary convergent response to accommodate the periodic dehydration stress.


title: Tree frog

text: As the name implies, these frogs are typically found in trees or other high-growing vegetation. They do not normally descend to the ground, except to mate and spawn, though some build foam nests on leaves and rarely leave the trees at all as adults.


title: Tree frog

text: Tree frogs are usually tiny as their weight has to be carried by the branches and twigs in their habitats. While some reach 10 cm (4 in) or more, they are typically smaller and more slender than terrestrial frogs. Tree frogs typically have well-developed discs at the finger and toe tips; the fingers and toes themselves, as well as the limbs, tend to be rather small, resulting in a superior grasping ability. The genus "Chiromantis" of the Rhacophoridae is most extreme in this respect: it can oppose two fingers to the other two, resulting in a vise-like grip.


title: Waseem Abbas

text: Waseem Abbas () is a Pakistani television, film actor and director. He is known for his roles in television dramas for PTV and other networks, including "Samundar", "Raat", "Ashiyana", "Family Front", "Landa Bazar", and "Din".


title: Waseem Abbas

text: Waseem Abbas is the son of singer and actor Inayat Hussain Bhatti. His uncle Kaifee (real name Kifayat Hussain Bhatti) was also an actor and director. He started his career as a TV actor in Lahore.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: The Bangladeshi diaspora () are people of Bangladeshi birth or descent who live outside of Bangladesh. First-generation migrants may have moved abroad from Bangladesh for various reasons including better living conditions, to escape poverty, to support their financial condition, or to send money back to families there. The Ministry of Expatriates' Welfare and Overseas Employment estimates there are 13 million Bangladeshis living abroad, the fourth highest among the top 20 countries of origin for international migrants. Annual remittances transferred to Bangladesh were almost $22.1 billion in 2021, the seventh highest in the world and the third highest in South Asia.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: There is a large Bangladeshi population in Saudi Arabia. There are also significant migrant communities in various Arab states of the Persian Gulf, particularly the United Arab Emirates and Oman, where Bangladeshis are mainly classified as foreign workers. The United Kingdom is home to the largest Bangladeshi community in Europe. British Bangladeshis are mainly concentrated in London boroughs such as (Tower Hamlets and Newham); the migration to Britain is mainly attributed with chain migration from the Sylhet Division. In addition to the UK and the Middle East, Bangladeshis also have a significant presence in the United States. Other countries where there are significant Bangladeshi communities include Malaysia, South Africa, Singapore, Italy, Canada, and Australia. The majority of the Bangladeshi diaspora are Muslim, with a significant Hindu minority.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: According to the Maldivian foreign ministry; some 50,000 Bangladeshi were working in there in 2011, a nation of only around 400,000 people, with a third having no valid documents or registration.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: Bangladeshis in the Middle East form the largest part of the worldwide Bangladeshi diaspora. Between 2.3 million and 2.9 million live within the Middle East.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: More than two million are in Saudi Arabia. The United Arab Emirates is home to 706,000. Oman has about 680,242 Bangladeshis as of 2018. There is a Bangladeshi school in the city of Muscat, in Oman, called Bangladesh School Muscat. Qatar has about 400,000 Bangladeshis as of 2019. There is aBangladeshi school in Doha called Bangladesh MHM School & College. Bangladeshis in Qatar make more than 14% of the Qatar population. Kuwait has about 350,000 Bangladeshis as of 2020. Bahrain has about 180,000 Bangladeshis as of 2017.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: The introduction of Islam to the Bengali people has generated a connection to the Arabian Peninsula, as Muslims are required to visit the land once in their lifetime to complete the Hajj pilgrimage. Several Bengali sultans funded Islamic institutions in the Hejaz, which popularly became known by the Arabs as Bangali Madaris. It is unknown when Bengalis began settling in Arab lands though an early example is that of Haji Shariatullah's teacher "Mawlana Murad", who was permanently residing in the city of Mecca in the early 1800s.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: There are 706,000 Bangladeshis residing in the United Arab Emirates as of 2020. There is one Bangladeshi school in UAE called Shaikh Khalifa Bin Zayed Bangladesh Islamia School in Abu Dhabi. Bangladeshis make up around 7% of the UAE population and are 4th largest community in the UAE.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: In South Korea, there are more than 12,678 Bangladeshi foreign workers in the country as of 2013. A few of them include illegal immigrants. The 2009 Korean film "Bandhobi", directed by Sin Dong-il, depicts a Bangladeshi migrant in South Korea.