title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Academic degrees for manufacturing engineers are usually the Associate or Bachelor of Engineering, [BE] or [BEng], and the Associate or Bachelor of Science, [BS] or [BSc]. For manufacturing technologists the required degrees are Associate or Bachelor of Technology [B.TECH] or Associate or Bachelor of Applied Science [BASc] in Manufacturing, depending upon the university. Master's degrees in engineering manufacturing include Master of Engineering [ME] or [MEng] in Manufacturing, Master of Science [M.Sc] in Manufacturing Management, Master of Science [M.Sc] in Industrial and Production Management, and Master of Science [M.Sc] as well as Master of Engineering [ME] in Design, which is a subdiscipline of manufacturing. Doctoral [PhD] or [DEng] level courses in manufacturing are also available depending on the university.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: The undergraduate degree curriculum generally includes courses in physics, mathematics, computer science, project management, and specific topics in mechanical and manufacturing engineering. Initially such topics cover most, if not all, of the subdisciplines of manufacturing engineering. Students then choose to specialize in one or more subdisciplines towards the end of their degree work.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: The Foundational Curriculum for a Bachelor's Degree of Manufacturing Engineering or Production Engineering includes below mentioned syllabus. This syllabus is closely related to Industrial Engineering and Mechanical Engineering, but it differs by placing more emphasis on Manufacturing Science or Production Science. It includes the following areas:


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: A degree in Manufacturing Engineering typically differs from Mechanical Engineering in only a few specialized classes. Mechanical Engineering degrees focus more on the product design process and on complex products which requires more mathematical expertise.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: In some countries, "professional engineer" is the term for registered or licensed engineers who are permitted to offer their professional services directly to the public. Professional Engineer, abbreviated (PE - USA) or (PEng - Canada), is the designation for licensure in North America. In order to qualify for this license, a candidate needs a bachelor's degree from an ABET recognized university in the USA, a passing score on a state examination, and four years of work experience usually gained via a structured internship. In the USA, more recent graduates have the option of dividing this licensure process into two segments. The Fundamentals of Engineering (FE) exam is often taken immediately after graduation and the Principles and Practice of Engineering exam is taken after four years of working in a chosen engineering field.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: The SME administers qualifications specifically for the manufacturing industry. These are not degree level qualifications and are not recognized at the professional engineering level. The following discussion deals with qualifications in the USA only. Qualified candidates for the Certified Manufacturing Technologist Certificate (CMfgT) must pass a three-hour, 130-question multiple-choice exam. The exam covers math, manufacturing processes, manufacturing management, automation, and related subjects. Additionally, a candidate must have at least four years of combined education and manufacturing-related work experience.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Certified Manufacturing Engineer (CMfgE) is an engineering qualification administered by the Society of Manufacturing Engineers, Dearborn, Michigan, USA. Candidates qualifying for a Certified Manufacturing Engineer credential must pass a four-hour, 180 question multiple-choice exam which covers more in-depth topics than does the CMfgT exam. CMfgE candidates must also have eight years of combined education and manufacturing-related work experience, with a minimum of four years of work experience.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Certified Engineering Manager (CEM). The Certified Engineering Manager Certificate is also designed for engineers with eight years of combined education and manufacturing experience. The test is four hours long and has 160 multiple-choice questions. The CEM certification exam covers business processes, teamwork, responsibility, and other management-related categories.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Many manufacturing companies, especially those in industrialized nations, have begun to incorporate computer-aided engineering (CAE) programs into their existing design and analysis processes, including 2D and 3D solid modeling computer-aided design (CAD). This method has many benefits, including easier and more exhaustive visualization of products, the ability to create virtual assemblies of parts, and ease of use in designing mating interfaces and tolerances.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Other CAE programs commonly used by product manufacturers include product life cycle management (PLM) tools and analysis tools used to perform complex simulations. Analysis tools may be used to predict product response to expected loads, including fatigue life and manufacturability. These tools include finite element analysis (FEA), computational fluid dynamics (CFD), and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM).


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Using CAE programs, a mechanical design team can quickly and cheaply iterate the design process to develop a product that better meets cost, performance, and other constraints. No physical prototype need be created until the design nears completion, allowing hundreds or thousands of designs to be evaluated, instead of relatively few. In addition, CAE analysis programs can model complicated physical phenomena which cannot be solved by hand, such as viscoelasticity, complex contact between mating parts, or non-Newtonian flows.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Just as manufacturing engineering is linked with other disciplines, such as mechatronics, multidisciplinary design optimization (MDO) is also being used with other CAE programs to automate and improve the iterative design process. MDO tools wrap around existing CAE processes, allowing product evaluation to continue even after the analyst goes home for the day. They also utilize sophisticated optimization algorithms to more intelligently explore possible designs, often finding better, innovative solutions to difficult multidisciplinary design problems.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Manufacturing engineering is an extremely important discipline worldwide. It goes by different names in different countries. In the United States and the continental European Union it is commonly known as Industrial Engineering and in the United Kingdom and Australia it is called Manufacturing Engineering


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Mechanics, in the most general sense, is the study of forces and their effects on matter. Typically, engineering mechanics is used to analyze and predict the acceleration and deformation (both elastic and plastic) of objects under known forces (also called loads) or stresses. Subdisciplines of mechanics include:


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: If the engineering project were to design a vehicle, statics might be employed to design the frame of the vehicle in order to evaluate where the stresses will be most intense. Dynamics might be used when designing the car's engine to evaluate the forces in the pistons and cams as the engine cycles. Mechanics of materials might be used to choose appropriate materials for the manufacture of the frame and engine. Fluid mechanics might be used to design a ventilation system for the vehicle or to design the intake system for the engine.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Kinematics is the study of the motion of bodies (objects) and systems (groups of objects), while ignoring the forces that cause the motion. The movement of a crane and the oscillations of a piston in an engine are both simple kinematic systems. The crane is a type of open kinematic chain, while the piston is part of a closed four-bar linkage. Engineers typically use kinematics in the design and analysis of mechanisms. Kinematics can be used to find the possible range of motion for a given mechanism, or, working in reverse, can be used to design a mechanism that has a desired range of motion.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Drafting or technical drawing is the means by which manufacturers create instructions for manufacturing parts. A technical drawing can be a computer model or hand-drawn schematic showing all the dimensions necessary to manufacture a part, as well as assembly notes, a list of required materials, and other pertinent information. A U.S engineer or skilled worker who creates technical drawings may be referred to as a drafter or draftsman. Drafting has historically been a two-dimensional process, but computer-aided design (CAD) programs now allow the designer to create in three dimensions.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Instructions for manufacturing a part must be fed to the necessary machinery, either manually, through programmed instructions, or through the use of a computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) or combined CAD/CAM program. Optionally, an engineer may also manually manufacture a part using the technical drawings, but this is becoming an increasing rarity with the advent of computer numerically controlled (CNC) manufacturing. Engineers primarily manufacture parts manually in the areas of applied spray coatings, finishes, and other processes that cannot economically or practically be done by a machine.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Drafting is used in nearly every subdiscipline of mechanical and manufacturing engineering, and by many other branches of engineering and architecture. Three-dimensional models created using CAD software are also commonly used in finite element analysis (FEA) and computational fluid dynamics (CFD).


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Machine tools employ some sort of tool that does the cutting or shaping. All machine tools have some means of constraining the workpiece and provide a guided movement of the parts of the machine. Metal fabrication is the building of metal structures by cutting, bending, and assembling processes.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) is the manufacturing approach of using computers to control the entire production process. Computer-integrated manufacturing is used in automotive, aviation, space, and ship building industries.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Mechatronics is an engineering discipline that deals with the convergence of electrical, mechanical and manufacturing systems. Such combined systems are known as electromechanical systems and are widespread. Examples include automated manufacturing systems, heating, ventilation and air-conditioning systems, and various aircraft and automobile subsystems.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: The term mechatronics is typically used to refer to macroscopic systems, but futurists have predicted the emergence of very small electromechanical devices. Already such small devices, known as Microelectromechanical systems (MEMS), are used in automobiles to initiate the deployment of airbags, in digital projectors to create sharper images, and in inkjet printers to create nozzles for high-definition printing. In future it is hoped that such devices will be used in tiny implantable medical devices and to improve optical communication.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Textile engineering courses deal with the application of scientific and engineering principles to the design and control of all aspects of fiber, textile, and apparel processes, products, and machinery. These include natural and man-made materials, interaction of materials with machines, safety and health, energy conservation, and waste and pollution control. Additionally, students are given experience in plant design and layout, machine and wet process design and improvement, and designing and creating textile products. Throughout the textile engineering curriculum, students take classes from other engineering and disciplines including: mechanical, chemical, materials and industrial engineering.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Advanced composite materials (engineering) (ACMs) are also known as advanced polymer matrix composites. These are generally characterized or determined by unusually high strength fibres with unusually high stiffness, or modulus of elasticity characteristics, compared to other materials, while bound together by weaker matrices. Advanced composite materials have broad, proven applications, in the aircraft, aerospace, and sports equipment sectors. Even more specifically ACMs are very attractive for aircraft and aerospace structural parts. Manufacturing ACMs is a multibillion-dollar industry worldwide. Composite products range from skateboards to components of the space shuttle. The industry can be generally divided into two basic segments, industrial composites and advanced composites.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Manufacturing engineering is just one facet of the engineering manufacturing industry. Manufacturing engineers enjoy improving the production process from start to finish. They have the ability to keep the whole production process in mind as they focus on a particular portion of the process. Successful students in manufacturing engineering degree programs are inspired by the notion of starting with a natural resource, such as a block of wood, and ending with a usable, valuable product, such as a desk, produced efficiently and economically.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Manufacturing engineers are closely connected with engineering and industrial design efforts. Examples of major companies that employ manufacturing engineers in the United States include General Motors Corporation, Ford Motor Company, Chrysler, Boeing, Gates Corporation and Pfizer. Examples in Europe include Airbus, Daimler, BMW, Fiat, Navistar International, and Michelin Tyre.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a manufacturing system in which there is some amount of flexibility that allows the system to react to changes, whether predicted or unpredicted. This flexibility is generally considered to fall into two categories, both of which have numerous subcategories.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: The first category, machine flexibility, covers the system's ability to be changed to produce new product types and the ability to change the order of operations executed on a part. The second category, called routing flexibility, consists of the ability to use multiple machines to perform the same operation on a part, as well as the system's ability to absorb large-scale changes, such as in volume, capacity, or capability.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Most FMS systems comprise three main systems. The work machines, which are often automated CNC machines, are connected by a material handling system to optimize parts flow, and to a central control computer, which controls material movements and machine flow. The main advantages of an FMS is its high flexibility in managing manufacturing resources like time and effort in order to manufacture a new product. The best application of an FMS is found in the production of small sets of products from a mass production.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) in engineering is a method of manufacturing in which the entire production process is controlled by computer. Traditionally separated process methods are joined through a computer by CIM. This integration allows the processes to exchange information and to initiate actions. Through this integration, manufacturing can be faster and less error-prone, although the main advantage is the ability to create automated manufacturing processes. Typically CIM relies on closed-loop control processes based on real-time input from sensors. It is also known as flexible design and manufacturing.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Friction stir welding was discovered in 1991 by The Welding Institute (TWI). This innovative steady state (non-fusion) welding technique joins previously un-weldable materials, including several aluminum alloys. It may play an important role in the future construction of airplanes, potentially replacing rivets. Current uses of this technology to date include: welding the seams of the aluminum main space shuttle external tank, the Orion Crew Vehicle test article, Boeing Delta II and Delta IV Expendable Launch Vehicles and the SpaceX Falcon 1 rocket; armor plating for amphibious assault ships; and welding the wings and fuselage panels of the new Eclipse 500 aircraft from Eclipse Aviation, among an increasingly growing range of uses.


