title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: The history and development of the Indian Ordnance Factories is directly linked to the British Raj in India. The East India Company considered military hardware to be a vital element for securing their economic interest in India and for increasing their political power. In 1775, the British East India Company accepted the establishment of the Board of Ordnance at Fort William, Calcutta. This marked the official beginning of the Army Ordnance and the Industrial Revolution in India.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: In 1787, a gunpowder factory was established at Ichapore. Production began in 1791, and the site was later used as a rifle factory beginning in 1904. In 1801, Gun Carriage Agency (now known as Gun & Shell Factory), was established at Cossipore, Calcutta, and production began on 18 March 1802. This is the oldest ordnance factory in India still in existence. There were eighteen ordnance factories before India became independent in 1947.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: Between 1860 and 1914, agriculture grew by expanding the land frontier which became more difficult after 1914.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: The entrepreneur Jamsetji Tata began his industrial career in 1877 with the Central India Spinning, Weaving, and Manufacturing Company in Bombay. While other Indian mills produced cheap coarse yarn (and later cloth) using local short-staple cotton and cheap machinery imported from Britain, Tata did much better by importing expensive longer-stapled cotton from Egypt and buying more complex ring-spindle machinery from the United States to spin finer yarn that could compete with imports from Britain. The effect on industry was a combination of two distinct processes: a robust growth of modern factories and a slow growth in artisanal industry, which achieved higher growth by changing from traditional household-based production to wage-based production.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: In the 1890s, Tata launched plans to expand into heavy industry using Indian funding after being denied permission by the British since 1883. The Raj did not provide capital, but it was aware of Britain's declining position against the U.S. and Germany in the steel industry, and it wanted steel mills in India so it promised to purchase any surplus steel Tata could not sell. However, the British controlled government and railways, the largest consumers of steel in the country, mandated the use of steel with a BSSS (British Standard Specification Steel) rating, while the rest of the world used a NBSSS (Non-British Standard Specification Steel) rating. This obstructed Indian steelmakers' ability to produce cheaper NBSSS rated steel, making Indian steel uncompetitive in the global market. Britain also placed restrictions on steel imports, making Indian produced BSSS rated steel difficult to export for profits. The Tata Iron and Steel Company (TISCO), opened its plant at Jamshedpur in Bihar in 1908. It became the leading iron and steel producer in India, with 120,000 employees in 1945. TISCO became India's proud symbol of technical skill, managerial competence, entrepreneurial flair, and high pay for industrial workers.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: The British Raj invested in infrastructure including canals, irrigation systems, telegraphy, railways, roads, and ports. The Ganges Canal reached 350 miles from Haridwar to Cawnpore, and supplied thousands of miles of distribution canals. By 1900, the Raj had the largest irrigation system in the world. In all, the amount of irrigated land rose eightfold. Historian David Gilmour says:


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: British investors built a modern railway system in the late 19th century, which became the fourth largest in the world at the time and was renowned for its quality of construction and service. The government was supportive of the railways, realizing its value for military use and economic growth, and they were designed to improve defense and foreign trade. While private British companies invested in the railways, they invested very little outside of this project. From 1890, the year main stage construction was completed, to 1914, the proportion of overseas British capital invested in India declined from 19% to 10%. At first, the railways were privately owned and operated by British administrators, engineers, and craftsmen, and the only unskilled workers were Indians.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: A plan for a rail system in India was first put forward in 1832. The first train in India ran from Red Hills to Chintadripet bridge in Madras in 1837. It was called "Red Hill Railway". It was used for freight transport only. A few more short lines were built in the 1830s and 1840s, but they did not interconnect and were used for freight transport only. The East India Company, and later the colonial government, encouraged new railway companies backed by private investors under a scheme that would provide land and guarantee an annual return of up to 5% during the initial years of operation. The companies were to build and operate the lines under a 99-year lease, with the government having the option to buy them earlier. In 1854, Governor-General Lord Dalhousie formulated a plan to construct a network of trunk lines connecting the principal regions of India. Encouraged by the government guarantees, investments flowed in and a series of new rail companies were established, leading to rapid expansion of the rail system in India.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: In 1853, the first passenger train service was inaugurated between Bori Bunder in Bombay and Thane, covering a distance of . The route mileage of this network increased from in 1860 to in 1880, mostly radiating inland from the three major port cities of Bombay, Madras, and Calcutta. Most of the railway construction was done by Indian companies supervised by British engineers. The system was heavily built, consisting of sturdy tracks and strong bridges. Several large princely states soon built their own rail systems, and the network spread to almost all the regions in India. By 1900, India had a full range of rail services with diverse ownership and management, operating on broad, meter, and narrow gauge networks.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: During the World War I, the railways were used to transport troops and grain to the ports of Bombay and Karachi en route to Britain, Mesopotamia, and East Africa. With shipments of equipment and parts from Britain curtailed, maintenance became much more difficult. Critical workers entered the army, workshops were converted to make artillery, and some locomotives and cars were shipped to the Middle East. The railways could barely keep up with the increased demand. By the end of the war, the railways had deteriorated badly. In World War II, the railway's rolling stock was diverted to the Middle East, and the railway workshops were converted into munitions workshops, which crippled the railways.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: Headrick argues that both the Raj lines and the private companies hired only European supervisors, civil engineers, and even operating personnel such as locomotive engineers. The government's Stores Policy required that bids on railway contracts be made to the India Office in London, shutting out most Indian firms. The railway companies purchased most of their hardware and parts in Britain. There were railway maintenance workshops in India, but they were rarely allowed to manufacture or repair locomotives. TISCO could not obtain orders for rails until the 1920s.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: Christensen looks at colonial purpose, local needs, capital, service, and private-versus-public interests. He concludes that making the railways a creature of the state hindered success because railway expenses had to go through the same time-consuming and political budgeting process as did all other state expenses. Railway costs could therefore not be tailored to the timely needs of the railways or their passengers.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: The worldwide Great Depression of 1929 had little direct impact on India, with only slight impact on the modern secondary sector. The government did little to alleviate distress, and was focused mostly on shipping gold to Britain. The worst consequences involved deflation, which increased the burden of debt on villagers, while lowering the cost of living. In terms of volume of total economic output, there was no decline between 1929 and 1934. Falling prices for jute and wheat hurt larger growers. The hardest hit sector was jute, based in Bengal, which was an important element in overseas trade. It had prospered in the 1920s, but was hard hit in the 1930s. In terms of employment, there was some decline, while agriculture and small-scale industry exhibited gains. The most successful new industry was sugar, which experienced growth in the 1930s.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: The newly independent, but weak Union government's treasury reported annual revenue of £334 million in 1950. In contrast, Nizam Asaf Jah VII of South India was widely reported to have a fortune of almost £668 million at that time. Approximately one-sixth of the national population was urban by 1950. The US Dollar was exchanged at 4.97 Indian Rupees.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: In 1947, the year India gained Independence over the British Raj, 90% of India's population was rural and 55% lived below the international poverty line.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: The sixth season of the American animated television series "The Simpsons" originally aired on the Fox network between September 4, 1994, and May 21, 1995, and consists of 25 episodes. "The Simpsons" is an animated series about a working class family, which consists of Homer, Marge, Bart, Lisa, and Maggie. The show is set in the fictional city of Springfield, and lampoons American culture, society, television and many aspects of the human condition. Season 6 was the highest rated season of the series.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: The showrunner for the sixth production season was David Mirkin who executive-produced 23 episodes. Former showrunners Al Jean and Mike Reiss produced the remaining two; they produced the two episodes with the staff of "The Critic", the show they left "The Simpsons" to create. This was done in order to relieve some of the stress "The Simpsons" writing staff endured, as they felt that producing 25 episodes in one season was too much. The episode "A Star Is Burns" caused some controversy among the staff, with Matt Groening removing his name from the episode's credits, as he saw it as blatant advertising for "The Critic", which Fox had picked up for a second season after being cancelled by ABC and with which Groening had no involvement. Fox moved "The Simpsons" back to its original Sunday night timeslot from season 1, having aired on Thursdays from season 2 through season 5. It has remained in this slot ever since. The sixth season won one Primetime Emmy Award (for the episode "Lisa's Wedding"), and received three additional nominations. It also won the Annie Award for Best Animated Television Production.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: The Complete Sixth Season DVD was released in the United States on August 16, 2005, September 28, 2005, in Australia, and October 17, 2005, in the United Kingdom. The set featured a plastic "clam-shell" Homer-head design and received many complaints. In the United States, the set contained a slip of paper informing purchasers how to request alternate packaging — which consisted of a case-sleeve in a similar style to the standard box design — for only a shipping and handling fee.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: David Mirkin served as showrunner and executive producer for season six, having worked in the same capacity on the previous season, while the season was produced by Gracie Films and 20th Century Fox Television. Due to Fox's demand for 25 episodes for the season, which the writers felt was impossible to achieve, former showrunners Mike Reiss and Al Jean returned to produce two episodes ("A Star Is Burns" and 'Round Springfield") with the staff of their show "The Critic", to relieve some of the stress on "The Simpsons" writing staff.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: David Cohen, Jonathan Collier, Jennifer Crittenden, Brent Forrester, Ken Keeler, Bob Kushell, David Sacks, Mike Scully, Joshua Sternin, and Jennifer Ventimilia all received their first writing credits during season six. Steven Dean Moore and Swinton O. Scott III received their first directing credit. Other credited writers included Greg Daniels, Dan McGrath, Bill Oakley, John Swartzwelder, Jon Vitti and Josh Weinstein. Other directors included Bob Anderson, Wes Archer, Susie Dietter, Mark Kirkland, Jeffrey Lynch, Jim Reardon and David Silverman.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: The main cast consisted of Dan Castellaneta (Homer Simpson, Grampa Simpson, Krusty the Clown, among others), Julie Kavner (Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier), Nancy Cartwright (Bart Simpson, Ralph Wiggum, Nelson Muntz, among others), Yeardley Smith (Lisa Simpson), Hank Azaria (Moe Szyslak, Apu, Chief Wiggum, among others) and Harry Shearer (Ned Flanders, Mr. Burns, Principal Skinner, among others). Other cast members included Doris Grau (Lunchlady Doris), Pamela Hayden (Milhouse Van Houten, among others), Tress MacNeille (Agnes Skinner, among others), Maggie Roswell (Maude Flanders, among others), Russi Taylor (Martin Prince, among others) and Marcia Wallace (Edna Krabappel). Guest stars included Anne Bancroft, Mel Brooks, Kelsey Grammer, Phil Hartman, Larry King, Susan Sarandon, Patrick Stewart, Meryl Streep and Winona Ryder.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: The season's first two episodes, "Bart of Darkness" and "Lisa's Rival", were held over from the previous season, as production was delayed because of the 1994 Northridge earthquake. "A Star Is Burns" caused some controversy among the staff with series creator Matt Groening removing his name from the episode's credits as he saw it as blatant advertising for "The Critic", which had moved from ABC to Fox for its second season and was scheduled to follow "The Simpsons". The season finale "Who Shot Mr. Burns?" (which aired in two parts, the second acting as the following season's premiere) came from Groening, who had wanted to do an episode in which Mr. Burns was shot, which could be used as a publicity stunt. The writers decided to write the episode in two parts with a mystery that could be used in a contest. It was important for them to design a mystery that had clues, took advantage of freeze frame technology, and was structured around one character who seemed the obvious culprit.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: During the production of the season, Groening and Brooks pitched a live-action spin-off series centered on Krusty the Clown (expected to be portrayed by Dan Castellaneta) entitled "Krusty" (although they began planning the series since 1992). Groening and Michael Weithorn wrote a pilot episode where Krusty moved to Los Angeles and got his own talk show. A recurring joke throughout the script was that Krusty lived in a house on wooden stilts which were continuously being gnawed by beavers. Eventually, the contract negotiations fell apart and Groening decided to stop work on the project.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: The season was critically acclaimed and remains popular among the show's fans. Reviews of the premiere "Bart of Darkness" in 1994 said the show was "just as strong and funny as it ever was," while the writing continued to be "crisp, hilarious and multi-layered." On Rotten Tomatoes, the sixth season of "The Simpsons" has a 100% approval rating based on 7 critical reviews. A 2010 appraisal of the show by IGN described the season as "hilarious", singling out the episodes "Treehouse of Horror V", "Itchy & Scratchy Land and "Bart vs. Australia" for praise. "Entertainment Weekly"s 2003 list of the show's best 25 episodes included four from this season: "Itchy & Scratchy Land", "Treehouse of Horror V", "Homer Badman" and "Who Shot Mr. Burns?".