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: form one of the smaller populations of foreigners in Japan. As of 2010, Japan's Ministry of Justice recorded 10,175 Bangladeshi nationals among the total population of registered foreigners in Japan.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: The census in 2000 found up to 95,300 were born in Bangladesh. It was until the 1990s when Bangladeshis, many from Dhaka, Chittagong, and Sylhet, started to move to the United States, and settled in urban areas such as New York, Paterson in New Jersey, Philadelphia, Atlantic City, New Jersey and Washington D.C.. Although recent findings claim that Bangladeshis started arriving during the late 19th centuries from the southern part of current Bangladesh. In some parts of Queens and Manhattan in New York City, there are Bangladeshi restaurant owners of Indian restaurants, Pakistani restaurants, and Bangladeshi restaurants. The Baishakhi Mela celebration of the Bengali New Year is also held by the Bangladeshi American communities in New York, Paterson, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Atlantic Cityand other cities annually. The street of 3rd Street, Los Angeles has a large history of Bangladeshis and has officially been dubbed as "Little Bangladesh". However, some Bangladeshis residing in New York have settled in newer areas, such as Hamtramck, Michigan, Buffalo, New York, Paterson, New Jersey, and many other nearby states due to lower living costs and better job opportunities. Many Bangladeshis in New York City are often Taxi Drivers, Fast-Food Chain Workers, Restaurant Workers, software developer, computer scientists, medical doctors, attorneys, accountants, business owners etc. In Atlantic City many work in casinos.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau's 2018 American Community Survey, there were 213,372 people of Bangladeshi origin living in the US.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: Bangladeshi Canadian refers to a person of Bangladeshi background born in Canada or a Bangladeshi that has migrated to Canada. Before 1971 about 150 Bengali people came to Canada as East Pakistani. The main influx of migration of Bangladeshis started in the early 1980s. Back in 1988, about 700 Bangladeshi families lived in Toronto, though about another 900 families were living in Montreal. Now, Toronto has a sizeable Bangladeshi community significantly larger than Montreal's, with over 50,000 in the city proper and over 65,000 in the Greater Toronto Area. Toronto's eastern boroughs of East York and Scarborough on Danforth Avenue have a sizable Bangladeshi population. The area around Danforth east and west of Victoria Park Avenue has many Bangladeshi stores and restaurants. The Crescent Town neighbourhood just north of Danforth, which consists of many high-rise apartment buildings, has primarily a Bengali population. In 2019, a petition was started to rename Danforth Avenue, or at least a part of it, to Bangladesh Avenue. This request was made to honour the large Bangladeshi community that was established there. Under the Investor Category, about 100 families moved to Canada since 2015.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: Bangladeshis in Australia are one of the smallest immigrant communities living in Australia. There are around 41,000 Bangladeshis in Australia. The largest Bangladeshi communities are mainly present in the states of New South Wales and Victoria, with large concentrations in the cities of Sydney and Melbourne.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: Earliest records of Bengalis in the European continent date back to the reign of King George III of England during the 18th century. One such example is of James Achilles Kirkpatrick's "hookah-bardar" (hookah servant/preparer) who was said to have robbed and cheated Kirkpatrick, making his way to England and stylising himself as the "Prince of Sylhet". The man was waited upon by the Prime Minister of Great Britain William Pitt the Younger, and then dined with the Duke of York before presenting himself in front of the King. Mass migration started since the days of the British Raj, where lascars from Sylhet were often sent to the United Kingdom. Some of these lascars lived in the United Kingdom in port cities, and even married British women. Since then, mass migration has occurred, specifically from Sylhet. Today, the British Bangladeshis are a naturalised community in the United Kingdom, running 90% of all South Asian cuisine restaurants and having established numerous ethnic enclaves across the country – most prominent of which is Banglatown in East London.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: The street of Brick Lane in East London, has a large history of Bangladeshis and has officially been dubbed as "Banglatown", and has hundreds of "Indian" restaurants nearly all owned by Sylheti Bangladeshis. Many British Bangladeshis have made their presence in the UK, often becoming doctors, engineers, and lawyers, but also many have become politicians for the Labour party, such as Rushanara Ali, and Tulip Siddiq, as well as London Borough Mayors, such as Lutfur Rahman and Nasim Ali.