title: Manufacturing engineering

text: Other areas of research are Product Design, MEMS (Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems), Lean Manufacturing, Intelligent Manufacturing Systems, Green Manufacturing, Precision Engineering, Smart Materials, etc.


title: Flower Crew: Joseon Marriage Agency

text: Flower Crew: Joseon Marriage Agency () is a 2019 South Korean television series starring Kim Min-jae, Gong Seung-yeon, Seo Ji-hoon, Park Ji-hoon, Byeon Woo-seok, and Ko Won-hee. It is based on the 2014 novel of the same name by Kim Yi-rang who also wrote the series. It aired on JTBC's Mondays and Tuesdays at 21:30 (KST) time slot from September 16 to November 5, 2019.


title: Flower Crew: Joseon Marriage Agency

text: Ma Hoon, Young-soo, and Do Joon are Joseon's most successful marriage agency called Flower Crew and also known for their handsome features. Lee Soo, a blacksmith's son, wanted to marry his friend Gae-ttong, a wild and carefree girl, and requested Flower Crew to help him arrange the marriage. However, Ma Hoon, the leader of Flower Crew, rejected him continuously until he finally sees Lee Soo's genuine heart for Gae-ttong and agreed to arrange their marriage. On the marriage day, Lee Soo was captured and selected as the King of Joseon all of a sudden. How will the Flower Crew handle this crisis and what will happen to Gae-ttong and Lee Soo's marriage?


title: Flower Crew: Joseon Marriage Agency

text: The first script reading took place in April 2019 at JTBC Building in Sangam-dong, Seoul, South Korea. Filming was wrapped up on October 10, 2019.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Electrical breakdown or dielectric breakdown is a process that occurs when an electrical insulating material, subjected to a high enough voltage, suddenly becomes an electrical conductor and electric current flows through it. All insulating materials undergo breakdown when the electric field caused by an applied voltage exceeds the material's dielectric strength. The voltage at which a given insulating object becomes conductive is called its breakdown voltage and in addition to its dielectric strength depends on its size and shape, and the location on the object at which the voltage is applied. Under sufficient electrical potential, electrical breakdown can occur within solids, liquids, or gases (and theoretically even in a vacuum). However, the specific breakdown mechanisms are different for each kind of dielectric medium.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Electrical breakdown may be a momentary event (as in an electrostatic discharge), or may lead to a continuous electric arc if protective devices fail to interrupt the current in a power circuit. In this case electrical breakdown can cause catastrophic failure of electrical equipment, and fire hazards.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Electric current is a flow of electrically charged particles in a material caused by an electric field, usually created by a voltage difference across the material. The mobile charged particles which make up an electric current are called charge carriers. In different substances different particles serve as charge carriers: in metals and some other solids some of the outer electrons of each atom (conduction electrons) are able to move about in the material; in electrolytes and plasma it is ions, electrically charged atoms or molecules, and electrons that are charge carriers. A material that has a high concentration of charge carriers available for conduction, such as a metal, will conduct a large current with a given electric field, and thus has a low electrical resistivity; this is called an electrical conductor. A material that has few charge carriers, such as glass or ceramic, will conduct very little current with a given electric field and has a high resistivity; this is called an electrical insulator or dielectric. All matter is composed of charged particles, but the common property of insulators is that the negative charges, the orbital electrons, are tightly bound to the positive charges, the atomic nuclei, and cannot easily be freed to become mobile.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: However, when a large enough electric field is applied to any insulating substance, at a certain field strength the number of charge carriers in the material suddenly increases by many orders of magnitude, so its resistance drops and it becomes a conductor. This is called "electrical breakdown". The physical mechanism causing breakdown differs in different substances. In a solid, it usually occurs when the electric field becomes strong enough to pull outer valence electrons away from their atoms, so they become mobile, and the heat created by their collisions with other atoms releases additional electrons. In a gas, the electric field accelerates the small number of free electrons naturally present (due to processes like photoionization and radioactive decay) to a high enough speed that when they collide with gas molecules they knock additional electrons out of them, called ionization, which go on to ionize more molecules creating more free electrons and ions in a chain reaction called a Townsend discharge. As these examples indicate, in most materials breakdown occurs by a rapid chain reaction in which mobile charged particles release additional charged particles.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: The electric field strength (in volts per metre) at which breakdown occurs is an intrinsic property of the insulating material called its "dielectric strength". The electric field is usually caused by a voltage difference applied across the material. The applied voltage required to cause breakdown in a given insulating object is called the object's "breakdown voltage". The electric field created in a given insulating object by an applied voltage varies depending on the size and shape of the object and the location on the object where the voltage is applied, so in addition to the material's dielectric strength, the breakdown voltage depends on these factors.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: In a flat sheet of insulator between two flat metal electrodes, the electric field formula_1 is proportional to the voltage difference formula_2 divided by the thickness formula_3 of the insulator, so in general the breakdown voltage formula_4 is proportional to the dielectric strength formula_5 and the length of insulation between two conductors