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: Fox moved "The Simpsons" back to its original Sunday night time of 8 p.m., having aired it on Thursdays for the previous four seasons. It has remained in this slot ever since. "The Simpsons" was the network's "most popular series" and was moved in conjunction with Fox's purchase of the rights to the National Football League's National Football Conference games, which it would be airing on Sundays and was hoping would boost its Sunday night programs' ratings. Having been against "The Cosby Show" on Thursdays, the show was now against "" (ABC), "seaQuest DSV" (NBC) and "Murder, She Wrote" (CBS). "Bart of Darkness" finished 44th in the ratings for the week of August 29 to September 4, 1994, with a Nielsen rating of 8.9 and an audience share of 17%. The episode was the third highest rated show on the Fox network that week. This was down on the previous season's premiere "Homer's Barbershop Quartet" (12.7), and its finale "Secrets of a Successful Marriage" (9.8). The season finale "Who Shot Mr. Burns?" finished 51st with a rating of 8.7, the fifth highest rated Fox show of the week.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: The sixth season won one Primetime Emmy Award, and received three additional nominations. "Lisa's Wedding" won the Emmy for "Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming One Hour or Less). Alf Clausen received a nomination in the category "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Composition for a Series (Dramatic Underscore)" for "Treehouse of Horror V", while he and John Swartzwelder were nominated for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music and Lyrics" for the Stonecutters' song "We Do" in the episode "Homer the Great". Finally, "Bart vs. Australia" was nominated for "Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special". For the previous two seasons, the producers had nominated the show for Outstanding Comedy Series, failing each time. The show won the Annie Award for Best Animated Television Program in 1995 for season six, while Cartwright won the Annie for Voice Acting in the Field of Animation.


title: The Simpsons (season 6)

text: The DVD boxset for season six was released by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment in the United States and Canada on August 16, 2005, ten years after it had completed broadcast on television. As well as every episode from the season, the DVD release features bonus material including deleted scenes, Animatics, and commentaries for every episode. The menus follow the same format as the previous season's set. The packaging was changed from the standard box design, used for the previous five seasons, to a plastic clamshell design shaped like Homer's head. After many fans complained of the format change, a standard box was produced, with a "Who Shot Mr. Burns?" theme. The season was not offered for retail sale in North America in the standard box, but people who had bought the head design and preferred the alternative were offered the standard box free of charge. In the United Kingdom, the Homer head packaging was released as a limited edition item, with only 50,000 copies using the design. All other copies used the standard box format. The next four seasons were subsequently released in both a standard and head-shaped packaging in North America, as well as overseas.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: Berlin is the third solo studio album by American musician Lou Reed, released in October 1973 by RCA Records. A concept album, "Berlin" tells the story of a couple's struggle with drug addiction and abuse. Initially, critical reception was mixed but appraisals of the album have warmed over the years: in 1973 "Rolling Stone" declared the album "a disaster", but by 2012 the album was ranked No. 344 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: The album is a tragic rock opera about a doomed couple, Jim and Caroline, and addresses themes of drug use, prostitution, depression, domestic violence and suicide.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: The concept was created when producer Bob Ezrin mentioned to Lou Reed that although the stories told by Reed's songs had great beginnings, they never really had an ending. Specifically, Ezrin wanted to know what happened to the couple from "Berlin" – a song from Reed's first solo album.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: "The Kids" tells of Caroline having her children taken from her by the authorities and features the sounds of children crying for their mother.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: Reed and producer Bob Ezrin planned a stage adaptation of the album upon its initial release but shelved the plans due to mixed reviews and poor sales. In 2007 Reed fulfilled his original hopes by touring the album with a 30-piece band, 12 choristers and Anohni. Director Julian Schnabel filmed the concert and released it in 2008 as "", which opened to strong reviews. The album was digitally re-mastered and re-released on compact disc to commemorate the event.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: Instrumentally, Reed plays acoustic guitar. As with Reed's previous two studio albums, "Berlin" re-drafts several songs that had been written and recorded previously. The title track first appeared on Reed's solo debut album, only here it is simplified, the key changed and re-arranged for solo piano. "Oh, Jim" makes use of the Velvet Underground outtake "Oh, Gin". "Caroline Says II" is a rewrite of "Stephanie Says" from "VU" (though the latter was not released until 1985). The Velvet Underground had also recorded an alternative demo of "Sad Song", which had much milder lyrics in its original form. "Men of Good Fortune" had also been played by the Velvet Underground as early as 1966; an archival live recording, which can only be heard at the Andy Warhol Museum in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, features the song.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: The album cover was conceived by Pacific Eye & Ear, which also designed Alice Cooper's "Muscle of Love" the same year. The first lyrical lines of "Berlin" are shown beneath a collage of characters from the concept album.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: Stephen Davis, in a December 1973 review for "Rolling Stone", felt the album was a "disaster"; he disliked the world of "paranoia, schizophrenia, degradation, pill-induced violence and suicide" that the album introduced to the listener, as well as Reed's "spoken and shouted" performance. Robert Christgau in a February 1974 review for "Creem" felt that the story about "two drug addicts who fall into sadie-mazie in thrillingly decadent Berlin" was "lousy" and the music was "only competent".


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: "Berlin" reached No. 7 on the UK album chart (Reed's best achievement there until 1992's "Magic and Loss"). The BPI awarded the record a silver certification. Poor sales in the US (No. 98) and harsh criticism made Reed feel disillusioned about the album; however, he often featured "Berlin" material in his live shows, and concert renditions of most of the album's songs including "Berlin", "Lady Day", "Caroline Says I", "How Do You Think It Feels", "Oh, Jim", "The Kids", "The Bed" and "Sad Song" can be found on various live albums preceding his 2006 staging of the entire album in concert.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: "Cash Box" said of "How Do You Think it Feels" that it is "that kind of infectious track that folks will not forget," although it is "lyrically heavy."


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: In 2003 "Rolling Stone" ranked "Berlin" at number 344 on its list of the 500 greatest albums of all time, with the album maintaining this position in a 2012 update of the list. In 2008 a filmed live performance of the album was well received. When asked if he felt vindicated, Reed said, "For what? I always liked "Berlin"." The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: The Scottish folk rock band the Waterboys takes its name from a line in the song "The Kids". The Mexican and Spanish singer Alaska's name was inspired by the song "Caroline Says II".