title: Bangladeshi diaspora

text: Bangladeshis are one of the largest immigrant populations in Italy. As of 2018, there were 140,000 Bangladeshis living in Italy. Most of the Bangladeshis in Italy are based in Lazio, Lombardy and Veneto with large concentrations in Rome, Milan and Venice.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Edith Madeleine Carroll (26 February 1906 – 2 October 1987) was an English actress, popular both in Britain and America in the 1930s and 1940s. At the peak of her success in 1938, she was the world's highest-paid actress.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll is remembered for her role in Alfred Hitchcock's "The 39 Steps" (1935). She is also noted for largely abandoning her acting career after the death of her sister Marguerite in the London Blitz to devote herself to helping wounded servicemen and children displaced or maimed by the war. She was awarded both the Legion d'Honneur and the Medal of Freedom for her work with the Red Cross.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll was born at 32 Herbert Street (now number 44) in West Bromwich, Staffordshire, daughter of John Carroll, an Irish professor of languages from County Limerick, and Helene, his French wife. She graduated from the University of Birmingham, with a B.A. degree in languages. While at university she appeared in some productions for the Birmingham University Dramatic Society. She was a French mistress at a girls' school in Hove for a year.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll's father opposed her taking up acting, but with her mother’s support she quit teaching and traveled to London to look for stage work. She had won a beauty contest, and got a job in Seymour Hicks' touring company, making her stage debut in 1927 in "The Lash". The following year she made her screen debut in "The Guns of Loos", and then starred alongside Miles Mander in "The First Born", written by Alma Reville. Thence she met Reville's husband, Alfred Hitchcock.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll was the lead in her second film, "What Money Can Buy" (1928) with Humberston Wright. She followed it with "The First Born" (1928) with Miles Mander, which really established her in films. Carroll went to France to make "Not So Stupid" (1928). Back in Britain she starred in "The Crooked Billet" (1929) and "The American Prisoner" (1929), both shot in silent and sound versions. In 1930, she starred in "Atlantic", then co-starred with Brian Aherne in "The W Plan" (1930). In France she was in "Instinct" (1930). On stage, Carroll appeared in "The Roof" (1929) for Basil Dean, "The Constant Nymph", "Mr Pickwick" (opposite Charles Laughton) and an adaptation of "Beau Geste".


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: The same year, Carroll starred in the controversial "Young Woodley" (1930), followed by a farce, "French Leave" (1930). She had a support role in an early adaptation of "Escape" (1930) and was the female lead in "The School for Scandal" (1930) and "Kissing Cup's Race" (1930). Carroll starred as a French aristocrat in "Madame Guillotine" (1931) with Aherne, then did another with Mander, "Fascination" (1931). She was in "The Written Law" (1931), then signed a contract with Gaumont British for whom she made "Sleeping Car" (1932) with Ivor Novello.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: She had a big hit with "I Was a Spy" (1933), which won her an award as best actress of the year. It was directed by Victor Saville. Carroll played the title role in the play "Little Catherine". Abruptly, she announced plans to retire from films to devote herself to a private life with her husband, the first of four. Carroll went to Hollywood to appear in "The World Moves On" (1934) for Fox; John Ford directed and Franchot Tone co starred. Back in England she was in "The Dictator" (1935) for Saville, playing Caroline Matilda of Great Britain.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll attracted the attention of Alfred Hitchcock and in 1935 starred as one of the director's earliest prototypical cool, glib, intelligent blondes in "The 39 Steps". Based on the espionage novel by John Buchan, the film became a sensation and with it so did Carroll. Cited by "The New York Times" for a performance that was "charming and skillful", Carroll became very much in demand. Of Hitchcock heroines as exemplified by Carroll, film critic Roger Ebert wrote: The female characters in his films reflected the same qualities over and over again: They were blonde. They were icy and remote. They were imprisoned in costumes that subtly combined fashion with fetishism. They mesmerised the men, who often had physical or psychological handicaps. Sooner or later, every Hitchcock woman was humiliated.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: The director wanted to re-team Carroll with her "39 Steps" co-star Robert Donat the following year in "Secret Agent", a spy thriller based on a work by W. Somerset Maugham. However, Donat's recurring health problems intervened, resulting in a Carroll–John Gielgud pairing. In between the films she made a short drama "The Story of Papworth" (1935).