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Breakdown is a local process, and in an insulating medium subjected to a high voltage difference begins at whatever point in the insulator the electric field first exceeds the local dielectric strength of the material. Since the electric field at the surface of a conductor is highest at protruding parts, sharp points and edges, for a conductor immersed in a homogeneous insulator like air or oil, breakdown usually starts at these points. If the breakdown is caused by a local defect in a solid insulator, such as a crack or bubble in a ceramic insulator, it may remain limited to a small region; this is called "partial discharge". In a gas adjacent to a sharp pointed conductor, local breakdown processes, corona discharge or brush discharge, can allow current to leak off the conductor into the gas as ions. However, usually in a homogeneous solid insulator after one region has broken down and become conductive there is no voltage drop across it, and the full voltage difference is applied to the remaining length of the insulator. Since the voltage drop is now across a shorter length, this creates a higher electric field in the remaining material, which causes more material to break down. So the breakdown region rapidly (within microseconds) spreads in the direction of the voltage gradient from one end of the insulator to the other, until a continuous conductive path is created through the material between the two contacts applying the voltage difference, allowing a current to flow between them.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Electrical breakdown can also occur without an applied voltage, due to an electromagnetic wave. When a sufficiently intense electromagnetic wave passes through a material medium, the electric field of the wave can be strong enough to cause temporary electrical breakdown. For example a laser beam focused to a small spot in air can cause electrical breakdown and ionization of the air at the focal point.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: In practical electric circuits electrical breakdown is usually an unwanted occurrence, a failure of insulating material causing a short circuit, possibly resulting in a catastrophic failure of the equipment. In power circuits, the sudden drop in resistance causes a high current to flow through the material, beginning an electric arc, and if safety devices do not interrupt the current quickly the sudden extreme Joule heating may cause the insulating material or other parts of the circuit to melt or vaporize explosively, damaging the equipment and creating a fire hazard. However, external protective devices in the circuit such as circuit breakers and current limiting can prevent the high current; and the breakdown process itself is not necessarily destructive and may be reversible. If the current supplied by the external circuit is removed sufficiently quickly, no damage is done to the material, and reducing the applied voltage causes a transition back to the material's insulating state.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Lightning and sparks due to static electricity are natural examples of the electrical breakdown of air. Electrical breakdown is part of the normal operating mode of a number of electrical components, such as gas discharge lamps like fluorescent lights, and neon lights, zener diodes, avalanche diodes, IMPATT diodes, mercury-vapor rectifiers, thyratron, ignitron, and krytron tubes, and spark plugs.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Electrical breakdown is often associated with the failure of solid or liquid insulating materials used inside high voltage transformers or capacitors in the electricity distribution grid, usually resulting in a short circuit or a blown fuse. Electrical breakdown can also occur across the insulators that suspend overhead power lines, within underground power cables, or lines arcing to nearby branches of trees.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Dielectric breakdown is also important in the design of integrated circuits and other solid state electronic devices. Insulating layers in such devices are designed to withstand normal operating voltages, but higher voltage such as from static electricity may destroy these layers, rendering a device useless. The dielectric strength of capacitors limits how much energy can be stored and the safe working voltage for the device.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Breakdown mechanisms differ in solids, liquids, and gases. Breakdown is influenced by electrode material, sharp curvature of conductor material (resulting in locally intensified electric fields), the size of the gap between the electrodes, and the density of the material in the gap.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: In solid materials (such as in power cables) a long-time partial discharge typically precedes breakdown, degrading the insulators and metals nearest to the voltage gap. Ultimately the partial discharge chars through a channel of carbonized material that conducts current across the gap.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Possible mechanisms for breakdown in liquids include bubbles, small impurities, and electrical super-heating. The process of breakdown in liquids is complicated by hydrodynamic effects, since additional pressure is exerted on the fluid by the non-linear electrical field strength in the gap between the electrodes.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: In liquefied gases used as coolants for superconductivity – such as Helium at 4.2 K or Nitrogen at 77 K – bubbles can induce breakdown.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: In oil-cooled and oil-insulated transformers the field strength for breakdown is about 20 kV/mm (as compared to 3 kV/mm for dry air). Despite the purified oils used, small particle contaminants are blamed.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Electrical breakdown occurs within a gas when the dielectric strength of the gas is exceeded. Regions of intense voltage gradients can cause nearby gas to partially ionize and begin conducting. This is done deliberately in low pressure discharges such as in fluorescent lights. The voltage that leads to electrical breakdown of a gas is approximated by Paschen's Law.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Partial discharge in air causes the "fresh air" smell of ozone during thunderstorms or around high-voltage equipment. Although air is normally an excellent insulator, when stressed by a sufficiently high voltage (an electric field of about 3 x 10 V/m or 3 kV/mm), air can begin to break down, becoming partially conductive. Across relatively small gaps, breakdown voltage in air is a function of gap length times pressure. If the voltage is sufficiently high, complete electrical breakdown of the air will culminate in an electrical spark or an electric arc that bridges the entire gap.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: The color of the spark depends upon the gases that make up the gaseous media. While the small sparks generated by static electricity may barely be audible, larger sparks are often accompanied by a loud snap or bang. Lightning is an example of an immense spark that can be many miles long.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: If a fuse or circuit breaker fails to interrupt the current through a spark in a power circuit, current may continue, forming a very hot electric arc (about 30 000 degrees C). The color of an arc depends primarily upon the conducting gasses, some of which may have been solids before being vaporized and mixed into the hot plasma in the arc. The free ions in and around the arc recombine to create new chemical compounds, such as ozone, carbon monoxide, and nitrous oxide. Ozone is most easily noticed due to its distinct odour.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Although sparks and arcs are usually undesirable, they can be useful in applications such as spark plugs for gasoline engines, electrical welding of metals, or for metal melting in an electric arc furnace. Prior to gas discharge the gas glows with distinct colors that depend on the energy levels of the atoms. Not all mechanisms are fully understood.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Before gas breakdown, there is a non-linear relation between voltage and current as shown in the figure. In region 1, there are free ions that can be accelerated by the field and induce a current. These will be saturated after a certain voltage and give a constant current, region 2. Region 3 and 4 are caused by ion avalanche as explained by the Townsend discharge mechanism.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Friedrich Paschen established the relation between the breakdown condition to breakdown voltage. He derived a formula that defines the breakdown voltage (formula_4) for uniform field gaps as a function of gap length (formula_8) and gap pressure (formula_9).


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Paschen also derived a relation between the minimum value of pressure gap for which breakdown occurs with a minimum voltage.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Partial breakdown of the air occurs as a corona discharge on high voltage conductors at points with the highest electrical stress. Conductors that have sharp points, or balls with small radii, are prone to causing dielectric breakdown, because the field strength around points is higher than that around a flat surface. High-voltage apparatus is designed with rounded curves and grading rings to avoid concentrated fields that precipitate breakdown.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Corona is sometimes seen as a bluish glow around high voltage wires and heard as a sizzling sound along high voltage power lines. Corona also generates radio frequency noise that can also be heard as ‘static’ or buzzing on radio receivers. Corona can also occur naturally as "St. Elmo's Fire" at high points such as church spires, treetops, or ship masts during thunderstorms.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Corona discharge ozone generators have been used for more than 30 years in the water purification process. Ozone is a toxic gas, even more potent than chlorine. In a typical drinking water treatment plant, the ozone gas is dissolved into the filtered water to kill bacteria and destroy viruses. Ozone also removes the bad odours and taste from the water. The main advantage of ozone is that any residual overdose decomposes to gaseous oxygen well before the water reaches the consumer. This is in contrast with chlorine gas or chlorine salts, which stay in the water longer and can be tasted by the consumer.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Although corona discharge is usually undesirable, until recently it was essential in the operation of photocopiers (xerography) and laser printers. Many modern copiers and laser printers now charge the photoconductor drum with an electrically conductive roller, reducing undesirable indoor ozone pollution.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Lightning rods use corona discharge to create conductive paths in the air that point towards the rod, deflecting potentially-damaging lightning away from buildings and other structures.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Corona discharges are also used to modify the surface properties of many polymers. An example is the corona treatment of plastic materials which allows paint or ink to adhere properly.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: A disruptive device is designed to electrically overstress a dielectric beyond its dielectric strength so as to intentionally cause electrical breakdown of the device. The disruption causes a sudden transition of a portion of the dielectric, from an insulating state to a highly conductive state. This transition is characterized by the formation of an electric spark or plasma channel, possibly followed by an electric arc through part of the dielectric material.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: If the dielectric happens to be a solid, permanent physical and chemical changes along the path of the discharge will significantly reduce the material's dielectric strength, and the device can only be used one time. However, if the dielectric material is a liquid or gas, the dielectric can fully recover its insulating properties once current through the plasma channel has been externally interrupted.


title: Electrical breakdown

text: Commercial spark gaps use this property to abruptly switch high voltages in pulsed power systems, to provide surge protection for telecommunication and electrical power systems, and ignite fuel via spark plugs in internal combustion engines. Spark-gap transmitters were used in early radio telegraph systems.


title: Witchetty grub

text: The witchetty grub (also spelled witchety grub or witjuti grub) is a term used in Australia for the large, white, wood-eating larvae of several moths. In particular, it applies to the larvae of the cossid moth "Endoxyla leucomochla", which feeds on the roots of the witchetty bush (after which the grubs are named) that is widespread throughout the Northern Territory and also typically found in parts of Western Australia and South Australia, although it is also found elsewhere throughout Australia.


title: Witchetty grub

text: The term may also apply to larvae of other cossid moths, ghost moths (Hepialidae), and longhorn beetles (Cerambycidae). The term is used mainly when the larvae are being considered as food. The grub is the most important insect food of the desert and has historically been a staple in the diets of Aboriginal Australians.


title: Witchetty grub

text: The Arabana term for the grub is (with emphasis on initial syllables); means grub, and refers to the shrub, not the grub itself. Similarly, Ngalea peoples referred to the grub as "mako wardaruka", meaning grubs of the wardaruka ("Acacia ligulata") shrub. The Pitjantjatjara name is "maku".


title: Witchetty grub

text: It has been suggested that the word "witchetty" comes from the Adynyamathanha word , meaning "hooked stick", and , meaning "grub". Traditionally, it is rare for people to dig for them.


title: Witchetty grub

text: The different larvae are said to taste similar, probably because they have similar wood-eating habits. Edible either raw or lightly cooked in hot ashes, they are sought as a high-protein food by Aboriginal Australians. The raw witchetty grub tastes similar to almonds, and when cooked, the skin becomes crisp like roast chicken, while the inside becomes light yellow, like a fried egg.


title: Witchetty grub

text: These grubs live in trees. They can also be found in black wattle trees, and are considered to be the reason why wattles die within 10 to 15 years. The roots of the "Acacia kempeana" shrub are another source of the grubs.


title: Secretary of state

text: The title secretary of state or state's secretary is commonly used for senior or mid-level posts in governments around the world. The role varies between countries, and in some cases there are multiple secretaries of state in the country's system of governing the country.


title: Secretary of state

text: In many countries, a secretary of state is a senior or mid-level post. It is usually a politically appointed position, although in some countries, such as Germany and Sweden, it can be filled by a member of the executive bureaucracy (civil service) as a political appointment (equivalent to permanent secretary). In the Holy See, the administrative body of the Catholic Church, the cardinal secretary of state coordinates all the departments of the Roman Curia (and is in that respect equivalent to a prime minister). In the United Kingdom, the secretary of state is a member of the cabinet appointed by the reigning monarch on the advice of the prime minister (and thus equivalent to a cabinet minister). The United States secretary of state is the foreign minister of the federal government of the United States while in most of the individual U.S. states the secretary of state is an administrative officer responsible for certain governmental functions, often including overseeing elections, tasks which would be exercised by interior ministers or secretaries in most other nations.


title: Secretary of state

text: In the Orange Free State (1854–1902) the Secretary of State was the original title of the main administrative officer of the State, who worked closely with both the State President as head of state and head of government, and his cabinet, and with the Volksraad, the parliament of the Orange Free State. The title of State Secretary was replaced by that of Government Secretary soon after the formation of the state apparatus and was thereafter never used again.


title: Secretary of state

text: The organization of the governments of Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Mozambique and São Tome and Príncipe closely mirrors the Portuguese government model. Thus, in these countries, a Secretary of State () is a junior minister, subordinate to a cabinet minister. Usually, the secretaries of State do not participate in the council of ministers.