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: "Caroline Says II" has been covered by several artists, including the Soft Boys, Human Drama, Mercury Rev and Marc and the Mambas. Siouxsie Sioux did a cover version of the song with the musicians of Suede in 1993. In 2008 Rick de Leeuw recorded a Dutch translation of the song, with the approval of Lou Reed himself.


title: Berlin (Lou Reed album)

text: On the initial 8-track tape and cassette tape release of "Berlin", there was an untitled one-minute instrumental piano solo performed by Allan Macmillan, pianist on the title track. It played between the songs "Berlin" and "Lady Day". It has otherwise never been featured on any vinyl or CD editions, or any subsequent reissue. There has never been any official explanation for this, although it may have been placed there in order to fill time and allow for uninterrupted song sequencing between the four programs on the 8-track version. In 2006, when Reed performed the entire album at St. Ann's Warehouse in New York, this solo was reinstated, performed before "Caroline Says II", arguably suggesting this is where the piece may have been originally intended to appear in the track sequence.


title: Leah Kunkel

text: Leah Cohen was born on June 15, 1948. She is the younger sister of Cass Elliot, best known as a member of the folk rock vocal group the Mamas & the Papas. In 1968, she married American drummer and music producer Russ Kunkel. Following Cass's death in 1974, Kunkel was given custody of Cass's daughter, Owen. The couple also raised their son, Nathaniel, later an Emmy Award-winning sound engineer.


title: Leah Kunkel

text: After being signed to Dunhill Records, Kunkel recorded her first record, "Billy", under the name Cotton Candy. She performed with a few bands and continued growing as a singer and songwriter. In 1972, she sang the counter-melody for "From Silver Lake" on Jackson Browne's eponymous debut album. Following additional session work with Stephen Bishop, Carly Simon, and Arlo Guthrie in the early 1970s, Kunkel appeared on James Taylor's 1977 album "JT". That same year, she appeared on Art Garfunkel's album "Watermark". Garfunkel relied on her vocal harmonies for his subsequent albums "Fate for Breakfast" (1979), "Scissors Cut" (1981), and "Lefty" (1988), and he became something of a mentor to her, helping to get her a recording contract with Columbia Records in 1979.


title: Leah Kunkel

text: In 1979, Kunkel released her first album for Columbia Records, which featured several of her own compositions. The self-titled album produced one single, "Step Right Up". The following year, she released her second solo album for Columbia, "I Run With Trouble".


title: Leah Kunkel

text: In 1980, Kunkel teamed up with Marty Gwinn to form the Coyote Sisters. In 1984, they released their first album, "The Coyote Sisters", on Lorimar Records. A follow-up album, "Women and Other Visions", was released in 2001. The Coyote Sisters continue to perform with Kunkel, who also continues to appear as a solo performer.


title: Leah Kunkel

text: Following her initial period with the Coyote Sisters, Kunkel qualified as an attorney, and has been in private practice for over twenty years. She is a member of the state bar associations of California and Massachusetts, with a practice concentration in entertainment law, and lives in Northampton, Massachusetts.


title: Nvidia NVDEC

text: Nvidia NVDEC (formerly known as NVCUVID) is a feature in its graphics cards that performs video decoding, offloading this compute-intensive task from the CPU.


title: Nvidia NVDEC

text: NVDEC can offload video decoding to full fixed-function decoding hardware (Nvidia PureVideo), or (partially) decode via CUDA software running on the GPU, if fixed-function hardware is not available.


title: Nvidia NVDEC

text: NVCUVID was originally distributed as part of the Nvidia CUDA Toolkit. Later, it was renamed to NVDEC and moved to the Nvidia Video Codec SDK.


title: Nvidia NVDEC

text: NVDEC is available for Windows and Linux operating systems. As NVDEC is a proprietary API (as opposed to the open-source VDPAU API), it is only supported by the proprietary Nvidia driver on Linux.


title: Nvidia NVDEC

text: HW accelerated decode and encode are supported on Nvidia GeForce, Quadro, Tesla, and GRID products with Fermi or newer generation GPUs.


title: Beauty Queen of Jerusalem (TV show)

text: The Beauty Queen of Jerusalem is an Israeli television series, based on the novel of the same name by Sarit Yishai Levy. It aired beginning on June 7, 2021, on the Yes Drama channel. The first two episodes of the series have been available on Yes VOD since June 3, 2021. At an event held at East Tel Aviv in December 2021, Yes unveiled its new original productions for 2022. It officially announced that the series has been renewed for a second season, which will be screened toward the end of 2022.


title: Beauty Queen of Jerusalem (TV show)

text: This series was screened on Netflix in May 2022 and is still available. It closed the Israel Film Festival in Los Angeles in May 2022.


title: Beauty Queen of Jerusalem (TV show)

text: The series tells the story of the Armoza family, intertwined with the history of Palestine during Ottoman rule and then under the British Mandate of Palestine. It also explores the family's fortunes during the subsequent periods of depression and war.


title: Beauty Queen of Jerusalem (TV show)

text: At the center of the series' plot, which takes place simultaneously on two timelines wherein present and past stories are presented alternately, are Gabriel Armoza (Michael Aloni), his wife Rosa (Hila Saada), and their three daughters: the eldest, Luna (Swell Ariel Or), who is her father's favorite; Rivka, and Rachel. The relationship between Gabriel and Luna contrasts with his lack of love for his wife Rosa. Her jealousy of Luna leads to difficult conflicts in the family.


title: Beauty Queen of Jerusalem (TV show)

text: After the novel sold more than 300,000 copies, Yes Drama bought the rights and adapted the novel "The Beauty Queen of Jerusalem" as a daily melodrama series. The creators are the screenwriters Shlomo Mashiach, Esther Namdar Tamam, and director Oded Davidoff, with Artza Production. Filming for the series began in the summer of 2020 in various locations in the city of Safed, including the Frenkel Frenel Museum and the Beit Castel gallery.


title: Beauty Queen of Jerusalem (TV show)

text: The daily TV series is based on the plot of the novel. The series explores the story of the Jerusalem Armoza family of Jerusalem. They are a Ladino-Sephardic family that was cursed: The women who marry into the family are not loved by their husbands. The series follows three generations of family from before the establishment of Israel until the 1970s.


title: Extreme points of Europe

text: This is a list of the extreme points of Europe: the geographical points that are higher or farther north, south, east or west than any other location in Europe. Some of these positions are open to debate, as the definition of Europe is diverse.


title: Stoner film

text: Stoner film is a subgenre of comedy film that revolves around the recreational use of cannabis. Generally, cannabis use is one of the main themes and inspires much of the plot. They are often representative of cannabis culture.


title: Stoner film

text: The series of movies from 1978 to 1985 starring Cheech & Chong are archetypal "stoner movies". Although not intended as a comedy, the historic propaganda film "Reefer Madness" (1936) has also become popular as a "stoner movie" because its anti-drug message is seen by some modern viewers as so over the top that the film amounts to self-parody. Other examples include "Assassin of Youth" (1937), "Marihuana" (1936) and "She Shoulda Said No!" a.k.a. "The Devil's Weed" (1949). Playing on such parody, a musical comedy remake set in 1936 (as the original film was), "Reefer Madness", was released in 2005.


title: Stoner film

text: "High Times" magazine regularly sponsors the Stony Awards to celebrate stoner films and television. Many of these films do not fit the category of "stoner film" as a subgenre, but contain enough cannabis use to be deemed noteworthy by the periodical.


title: Stoner film

text: Many stoner movies have certain elements and themes in common. The template involves a protagonist or protagonists (often two friends in a variation of the buddy film) who have or are attempting to find marijuana and have some task to complete. Often stoner films involve evading authority figures, sometimes law-enforcement agents, who are portrayed as comically inept, but also parents, co-workers, friends, and security guards, who disapprove of the protagonists' marijuana usage, usually out of a greater lack of acceptance of their lifestyle of leisure and innocence. Most serious moments are intended ironically, often to parody overwrought counterparts in mainstream cinema. The comic story arcs often approach or fall over the line into slapstick.


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: Pallavi Anu Pallavi is a 1983 Indian Kannada-language romantic drama film written and directed by Mani Ratnam in his debut. The film stars Anil Kapoor, Lakshmi, and Kiran Vairale. It revolves around a young man falling in love with a slightly older woman. The music was composed by Ilaiyaraaja, while cinematography was handled by Balu Mahendra. The film is also Kapoor's debut in Kannada cinema.


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: "Pallavi Anu Pallavi" was released on 7 January 1983 to critical acclaim. However, the film was an average grosser at the box office, performing well in bigger cities but not so well in smaller towns and villages. The film won in three categories at the Karnataka State Film Awards: Best Screenplay for Ratnam, Best Cinematographer for Balu Mahendra and Best Dialogue for R. N. Jayagopal.


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: Having pledged his love for college girl Madhu, Vijay finds himself entwined in a close friendship with Anu, a married woman separated from her husband. Vijay grapples with the definition of love, treading the fine line between trust and attraction, amidst tremendous societal pressure. He is confused about his feelings for Anu, yet wants Madhu as his life partner. Amid all this is his youthful streak of rebellion, ready to take on the world despite the society's extreme reaction, which creates more grief than good.


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: After completing his MBA and beginning work as a management consultant, Mani Ratnam was keen to enter the film industry and thus accepted the invitation of his friends Ravishankar and Raman (the sons of director B. R. Panthulu and musician S. Balachander respectively) to co-write the script of a Kannada film they were making, titled "Bangarada Gani". Featuring Vishnuvardhan, Lakshmi, Ambareesh and Roja Ramani, the film was never completed and was later shelved. Ratnam then decided to branch out as a director himself and wrote a script entirely in English, during a single month in 1980.


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: With the script of the film which he intended to make in Tamil, Ratnam first met Kamal Haasan to play the protagonist, after his friend Kitty arranged a meeting with the actor. Haasan demanded major changes to the script if he were to play the lead role, and introduced Ratnam to his brother Charuhasan, who pledged to help find the script a producer. Ratnam revealed that he was open to the idea of selling the script to a popular director so that he could learn about filmmaking during the production process, but his meetings with K. Balachander, Bharathiraja and Mahendran were not successful. Haasan had later claimed that he was unable to work in "Pallavi Anu Pallavi" due to his commitment to "Raja Paarvai" (1981) and around the same time "also getting into Hindi films".


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: Ratnam subsequently met several producers. The script was rejected by over twenty studios, including Rajkannu of Sri Amman Creations and Gowri Shankar of Devi Films. Subsequently, Ratnam's uncle Krishnamurthy and T. Govindarajan of Venus Films agreed to finance the film under the condition that he made it as a low-budget Kannada film. While P. C. Sreeram was his original choice for cinematography, the producers insisted on an established cinematographer. Ratnam then approached Balu Mahendra. Ratnam also convinced B. Lenin (who was incidentally his neighbour), to work as the editor, since he had been impressed with his editing of Mahendran's "Uthiripookkal" (1979). Thota Tharani who happened to meet Ratnam during the shoot of "Raja Paarvai", which the director had gone to watch, joined the team next.