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Poised for international stardom, Carroll was the first British beauty to be offered a major American film contract. She accepted a lucrative deal with Paramount Pictures and was cast opposite George Brent in "The Case Against Mrs. Ames" (1936). She followed this with "The General Died at Dawn" (1936), and was borrowed by 20th Century Fox to play the female lead in "Lloyd's of London" (1936) which made a star of Tyrone Power. She stayed at the studio to make "On the Avenue" (1937), a musical with Dick Powell and Alice Faye.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll went to Columbia for "It's All Yours" (1937) then was cast by David O. Selznick as Ronald Colman's love interest in the 1937 box-office success "The Prisoner of Zenda". Walter Wanger put her in "Blockade" (1938) with Henry Fonda, about the Spanish Civil War. Back at Paramount she made some comedies with Fred MacMurray, "Cafe Society" (1939) and "Honeymoon in Bali" (1939). Edward Small gave her top billing in "My Son, My Son!" (1940) with Aherne.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: She starred in "Safari" (1940) then played against Gary Cooper in "North West Mounted Police" (1940), directed by Cecil B. DeMille. Paramount put Carroll opposite MacMurray in "Virginia" (1941) and "One Night in Lisbon" (1941). "Virginia" also starred Sterling Hayden who was reteamed with Carroll in "Bahama Passage" (1941). Carroll was Bob Hope's love interest in "My Favorite Blonde" (1942).


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: On radio, Carroll was a participant in "The Circle" (1939) on NBC, discussing "current events, literature and drama" each week. In 1944, she was the host of "This Is the Story", an anthology series dramatising famous novels on the Mutual Broadcasting System. At the tail end of radio's golden age, Carroll starred in the NBC soap opera "The Affairs of Dr. Gentry" (1957–59). She also was one of a group of four stars who rotated in taking the lead in each week's episode of "The NBC Radio Theater" (1959).


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: In 1948 she made her debut on Broadway as Agatha Reed in Fay Kanin's "Goodbye, My Fancy"; a role later portrayed by Joan Crawford in the 1951 film adaptation.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll returned to Britain after the war. She was in "White Cradle Inn" (1947). She went back to the US and was reunited with MacMurray for "An Innocent Affair" (1948). Her last film was "The Fan" (1949).


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: In 1946, Carroll was awarded France's Legion of Honour for her overseas work, during World War II, liaising between the forces of the United States Army and the French Resistance, and her post-war fostering of amity between France and the United States.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: For her contributions to the film industry, Carroll was inducted into the Hollywood Walk of Fame in 1960 with a motion pictures star located at 6707 Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: A commemorative monument and plaques were unveiled in her birthplace, West Bromwich, to mark the centenary of her birth. Her story is one of rare courage and dedication when at the height of her success she gave up her acting career during World War II to work in the line of fire on troop trains for the Red Cross in Italy after her sister was killed by a German air raid – for which she was awarded the American Medal of Freedom.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll married her first husband, Colonel Philip Reginald Astley, in 1931; they divorced in 1939. He was an estate agent, big-game hunter and soldier. In 1941, she starred opposite Sterling Hayden in "Virginia". The following year they married, divorcing in 1946. After her only sister, Marguerite, was killed in World War II's London Blitz, Carroll made a radical shift from acting to working in field hospitals as a Red Cross nurse. Having become a naturalised US citizen in 1943, she served at the American Army Air Force's 61st Station Hospital in Foggia, Italy, in 1944, where wounded airmen flying out of area's air bases were hospitalised. She earned the rank of captain and received the Medal of Freedom for her nursing service.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll first visited Spain's Costa Brava in 1934. The following year she bought an estate in Calonge, where her seaside home, Castell Madeleine, was constructed. She was prevented from living there by the Spanish Civil War and World War II and moved to Marbella in 1949. The home was later demolished, leaving one tower intact, and a housing development named after it (Urbanización Castell Madeleine). During the war, Carroll donated another property of hers, a château she owned outside Paris, to house more than one hundred and fifty orphans, arranging for groups of young people in California to knit clothing for them. In an RKO-Pathe News bulletin she was filmed at the château with children and staff wearing the donated clothes thanking those who contributed. She was awarded the Légion d'Honneur for her efforts by France. Allied Commander Dwight Eisenhower remarked in private that, of all the movie stars he met in Europe during the war, he was most impressed with Carroll and Herbert Marshall (who worked with military amputees).


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: After the war, Carroll stayed in Europe where she conducted a radio program fostering French-American friendship and helped in the rehabilitation of concentration camp victims, during which she met her future third husband, the French producer Henri Lavorel. In late 1946, she went briefly to Switzerland to film a British film, "White Cradle Inn" (aka "High Fury").