title: Secretary of state

text: In Mozambique, the role of vice-minister () exists as an intermediate government rank between those of minister and Secretary of State. The role of vice-minister also exists in the Government of Angola, but it is junior to that of Secretary of State.


title: Secretary of state

text: In the South African Republic the Secretary of State was the main administrative officer of the State, working closely with both the State President as head of state and head of government, and the parliament of the South African Republic.


title: Secretary of state

text: In Liberia, from 1847 until 1972, the Secretary of State was the head of the Department of State and the chief foreign policy officer of the republic, responsible for conducting diplomacy and implementing the nation's foreign affairs. The title was abolished in 1972 and replaced with the new nomenclature, Minister of Foreign Affairs. Throughout most of Liberia's history, holders of that office usually went on to become president.


title: Secretary of state

text: The Secretary of State (Secretario de Estado) in Argentina (federal government) is a high official with the same rank of a Minister, who is responsible directly to the President. The position must be distinguished from a "Secretary", a lower position, responsible to a Minister.


title: Secretary of state

text: The official responsible for foreign policy is called Minister of Foreign Affairs (Ministro de Relaciones Exteriores) or "Chancellor" (Canciller).


title: Secretary of state

text: In Brazil, a Secretary of State ( or ) – commonly referred simply as "Secretary" () is one of the government members of each of the Brazilian states, subordinate to the respective State Governor. At state level, the Brazilian secretaries of State have functions similar to those of the Ministers of the Federal Government.


title: Secretary of state

text: At federal level, the officer responsible for foreign affairs, a position equivalent to that of the United States Secretary of State, is the Minister of Foreign Affairs.


title: Secretary of state

text: The Canadian Cabinet used to have a Secretary of State for External Affairs who acted as the country's Foreign Minister, but this position was abolished in 1993 and a new position of Minister of Foreign Affairs was created. From 1867 to 1993, there was also a Secretary of State for Canada who was a Cabinet minister whose duties varied over time but who was responsible for the Department of Secretary of State until the position was abolished. Since 1993, some junior ministers have been styled Secretary of State, and assigned in specific policy areas to assist Cabinet ministers. However, these junior ministers are not themselves members of Cabinet. A similar role is played by Ministers of State, however Ministers are members of the cabinet.


title: Secretary of state

text: In Mexico a secretary of state is a member of the Mexican Executive Cabinet who responds to the president of the Republic.


title: Secretary of state

text: In the United States "federal" government, "Secretary of State" refers to the official responsible for executing the non-military and non-homeland security aspects of foreign policy, the analogue of the foreign secretary or foreign minister of a country that has one or the other. The U.S. secretary of state is head of the United States Department of State. The secretary is responsible for the administration of United States embassies and their subsidiary units throughout the world.


title: Secretary of state

text: The U.S. secretary of state has the power to remove any foreign diplomat from U.S. soil for any reason.


title: Secretary of state

text: Six secretaries of state became presidents (Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, James Monroe, John Quincy Adams, Martin Van Buren and James Buchanan) and five won Nobel Peace Prizes (Frank Kellogg, Cordell Hull, George Marshall, Elihu Root, and Henry Kissinger).


title: Secretary of state

text: The now long-established terms "Department ..." and "Secretary of State" were preceded (for two months following the effective date of the Constitution) by the


title: Secretary of state

text: narrower title Secretary of Foreign Affairs and the corresponding departmental name; the change reflected the addition of some miscellaneous domestic responsibilities.


title: Secretary of state

text: The position is widely regarded as the most senior in the Cabinet. In the presidential line of succession the secretary of state falls first among Cabinet officers, and fourth overall. The secretary of state is also, in protocol, the first Cabinet member in the order of precedence, immediately preceding any former presidents and former first ladies, who are followed by the rest of the Cabinet.


title: Secretary of state

text: President Barack Obama named Hillary Clinton as his choice for 67th secretary of state on 1 December 2008. She was confirmed on 21 January 2009, the day after Obama's inauguration and is the third woman to hold the position. On 21 December 2012 President Obama announced his choice for secretary of state during his second term, Senator John Kerry. His confirmation hearing took place on 24 January 2013, before the Senate Foreign Relations Committee. The committee unanimously voted to approve him on 29 January 2013, and the same day the full Senate confirmed him on a vote of 94–3. On 1 February 2013, Hillary Clinton resigned as Secretary of State and John Kerry was sworn in as the 68th secretary of state.


title: Secretary of state

text: On 1 February 2017, Rex Wayne Tillerson was sworn in as the 69th United States secretary of state. His term ended on 13 March 2018, when he was fired by President Trump. Tillerson was succeeded by former congressman and then current director of the CIA Mike Pompeo, on 26 April 2018. Pompeo was succeeded by Antony Blinken on 26 January 2021.


title: Secretary of state

text: In most of the individual states of the United States, the Secretary of State is an administrative officer responsible for certain governmental functions. The specific powers and duties of this office depend on the constitution and laws of the particular state, but they often include responsibility for overseeing elections within the state. In the state of Oregon the secretary of state is an elected office that acts as the equivalent of a lieutenant governor in other states among many other duties. In three states (Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, and Virginia), the position is called "Secretary of the Commonwealth", since these states as well as Kentucky are called "commonwealth" instead of "state". In Connecticut, this office is called the "Secretary of "the" State". In three states (Alaska, Hawaii and Utah), there is no secretary of state.


title: Secretary of state

text: In Indonesia, the Minister-Secretary of State ("Menteri Sekretaris Negara") is a Government official of Ministerial rank who heads the Ministry of State Secretariat. The Minister-Secretary of State gives technical and administrative assistance to the President and Vice President in running State affairs. In the President's case, the Minister-Secretary of State also provides assistance for the President in his role as Commander-in-chief of Indonesian National Armed Forces. In addition, the State Secretary provides the President and Vice President with their reports, coordinates household matters and protocols, as well as assisting in the drafting of bills and/or Governmental regulations.


title: Secretary of state

text: The Kuwaiti Minister of Foreign Affairs, Dr. Sheikh Muhammad Al-Sabah Al-Salem Al-Sabah, is in charge of international relations of Kuwait, and all Kuwaiti representatives abroad. Al-Sabah is a member of the cabinet of ministers, and reports directly to Sabah Al-Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah, The Emir of Kuwait. He is also in charge of all the diplomatic representatives in Kuwait.


title: Secretary of state

text: However, every state in Malaysia have their own State Secretary, except federal territories. Secretary of State is the member of the State Executive Council, appointed by the Governor (in Malacca, Penang, Sabah and Sarawak) or the Sultan (except in Negeri Sembilan, appointed by the Yang DiPertuan Besar; and Perlis, appointed by the (Raja of Perlis). The State Secretary is the head of the public service in his/her state.


title: Secretary of state

text: Following the Portuguese model, in the Government of Timor-Leste, a Secretary of State ("Sekretáriu Estadu" in Tetum, "Secretário de Estado" in Portuguese) is a junior minister, subordinate to a cabinet minister. Despite being members of the Government, the Secretaries of State usually do not participate in the Council of Ministers, unless they are specially summoned for and, in this case, without right to vote.


title: Secretary of state

text: As in France, a secretary of state in Belgium is a junior minister who is responsible to a minister or the prime minister. For example, Vincent Van Quickenborne was a secretary of state charged with the simplification of the administration, and in this role he was accountable to the prime minister. The title "secretary of state" was created because the constitution of Belgium explicitly limits the number of ministers to fifteen (seven French-speaking ministers and seven Dutch-speaking ministers, with the prime minister being officially "linguistically asexual"). Therefore, appointing people as secretaries of state allows the government to circumvent this constitutional limitation. See Current list of secretaries of states for Belgian Federal Government.


title: Secretary of state

text: There are also three secretaries of state in the government of the Brussels-Capital Region, one of whom has to be Flemish.


title: Secretary of state

text: The secretary of state ("Riigisekretär") directs the Government Office. Its mission is to support the Government of Estonia and the Prime Minister of Estonia in policy drafting and implementation. It also supports any Ministers without portfolio and helps to ensure good governance. The first Secretary of State was Karl Terras. Before the Soviet re-occupation in 1944, the State Secretary went into exile until the position came back to Estonia in 1992.


title: Secretary of state

text: A state secretary (), is the highest official below each minister. Ministers, who lead ministries (government departments), comprise the Finnish Government. Each state secretary is appointed for the term of the minister and is responsible to the minister.


title: Secretary of state

text: This is a new arrangement; during the introduction of this model, a secretary was called "political state secretary" (). In contrast, previously only two ministries, Ministries of Finance and Foreign Affairs, used to have state secretaries, who were permanently appointed. One such example is Raimo Sailas.


title: Secretary of state

text: In France, a Secretary of State ("Secrétaire d'État") is a junior minister, responsible to a minister or the Prime Minister. It is not to be confused with the Minister of State title given to a senior French cabinet minister of particular importance.


title: Secretary of state

text: Under the Ancien Régime, Secretaries of State were Crown officers whose responsibilities were similar to those of today's governmental ministers.


title: Secretary of state

text: The German "Staatssekretär" is a "Beamter" (civil servant) who is second only to the minister in a state or federal ministry, so the position is equivalent to that of Permanent secretary in the United Kingdom, not Secretary of State. While officially it is not a political office, often it is assigned by appointment based on political criteria such as party affiliation, rather than by career progression as a civil servant. Nevertheless, they are the administrative head of the ministry. They depend on the full confidence of their minister and can at any time be posted into provisional retirement with their pension paid in full. This happens usually when the government or the minister changes. De facto such a provisional retirement is lifelong.