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: While selecting the cast, Ratnam approached Lakshmi, with whom he had worked during the making of "Bangarada Gani" to portray the lead character with whom the younger man falls in love. Lakshmi was a well-established star at the time, and her coming on board, prompted Krishnamurthy to agree to financing the film. Anil Kapoor was chosen to portray the male protagonist after Ratnam was impressed with his performance in the Telugu film "Vamsa Vruksham" (1980). Kapoor also helped bring Kiran Vairale on board when Suhasini turned down the role. Rohit, the son of Srinath, was a child actor in the film and appeared in Ratnam's first shot.


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: Ratnam did not know Kannada before directing the film but learned it "on the job", as he extensively researched literature for the script at the USIS and British Council offices in Chennai. With the help of his associate Shivanand, he was able to convert the English dialogues into Kannada and help Kapoor and Kiran Vairale perform to their respective lines, in a language unfamiliar to them. The film was shot in Coorg and Bangalore, close to Venus Films' distribution centre in the city. Towards the end of production, the film ran into financial difficulties and it took twenty one months to finish the final three days of the shoot, owing to call-sheet conflicts.


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: Ilaiyaraaja composed the score and soundtrack, the lyrics for which were written by R. N. Jayagopal. In his biographical book "Conversations with Mani Ratnam", Ratnam revealed that Balu Mahendra introduced him to Ilaiyaraaja. Ratnam told Ilaiyaraaja that he was doing a Kannada film with a very small budget but wanted him to compose the music, while also confessing that he could not afford to pay the latter's market price. Ilaiyaraaja agreed to work for one-fifth the amount he was getting at the time. The composer would go on to collaborate with the director for nine more films, including acclaimed Tamil films like "Mouna Ragam" (1986), "Nayakan" (1987), "Agni Natchathiram" (1988), "Anjali" (1990) and "Thalapathi" (1991).


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: "Pallavi Anu Pallavi" was released on 7 January 1983. The film experienced moderate success at the box office, performing well in bigger cities but not so well in smaller towns and villages.


title: Pallavi Anu Pallavi

text: "Pallavi Anu Pallavi" was dubbed in Telugu with same title and in Tamil language as " Priya oh Priya". Idea Cellular has used the tune of "Naguva Nayana" as their theme music for the advertisements.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: Swedish Pomerania (; ) was a dominion under the Swedish Crown from 1630 to 1815 on what is now the Baltic coast of Germany and Poland. Following the Polish War and the Thirty Years' War, Sweden held extensive control over the lands on the southern Baltic coast, including Pomerania and parts of Livonia and Prussia ("dominium maris baltici").


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: Sweden, which had been present in Pomerania with a garrison at Stralsund since 1628, gained effective control of the Duchy of Pomerania with the Treaty of Stettin in 1630. At the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 and the Treaty of Stettin in 1653, Sweden received Western Pomerania (German "Vorpommern"), with the islands of Rügen, Usedom, and Wolin, and a strip of Farther Pomerania ("Hinterpommern"). The peace treaties were negotiated while the Swedish queen Christina was a minor, and the Swedish Empire was governed by members of the high aristocracy. As a consequence, Pomerania was not annexed to Sweden like the French war gains, which would have meant abolition of serfdom, since the Pomeranian peasant laws of 1616 was practised there in its most severe form. Instead, it remained part of the Holy Roman Empire, making the Swedish rulers "Reichsfürsten" (imperial princes) and leaving the nobility in full charge of the rural areas and its inhabitants. While the Swedish Pomeranian nobles were subjected to reduction when the late 17th century kings regained political power, the provisions of the peace of Westphalia continued to prevent the pursuit of the uniformity policy in Pomerania until the Holy Roman empire was dissolved in 1806.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: In 1679, Sweden lost most of its Pomeranian possessions east of the Oder river in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and in 1720, Sweden lost its possessions south of the Peene and east of the Peenestrom rivers in the Treaty of Stockholm. These areas were ceded to Brandenburg-Prussia and were integrated into Brandenburgian Pomerania. Also in 1720, Sweden regained the remainder of its dominion in the Treaty of Frederiksborg, which had been lost to Denmark in 1715. In 1814, as a result of the Napoleonic Wars, Swedish Pomerania was ceded to Denmark in exchange for Norway in the Treaty of Kiel, and in 1815, as a result of the Congress of Vienna, transferred to Prussia.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The largest cities in Swedish Pomerania were Stralsund, Greifswald and, until 1720, Stettin (now Szczecin). Rügen is today Germany's largest island.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: Pomerania became involved in the Thirty Years' War during the 1620s, and with the town of Stralsund under siege by imperial troops, its ruler Bogislaw XIV, Duke of Stettin, concluded a treaty with King Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden in June 1628. On 10 July 1630, the treaty was extended into an 'eternal' pact in the Treaty of Stettin (1630). By the end of that year, the Swedes had completed the military occupation of Pomerania. After this point, Gustavus Adolphus was the effective ruler of the country, and even though the rights of succession to Pomerania, held by George William, Elector of Brandenburg due to the Treaty of Grimnitz, were recognised, the Swedish king still demanded that the Margraviate of Brandenburg break with Emperor Ferdinand II. In 1634, the Estates of Pomerania assigned the interim government to an eight-member directorate, which lasted until Brandenburg ordered the directorate disbanded in 1638 by right of Imperial investiture.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: As a consequence, Pomerania lapsed into a state of anarchy, thereby forcing the Swedes to act. From 1641, the administration was led by a council ("Concilium status") from Stettin (Szczecin), until the peace treaty in 1648 settled rights to the province in Swedish favour. At the peace negotiations in Osnabrück, Brandenburg-Prussia received Farther Pomerania ("Hinterpommern"), the part of the former Duchy of Pomerania east of the Oder River except Stettin. A strip of land east of the Oder River containing the districts of Damm and Gollnow and the island of Wolin and Western Pomerania ("Vorpommern") with the islands of Rügen and Usedom, was ceded to the Swedes as a fief from Emperor Ferdinand III. The recess of Stettin in 1653 settled the border with Brandenburg in a manner favourable to Sweden. The border against Mecklenburg, along the Trebel and the Recknitz, followed a settlement of 1591.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The nobility of Pomerania was firmly established and held extensive privileges, as opposed to the other end of the spectrum which was populated by a class of numerous serfs. Even by the end of the 18th century, the serfs made up two-thirds of the population of the countryside. The estates owned by the nobility were divided into districts and the royal domains, which covered about a quarter of the country, were divided into "amts".


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: One fourth of the "knightly" estates ("Rittergut") in Swedish Pomerania were held by Swedish nobles. The ducal estates ("Domäne"), initially distributed among Swedish nobles (two thirds) and officials, became in 1654 administered by the former Swedish queen Christina. Swedish and Pomeranian nobility intermarried and became ethnically indistinguishable in the course of the 18th century.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The position of Pomerania in the Swedish Realm came to depend on the talks that were opened between the Estates of Pomerania and the Government of Sweden. The talks showed few results until the Instrument of Government of 17 July 1663 (promulgated by the recess of 10 April 1669) could be presented, and only in 1664 did the Pomeranian Estates salute the Swedish Monarch as their new ruler.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The Royal Government of Pomerania ("die königliche Landesregierung") was composed of the Governor-General, who always was a Swedish Privy Councillor, as chairman and five Councillors of the Royal Government, among them the President of the Appellate Court, the Chancellor and the Castle Captain of Stettin, over inspector of the Royal Amts. When circumstances demanded, the estates, nobility, burgesses, and — until the 1690s — the clergy could be summoned for meetings of a local parliament called the "Landtag". The nobility was represented by one deputy per district, and these deputies were in turn mandated by their respective district convents of nobles. The estate of the burgesses consisted of one deputy per politically franchised city, particularly Stralsund. The "Landtag" were presided over by a marshal ("Erb-landmarschall"). A third element of the meeting of the Estates were the five, initially ten, "Landtag" councillors who were appointed by the Royal Government of Pomerania following their nomination by the Estates. The Landtag councillors formed the "Land Council", which mediated with the Swedish Government and oversaw the constitution.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The Estates, which had exercised great authority under the Pomeranian dukes, were unable to exert any significant influence on Sweden, even though the Constitution of 1663 had provided them with a veto in as far as Pomerania was affected. Their rights of petition were however not limited, and by the privileges of King Frederick I of Sweden in 1720 they also had an explicit right to participate in legislation and taxation.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The legal system in Pomerania was in a state of great confusion, due to the lack of a consistent legislation or even the most basic collection of laws and instead consisting of a disparate collection of legal principles. The Swedish rule brought, if nothing else, at least the rule of law into the court system. Starting in 1655, cases could be appealed from the first instance courts to the appellate court in Greifswald (located in Wolgast from 1665 to 1680), where sentences were issued under the appellate law of 1672, a work conducted by David Mevius. Cases under canon law were directed to a consistorium in Greifswald. From the appellate court cases could be appealed to the supreme court for the Swedish dominions in Germany, the High Tribunal in Wismar, which had opened in 1653.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: From 1657 to 1659 during the Second Northern War, Polish, Austrian, and Brandenburger troops ravaged the country. The territory was occupied by Denmark and Brandenburg from 1675 to 1679 during the Scanian War, whereby Denmark claimed Rügen and Brandenburg the rest of Pomerania. Both campaigns were in vain for the winners when Swedish Pomerania was restored to Sweden in the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye in 1679, except for Gollnow and the strip of land on the east side of the Oder, which were held by Brandenburg as a pawn in exchange for reparations, until these were paid in 1693.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: Because Pomerania had been hit hard by the Thirty Years' War already and found it hard to recover during the following years, the Swedish government in 1669 and 1689 issued decrees ("Freiheitspatente") freeing anyone of taxes who built or rebuilt a house. These decrees were in force, though frequently modified, until 1824.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The first years of the Great Northern War did not affect Pomerania. Even when Danish, Russian, and Polish forces had crossed the borders in 1714, the Kingdom of Prussia first appeared as a hesitant mediator before turning into an aggressor. King Charles XII of Sweden in the Battle of Stralsund led the defence of Pomerania for an entire year, November 1714 to December 1715, before fleeing to Lund. The Danes seized Rügen and Western Pomerania north of the Peene River (the former Danish Principality of Rugia that later would become known as New Western Pomerania or "Neuvorpommern"), while the Western Pomeranian areas south of the river (later termed Old Western Pomerania or "Altvorpommern") were taken by Prussia.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: Danish Pomerania was since April 1716 governed by a governmental commission seated in Stralsund, consisting of five members. In contrast to the Swedish administration, the commission exerted both judiciary and executive power. Denmark thereby drew from the experiences in Danish-occupied Bremen-Verden (1712–1715), the setting of the Danish chancellery, and the contemporary Danish absolutism under king Frederik IV of Denmark-Norway. The commission consisted of landdrost von Platen, later von Kötzschau, counsellors Heinrich Bernhard von Kämpferbeck, J. B. Hohenmühle and Peter von Thienen, and chancellor secretary August J. von John. In 1720, von Kämpferbeck died and was replaced by Andreas Boye.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: By the Treaty of Frederiksborg, 3 June 1720, Denmark was obliged to hand back control over the occupied territory to Sweden, but in the Treaty of Stockholm, on 21 January the same year, Prussia had been allowed to retain its conquest, including Stettin. By this, Sweden ceded the parts east of the Oder River that had been won in 1648 as well as Western Pomerania south of the Peene and the islands of Wolin and Usedom to Brandenburg-Prussia.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: Denmark returned its Pomeranian territories to Swedish administration on 17 January 1721. The administrative records from the Danish period were transferred to Copenhagen and are available at the Danish National Archives (rigsarkivet).