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: On her return to Paris, she and Lavorel formed a production company and made several two-reel documentaries to promote peace, one of which, "Children's Republic", was shown at the Cannes Film Festival. Carroll told the Christian Science Monitor that "wars are started at the top but can be prevented at the bottom, if all men and women will rid themselves of distrust and suspicion of that which is foreign." Filmed in a small orphanage in the town of Sèvres, just southwest of Paris, it focused attention on the devastation of children's lives in Europe caused by war. Widely shown in Canada, it became a prime source of funds for the manufacture of artificial limbs for wounded children.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: In 1947, Carroll returned to the US together with Lavorel. Their intention was for her to resume her acting career, which would fund their production company, but they soon separated. Appearing in three more films until 1949 and debuting on Broadway in 1948, Carroll then mostly retired from acting, although she did occasionally appear on television and radio until the mid-1960s.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: She married Andrew Heiskell, publisher of "Life", in 1950, and they had a daughter Anne Madeleine in 1951. They divorced in 1965. By then, Carroll had moved to Paris. She later moved to Spain, where she shared an estate with her mother and her daughter. Her mother died in 1975 and her daughter, having relocated to New York, died in 1983.


title: Madeleine Carroll

text: Carroll died on 2 October 1987, aged 81, in Marbella, Spain, from pancreatic cancer and is buried in the cemetery of Sant Antoni de Calonge in Catalonia.


title: Chimney sweep

text: A chimney sweep is a person who clears soot and creosote from chimneys. The chimney uses the pressure difference caused by a hot column of gas to create a draught and draw air over the hot coals or wood enabling continued combustion. Chimneys may be straight or contain many changes of direction. During normal operation, a layer of creosote builds up on the inside of the chimney, restricting the flow. The creosote can also catch fire, setting the chimney (and potentially the entire building) alight. The chimney must be swept to remove the soot.


title: Chimney sweep

text: In Great Britain, master sweeps took apprentices, typically workhouse or orphan boys, and trained them to climb chimneys. In the German States, master sweeps belonged to trade guilds and did not use climbing boys. In Italy, Belgium, and France climbing boys were used.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The Tudors in England had established the risk of chimneys and an ordnance was created in 1582 both controlling materials (brick and stone rather than plastered timber) and requiring chimneys to be swept four times per year to prevent the build-up of soot (which is highly flammable). Any chimney fire could be fined 3 shillings and 4 pence.


title: Chimney sweep

text: With the increased urban population that came with the age of industrialisation, the number of houses with chimneys grew apace and the services of the chimney sweep became much sought-after.


title: Chimney sweep

text: Buildings were higher than before and the new chimneys' tops were grouped together. The routes of flues from individual grates could involve two or more right angles and horizontal angled and vertical sections. The flues were made narrow to create a better draught, 14in by 9in (36 × 23 cm) being a common standard. Buckingham Palace had one flue with 15 angles, with the flue narrowing to 9in by 9in (23 × 23 cm). Chimney sweeping was one of the more difficult, hazardous, and low-paying occupations of the era, and consequently has been derided in verse, ballad, and pantomime.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The first mechanical sweeper was invented by George Smart in 1803 but was resisted in the UK and the US. Joseph Glass marketed an improved sweeping machine in 1828; he is credited with being the inventor of the modern chimney sweep's brush. In the northern US, whites gave up the trade and employed black sweep-boys from the South. After regulation finally took hold in 1875 in the UK and the turn of the century in the US, the occupation became romanticized in popular media.


title: Chimney sweep

text: Boys as young as four climbed hot flues that could be as narrow as 81 square inches (9 × 9 inches or 23 × 23 cm). Work was dangerous and they could get jammed in the flue, suffocate or burn to death. As soot is carcinogenic, and as the boys slept under the soot sacks and were rarely washed, they were prone to chimney sweeps' carcinoma. From 1775 onward, there was increasing concern for the welfare of the boys, and Acts of Parliament were passed to restrict, and in 1875 to stop this usage. Lord Shaftesbury, the philanthropist, led the later campaign.