title: Secretary of state

text: A special case is the Parliamentary State Secretary (""), which is a member of parliament who is appointed to a ministry as a "Staatssekretär"; in the German Foreign Office and the German Chancellery the official title is "Staatsminister" (Minister of State). Such posts, which were intended to improve the connection between a ministry and the parliament, have recently become subject of some controversy. Critics claim that parliamentary secretaries of state are usually given little to no influence and responsibility within their ministry. All the while they are paid very generously due to receiving two salaries, both as secretary of state and as member of parliament. For example, when interviewed about his post as a parliamentary minister of state in the German Foreign Office during an investigation into visa abuse, Ludger Volmer claimed that he had been cut off from the workflow within the ministry, and called the "Staatsminister" office an ""Unding"" (absurdity).


title: Secretary of state

text: In 1998, chancellor Gerhard Schröder introduced the new office of Federal Government Commissioner for Culture and the Media ("Beauftragter der Bundesregierung für Kultur und Medien") at the formal rank of a "Parlamentarischer Staatssekretär", hence the office is usually called "Kulturstaatsminister" ("Minister of Culture") for short – although some of the incumbents did not hold a seat in parliament. The German Parliamentary Commission for Culture and the Media ("Ausschuss für Kultur und Medien im Deutschen Bundestag") serves in place of a proper ministry for this department. Since 1998, the office of "Kulturstaatsminister" has been held by Michael Naumann (1998–2001), Julian Nida-Rümelin (2001–2002), Christina Weiss (2002–2005), Bernd Neumann (2005-2013) and Monika Grütters (since 2013).


title: Secretary of state

text: In Greece, the title "Secretary of State" () was used only intermittently during the early years of the modern Greek state. It was first employed for the head of the cabinet under the governorship of Ioannis Kapodistrias, a post held successively by Spyridon Trikoupis (1828–29) and Nikolaos Spiliadis (1829–31). It was then abandoned, until used instead of the title of "Minister" (Υπουργός) for the cabinet members in the 1835–37 Cabinet of Josef Ludwig von Armansperg, with Armansperg being designated "Chief Secretary of State" (Αρχιγραμματεύς της Επικρατείας).


title: Secretary of state

text: The Secretary of State of His Holiness The Pope, or Cardinal Secretary of State, presides over the Secretariat of State, which is the most important dicastery of the Roman Curia, as it organizes, makes appointments to, and directs the activities of the other dicasteries.


title: Secretary of state

text: The secretariat is also responsible for the Holy See's foreign relations. During a sede vacante, the former Secretary of State (the appointment expires when the pope dies or resigns) assumes some of the functions of the head of state as a part of a temporary commission.


title: Secretary of state

text: Luxembourgian Secretaries of State (, , ) are members of the cabinet, and are ranked below ministers. They are given specific briefs, covering the same briefs as the ministers, and help to assist their respective ministers to perform their functions. They often hold more than one brief or assist more than one minister. In the first Juncker-Asselborn cabinet, there was one Secretary of State, Octavie Modert, who is responsible for Relations with Parliament; Agriculture, Viticulture, and Rural Development; and Culture, Higher Education, and Research. There had been two in the previous cabinet, and three between 1984 and 1989.


title: Secretary of state

text: As in France and Belgium, a State Secretary in the Netherlands is a junior minister who is responsible to a Cabinet Minister or the Prime Minister. Some of them may, in specific circumstances, call themselves Minister when visiting a foreign country.


title: Secretary of state

text: The top civil servant in a government department is called Secretary-General "(secretaris-generaal)".


title: Secretary of state

text: Secretaries of State are connected to specific ministry, and serve as a "de facto" vice minister. However, the State Secretary cannot attend a Council of State and the only minister is constitutionally responsible for all the "statssekretær"'s decisions in office.


title: Secretary of state

text: In Portugal, a secretary of State (Portuguese: "secretário de Estado", masculine; "secretária de Estado", feminine; "secretários de Estado", plural) is a junior minister, of intermediate rank between that of cabinet minister and that of under-secretary of State. Although having the Constitutional status of Government members, the secretaries of State do not usually participate in the Council of Ministers, unless summoned for certain meetings and, in those cases, without right to vote. They act merely as deputies of ministers, having only the powers delegated to them by their ministers or directly by the prime minister.


title: Secretary of state

text: Until the reorganization of the Portuguese Public Administration structure in 2004, it was common for a secretary of State to be in charge of a secretariat of State (), a Government department with a status below that of a ministry. A secretariat of State could be organized as a division of a ministry or occasionally be directly subordinate to the Prime Minister. For example, from 1987 to 1995, a Secretariat of State for the Culture existed directly subordinate to the Prime Minister. Despite this type of departament no longer officially existing in the organization of the Portuguese Government, it is still common usage for the portfolio of a secretary of State to be colloquially referred to as a "secretariat of State".


title: Secretary of state

text: Historically, since the 17th century, the title of "secretary of State" was used to designate the heads of the Government departments of Portugal. In the 19th century, the title of "minister" started to be used, the official complete title of each of the ministers becoming "minister and secretary of State of a given portfolio" until the end of the Monarchy in 1910. From them on, the title "minister" completely replaced that of "secretary of State" (with the exception of the brief presidential system that existed during 1918, in which the ministers were re-titled "secretaries of State"). In 1958, the title of "secretary of State" was reintroduced to designate the then created role of a junior minister, subordinate to a cabinet minister.


title: Secretary of state

text: In the Republic of San Marino a Secretary of State is a senior Cabinet Minister in charge of a State Department. The Secretary of State is a member of the Council of Ministers ("Congresso di Stato").


title: Secretary of state

text: In present-day organisation of the Spanish Government a "Secretario de Estado" is a junior minister. Each ministry may have one or several Secretaries of State. For example, the Secretary of State for Latin America works for the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation.


title: Secretary of state

text: From 1715 to 1834 the "Secretarios de Estado y del Despacho" were the heads of different government departments. The Secretary of State usually served as Chief Minister (See List of prime ministers of Spain).


title: Secretary of state

text: In Sweden, a State Secretary () is a political appointee, second in rank to the Minister () in charge of the ministry. Unlike ministers, state secretaries are not members of the cabinet. Typically, there is one State Secretary assigned for each minister in the cabinet, and two for the prime minister. For historical reasons, the State Secretary in the Ministry for Foreign Affairs has another title (, in English literally "Cabinet Secretary"). State secretaries tend to, more often than the ministers do, hail from a fixed civil servant background or a professional background relevant to the area of responsibility that belongs to their respective ministries.


title: Secretary of state

text: In the Swiss federal administration, secretaries of state are the most senior career officials. The title is conferred by the Swiss Federal Council on heads of federal offices whose duties entail independent interaction with senior foreign authorities (cf. article 46 of the Government and Administration Organisation Act). In practice, the function of a secretary of state is the same as in France.


title: Secretary of state

text: In the Kingdom of England, before 1660, an officer entitled Secretary of State came into being near the end of the reign of Queen Elizabeth I (1558–1603), the usual title before that having been King's Clerk, King's Secretary, or Principal Secretary. From 1540 there were sometimes two secretaries of state.


title: Secretary of state

text: From 1660 there were always two secretaries of state, between whom oversight of foreign affairs was divided on a geographical basis while domestic affairs were shared: the Northern Secretary and the Southern Secretary. In 1707, England and Scotland were merged into the Kingdom of Great Britain, and there was a third Secretary of State for Scotland until 1746. A third Secretary of State for the Colonies existed from 1768. In 1782 the system was reformed back to two secretaries of state: a Home Secretary (including colonial affairs) and a Foreign Secretary, with the addition of a third for War from 1794. The title of Under Secretary came into use over the same period.


title: Secretary of state

text: The United Kingdom was formed by the union of Great Britain and the Kingdom of Ireland in 1801. By a gradual process between then and the 1960s, most of the ministers of the British cabinet became secretaries of state.


title: Secretary of state

text: In the United Kingdom, a secretary of state is a senior minister, normally in charge of a government department. Secretaries of state are appointed directly by the Monarch on the advice of the Prime Minister, and are responsible, along with other Cabinet members, for the collective government of the United Kingdom. There are a number of secretaries of state, each of whom are formally titled "His Majesty's Principal Secretary of State for ..."; legislation generally refers only to "the Secretary of State".


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: Hetman Sahaidachny () was a frigate of the Ukrainian Navy that was originally built at the Kerch Shipyard as a Project 1135.1 patrol ship of the Nerei / Krivak III / Menzhinskiy class. She was launched on 29 March 1992 and commissioned on 2 April 1993. Homeported at Odesa since March 2014, she was the flagship of the Ukrainian Navy. Her major armament was a single 100 mm gun. She was scuttled by Ukraine on 4 March 2022 to prevent her falling into the hands of invading Russian forces.


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: Built at the Zalyv Shipbuilding yard, the ship was intended to be used by the Soviet Border Troops as "Kirov". However, on 4 July 1993, the newly named (after Petro Konashevych-Sahaidachny) "Hetman Sahaidachny" raised the flag of the Ukrainian Navy. She was given the identification number of U130.


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: In 1994, "Hetman Sahaidachny" set sail for France to take part in the 50th-anniversary commemorations of the Allied invasion of Normandy.


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: In 1995, "Hetman Sahaidachny" visited Abu Dhabi during the "Idex-95" exhibitions. The frigate was scheduled to visit Norfolk, Virginia in the United States with "Kostiantyn Olshansky". "Kostiantyn Olshansky" visited, but "Hetman Sahaidachny" did not for unknown reasons.


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: The vessel has also visited ports in Algeria, Bulgaria, Egypt, Georgia, Gibraltar, Israel, Portugal, Russia and Turkey.


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: Between November 2006 and November 2007, she underwent major repairs in Mykolaiv at a cost of ₴15 million.