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: A feeble Swedish attempt to regain the lost territories in the Pomeranian campaigns of the Seven Years' War (1757–1762, "Pomeranian War") failed. Swedish troops struggled to co-ordinate with their French and Russian allies, and what had begun as a Swedish invasion of Prussian Pomerania soon led to the Prussians occupying much of Swedish Pomerania and threatening Stralsund. When Russia made peace with Prussia in 1762, Sweden also dropped out of the war with a return to the status quo ante bellum. Sweden's disappointing performance in the war further hurt its international prestige.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: By royal proclamation on 26 June 1806, the Constitution of Pomerania was declared to have been suspended and abolished. The Swedish Instruments of Government of 1772, the Act of Union and Security of 1789, and the Law of 1734 were declared to have taken precedence and were to be implemented following 1 September 1808. The reason for perpetrating this royally sanctioned coup d'état was that the estates, despite a royal prohibition, had taken to the courts to appeal against royal statutes, specifically the statute of 30 April 1806 regarding the raising of a Pomeranian army. In the new order, King Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden attempted to introduce a government divided into departments. Swedish church law was introduced. The country was divided into four hundreds ("Härad") containing parishes


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: ("Socken") complying with the Swedish model of administration. The Estates of Pomerania could only be called regarding questions that specifically concerned Pomerania and Rügen. The new order of the Landtag was modelled on the Swedish Riksdag of the Estates and a meeting according to the new order also took place in August 1806, which declared its loyalty to the king and hailed him as their ruler. In the wake of this revolution, a number of social reforms were implemented and planned; the most important was the abolishment of serfdom by a royal statute on 4 July 1806.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: Also in 1806, Gustav IV Adolf of Sweden started constructing another major port city in Pomerania, Gustavia. Yet already in 1807, French forces occupied the site.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The entry into the Third Coalition in 1805, in which Sweden unsuccessfully fought its first war against Napoleon, subsequently led to the occupation of Swedish Pomerania by French troops from 1807 to 1810. After the Treaty of Paris signed in 1810, the territory was returned to Sweden. In 1812, when French troops yet again marched into Pomerania, the Swedish Army mobilized and assisted against Napoleon in the Battle of Leipzig in 1813, together with troops from Russia, Prussia, and Austria. Sweden also attacked Denmark and, by the Treaty of Kiel on 14 January 1814, Sweden ceded Pomerania to Denmark in exchange for Norway.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The fate of Swedish Pomerania was settled during the Congress of Vienna through the treaties between Prussia and Denmark on 4 June and with Sweden on 7 June 1815. In this manoeuvre Prussia gained Swedish Pomerania in exchange for Saxe-Lauenburg, becoming Danish, with Prussia having bartered previously Hanoverian Saxe-Lauenburg only 14 years earlier in exchange for East Frisia ceded to Hanover again. Denmark also received 2.6 million Thalers from Prussia. 3.5 million Thalers were awarded to Sweden in war damages. "Swedish Pomerania" was incorporated into Prussia as New Western Pomerania ("Neuvorpommern") within the Prussian Province of Pomerania.


title: Swedish Pomerania

text: The population of Swedish Pomerania was 82,827 subjects in 1764, (58,682 rural, 24,145 urban population, 40% of the rural population were "leibeigen" serfs); 89,000 in 1766, 113,000 in 1802, with about a quarter living on the island of Rügen, and had reached 118,112 in 1805 (79,087 rural, 39,025 urban population, 46,190 of the rural population were "leibeigen" serfs).


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista is a city in Cochise County, Arizona, United States. According to the 2020 Census, the population of the city is 45,308, and is the 27th most populous city in Arizona. The city is part of the Sierra Vista-Douglas Metropolitan Area, with a 2010 population of 131,346. Fort Huachuca, a U.S. Army post, has been incorporated and is located in the northwest part of the city. Sierra Vista is bordered by the cities of Huachuca City and Whetstone to the north and Sierra Vista Southeast to the South.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista, Spanish for 'mountain view', is southeast of Tucson and serves as the main commercial, cultural, and recreational hub of Cochise County. Sierra Vista is located on the southwestern side of Cochise County and is southwest of Tombstone, northwest of Bisbee, and from the border of Mexico. The closest port of entry to Mexico is Naco in the Mexican state of Sonora which is from Sierra Vista to the southeast. Sierra Vista is home to University of Arizona, College of Applied Science and Technology, a Defense Intelligence Agency (DIA) designated Intelligence Community - Center of Academic Excellence (IC-CAE) university, Cochise College, and Wick Communications, a media company operating 27 newspapers and 18 specialty publications in 11 states.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: As evidenced by several neolithic sites, which include the Murray Springs Clovis Site and known archeological sites like the Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site, Paleo-Indians, along with animals including mammoths, horses, tapirs, bison, and camels occupied the area more than 11,000 years ago (9000 BCE). Both the Murray Springs Clovis Site and the Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site are now National Historic Landmarks. This area was the home to a large Sobaipuri Pueblo near Fairbank which had several smaller pueblos and settlements throughout the valley, a Spanish Fort, Presidio Santa Cruz de Terrenate between modern Huachuca City , Whetstone, and Tombstone, on the west bank of the San Pedro River. along with a few Spanish settlers supporting the route to Tucson's Mission San Xavier del Bac and "Presidio San Agustín del Tucsón". Coronado National Memorial was established in the southern Huachuca Mountains to commemorate the expedition of the Spanish conquistador Francisco Vázquez de Coronado utilizing the nearby San Pedro River in his northward search of the Cities of Cíbola, often referred to now as the mythical Seven Cities of Gold.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Like most of Cochise County, this area was part of the Gadsden Purchase of 1854. Camp Huachuca was established in 1877. At the end of the Apache Wars in 1886, with the protection of the fort and the completion of the Southern Pacific and El Paso & Southwestern railroads, the San Pedro Valley began to be populated by American settlers.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: The first business that opened just outside the east gate of Fort Huachuca was a saloon and "house of ill repute" owned by John and Ellen Reilly, which opened in 1892. In 1911, Margaret Carmichael bought the Reilly homestead and business. By 1913, Margaret Carmichael had leased the business back to the Reillys. Also in 1913, a group of dry land farmers settled in the local area and named their settlement Buena. Buena was east of Garden Canyon, between Lewis Springs and Fort Huachuca, east of the junction of present-day Hwy 90 and Hwy 92. At this site was a post office and a school house that served children in Buena, Garden Canyon, and outreaches of the local area. Oliver Fry and his two oldest sons traveled from Texas on the railroad and settled on just east of Fort Huachuca in January, 1913.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: By 1917, the Overton Post Office was established. This name came from the Overton Mercantile and Investment Company, which took an option on the Carmichael property with plans to develop a townsite outside Fort Huachuca. It is believed that the company was unable to persuade anyone to move to the area, so when the option expired the Carmichaels took back the property with a general mercantile store and the post office.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: In 1918, the Carmichaels named their store after the Garden Canyon Sawmill. They also called their post office, where Carmichael was the postmaster, Garden Canyon. The Carmichaels built a home across the street from Garden Canyon store, as well as 18 stone houses, on Garden Avenue. From 1927 to 1938, the Frys rented the Carmichael store and ran the post office. The Frys established their own general store and the first federally recognized post office in 1938, the Fry Post Office, so the name of this settlement changed to Fry. By World War II, Fry's reputation was less than salubrious. According to the "Employment of Negro Troops" (CMH), "Because it was surrounded by a desert with no nearby communities and because it was located in a part of the country with practically no Negro population, Fort Huachuca, since the days when it was a frontier post garrisoned with Negro soldiers of the old regiments, had considered Fry a quasi-necessary adjunct... In Fry lived women... As the post commander described it in 1942: The small town of Fry is dirty, unsanitary and squalid. It has been so for many years. It was made worse in these respects during


