title: Heated tobacco product

text: In years leading up to 2018, increased tobacco control measures have directed the tobacco industry to develop alternative tobacco products, such as HTPs. There has been a global decline in tobacco consumption that, if continued, will negatively impact the tobacco industry's profits, which has forced the industry to invent and market new products like HTPs. The introduction of HTPs may also have been a response to the growing popularity of e-cigarettes beginning around 2007 after independent companies introduced them before major multinational tobacco companies entered the e-cigarettes market. Furthermore, the global decline of cigarette consumption and decrease in adult smoking prevalence (from 24% in 2007 to 21% in 2015), combined with the success of tobacco control, including the implementation of the WHO Framework Convention on Tobacco Control, may also have led the tobacco companies to consider alternative products to protect their profits and political interests. T.L. Caputi suggests that the ubiquity of e-cigarettes and the growing dissatisfaction with not providing a "throat-hit" may present an opportunity for HTPs. Philip Morris International anticipates a future without traditional cigarettes, but campaigners and industry analysts question the probability of traditional cigarettes being overshadowed by either e-cigarettes or other products like the IQOS.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: HTPs use a heating system where the tobacco is heated and aerosolised. In addition to nicotine, they contain additives that are flavoured and derived from substances other than tobacco. Evidence shows that the concentrations of nicotine in mainstream HTP aerosols are lower than in cigarette smoke. Smokers regularly reported HTP use to be less satisfying than smoking a cigarette. Tested HTPs provided more nicotine in the aerosol than a cigalike e-cigarette but not as much nicotine compared with a tank-style e-cigarette.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: HTPs are designed to be similar to their combustible counterparts by replicating the oral inhalation and exhalation, taste, rapid systemic delivery of nicotine, hand-to-mouth feel and throat hit sensations (depending on the temperature) when smoking traditional cigarettes. HTPs aim for a niche between combustible tobacco smoking and e-cigarettes that aerosolise nicotine. There are different types of HTPs in the marketplace: some use tobacco sticks like glo and IQOS, while others use loose-leaf tobacco such as Pax and Ploom.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The Firefly developed the Firefly 2, which heats loose-leaf plant material and concentrates and is often used to aerosolise cannabis, and is more compact than the original Firefly vaporizer. It uses a patented heating technology that heats the device up to the desired temperature (between 200 and 500 °F) with each puff rather than a preset temperature setting from the beginning.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: In 2016, British American Tobacco launched a battery-powered heated product called glo in Japan before selling it in South Korea, Switzerland, Russia, and Ukraine. In France, glo uses tobacco sticks called Neostiks. It uses a heating element with a tobacco stick that heats up to 240 °C. glo produces approximately 50% less nicotine emissions than IQOS. In May 2017 British American Tobacco released i-glo in Canada. Bonnie Herzog, a senior analyst at Wells Fargo Securities, stated that the proposed acquisition of R. J. Reynolds by British American Tobacco in 2016 would let them catch up with the competition. glo is marketed as being easier to operate than IQOS.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The glo iFuse debuted in Romania in 2015, and is a hybrid of a heated tobacco product and an e-cigarette. It consists of a heating element, a liquid tank (like e-cigarettes), and a tobacco cavity through which the aerosol passes and is infused with tobacco flavour. It uses cartridges called Neopods, and heats tobacco to approximately 35 °C.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: IQOS ( ) is a non-combustible reduced risk smoking alternative that was introduced in June 2014 and is marketed by Philip Morris International (PMI) under the Marlboro and Parliament brands. Although it is marketed as a novel product, it is very similar to the Accord released by the same company in 1998; however, the IQOS sticks have more nicotine, more tar, and less tobacco. They are heated at a lower temperature.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Initially launched in 2014 in Nagoya, Japan, and Milan, Italy, IQOS is being introduced to other countries; , it is available in 49 countries. PMI has projected that when 30 billions units are sold, the IQOS would increase profits by $700 million. In October 2018, PMI introduced a less expensive version of IQOS called IQOS 3 in Tokyo, Japan. The IQOS 3 Multi was also launched, and is capable of multiple consecutive uses.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The IQOS consists of a charger around the size of a mobile phone and a pen-like holder. The disposable tobacco stick, also known as a HeatStick, is described as a mini-cigarette. The sticks contain processed tobacco soaked in propylene glycol. The stick is inserted into the holder which then heats it to temperatures up to 350 °C, and the amount of nicotine provided may be a little strong for light cigarette smokers. Users have reported less smell and odor on clothing. There is a limited amount of research on the effect of IQOS on the user's health.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The physical effects on users are not yet known. The emissions of IQOS are considered to be smoke by independent researchers, and were called smoke by Phillip Morris researchers until 2016. The emissions generated by IQOS contain the identical harmful constituents as tobacco cigarette smoke, including volatile organic compounds at comparable levels to cigarette smoke, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, and carbon monoxide. Each of these substances, on the basis of rigorous research of cigarette smoke, are known to result in significant harms to health. According to Netherlands National Institute for Public Health and the Environment, IQOS is "harmful to health, but probably less harmful than smoking tobacco cigarettes".