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: "Hetman Sahaidachny" joined the Naval Force of the European Union (EUNAVFOR) in early January 2014 for NATO's "Operation Ocean Shield" anti-piracy operations off the Horn of Africa. As she refueled in Greece, while Russian forces seized control of Crimea, Russian state media RT falsely reported on 1 March 2014 that the ship's crew had defected to Russia and raised the Russian flag. Shortly afterwards, the Wall Street Journal reported a Ukrainian Defense Ministry statement that the ship was still flying the Ukrainian flag in port in Crete. According to the Defense Ministry, the commander of the ship stated that the crew had never defected to the Russians. It arrived in Odesa under the Ukrainian flag on 5 March.


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: The Ukrainian naval command issued a contradictory report that on 14 March 2014, the ship encountered a Russian naval group attempting to enter or having entered Ukrainian territorial waters. As "Hetman Sahaidachny" approached the group, they withdrew. In September 2014, the frigate entered Odesa to undergo repairs. In May 2017, she suffered an engine failure shortly after undergoing repairs. In July 2018 she participated in the Sea Breeze 2018 multinational exercises.


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: On 2 April 2018, she celebrated the 25th anniversary of her commissioning. In January 2022, it was indicated that the ship would undergo a refit and upgrade.


title: Ukrainian frigate Hetman Sahaidachny

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, the ship was scuttled in Mykolaiv. On 3 March 2022, a photo emerged showing "Hetman Sahaidachny" partially sunk and with a list to port. On 4 March, the Ukrainian Defence Minister confirmed that "Hetman Sahaidachny" had been scuttled to prevent her capture by the Russian forces. According to the satellite imagery, it possibly happened on 28 February 2022.


title: Robert Ridgely

text: Robert Ridgely (December 24, 1931 – February 8, 1997) was an American actor, known for both on-camera roles and extensive voice-over work.


title: Robert Ridgely

text: He served as a talk show host with Woody Woodbury. Ridgely appeared in commercials, including a classic McDonald's commercial, staged as a Broadway production number, where he sings "there is nothin' so clean – as my burger machine". He guest starred on TV series such as "Sea Hunt" and the Warner Bros. Television series "Maverick", "Lawman", and "Surfside 6". He landed a regular role as Lieutenant Kimbro in the short-lived World War II Warner Bros./ABC series "The Gallant Men". After the series was cancelled, he made guest appearances on shows, including "Bonanza", "WKRP in Cincinnati", "Coach", "Night Court", "Wings" and "Designing Women".


title: Robert Ridgely

text: He appeared in various films, including two productions directed by Robert Altman early in his career, "Nightmare in Chicago" and "Countdown". He also appeared in several Mel Brooks productions, including "Blazing Saddles" (1974), "High Anxiety" (1977), "Life Stinks" (1991) and "" (1993). Ridgley starred in other films, including "Something Wild" (1986), "Beverly Hills Cop II" (1987), "Philadelphia" (1993) and "Boogie Nights" (1997). He put his strong voice to use in voice-over roles in movies like "Down and Dirty Duck" (1974) and television specials such as "Thanksgiving in the Land of Oz" (aka "Dorothy in the Land of Oz") (1980). He did a great deal of voice work on animated series as well, including the titular heroes in "Tarzan, Lord of the Jungle", "The New Adventures of Flash Gordon", and "Thundarr the Barbarian". From 1985 to 1996, Ridgely was one of ABC's main primetime promo announcers. He also voiced the Peculiar Purple Pieman in the 1980s "Strawberry Shortcake" specials, Rex Charger in "The Centurions", General "Thunderbolt" Ross on "The Incredible Hulk", Finch on "Daisy-Head Mayzie", and Commander Chief in "Dexter's Laboratory".


title: Brooke Williamson

text: Brooke Williamson (born August 15, 1978, Los Angeles, California) is an American chef, television personality and restaurateur. She is a Top Chef television series alum and co-owns "Playa Provisions" and "Company for Dinner" with her chef husband Nick Roberts.


title: Brooke Williamson

text: In 2001 Williamson was hired by Chris and Chantal Schaefer as executive chef of "Zax" where she met her husband who was her sous chef. Two years later she opened a restaurant with Roberts – "Amuse Café". The couple thereafter opened "Hudson House" (which she left in December 2020 due to the coronavirus pandemic) the Tripel, Playa Provisions, Tripli-Kit, and Da Kikokiko.


title: Brooke Williamson

text: Williamson has participated on Bravo's, Top Chef Duels, Esquire network's Knife Fight (where she took home the win) and Food Network's Guy's Grocery Games. On BBQ Brawl she was a judge and she was host and mentor for  MTV's House of Food. She worked with Eko and Walmart on Cook Together, which was the first 'real time' cooking show in which viewers can cook "with" the hosts while they cook.


title: Brooke Williamson

text: Williamson regularly participates in philanthropic efforts, oftentimes with Roberts. Examples of this include: her place on the Leadership Council of No Kid Hungry and a supporter of the James Beard Foundation. During the coronavirus pandemic she has been active in 'Help Feed the Frontline LA' and World Central Kitchen.


title: Brooke Williamson

text: Williamson won Season 14 of Top Chef as well as three consecutive challenges in "Last Chance Kitchen". She is the youngest female chef to cook at the James Beard House and at aged 21 she became the youngest sous chef at Michael's. To date she has won and has been an all-star judge for Top Chef. Williamson and Roberts were awarded the title of "Rising Star Chefs" from StarChefs in 2004. Padma Lakshmi dubbed her the "Quickfire Queen." Williamson was the winner of the inaugural Food Network Tournament of Champions in April, 2020, and the runner-up in 2021 and 2022.


title: Seawall

text: A seawall (or sea wall) is a form of coastal defense constructed where the sea, and associated coastal processes, impact directly upon the landforms of the coast. The purpose of a seawall is to protect areas of human habitation, conservation and leisure activities from the action of tides, waves, or tsunamis. As seawall is a static feature it will conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea.


title: Seawall

text: Seawall designs factor in local climate, coastal position, wave regime (determined by wave characteristics and effectors), and value (morphological characteristics) of landform. Seawalls are hard engineering shore-based structures which protect the coast from erosion. Various environmental issues may arise from the construction of a seawall, including the disruption of sediment movement and transport patterns. Combined with a high construction cost, this has led to an increasing use of other soft engineering coastal management options such as beach replenishment.


title: Seawall

text: Seawalls are constructed from various materials, most commonly reinforced concrete, boulders, steel, or gabions. Other possible construction materials include vinyl, wood, aluminum, fiberglass composite, and biodegradable sandbags made of jute and coir. In the UK, "seawall" also refers to an earthen bank used to create a polder, or a dike construction. The type of material used for construction is hypothesized to affect the settlement of coastal organisms, although the precise mechanism has yet to be identified.


title: Seawall

text: A seawall works by reflecting incident wave energy back into the sea, thus reducing the energy available to cause erosion. Seawalls have two specific weaknesses. Wave reflection from the wall may result in hydrodynamic scour and subsequent lowering of the sand level of the fronting beach. Seawalls may also accelerate erosion of adjacent, unprotected coastal areas by affecting the littoral drift process.


title: Seawall

text: Different designs of man-made tsunami barriers include building reefs and forests to above-ground and submerged seawalls. In 2005, India began planting "Casuarina" and coconut saplings on its coast as a natural barrier against future tsunamis like the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake. Studies have found that an offshore tsunami wall could reduce tsunami wave heights by up to 83%.


title: Seawall

text: The appropriate seawall design relies on location-specific aspects, including surrounding erosion processes. There are three main types of seawalls: vertical, curved or stepped, and mounds (see table below).


title: Seawall

text: A report published by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) suggests that the tsunami of 26 December 2004 caused less damage in the areas where natural barriers were present, such as mangroves, coral reefs or coastal vegetation. A Japanese study of this tsunami in Sri Lanka used satellite imagery modelling to establish the parameters of coastal resistance as a function of different types of trees. Natural barriers, such as coral reefs and mangrove forests, prevent the spread of tsunamis and the flow of coastal waters and mitigated the flood and surge of water.


title: Seawall

text: A cost-benefit approach is an effective way to determine whether a seawall is appropriate and whether the benefits are worth the expense. Besides controlling erosion, consideration must be given to the effects of hardening a shoreline on natural coastal ecosystems and human property or activities. A seawall is a static feature which can conflict with the dynamic nature of the coast and impede the exchange of sediment between land and sea. The table below summarizes some positive and negative effects of seawalls which can be used when comparing their effectiveness with other coastal management options, such as beach nourishment.


title: Seawall

text: Generally seawalls can be a successful way to control coastal erosion, but only if they are constructed well and out of materials which can withstand the force of ongoing wave energy. Some understanding is needed of the coastal processes and morphodynamics specific to the seawall location. Seawalls can be very helpful; they can offer a more long-term solution than soft engineering options, additionally providing recreation opportunities and protection from extreme events as well as everyday erosion. Extreme natural events expose weaknesses in the performance of seawalls, and analyses of these can lead to future improvements and reassessment.


title: Seawall

text: Sea level rise creates an issue for seawalls worldwide as it raises both the mean normal water level and the height of waves during extreme weather events, which the current seawall heights may be unable to cope with. The most recent analyses of long, good-quality tide gauge records (corrected for GIA and when possible for other vertical land motions by the Global Positioning System, GPS) indicate a mean rate of sea level rise of 1.6–1.8 mm/yr over the twentieth century. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) (1997) suggested that sea level rise over the next 50 – 100 years will accelerate with a projected increase in global mean sea level of +18 cm by 2050 AD. This data is reinforced by Hannah (1990) who calculated similar statistics including a rise of between +16-19.3 cm throughout 1900–1988. Super storm Sandy of 2012 is an example of the devastating effects rising sea levels can cause when mixed with a perfect storm. Super storm Sandy sent a storm surge of 4–5 m onto New Jersey's and New York's barrier island and urban shorelines, estimated at $70 billion in damage. This problem could be overcome by further modelling and determining the extension of height and reinforcement of current seawalls which needs to occur for safety to be ensured in both situations. Sea level rise also will cause a higher risk in flooding and taller tsunamis.