title: Chimney sweep

text: Chimneys started to appear in Britain around 1200 (with the oldest extant example of a chimney in Britain being in the keep of Conisbrough Castle in Yorkshire, dating from 1185 AD), when they replaced the open fire burning in the middle of the one room house. At first there would be one heated room in the building and chimneys would be large. Over the next four hundred years, rooms became specialized and smaller and many were heated. Sea coal started to replace wood, and it deposited a layer of flammable creosote in the inside surface of the flue, and caked it with soot. Whereas before, the chimney was a vent for the smoke, now the plume of hot gas was used to suck air into the fire, and this required narrower flues. Even so, boys rarely climbed chimneys before the Great Fire of London, when building regulations were put in place and the design of chimneys was altered. The new chimneys were often angular and narrow, and the usual dimension of the flue in domestic properties was by . The master sweep was unable to climb into such small spaces himself and employed climbing boys to go up the chimneys to dislodge the soot. The boys often 'buffed it', that is, climbed naked, propelling themselves by their knees and elbows which were scraped raw. They were often put up hot chimneys, and sometimes up chimneys that were alight in order to extinguish the fire. Chimneys with sharp angles posed a particular hazard. These boys were apprenticed to the sweep, and from 1778 until 1875 a series of laws attempted to regulate their working conditions, and many firsthand accounts were documented and published in parliamentary reports. From about 1803, there was an alternative method of brushing chimneys, but sweeps and their clients resisted the change, preferring climbing boys to the new humane sweeping machines. Compulsory education was established in 1870 by the Education Act 1870 but it was a further five years before legislation was put in place to license chimney sweeps and finally prevent boys being sent up chimneys.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The climbing boys, and sometimes girls, were technically called "chimney sweeps' apprentices", and were apprenticed to a "master sweep", who, being an adult, was too large to fit into a chimney or flue. He would be paid by the parish to teach orphans or paupers the craft. They were totally reliant on him: they or their guardians had signed papers of indenture, in front of a magistrate, which bound them to him until they were adults. It was the duty of the Poor Law guardians to apprentice as many children of the workhouse in their care as possible, so as to reduce costs to the parish. The master sweep had duties: to teach the craft and its mysteries, to provide the apprentice with a second suit of clothes, to have him cleaned once a week, allow him to attend church, and not send him up chimneys that were on fire. An apprentice agreed to obey his master. Once his seven-year-long apprenticeship was completed he would become a journeyman sweep, and would continue to work for a master sweep of his choice. Other apprentices were sold on to the sweep, or sold by their parents. Prices ranged from 7 shillings to 4 guineas.


title: Chimney sweep

text: It was generally agreed that six was a good age to train a boy. Though Lord Shaftesbury once encountered one of the age of four, they were considered to be too weak. A master sweep would have many apprentices, who would start the morning by roaming the streets calling out ""Soot -Oh, Sweep"" or another cry to let the house-owners know they were around; this would remind the owners of the dangers of un-swept chimneys. When engaged, the master sweep would fix a cloth over the fireplace, and the climbing boy would take off his boots and any excess clothes, then get behind it. The flue would be as tall as the house and twist several times, and its dimensions would be 14in by 9in. He would pull his cap down over his face and hold a large flat brush over his head, and wedge his body diagonally in the flue. Using his back, elbows, and knees, he would shimmy up the flue in the manner of a caterpillar and use the brush to dislodge loose soot, which would fall over him and down to the bottom, and a scraper to chip away the solid bits, as a smooth chimney was a safe chimney. Having reached the top he would slide back down at speed back to the floor and the soot pile. It was now his job to bag up the soot and carry it back to the master sweep's cart or yard.


title: Chimney sweep

text: Soot was valuable and could be sold for 9d a bushel in 1840. An apprentice would do four or five chimneys a day. When they first started they scraped their knees and elbows, so the master would harden up their skin by standing them close to a hot fire and rubbing in strong brine using a brush. This was done each evening until the skin hardened. The boys got no wages but lived with the master, who fed them. They slept together on the floor or in the cellar under the sacks and the cloth used during the day to catch the soot. This was known as "sleeping black". The boy would be washed by the mistress in a tub in the yard; this might happen as often as once a week, but rarely. One sweep used to wash down his boys in the Serpentine. Another Nottingham sweep insisted they washed three times a year, for Christmas, Whitsun, and the Goose Fair. Sometimes, a boy would need to be persuaded to climb faster or higher up the chimney, and the master sweep would light either a small fire of straw or a brimstone candle, to encourage him to try harder. Another method to stop him from "going off" (asphyxiating) was to send another boy up behind him to prick pins into his buttocks or the soles of his feet.


title: Chimney sweep

text: Chimneys varied in size. The common flue was designed to be one and a half bricks long by one brick wide, though they often narrowed to one brick square, that is by or less. Often the chimney would still be hot from the fire, and occasionally it would actually be on fire. Careless climbing boys could get stuck with their knees jammed against their chins. The harder they struggled the tighter they became wedged. They could remain in this position for many hours until they were pushed out from below or pulled out with a rope. If their struggling caused a fall of soot they would suffocate. Dead or alive, the boy had to be removed and this would be done by removing bricks from the side of the chimney. If the chimney was particularly narrow the boys would be told to "buff it", that is to do it naked; otherwise they just wore trousers and a shirt made from thick rough cotton cloth.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The conditions to which these children were subjected caused concern and societies were set up to promote mechanical means for sweeping chimneys and it is through their pamphlets that we have a better idea of what the job could entail. Here a sweep describes the fate of one boy:


title: Chimney sweep

text: After passing through the chimney and descending to the second angle of the fireplace the Boy finds it completely filled with soot, which he has dislodged from the sides of the upright part. He endeavours to get through, and succeeds in doing so, after much struggling as far as his shoulders; but finding that the soot is compressed hard all around him, by his exertions, that he can recede no farther; he then endeavours to move forward, but his attempts in this respect are quite abortive; for the covering of the horizontal part of the Flue being stone, the sharp angle of which bears hard on his shoulders, and the back part of his head prevents him from moving in the least either one way or the other. His face, already covered with a climbing cap, and being pressed hard in the soot beneath him, stops his breath. In this dreadful condition he strives violently to extricate himself, but his strength fails him; he cries and groans, and in a few minutes he is suffocated. An alarm is then given, a brick-layer is sent for, an aperture is perforated in the Flue, and the boy is extracted, but found lifeless. In a short time an inquest is held, and a Coroner's Jury returns a verdict of "Accidental Death".


title: Chimney sweep

text: These however were not the only occupational hazards that chimney sweeps suffered. In the 1817 report to Parliament, witnesses reported that climbing boys suffered from general neglect, and exhibited stunted growth and deformity of the spine, legs, and arms, which were thought to be caused by being required to remain in abnormal positions for long periods of time before their bones had hardened. The knees and ankle joints were the most affected. Sores and inflammation of the eyelids that could lead to loss of sight, were slow in healing because the boy kept rubbing them. Bruises and burns were obvious hazards of having to work in an overheated environment. Cancer of the scrotum was found only in chimney sweeps so was referred to as Chimney Sweep Cancer in the teaching hospitals. Asthma and inflammation of the chest were attributed to the fact that the boys were out in all weathers.


title: Chimney sweep

text: "Chimney sweeps' carcinoma", which the sweeps called soot wart, did not occur until the sweep was in his late teens or twenties. It has now been identified as a manifestation of "scrotal squamous cell carcinoma". It was reported in 1775 by Sir Percival Pott in climbing boys or chimney sweepers. It is the first industrially related cancer to be found. Potts described it:


title: Chimney sweep

text: It is a disease which always makes it first attack on the inferior part of the scrotum where it produces a superficial, painful ragged ill-looking sore with hard rising edges ... in no great length of time it pervades the skin, dartos and the membranes of the scrotum, and seizes the testicle, which it inlarges ["sic"], hardens and renders truly and thoroughly distempered. Whence it makes its way up the spermatic process into the abdomen.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The fate of these people seems peculiarly hard ... they are treated with great brutality ... they are thrust up narrow and sometimes hot chimnies, ["sic"] where they are bruised burned and almost suffocated; and when they get to puberty they become ... liable to a most noisome, painful and fatal disease.


title: Chimney sweep

text: There were many deaths caused by accidents, frequently caused by the boy becoming jammed in the flue of a heated chimney, where he could suffocate or be burned to death. Sometimes a second boy would be sent to help and, on occasions would suffer the same fate.


title: Chimney sweep

text: In 1788, the Chimney Sweepers Act 1788 (long title: An Act for the Better Regulation of Chimney Sweepers and their Apprentices) was passed, to limit a sweeper to six apprentices, at least 8 years old, but lacked enforcement. It introduced the Apprenticeship Cap badge. The Act had been partially inspired by the interest in climbing boys shown by Jonas Hanway, and his two publications "The State of Chimney Sweepers' Young Apprentices" (1773) and later "Sentimental History of Chimney Sweeps in London and Westminster" (1785). He asserted that while Parliament was exercised with the abolition of slavery in the new world it was ignoring the slavery imposed on climbing boys. He looked to Edinburgh, Scotland, where sweeps were regulated by the police, climbing was not allowed and chimneys were swept by the Master Sweep himself pulling bundles of rags up and down the chimney. He did not see how climbing chimneys could be considered a valid apprenticeship, as the only skill obtained was that of climbing chimneys, which did not lead to future employment. Hanway advocated that Christianity should be brought into the boys' lives and lobbied for Sunday Schools for the boys. The Lords removed the proposed clause that Master Sweeps should be licensed, and before civil registration, there was no way that anyone could check if a child was actually eight.