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: When the base was reactivated on February 1, 1954, base commander Brigadier General Emil Lenzner, pushed for incorporation as both a way to solve the on-base housing problems as well as to distance themselves from reputation of "The White City" and Fry Town Settlement, hoping to encourage people to want to live off base in a more family-friendly community, away from undesirables like the minorities allowed to live unsegregated in Fry Town. Petitions for incorporation began to be filed in 1955 and were legally accepted in 1956, which included what had been Garden Canyon and Buena but did not include most of Fry Town. This was in part to keep a Federal Housing Authority (FHA) housing project contacts for housing off post away from the Fry Town area, and was used as a rationale to incorporate and begin getting a share of tax revenues without having to pay the Fry family for the parts of Fry Town considered desirable and wholesome.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: In 1955, the first attempt to incorporate and rename the area was rejected, as Fry opposed both incorporating and renaming the town that bore his family name. In 1956, the ballot issue failed 76 to 61. People who owned land outside of Fry's property in the area of Garden Canyon/Overton and Buena, as well as parts of Fry went forward with incorporation and renaming by petition on May 26, 1956, excluding the half-square-mile owned by Fry that included the local red light district called "the White City" as well as off base housing of the African-American "Buffalo" soldier officers' families, and other minorities and groups they considered undesirable in the 1950s. They were described as the "Fry People." When Sierra Vista was incorporated, it did not include the enclave of Fry, which remains an unincorporated area within the city of Sierra Vista.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista was incorporated in 1956. The proposed town council held a radio contest asking for names of the proposed town. Marie Pfister, the city clerk, asked her friend Nola Walker to store the suggestions. When the town was approved, they called Nola for the contest winner, but without counting the votes she told them her personal entry of "Sierra Vista" was the winner. On July 13, 2006, at a special ceremony during the city's 50th anniversary, Nola was granted "clemency" for her misrepresentation of the vote.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: In 1961 the community had grown large enough to be classified as a city, allowing the establishment of a community college. In 1973 Ethel Berger became the first female mayor in Arizona. In the 1970s the Art in the Park Festival was established by a committee of Army Wives, with it proceeds benefiting the Huachuca Arts Association, and college scholarships. Sierra Vista annexed Fort Huachuca, a U.S. military base, one of the largest employers in Arizona, and the adjacent community, in 1971.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista was the site of the first McDonald's drive thru, which opened in 1975. The owner, Dave Rich, drove the innovative approach to gain the business of the soldiers from nearby Fort Huachuca. At that time, soldiers were not allowed to wear their military fatigues off of the military base with the exception of driving or riding inside vehicles.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista has a population of over 43,000 today. The city is the economic and commercial center of Cochise County, and northern Sonora, Mexico.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista is in southwestern Cochise County at (31.545498, −110.276500). It is bordered on the northwest by the much smaller town of Huachuca City.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and is water. It is above sea level. Sierra Vista is flanked on the southwest side by the Huachuca Mountains, with Miller Peak rising to and Carr Peak to , both south of the city limits. The city is accessible via Arizona State Routes 90 and 92. The San Pedro River flows just east of the city limits.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: In the Köppen climate classification system, Sierra Vista falls within the typical cold semi-arid climate ("BSk") of mid-altitude Arizona. Fall and spring, like most other parts of Arizona, are very dry. Winters are cool to cold with frosts which can occasionally be hard freezes; frost can be expected to stop in mid- to late April. Spring, like fall, spends about half of itself within the frost season. Summer starts off dry, but progressively gets wetter as the monsoon season approaches. The city has a fairly stable climate with very little humidity. However, the North American Monsoon can bring torrential rains during the months of July and August and will produce almost half the yearly rainfall in just those two months alone. Due to the dry climate the rest of the year and the city's high elevation, daily winter low temperatures range from on average and up to on rare occasions when moist fronts bring warm air from the Gulf of California. Snow is not a common sight on the streets of Sierra Vista though some years the city can receive several inches of snow and other years it will receive none. However, a snow-capped Miller Peak and Carr Peak in the Huachuca Mountains is a common sight for four to five months every year.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Nicknamed the "Hummingbird Capital of the United States", the city sees bird watchers from all over the world flock to the nearby Ramsey Canyon Preserve and other local canyons to observe and photograph hundreds of different bird species. In the Huachuca Mountains, Ramsey Canyon is one of the prime locations to see hummingbirds in the U.S. An ecological crossroads between desert and tropics, the mountains that rise from the arid surroundings of this part of southeastern Arizona trap rainfall and create island-like biodiverse areas. Among numerous other plants and animals, the Ramsey Canyon wildlife reserve is home to 15 hummingbird species. Most notable are the beryline and violet-crowned hummingbirds, which breed in Central America but only migrate as far north as the southwestern United States. Other outdoor sightseeing and recreational opportunities that are nearby include the San Pedro Riparian National Conservation Area, the Coronado National Memorial in the Huachuca Mountains, and Parker Canyon Lake. Excellent views of the clear night sky have led Sierra Vista to become the chosen center of amateur astronomy in Arizona, with more than a dozen well equipped amateur observatories in the area and a large observatory at the University of Arizona College of Applied Science & Technology within the city limits.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Ramsey Canyon in the Huachuca Mountains was named after Gardner Ramsey after his arrival in the 1880s. Ramsey Canyon Preserve is at the end of Ramsey Canyon Road west of Arizona Highway 92. The preserve provides an excellent bird watching experience with two loop trails. The shorter loop trail is around half a mile long while the longer trail is around a mile. Two historic structures can be found along the trail. James Cabin, a log cabin dating to 1902, was built by John James on Ramsey Canyon Creek. The James House, built in 1911, is on the other side of the creek and provided a larger dwelling for the James family. Ramsey Canyon Trail is a longer (2.4 mile) trail, also known as Hamburg Trail, and is just beyond the Nature Conservancy preserve. The trail has an elevation change of 1,300 feet and enters the 20,000 acre Miller Peak Wilderness which is part of the Coronado National Forest after passing the Pat Scott Canyon and Wisconsin Canyon junction that includes the old prospecting site of Hamburg Mine.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Carr Canyon, named after James Carr, is accessible by the Carr Canyon Road and is a scenic drive in the Coronado National Forest. The rough road is seven miles long with only two of the seven miles paved. It was originally built by James Carr in 1881 and requires a high clearance vehicle to traverse. Carr Canyon roads ends at the Reef Townsite at an elevation of . Near the entrance of Carr Canyon is the historic Carr House, built in 1932, which is an information center operated by the Forest Service.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: The city of Sierra Vista maintains 17 different parks with Veterans Memorial Park being the largest measuring around 40 acres. Veterans Memorial Park consists of an Aquatic center called The Cove, benches, bike racks, children's playgrounds, drinking fountains, flag pole, horseshoe pits, grass play area, Ramadas, restrooms, skate & bike court, softball fields, teen & youth center, and volleyball courts. Veterans Memorial Park holds the largest events festivals in Sierra Vista to include the yearly Easter Eggstravaganza, Festival of the Southwest, Oktoberfest, Art in the Park, Cars in the Park, and a weekly Farmers Market. The other parks within Sierra Vista include Len Roberts Park, Hubert Tompkins Park, Garden Canyon Linear Park, Chaparral Village Park, Ciaramitaro Park, Bella Vista Park, Country Club Park, Nancy Hakes Park, Purple Heart Park, Soldier's Creek Park, Summit Park, Timothy Lane Park, A.V. Anderson Park, Bolin Airfield, James R. Landwehr Plaza, and Cyr Center Park.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: The Sierra Vista Aquatic Center, known as "The Cove", is a facility that contains of pool water surface, which equates to over of water. The Aquatic Center boasts a 0' depth, or "beach", entry, eight 25-yard lap lanes for lap and competitive swimming, and a wave machine with several wave patterns for Open Swim. The Cove has a submersible bulkhead which makes the switch from wave pool to competitive pool possible. The Cove also has a warm water therapy pool, children's lagoon with slide, two 1 meter diving boards and one 3 meter diving board, and two enclosed water tube slides to include a water tube slide.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista is home to one of four Arizona Veterans Memorial Cemeteries. Since it was developed by the Arizona Department of Veterans' Services over 7,000 burials have been conducted. Entertainer and US Navy veteran of World War II Emmett Kelly Jr. is buried there.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista is the largest of seven incorporated cities in Cochise County, accounting for one-third of the county's population. The population at the 2020 census was 45,308, up from 43,888 at the 2010 census, for a growth rate of 3.2% over the decade. Sierra Vista is the 21st largest incorporated place in Arizona as of the 2010 census.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Also indicated in the CER 2009 Economic Outlook publication, the Arizona DEC estimates the Sierra Vista Area population is approximately 75,000, which includes outlying areas of the Sierra Vista Southeast Census Designated Place, Huachuca City, Tombstone, Whetstone, Hereford and unincorporated surrounding areas. The population of the Sierra Vista Area is estimated to reach nearly 100,000 by 2028.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: According to the 2000 Census figures, the Sierra Vista population consists of 14,196 households, and 9,993 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 15,685 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 73.3% White, 10.9% Black or African American, 3.6% Asian, 0.8% Native American and 0.5% Pacific Islander. 6.1% of the population is from other races, and 4.9% from two or more races. 15.8% of the population is Hispanic or Latino.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: There were 14,196 households, out of which 34.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.5% were married couples living together, 25.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 7.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.48 and the average family size was 2.96.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: In the city, the age distribution of the population shows 25.8% under the age of 18, 13.0% from 18 to 24, 29.2% from 25 to 44, 19.9% from 45 to 64, and 12.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 100.7 males.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: The median income for a household in the city was $38,427, and the median income for a family was $44,077. Males had a median income of $30,053 versus $23,805 for females. The per capita income for the city was $18,436. About 8.0% of families and 10.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.8% of those under age 18 and 4.0% of those age 65 or over.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: As of the 2000 Census, of the population (37,775) 25 years and older 91.5 percent had at least a high school diploma or equivalent and an estimated 25.7 percent held a bachelor's degree or higher. The CER indicates that there has been an increasing trend for residents to attain a bachelor's degree or higher making the local area competitive in today's technological working environment. The estimated population of resident's educated at a post-secondary level (some college credit or more) in Sierra Vista is estimated to be higher than county, state, and national averages.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: The City of Sierra Vista is a council-manager municipality. The city council sets public policy while a professional city manager implements policy and oversees the day-to-day operation of the city.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Fort Huachuca, a U.S. Army post, an active and historical military installation and a communications and information technology hub, was annexed into the city in 1971. In addition, the city has been actively working to annex Cochise County enclaves within city limits as outlined in the City Council's strategic plan "Our Future Vistas".