title: Heated tobacco product

text: In 2016, PMI submitted a multi-million page application to the US FDA for IQOS to be authorized as a modified risk tobacco product. In March 2017, PMI submitted a premarket tobacco product application regarding its IQOS product to the US FDA. In December 2017, Reuters published documents and testimonies of former employees detailing irregularities in the clinical trials conducted by PMI for the approval of the IQOS product by the US FDA. The advisory panel appointed by the US FDA reviewed Philip Morris International's application in January 2018. The FDA granted permission to PMI to sell IQOS in the US on 30 April 2019, which also requires the company to follow strict marketing restrictions. IQOS formally launched in the US in October 2019. On 7 July 2020, the US FDA announced its ruling 456, which granted an "exposure modification" order that allows PMI to market IQOS in the United States.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The iSmoke OneHitter by iSmoke can be used as a loose-leaf tobacco vaporizer or for use with waxy oils. It is described as a "heat, not burn" tobacco vaporizer, and was launched in 2015. It has a chamber that can be filled with up to 800 milligrams of tobacco.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The 2 is marketed by Shenzhen Yukan Technology Co., Limited, of China. The HTP can use any pack of 20 cigarettes on a single battery charge and does not use tobacco-filled cartridges. It is an updated version over the original IUOC and was formally launched in 2018 at InterTabac in Germany.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The lil is an HTP that heats a cigarette stick with a circular blade that was launched by the Korea Tobacco & Ginseng Corporation on 20 November 2017. According to the company, a two-hour battery charge lasts for up to 20 cigarette sticks, its refills are cheaper than the IQOS and glo, and will fit in the IQOS product, though they do not recommend doing so for safety reasons.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: In May 2019, China Tobacco debuted the Mok in Korea. According to the company, Mok is more compact and weighs less than other products such as glo, IQOS, and lil. The Coo sticks are longer and wider than tobacco sticks from other companies.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: In 2010, the company Ploom (later rebranded as Pax Labs) launched a butane-powered product used to heat tobacco or botanical products. Later models replaced the butane heating with an electric system. The Pax 2 vaporizer uses loose plant material such as tobacco or cannabis and remains cool to the touch while the oven heats to one of four temperatures (up to 455 °F). The Pax 3 takes 15 seconds to heat up and can be used to heat cannabis flowers.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: In January 2016, Japan Tobacco released Ploom, which has been withdrawn from the US. The brand remained with Japan Tobacco and the product has been replaced with Ploom Tech, where an aerosol passes through a capsule of granulated tobacco leaves. The Ploom brand uses aluminum capsules called Vapodes, where tobacco can heat up to 180 °C. Because the Ploom Tech heats up more, it may generate more harmful emissions. In January 2019, Japan Tobacco introduced Ploom TECH+ and Ploom S in Tokyo, Japan.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Sales expanded throughout Japan in 2017. Japan Tobacco intended to spend $500 million to increase their heated tobacco manufacturing capacity by late 2018. Studies have not been conducted on Japan Tobacco International's Ploom product .