title: Chimney sweep

text: In the same year, David Porter, a humane master sweep, sent a petition to Parliament, and in 1792 published "Considerations of the Present State of Chimney Sweepers with some Observations on the Act of Parliament intended for their Relief and Regulation". Though concerned for the boys' welfare he believed that boys were more efficient than any of the new mechanical cleaning machines. In 1796 a society was formed for "Bettering the Conditions of the Poor", and they encouraged the reading of Hanway's and Porter's tracts. They had influential members and royal patronage from George III. A Friendly Society for the Protection and Education of Chimney-Sweepers' Boys had been established in 1800.


title: Chimney sweep

text: In 1803, it was thought by some that a mechanical brush could replace a climbing boy (the Human brush), and members of the 1796 society formed "The London Society for Superseding the Necessity for Employing Climbing Boys"; they ascertained that children had now cleaned flues as small as 7in by 7in, and promoted a competition for a mechanical brush. The prize was claimed by George Smart for what, in effect, was a brush head on a long segmented cane, made rigid by an adjustable cord that passed through the canes.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The Chimney Sweepers Act 1834 contained many of the needed regulations. It stated that an apprentice must express himself in front of a magistrate that he was "willing and desirous". Masters must not take on boys under the age of fourteen. The master could only have six apprentices and an apprentice could not be lent to another master. Boys under fourteen who were already apprenticed must wear brass cap badges on a leather cap. Apprentices were not allowed to climb flues to extinguish fires. Street cries were regulated. The act was resisted by the master sweeps, and the general public believed that property would be at risk if the flues were not cleaned by a climbing boy.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The Chimney Sweepers and Chimneys Regulation Act 1840 made it illegal for anyone under the age of 21 to sweep chimneys. It was widely ignored. Attempts were made in 1852 and 1853 to reopen the issue, another enquiry was convened and more evidence was taken. There was no bill. The Chimney Sweepers Regulation Act 1864, c. 37, tightened controls significantly, by authorizing fines and imprisonment for master sweeps who were ignoring the law, giving the police the power of arrest on suspicion and authorizing Board of Trade inspections of new and remodelled chimneys. Lord Shaftesbury was a main proponent of the Act.


title: Chimney sweep

text: In February 1875 a twelve-year-old boy, George Brewster, was sent up the Fulbourn Hospital chimneys by his master, William Wyer. He stuck and smothered. The entire wall had to be pulled down to get him out and although he was still alive, he died shortly afterward. There was a coroner's inquest which returned a verdict of manslaughter. Wyer was sentenced to six months' imprisonment with hard labour. Lord Shaftesbury seized on the incident to press his campaign again. He wrote a series of letters to "The Times" and in September 1875 pushed another bill through Parliament which finally stopped the practice of sending boys up chimneys.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The Chimney Sweepers Act 1875 required chimney sweepers "to be authorized by the police to carry on their businesses in the district", thus providing the legal means to enforce all previous legislation.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The history of sweeping in the United States varies little from that in the United Kingdom. Differences arise from the nature of housing and the political pressures. Early settler houses were built close together out of wood, so when one burnt it spread quickly to neighbouring properties. This caused the authorities to regulate the design of flues. From an early date, fire wardens and inspectors were appointed.


title: Chimney sweep

text: Sweeping of the wide flues of these low buildings was often done by the householder himself, using a ladder to pass a wide brush down the chimney. In a narrow flue, a bag of bricks and brushwood would be dropped down the chimney. But in longer flues climbing boys were used, complete with the tradition of coercion and persuasion using burning straw and pins in the feet and the buttocks. Sweeping was not a popular trade. During the eighteenth century the employment of African-American chimney sweeps spread from the south to the north. African-American sweeps faced discrimination and were accused of being inefficient and starting fires. It was claimed that there were fewer fires in London where chimneys were swept by white boys than in New York City. As in the UK, Smart's sweeping machine was available in the US shortly after 1803, but few were used. Unlike the UK, there were no societies formed to advocate for the climbing boys. In fact, the contemporary novel "Tit for Tat" went so far as to deny the Black slave chimney sweeps' hardships by claiming that they had it easier than the London chimney sweeps.


title: Chimney sweep

text: The London boys had one day's holiday a year, the first of May (Mayday). They celebrated by parading through the streets, dancing and twisting with Jack in the Green, merging several folk traditions. There is also a Sweeps' Festival in Santa Maria Maggiore in Italy, and in Rochester in Kent where the tradition was revived in 1980.


title: Chimney sweep

text: Chimney sweeps were often depicted in Victorian literature and later works about the Victorian period as heartless scoundrels who abused their child workers.


title: Chimney sweep

text: One of the most famous literary works about chimney sweeps is William Blake's poem, "The Chimney Sweeper".