title: Seawall

text: Seawalls, like all retaining walls, must relieve the buildup of water pressure. Water pressure buildup is caused when groundwater is not drained from behind the seawall. Groundwater against a seawall can be from the area's natural water-table, rain percolating into the ground behind the wall and waves overtopping the wall. The water-table can also rise during periods of high water (high tide). Lack of adequate drainage can cause the seawall to buckle, move, bow, crack or collapse. Sinkholes may also develop as the escaping water pressure erodes soil through or around the drainage system.


title: Seawall

text: Extreme events also pose a problem as it is not easy for people to predict or imagine the strength of hurricane or storm induced waves compared to normal, expected wave patterns. An extreme event can dissipate hundreds of times more energy than everyday waves, and calculating structures which will stand the force of coastal storms is difficult and, often the outcome can become unaffordable. For example, Omaha Beach seawall in New Zealand was designed to prevent erosion from everyday waves only, and when a storm in 1976 carved out ten meters behind the existing seawall, the whole structure was destroyed.


title: Seawall

text: The addition of seawalls near marine ecosystems can lead to increased shadowing effects in the waters surrounding the seawall. Shadowing reduces the light and visibility within the water, which may disrupt the distribution as well as foraging capabilities of certain species. The sediment surrounding seawalls tends to have less favorable physical properties (Higher calcification levels, less structural organization of crystalline structure, low silicone content and less macroscale roughness) when compared to natural shorelines, which can present issues for species that reside on the seafloor.


title: Seawall

text: Some further issues include: lack of long term trend data of seawall effects due to a relatively short duration of data records; modelling limitations and comparisons of different projects and their effects being invalid or unequal due to different beach types; materials; currents; and environments. Lack of maintenance is also a major issue with seawalls. In 2013, more than 5,000 feet (1,500 m) of seawall was found to be crumbling in Punta Gorda, Florida. Residents of the area pay hundreds of dollars each year into a seawall repair program. The problem is that most of the seawalls are over a half century old and are being destroyed by only heavy downpours. If not kept in check, seawalls lose effectiveness and become expensive to repair.


title: Seawall

text: Seawall construction has existed since ancient times. In the first century BCE, Romans built a seawall / breakwater at Caesarea Maritima


title: Seawall

text: creating an artificial harbor (Sebastos Harbor). The construction used Pozzolana concrete which hardens in contact with sea water. Barges were constructed and filled with the concrete. They were floated into position and sunk. The resulting harbor / breakwater / seawall is still in existence today – more than 2000 years later.


title: Seawall

text: The oldest known coastal defense is believed to be a 100-meter row of boulders in the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Israel. The boulders were positioned in an attempt to protect the coastal settlement of Tel Hreiz from the sea rise following the last glacial maximum. Tel Hreiz was discovered in 1960 by divers searching for shipwrecks, but the row of boulders was not found until storms cleared the sand cover in 2012.


title: Seawall

text: More recently, seawalls were constructed in 1623 in Canvey Island, UK, when great floods of the Thames estuary occurred, prompting the construction of protection for further events in this flood prone area. Since then, seawall design has become more complex and intricate in response to an improvement in materials, technology and an understanding of how coastal processes operate. This section will outline some key case studies of seawalls in chronological order and describe how they have performed in response to tsunami or ongoing natural processes and how effective they were in these situations. Analysing the successes and shortcomings of seawalls during severe natural events allows their weaknesses to be exposed, and areas become visible for future improvement.


title: Seawall

text: The Vancouver Seawall is a stone seawall constructed around the perimeter of Stanley Park in Vancouver, British Columbia. The seawall was constructed initially as waves created by ships passing through the First Narrows were eroding the area between Prospect Point and Brockton Point. Construction of the seawall began in 1917, and since then this pathway has become one of the most used features of the park by both locals and tourists and now extends 22 km in total. The construction of the seawall also provided employment for relief workers during the Great Depression and seamen from on Deadman's Island who were facing punishment detail in the 1950s (Steele, 1985).


title: Seawall

text: Overall, the Vancouver Seawall is a prime example of how seawalls can simultaneously provide shoreline protection and a source of recreation which enhances human enjoyment of the coastal environment. It also illustrates that although shoreline erosion is a natural process, human activities, interactions with the coast and poorly planned shoreline development projects can accelerate natural erosion rates.


title: Seawall

text: On December 26, 2004, towering waves of the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake tsunami crashed against India's south-eastern coastline killing thousands. However, the former French colonial enclave of Pondicherry escaped unscathed. This was primarily due to French engineers who had constructed (and maintained) a massive stone seawall during the time when the city was a French colony. This 300-year-old seawall effectively kept Pondicherry's historic center dry even though tsunami waves drove water above the normal high-tide mark.


title: Seawall

text: The barrier was initially completed in 1735 and over the years, the French continued to fortify the wall, piling huge boulders along its coastline to stop erosion from the waves pounding the harbor. At its highest, the barrier running along the water's edge reaches about above sea level. The boulders, some weighing up to a ton, are weathered black and brown. The seawall is inspected every year and whenever gaps appear or the stones sink into the sand, the government adds more boulders to keep it strong.


title: Seawall

text: The Union Territory of Pondicherry recorded around 600 deaths from the huge tsunami waves that struck India's coast after the mammoth underwater earthquake (which measured 9.0 on the moment magnitude scale) off Indonesia, but most of those killed were fishermen who lived in villages beyond the artificial barrier which reinforces the effectiveness of seawalls.


title: Seawall

text: At least 43 percent of Japan's coastline is lined with concrete seawalls or other structures designed to protect the country against high waves, typhoons or even tsunamis. During the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami, the seawalls in most areas were overwhelmed. In Kamaishi, waves surmounted the seawall – the world's largest, erected a few years ago in the city's harbor at a depth of , a length of and a cost of $1.5 billion – and eventually submerged the city center.


title: Seawall

text: The risks of dependence on seawalls was most evident in the crisis at the Fukushima Dai-ichi and Fukushima Dai-ni nuclear power plants, both located along the coast close to the earthquake zone, as the tsunami washed over walls that were supposed to protect the plants. Arguably, the additional defense provided by the seawalls presented an extra margin of time for citizens to evacuate and also stopped some of the full force of energy which would have caused the wave to climb higher in the backs of coastal valleys. In contrast, the seawalls also acted in a negative way to trap water and delay its retreat.


title: Seawall

text: The failure of the world's largest seawall, which cost $1.5 billion to construct, shows that building stronger seawalls to protect larger areas would have been even less cost-effective. In the case of the ongoing crisis at the nuclear power plants, higher and stronger seawalls should have been built if power plants were to be built at that site. Fundamentally, the devastation in coastal areas and a final death toll predicted to exceed 10,000 could push Japan to redesign its seawalls or consider more effective alternative methods of coastal protection for extreme events. Such hardened coastlines can also provide a false sense of security to property owners and local residents as evident in this situation.


title: Seawall

text: Seawalls along the Japanese coast have also been criticized for cutting settlements off from the sea, making beaches unusable, presenting an eyesore, disturbing wildlife, and being unnecessary.


title: Seawall

text: After 2012's Hurricane Sandy, New York City mayor Bill de Blasio invested $3 billion in a hurricane restoration fund, with part of the money dedicated to building new seawalls and protection from future hurricanes.


title: Seawall

text: A New York Harbor Storm-Surge Barrier has been proposed, but not voted on or funded by Congress or the State of New York.


title: Hacksaw

text: A hacksaw is a fine-toothed saw, originally and mainly made for cutting metal. The equivalent saw for cutting wood is usually called a bow saw.


title: Hacksaw

text: Most hacksaws are hand saws with a C-shaped walking frame that holds a blade under tension. Such hacksaws have a handle, usually a pistol grip, with pins for attaching a narrow disposable blade. The frames may also be adjustable to accommodate blades of different sizes. A screw or other mechanism is used to put the thin blade under tension.


title: Hacksaw

text: On hacksaws, as with most frame saws, the blade can be mounted with the teeth facing toward or away from the handle, resulting in cutting action on either the push or pull stroke. In normal use, cutting vertically downwards with work held in a bench vise, hacksaw blades are set to be facing forwards.


title: Hacksaw

text: While saws for cutting metal had been in use for many years, significant improvements in longevity and efficiency were made in the 1880s by Max Flower-Nash. George N. Clemson, a founder of Clemson Bros. Inc of Middletown, New York, United States, conducted tests which involved changing the dimensions, shapes of teeth, styles of set, and variable heat treatments of blades. Clemson claimed enormous improvements to the cutting ability of blades and built a major industrial operation manufacturing hacksaw blades sold under the trade name Star Hack Saw. In 1898, Clemson was granted US Patent 601947, which details various improvements in the hacksaw.


title: Hacksaw

text: Standard hacksaw blade lengths are . Blades can be as small as . Powered hacksaws may use large blades in a range of sizes, or small machines may use the same hand blades.


title: Hacksaw

text: The pitch of the teeth can be from fourteen to thirty-two teeth per inch (TPI) for a hand blade, with as few as three TPI for a large power hacksaw blade. The blade chosen is based on the thickness of the material being cut, with a minimum of three teeth in the material. As hacksaw teeth are so small, they are set in a "wave" set. As for other saws they are set from side to side to provide a kerf or clearance when sawing, but the set of a hacksaw changes gradually from tooth to tooth in a smooth curve, rather than alternate teeth set left and right.


title: Hacksaw

text: Hacksaw blades are normally quite brittle, so care needs to be taken to prevent brittle fracture of the blade. Early blades were of carbon steel, now termed 'low alloy' blades, and were relatively soft and flexible. They avoided breakage, but also wore out rapidly. Except where cost is a particular concern, this type is now obsolete. 'Low alloy' blades are still the only type available for the Junior hacksaw, which limits the usefulness of this otherwise popular saw.