title: Heated tobacco product

text: In December 2017, PMI launched TEEPS in the Dominican Republic. It is an HTP that looks similar to a traditional cigarette. Instead of an electrically controlled heating system, it uses a carbon heat source that, once lit, passes heat to a processed tobacco plug.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: In September 2020, Yunnan Xike Science & Technology Co., Ltd. launched Cigoo; according to the company, it is a heated herbal product which releases nicotine and aroma aerosol at 300 °C, similar to mainstream HTPs. Instead of using reconstituted tobacco film in the stick, Cigoo sticks use patented plant particle as a carrier, added flavourants and additives.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The TEO heats a cigarette stick with a heating blade, and was launched by Shenzhen ESON Technology Co. Ltd. ("ESON") in Dec. 2021 after PODA. NEAFS tobacco-free sticks does not use tobacco, but instead a nicotine infused, tea-based organic compound.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Contents of selected analytes in the mainstream aerosol of a heated tobacco product compared to the mainstream smoke of traditional cigarettes. The highest and lowest values in two different types of tobacco sticks and traditional cigarettes were given by Mallock "et al." and Counts "et al." respectively. Column 5 shows the reduction of the analytes in the mainstream aerosol of the heated tobacco product compared to traditional cigarettes by percentage.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Tobacco stick, d. h. for heated tobacco products: a tobacco stick; for traditional cigarette: a cigarette.All values were generated using the Health Canada Intense (HCI) puffing conditions."TPM" = total particulate matter, and "NFDPM" = nicotine-free dried particulate matter.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: , HTPs are being introduced in markets around the world, and since October 2019, they have been sold in at least 49 countries. They are not as globally popular as the e-cigarette, which has an estimated global user count of 20 million. , the IQOS is the most popular product, and was authorised for marketing by the FDA in the US on 30 April 2019.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: , the industry has been rapidly introducing new heated tobacco products. HTPs were first sold in Japan, and several brands have been marketed there since 2014. Since the introduction of HTP in Japan there has been a 32% drop in the sale of tobacco cigarettes.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The share of the market in South Korea for heated tobacco products has surged at least five-fold during the last two years leading up to 2019. As of early 2018, these products are not sold in France.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Tobacco industry leaders predicted that HTPs may displace traditional cigarette smoking and, by extension, tobacco control strategies typically framed around cigarettes.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Since the introduction of PMI's IQOS brand in select Japanese cities in November 2014, web searches in Japan for "heat-not-burn products" (a marketing name for HTPs) increased substantially; average monthly searches rose 1,426% (95% CI: 746–3,574) during 2015–2016, and they continued to grow an additional 100% (95% CI: 60–173) between 2016 and 2017; in practical terms, there are now between 5.9 and 7.5 million heat-not-burn related Google searches in Japan each month based on the latest search estimates for September 2017. Moreover, forecasts relying on the historical trend suggest heat-not-burn searches would increase an additional 32% (95%CI: -4 to 79) during 2018, compared to current estimates for 2017 (January–September), with further growth expected.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Queries for heat-not-burn in Japan occur more frequently than queries for e-cigarettes in the United States, with the Japanese heat-not-burn queries first eclipsing e-cigarette queries in April 2016. Further, the change in average monthly queries for heat-not-burn in Japan between 2015 and 2017 was 399 (95% CI: 184–1,490) times larger than the change in average monthly queries for e-cigarettes in the United States over the same time period, increasing by 2,956% (95% CI: 1,729–7,304) compared to only 7% (95% CI: 3–13), which indicate that interest in heat-not-burn may outpace interest in e-cigarettes in the future.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: HTP demand presents a host of tobacco control challenges similar to e-cigarettes and new challenges specific to these products. They have been advertised as reduced-risk tobacco products in their Japanese test market.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The term "heat-not-burn" refers to tobacco heated (at ~350 °C) by an electrically powered element or carbon instead of being fully combusted (at ~800 °C). Terms used in marketing for cigarette-like products that "heat rather than burn" refer to them as "reduced risk" and "innovative". Marketing slogans like "heat-not-burn" cannot be a substitute for science. The tobacco industry has described them as "not-burned" (heat-not-burn), though it has backtracked from this claim . HTPs are not typically marketed as a harmless substitute to smoking, though they have been marketed as a "smoke-free" alternative to traditional cigarettes, and promoted as a way to lower risk from smoking. The IQOS product has been advertised as emitting "no smoke". This advertisement claim is not a replacement for science. It is expected that the promotion associated with these products will worsen the worldwide tobacco risk.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Companies employ similar strategies previously used for traditional cigarettes, such as marketing through a variety of outlets, including celebrity endorsements. "The tobacco industry has opened heated tobacco product flagship stores, cafes and sponsored public events such as concerts and car races around the world, which is alarming," said Judith Mackay, director of the Asian Consultancy on Tobacco Control.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Internal documents and statements by PMI researchers have contradicted PMI's claims about reduced harm in regard to the IQOS product. For example, in 2018, four PMI researchers who worked for the company stated that the lowered levels of certain substances produced by the IQOS did not automatically translate into the product being safer, even though PMI stated that the IQOS is safer than traditional cigarettes, as 58 substances in IQOS aerosols were found at lower levels than in cigarette smoke.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The tobacco industry claims that smokers will switch to HTPs; however, IQOS users are more likely to smoke and/or use e-cigarettes as well. Among those who have tried or intend to try IQOS, never-smokers equal or outnumber smokers. A review of PMI's research found that smokers did not understand "switching completely" and that IQOS users are not likely to switch completely.