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista is the commercial center for Cochise County and parts of northern Mexico. Retailers such as Lowe's, Home Depot, Walmart, Target, Dillard's, and Marshalls are located in the community, along with three major supermarkets and dozens of smaller specialty shops. The Mall at Sierra Vista is a mall in Sierra Vista.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista has a substantial employment base due to Fort Huachuca—the community's major employer and primary driving economic force. Because of contracts with the army, the professional, scientific, and technical services sector is unusually large. Nearly half of all jobs in Sierra Vista are government jobs.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Wick Communications, which publishes several dozen newspapers in some twelve states, is headquartered in Sierra Vista.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: As of July 2021, Sierra Vista has a civilian labor force of approximately 19,019 people with 18,097 employed. This would make the unemployment rate of Sierra Vista to be 4.8%.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista's largest workforce belongs to public administration with Fort Huachuca as the main economic driver. The industries by share of workforce are:


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: The Sierra Vista Unified School District includes one high school, Buena High School, one middle school, and six elementary schools. There are also several charter and private education opportunities. Higher education is available through the University of Arizona, College of Applied Science & Technology and Cochise Community College.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista has a variety of cultural and family-oriented activities throughout the year. Some of the major events include the Cochise Cowboy Poetry and Music Gathering in February, the Festival of the Southwest in the spring, Independence Day celebration, the Southwest Wings Festival in August for bird watching enthusiasts, and Arizona's longest-running holiday parade in December. During the winter months, the Sierra Vista Symphony Orchestra presents three concerts of classical and popular music, including pre-concert seminars, and puts on special fund raising events. Throughout the year, the Art Discovery Series presents plays, concerts, and musicals, and in the summer, there are regular band concerts at Veterans' Park, as well as many activities at the Sierra Vista Public Library such as a film series, lectures, readings, and other programs for children and adults. Pictographs created by Native Americans can be found in certain areas of the Huachuca Mountains.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: The Gray Hawk Nature Center offering nature education programs and housing live reptile and invertebrate exhibits is located nearby on the San Pedro River.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: In 2016, a Social Network Based News Agency was started called Sierra Vista News Network or SVNN. The Facebook page and other Networks SVNN operates include political coverage, Live Streamed High School Sports, and on demand Live News Coverage.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Television station KWBA-TV, channel 58, is licensed to Sierra Vista and serves the Tucson/Sierra Vista market. The station has broadcast since 1996 and is an affiliate of The CW network. The station's transmission tower is located in the Santa Rita Mountains between Sierra Vista and Tucson. Other area television stations include KFTU-DT, channel 36, the Spanish-language UniMás affiliate, licensed to Douglas with a broadcast tower in the Mule Mountains near Sierra Vista; and community station K33CG, channel 33, a former TBN affiliate.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Radio station KZMK (K-101) serves as a Top 40 hits FM radio station covering Sierra Vista and most of Cochise County. The station provides live broadcasts for significant events occurring in and around the city. Sister radio station KTAN (1420 AM) broadcasts a News Talk Information format. Both stations are owned by CCR-Sierra Vista IV, LLC., which also owns nearby Bisbee, Arizona radio station KWCD (92.3 FM), which broadcasts a country music format.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Radio station KWRB (formerly "The Spark") serves as a Christian FM radio station covering Bisbee and most of Cochise County, on the 90.9 MHz frequency. They also have an alternative station that serves Willcox, which repeats the station using the callsign K274CB, on 102.7 MHz frequency. Both radio stations are owned by World Radio Network, Inc.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: The Cochise County Cavaliers have combined with the Bisbee Ironmen, both former members of the Arizona Football League (AzFL), to form the Cochise County Ironmen. The Ironmen began their first season of play in 2011.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Canyon Vista Medical Center (CVMC) and the Raymond W. Bliss Army Health Center (located on nearby Fort Huachuca) serve the community's health care needs. Medical personnel of all major specialties are available in the area. Canyon Vista Medical Center was recently completed adjoining an existing Ambulatory Surgery and Imaging Center on SR 90. A management agreement for long term operations of the hospital was signed with RegionalCare Hospital Partners. The US Department of Veterans Affairs opened a clinic in Sierra Vista to better serve the area's large retired military population.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Residents and health professionals became concerned after observing an elevated number of leukemia and related childhood cancer cases being reported in Sierra Vista since 1995. In 2001, with seven reported cases since 1995, the Arizona Department of Health Services (ADHS) determined the number of cases was statistically elevated over the expected norm. In response, the ADHS launched an environmental review of air, drinking water and soil in the Sierra Vista area to determine if environmental exposure had placed residents at greater risk of childhood leukemia or other cancers. By October 2002, the ADHS in conjunction with the Arizona Cancer Registry, determined that, "No common environmental exposure from drinking water, ambient air or waste sites were identified that might have placed residents of the Sierra Vista area at greater risk of developing leukemia." No further action was recommended at that time.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: In 2003, three more cases of leukemia were reported. The Centers for Disease Control (CDC) was hesitant to investigate in depth, initially leaving the matter to state health departments, but became involved after the ADHS requested their assistance in the spring of 2003. The CDC concluded two formal studies, in 2004 and 2006, with mixed results. They did not discover any environmental causes for the increased incidence of leukemia, but they did note that they only tested four children with leukemia. They cautioned that with such a small number of study participants, "any attempt to measure associations between environmental exposure and disease would be inherently suspect and not statistically appropriate." Biological samples were tested for 128 chemicals, with results showing average or below average levels for all chemicals except tungsten, styrene and PCB-52, which were above average.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: There were no more reported cases in the several years following the CDC reports, bringing the occurrence statistics back in line with national averages. However, with a total of thirteen children diagnosed and another five potentially linked cases being investigated since 1995, some people still have concerns.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista is supported by a public mass transit system called Vista Transit, operated by the city. Huachuca City Transit operates between Huachuca City and Sierra Vista. Cochise Connection runs between Douglas, Bisbee, and Sierra Vista. Greyhound Lines offers service from Sierra Vista to Tucson and Phoenix.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: There are two highways (SR 90 and SR 92) connecting Sierra Vista with neighboring communities. The city is also served by the Sierra Vista Municipal Airport (FHU) which is jointly operated by the U.S. Army as Libby Army Airfield. Currently there are no commercial flights arriving to or departing from FHU.


title: Sierra Vista, Arizona

text: Sierra Vista established its Sister Cities program in 1989 with Resolution 2282 in order to promote a relationship with Cananea. Sierra Vista was later twinned with Radebeul on May 22, 1998, by Resolution 3956. Sierra Vista and Radebeul currently have a foreign exchange program with each other.


title: Digital data

text: Digital data, in information theory and information systems, is information represented as a string of discrete symbols each of which can take on one of only a finite number of values from some alphabet, such as letters or digits. An example is a text document, which consists of a string of alphanumeric characters . The most common form of digital data in modern information systems is "binary data", which is represented by a string of binary digits (bits) each of which can have one of two values, either 0 or 1.


title: Digital data

text: Digital data can be contrasted with "analog data", which is represented by a value from a continuous range of real numbers. Analog data is transmitted by an analog signal, which not only takes on continuous values, but can vary continuously with time, a continuous real-valued function of time. An example is the air pressure variation in a sound wave.


title: Digital data

text: The word "digital" comes from the same source as the words digit and "digitus" (the Latin word for "finger"), as fingers are often used for counting. Mathematician George Stibitz of Bell Telephone Laboratories used the word "digital" in reference to the fast electric pulses emitted by a device designed to aim and fire anti-aircraft guns in 1942. The term is most commonly used in computing and electronics, especially where real-world information is converted to binary numeric form as in digital audio and digital photography.


title: Digital data

text: Since symbols (for example, alphanumeric characters) are not continuous, representing symbols digitally is rather simpler than conversion of continuous or analog information to digital. Instead of sampling and quantization as in analog-to-digital conversion, such techniques as polling and encoding are used.


title: Digital data

text: A symbol input device usually consists of a group of switches that are polled at regular intervals to see which switches are switched. Data will be lost if, within a single polling interval, two switches are pressed, or a switch is pressed, released, and pressed again. This polling can be done by a specialized processor in the device to prevent burdening the main CPU. When a new symbol has been entered, the device typically sends an interrupt, in a specialized format, so that the CPU can read it.


title: Digital data

text: For devices with only a few switches (such as the buttons on a joystick), the status of each can be encoded as bits (usually 0 for released and 1 for pressed) in a single word. This is useful when combinations of key presses are meaningful, and is sometimes used for passing the status of modifier keys on a keyboard (such as shift and control). But it does not scale to support more keys than the number of bits in a single byte or word.


title: Digital data

text: Devices with many switches (such as a computer keyboard) usually arrange these switches in a scan matrix, with the individual switches on the intersections of x and y lines. When a switch is pressed, it connects the corresponding x and y lines together. Polling (often called scanning in this case) is done by activating each x line in sequence and detecting which y lines then have a signal, thus which keys are pressed. When the keyboard processor detects that a key has changed state, it sends a signal to the CPU indicating the scan code of the key and its new state. The symbol is then encoded or converted into a number based on the status of modifier keys and the desired character encoding.


title: Digital data

text: A custom encoding can be used for a specific application with no loss of data. However, using a standard encoding such as ASCII is problematic if a symbol such as 'ß' needs to be converted but is not in the standard.


title: Digital data

text: It is estimated that in the year 1986 less than 1% of the world's technological capacity to store information was digital and in 2007 it was already 94%. The year 2002 is assumed to be the year when humankind was able to store more information in digital than in analog format (the "beginning of the digital age").


title: Digital data

text: Digital data come in these three states: data at rest, data in transit and data in use. The confidentiality, integrity and availability have to be managed during the entire lifecycle from 'birth' to the destruction of the data.