title: Hacksaw

text: For several decades now, hacksaw blades have used high speed steel for their teeth, giving greatly improved cutting and tooth life. These blades were first available in the 'All-hard' form which cut accurately but were extremely brittle. This limited their practical use to benchwork on a workpiece that was firmly clamped in a vice. A softer form of high speed steel blade was also available, which wore well and resisted breakage, but was less stiff and so less accurate for precise sawing. Since the 1980s, bi-metal blades have been used to give the advantages of both forms, without risk of breakage. A strip of high speed steel along the tooth edge is electron beam welded to a softer spine. As the price of these has dropped to be comparable with the older blades, their use is now almost universal.


title: Hacksaw

text: The most common blade is the 12 inch or 300 mm length. Hacksaw blades have a hole at each end for mounting them in the saw frame and the 12 inch / 300 mm dimension refers to the center to center distance between these mounting holes.


title: Hacksaw

text: The kerf produced by the blades is somewhat wider than the blade thickness due to the set of the teeth. It commonly varies between 0.030 and 0.063 inches / 0.75 and 1.6 mm depending on the pitch and set of the teeth.


title: Hacksaw

text: Hacksaws were originally and principally made for cutting metal, but can also cut various other materials, such as plastic and wood; for example, plumbers and electricians often cut plastic pipe and plastic conduit with them.


title: Hacksaw

text: A "panel hacksaw" has a frame made of a deep, thin sheet aligned behind the blade's kerf, so that the saw could cut into panels of sheet metal without the length of cut being restricted by the frame. The frame follows the blade down the kerf into the panel.


title: Hacksaw

text: "Junior hacksaws" are a small version with a half-size blade. Like coping saws, the blade has pins that are held by notches in the frame. Although potentially a useful tool for a toolbox or in confined spaces, the quality of blades in the Junior size is restricted and they are only made in the simple low alloy steels, not HSS. This restricts their usefulness.


title: Hacksaw

text: A "power hacksaw" (or "electric hacksaw") is a type of hacksaw that is powered either by its own electric motor or connected to a stationary engine. Most power hacksaws are stationary machines but some portable models do exist; the latter (with frames) have been displaced to some extent by reciprocating saws such as the Sawzall, which accept blades with hacksaw teeth. Stationary models usually have a mechanism to lift up the saw blade on the return stroke and some have a coolant pump to prevent the saw blade from overheating.


title: Hacksaw

text: Power hacksaws are not as commonly used in the metalworking industries as they once were. Bandsaws and cold saws have mostly displaced them. While stationary electric hacksaws are not very common, they are still produced. Power hacksaws of the type powered by stationary engines and line shafts, like other line-shaft-powered machines, are now rare; museums and antique-tool hobbyists still preserve a few of them.


title: Full Force

text: Full Force is an American music group of hip hop and R&B singers and producers from Brooklyn, New York.


title: Full Force

text: The group produced and wrote music for numerous artists including UTFO, Doctor Ice, Samantha Fox, Patti LaBelle, The Force M.D.s, Britney Spears, James Brown, Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam, Backstreet Boys, 'N Sync, Cheryl Pepsii Riley, Selena and Lil' Kim.


title: Full Force

text: Full Force's breakthrough hit was UTFO's "Roxanne, Roxanne" (1984), a record that led to several answer records, most notably one by Roxanne Shanté. Through the 80s the group produced a string of major hits for Lisa Lisa and Cult Jam, including "I Wonder If I Take You Home", "All Cried Out" and "Head to Toe". They also scored hits for Samantha Fox, including "Naughty Girls (Need Love Too)" and "I Wanna Have Some Fun" and R&B singer Cheryl Pepsii Riley including US R&B number one "Thanks for My Child". Their 1988 single "I'm Real" for James Brown gave the legendary singer his biggest hit for 14 years, peaking at US R&B number two.


title: Full Force

text: Additionally, the group wrote and produced most of the singles from La Toya Jackson's fifth studio album "La Toya", including "You're Gonna Get Rocked!" and "You Blew," as well as Patti LaBelle's track "I Got It Like That", for which they also provided prominent background vocals from her 1989 album "Be Yourself". Full Force also provided backing vocals on two Bob Dylan songs recorded during sessions for "Infidels": "Death Is Not the End" (released on "Down in the Groove" (1988) and "Tell Me" (released on "The Bootleg Series Volumes 1-3 (Rare & Unreleased) 1961-1991").


title: Full Force

text: Full Force's biggest hit from the 1990s was the Backstreet Boys' 1998 US top 5/UK number 2 hit single "All I Have to Give". Full Force also worked with Prince's ex-wife Mayté on her 1995 album "Child of the Sun", however the tracks remain unreleased.


title: Full Force

text: Full Force also contributed to the production on Blaque's 2002 unreleased album, "Blaque Out" and Lil' Kim's 2003 release, "La Bella Mafia", on her song "Can't Fuck with Queen Bee." The group produced Rihanna's "That La, La, La," which appears on her 2005 debut album "Music of the Sun". The Black Eyed Peas' 2005 worldwide hit "Don't Phunk with My Heart" was also written as a collaboration between Full Force and will.i.am of the Peas.


title: Full Force

text: In addition to their production résumé, the group have also released their own albums and music. Their 1985 single "Alice, I Want You Just for Me!" became a Top 10 hit in the UK in January 1986. They placed several hit singles under their own name on the US "Billboard" R&B chart during the latter half of the 1980s. Tracks such as "Unselfish Lover" (from their self-titled debut) and "Temporary Love Thing" (from their follow-up album, "Full Force Get Busy 1 Time!") received substantial airplay. "All in My Mind" became the group's first and only single to date to reach the R&B Top Ten in 1988.


title: Full Force

text: In 2001 Thump Records, a label known for its freestyle compilations, released the group's first greatest hits compilation "Ahead of Their Time! Full Force's Greatest Hits". In 2007, on its Columbia release "Legendary", the group has a song dedicated to Oprah Winfrey titled "We're Feeling You, Oprah." It was inspired by the related members' mother's love for Winfrey.


title: Full Force

text: They appeared in the 1990 comedy film "House Party" and its first sequel as the bullies of Kid 'n Play. (Although not included on "House Party"'s official soundtrack album, Full Force's "Ain't My Type of Hype" was used in the film's dance-battle scene.) Bowlegged Lou also acted in "Who's the Man?" (1993) and played Lord Primus in the 2013 sci-fi TV series "Body Jumpers".


title: Chloe

text: Chloe (; ), also spelled Chloë, Chlöe, or Chloé, is a feminine name meaning "blooming" or "fertility" in Greek. The name ultimately derives, through Greek, from the Proto-Indo-European root "", which relates to the colors yellow and green. The common scientific prefix "chloro-" (e.g. chlorine and chloroplast) derives from the same Greek root. In Greek the word refers to the young, green foliage or shoots of plants in spring.


title: Chloe

text: The name was a popular Ancient Greek girl's name (cf. the Ancient Greek novel Daphnis and Chloe) and remains a popular Greek name today.


title: Chloe

text: It has been a very popular name in the United Kingdom since the early 1990s, peaking in popularity later in the 1990s and during the first decade of the 21st century.


title: Chloe

text: In Northern Ireland, "Chloe" was the most popular name for newborn girls from 1997 to 2002, followed by Emma in 2003. It was also one of the most popular girls' names throughout the UK from 1995 to 2002. In 2013, it was the fourth-most popular name for baby girls in Australia.


title: Chloe

text: The name is occasionally misspelled as Chole. The United States Social Security Administration noted that a number of parents of girls initially named Chole on their birth certificates had filed to correct the spelling to Chloe between 2017 and 2022.


title: Kurt Travis

text: Kurt Travis (born January 16, 1987) is an American singer, musician, and songwriter from Sacramento, California. He is currently part of the post-hardcore bands Royal Coda and Push Over and the math rock duo Gold Necklace, and was formerly a vocalist in the rock bands Dance Gavin Dance and A Lot Like Birds.


title: Kurt Travis

text: Travis began his musical career in 2001. He joined post-hardcore band Five Minute Ride, releasing the extended plays (EPs), "Bathroom Walls... Lipstick Secrets" in 2003, and "The World Needs Convincing of All That It's Missing", on Rise Records, in 2005 before disbanding later that year. Travis later formed the folk group There & Back Again in 2006. Following these two groups, Travis helped form the band No Not Constant in July 2007, later disbanding the same year. In 2008, Travis became the lead vocalist for rock band O! the Joy, releasing one studio album, "Zen Mode" (2008). Following his underground success, Travis replaced Jonny Craig as clean vocalist in rock band Dance Gavin Dance. With the group, he released two studio albums, "Dance Gavin Dance" (2008) and "Happiness" (2009). After two years, it was revealed that Travis departed from Dance Gavin Dance, in 2010. The following year, Travis joined as a vocalist in the post-hardcore group A Lot Like Birds, releasing the studio albums "Conversation Piece" (2011) and "No Place" (2013) on Equal Vision Records, before departing in 2016. He briefly joined the math rock trio Eternity Forever, in 2016. He also formed the post-hardcore duo Push Over, along with The Fall of Troy's Thomas Erak, releasing a demo EP in February 2017. In 2018, he joined Royal Coda, having released three studio albums, "Royal Coda" (2018), "Compassion" (2019), and "To Only A Few At First" (2022).


title: Kurt Travis

text: As a solo artist, Travis has released three EPs, one split EP, and two full-length studio albums; "Everything Is Beautiful" (2014) and "There's a Place I Want to Take You" (2019). He launched his own record label, Esque Records, in 2016.