title: Digital data

text: All digital information possesses common properties that distinguish it from analog data with respect to communications:


title: Digital data

text: Even though digital signals are generally associated with the binary electronic digital systems used in modern electronics and computing, digital systems are actually ancient, and need not be binary or electronic.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: Sigurd Ring (Old Norse: "Sigurðr Hringr", in some sources merely called "Hringr") according to legend was a king of the Swedes, being mentioned in many old Scandinavian sagas. According to these sources he was granted rulership over Sweden as a vassal king under his uncle Harald Wartooth. Later he would take up arms against his uncle Harald in a bid to overthrow him and take the crown of Denmark, a conflict which Sigurd eventually won after the legendary Battle of the Brávellir, where it is said that Odin himself intervened and killed Harald. In the Sagas, Sigurd is also known for being the father of the Norse Viking hero and legendary king of Denmark and Sweden, Ragnar Lodbrok. According to "Bósa saga ok Herrauds", there was once a saga on Sigurd Ring, but this saga is now lost.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: The "Hervarar saga" tells that when the Danish tributary king Valdar died, his son Randver became the king of Denmark, while his older brother Harald Wartooth took royal titles in Gautland. Then Harald subjugated all the territories once ruled by his maternal grandfather Ivar Vidfamne (Sweden, Denmark, Curonia, Saxony, Estonia, Gardarike, Northumberland). After Randver's death in battle in England, his son Sigurd Ring became the king of Denmark, presumably as the subking of Harald. Sigurd Ring and Harald fought the Battle of the Brávellir (Bråvalla) on the plains of Östergötland where Harald and many of his men died. Sigurd Ring ruled Denmark until his death and was succeeded by his son Ragnar Lodbrok. Harald Wartooth, however, had a son called Eysteinn Illruler who ruled Sweden until he was killed by Björn Ironside, a son of Ragnar Lodbrok.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: In "Sögubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum", Ring (mostly mentioned without the name element Sigurd) is the paternal nephew of the Danish king Harald Wartooth, and presumably (the part of "Sögubrot" where this would have been narrated expressly has not been preserved) the son of Randver, who in his turn is the son of Harald's mother Auðr the Deep-Minded and her husband king Raðbarðr of Gardariki. Harald Wartooth was beginning to feel old, so he made Ring the king of Uppland, with the commission to rule Sweden and Västergötland. When Harald reached the extraordinary age of 150, he desired to die like a king in battle, and therefore challenged Ring to meet him in the field. Ring gathered manpower from Sweden, Västergötland and Norway and marched his troops by land and sea to the plain of Brávellir beneath the forest of Kolmården, close to the Bråviken bay. There he was met by the multi-ethic army of Harald, and the colossal Battle of Brávellir followed. In the end Ring beat his uncle, who was bludgeoned to death in the desperate fighting, and became the ruler of Denmark as well. He put an jarl in charge of Skåne and made a shieldmaiden the ruler of the rest of Denmark (cf. "Chronicon Lethrense", below).


title: Sigurd Ring

text: Sigurd Ring (as he is now called in the text) married Alfhild, the daughter of King Gandalf Alfgeirsson of Alfheim (modern Bohuslän) and their son was Ragnar Lodbrok. As Sigurd grew old, distant parts of his realm began to secede, and it is told how he lost territory in England due to old age. A certain Adalbrikt (Æthelberht) took possession of Northumbria and was succeeded by his sons Ama and Ælla. One day, Sigurd was in Västergötland and was visited by his in-laws, the sons of Gandalf. They asked him to join them in attacking king Eysteinn of Vestfold in Norway. In Vestfold, there were great blóts held at Skiringssal. Unfortunately, "Sögubrot" (meaning the "fragment") ends there. However, the "Skjöldunga saga" is believed to be the original story on which "Sögubrot" is based and it continues the story (see below).


title: Sigurd Ring

text: According to the "extended Saga of Olaf Tryggvason", Sigurd Ring, after having stabilized his Swedish-Danish realm, recalled the lands in England once ruled by Harald Wartooth and Ivar Vidfamne. This territory was now ruled by Ingjald (Ingild), a brother of King Peter of Wessex and a mighty ruler in his own right. Ring therefore summoned the leiðangr and sailed to the west, reaching Northumbria. As Ingjald learned about the invasion, he gathered an army. In the ensuing battle, Ingjald and his son Ubbe (Eoppa) fell with a large part of their army. Ring now subordinated Northumbria and made Olaf Kinriksson tributary king. He was a grandnephew of Moald Digra, the mother of Ivar Vidfamne. Ring sailed back to his Nordic kingdom and Olaf reigned for a long time. Then, however, Eava (Eafa), the son of Ubbe, claimed the kingdom. Olaf was defeated and fled to his suzerain in Svíþióð. As compensation, Ring installed Olaf as sub-king in Jutland. As such he served Ring and later Ragnar Lodbrok. His descendants Grim, Audulf and Gorm (I) the Childless also ruled in Jutland. Gorm I adopted the foundling Knud, whose son Gorm II was the foster father of Hardeknud I, ancestor of the later Danish kings. The saga refers to names found in Anglo-Saxon royal genealogies, ancestors of Ecgberht, King of Wessex.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: The "Skjöldunga saga" tells that Sigurd Ring was married to Alfhild, the daughter of king Alf of Alfheim, and their son was Ragnar Lodbrok. Unfortunately, Alfhild died. When Sigurd Ring was an old man, he came to Skiringssal to take part in the great blóts. There he spotted a very beautiful girl named Alfsol, and she was the daughter of King Alf of Vendel (Vendel). The girl's two brothers refused to allow Sigurd to marry her. Sigurd fought with the brothers and killed them, but their sister had been given poison by her brothers so that Sigurd could never have her. When her corpse was carried to Sigurd, he went aboard a large ship where he placed Alvsol and her brothers. Then, he steered the ship with full sails out on the sea, as the ship burnt.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: Ragnar Lodbrok succeeded his father, but put a subking on the throne of Sweden, king Eysteinn Beli, who later was killed by Ragnar's sons.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: According to "Gesta Danorum" (book 7), by Saxo Grammaticus, Ring was the son of the Swedish king Ingjald and the maternal nephew of the Danish king Harald Wartooth. His father Ingjald had ravished the sister of Harald, resulting in an indecisive spate of warfare. In the end Harald accepted the abduction in order preserve the friendship with Ingjald. Ring fought with Harald Wartooth in the Battle of the Brávellir and became the overlord of Denmark as well. He appointed his cousin Ale the Strong as sub-king in Skåne while entrusting the shieldmaiden Hetha with the rest of the Danish lands. Saxo then describes the different subkings and their adventures. Fourteen Danish kings later, in book 9, Saxo presents a Sigurd Ring as "Siwardus, surnamed Ring". This king, however, bears no resemblance to the victor of Brávellir. Rather, he is the son of a Norwegian chief Sigurd and the maternal grandson of the historical King Götrik (i.e. Gudfred, d. 810). Backed by the men of Zealand and Skåne, he fights a civil war against his cousin Ring. As the two rivals join battle, they both fall. Sigurd Ring is the father of Ragnar Lodbrok who has been brought up in Norway during the civil war, but is now hailed as Danish ruler.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: According to "Hversu Noregr byggdist", Sigurd Ring is the son of Randver, the uterine brother of Harald Wartooth. Randver is the son of Raðbarðr while Harald is the son of Hrærekr slöngvanbaugi.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: In the part of the "Heimskringla" called the "Saga of Harald Fairhair", Harald Fairhair learns that the Swedish king Erik Eymundsson had enlarged Sweden westwards, until it reached the same extent as it had during king Sigurd Ring and his son Ragnar Lodbrok. This included Romerike, Westfold all the way to Grenmar, and Vingulmark.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: In "Ragnar Lodbrok's saga", it is mentioned that Sigurd Ring and Harald Wartooth fought in the Battle of the Brávellir and that Harald fell. After the battle Sigurd Ring was the king of Denmark, and he was the father of Ragnar Lodbrok.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: "Ragnarssona þáttr" only states that Ring was the king of Sweden and Denmark, and the father of Ragnar Lodbrok.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: In "Bósa saga ok Herrauds", it is only said that Sigurd Ring, the father of Ragnar Lodbrok fought with Harald Wartooth at the Battle of the Brávellir where Harald died. It adds that there was a saga on Sigurd Ring (which today no longer exists).


title: Sigurd Ring

text: According to the "Chronicon Lethrense", Harald Wartooth had made all the countries down to the Mediterranean pay tribute. However, when he went to Sweden to demand tribute, the Swedish king Ring met him at the Battle of the Brávellir, and Harald lost and died. Ring made a shieldmaiden the ruler of Denmark (cf. "Sögubrot af nokkrum fornkonungum", above).


title: Sigurd Ring

text: "Gríms saga loðinkinna" and the younger version of "Orvar-Odd's saga" only mention Sigurd Ring in a few lines relating to the Battle of the Brávellir with Harald Wartooth.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: In "Norna-Gests þáttr", it is said that Sigurd Ring was very old when he sent his son-in-law, the son of Gandalf, to request the Gjukungs, Gunnar and Högne to pay tribute. This was promptly refused. The sons of Gandalf then asked Sigurd Ring to help them fight against the Gjukungs and their renowned ally Sigurd Fafnisbani. Sigurd Ring could not help them in person, as he was busy fighting against ravaging Curonians and "Kœnir". Battle was joined in Holstein but turned into a defeat for the Norse army, since Sigurd Fanisbane made the Norse champion Starkad flee in panic.


title: Sigurd Ring

text: It has been suggested that a report of a struggle for the Danish crown may have given rise to the legend of Sigurd Ring. Following the death of Hemming in 812, a civil war broke out between his brother or cousin Sigifridus and Anulo. This Anulo was the nephew or grandson ("nepos") of an earlier king Harald. The rivals fought a battle for the succession in which both were killed. The names Sigfred and Sigurd were often conflated in medieval texts. As for Anulo, the name might originally represent Old Norse Ánleifr or Áli, though it was misunderstood by medieval Scandinavian chroniclers as Latin "annulus" which means ring. Saxo Grammaticus and some other medieval compilers of king lists clearly combine the names Sigfred/Sigurd and Anulo/Ring into one person, having received knowledge of 9th century historical events from the chronicle of Adam of Bremen (c. 1075). Their historical successor Ragnfred (r. 812-813) is mixed up by Saxo with the Viking leader Ragnar Lodbrok, who is identified as the son of Sigurd Ring. The Danish list of early Viking Age kings is therefore in part a High Medieval construction.