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Since 2017, PMI has been promoting its IQOS product in Europe and Asia, where IQOS products are sold as an alternative to regular cigarettes. Outside of an IQOS retail shop in Canada, marketing included a display sign with the message, "Building a Smoke-Free Future". Philip Morris International intends to convert its customers in Japan to using heated tobacco products.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: There has been significant controversy surrounding the marketing and use of these products. The tobacco companies are using a series of claims in the marketing of HTPs. In both websites and statements to the media and investors, HTPs are presented as less harmful but not risk-free. In a few instances, marketing materials claim that heated tobacco products are potentially helpful to smokers who want to quit. Some media accounts that announced product launches state that HTPs reduce the levels of harmful tobacco components by 90–95% compared to traditional cigarettes, while others emphasise the lack of odor or visible emissions as part of marketing campaigns; , there is no evidence to confirm the former claim. However, the public can perceive "lower exposure" claims as lower risk, even if no such claim was made explicitly. Other marketing claims highlight that these products produce no smoke (i.e., "smoke-free"). Implied in these claims, in advertisements and stores globally, is that smokers should switch from traditional cigarettes to these new, allegedly less harmful, products.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The tobacco industry's use of the "harm reduction" framework also serves to fracture the tobacco control movement, leaving it without a unified voice to communicate with the public, the media and with policy makers on the strategies to advance tobacco control. The concept of harm reduction has traditionally been embraced in several public health fields such as clean needles for injectable drug use and has been explored by some tobacco control experts in the past, with enthusiasm for the possibility of harm reduction growing with the widespread availability of e-cigarettes in certain markets. The tobacco industry frames harm reduction as a common ground with health advocates and a possible entry point to influence legislation and regulation of tobacco products.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: The tobacco companies use heated tobacco products as part of their broader political and public relations activities to position them as 'partners' to address the tobacco epidemic rather than as the vectors that are causing it. This is a similar strategy previously used by the tobacco industry to promote itself as a partner of public health in reducing the harms of tobacco, while obfuscating the scientific evidence pointing that harm reduction is achieved through tobacco control policies that decrease consumption.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: HTPs are subject to different regulations than traditional cigarettes. For example, some smoking bans do not extend to include them, and in the majority of the countries in which they have been sold, they have been taxed at a lower rate than traditional cigarettes. Tobacco companies have used these products to seek exemptions and relaxations of existing tobacco control policies, and have used them in attempts to influence regulatory policy to sustain and increase their clientele in the midst of decreasing cigarette usage.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: In the United States, these products fall under the jurisdiction of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) as amended by the Family Smoking Prevention and Tobacco Control Act of 2016. In the same year, Action on Smoking and Health stated in 2016 that "unless and until independent evidence shows that IQOS and similar products are substantially less harmful than smoking then these products should be regulated in the same way as other tobacco products." In 2017, Mitchell H. Katz, director of the Los Angeles County Health Agency, wrote: "There is concern that heat-not-burn tobacco will skirt local ordinances that prevent smoking in public areas." Tobacco control activist Stanton Glantz stated that the US FDA should halt new tobacco products until tobacco companies stop selling traditional cigarettes. It is recommended that indoor-smoking bans for traditional cigarettes be extended to heated tobacco products. It is recommended that marketing of these products, and claims being made about them, should be regulated.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Advertisement for the IQOS product itself is not regulated under the European Union Tobacco Products Directive, though the directive may apply to advertising for the IQOS' tobacco stick. The UK government has been looking into creating a separate category for taxing heated tobacco products.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Due to the alleged belief in heated tobacco harm reduction in Italy, HTPs are exempted from the fiscal regimes of tobacco products. Taxes on them are reduced as much as e-cigarettes, or half of traditional cigarettes. Moreover, the enforcement of various tobacco control regulations is only minimally adopted for HTPs in Italy: health warnings are required to cover only 30% of the heated tobacco product packaging (instead of 65% for traditional cigarettes), without pictorial images; comprehensive smoke-free regulations prohibiting smoking in all public places and workplaces do not apply to HTPs; and advertising and promotions are not banned for them. Epidemiologists Xiaoqiu Liu "et al." note the lax enforcement over HTPs have been exploited by the presence of "IQOS embassies" and "IQOS boutiques"—fancy concept stores where IQOS is promoted as a status symbol and free samples are given—and believe the most recognized tobacco control policies in Italy (i.e., price/tax increase, smoking bans, advertising bans, and health warnings) have been compromised by HTPs.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: HTPs are not restricted for sale in Israel by the Ministry of Health. The Justice Ministry in Israel agreed with the view of three voluntary organizations that the IQOS is a tobacco product, and that it should be regulated in the same manner as tobacco products. In Israel the IQOS is taxed at the same rate as traditional cigarettes.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Ploom, IQOS, and glo fall under the Tobacco Business Act as tobacco products in Japan because they consist of tobacco leaf. Ploom and IQOS are governed by the Tobacco Industries Act regulations as tobacco products in Japan. The Liberal Democratic Party will deliberate over increasing the tax rate for heated tobacco products in April 2018.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: Electronic tobacco products using dry material are regulated as e-cigarettes in South Korea by the Ministry of Health and Welfare, which are regulated differently than traditional cigarettes for tax reasons. As a result, IQOS are taxed at a lower rate when compared to the 75% incurred on normal cigarettes. Emerging tobacco products are banned in Singapore by the Ministry of Health. China plans to pass legislation to ban the sale of these products to minors, as of 2019.


title: Heated tobacco product

text: After IQOS launched a marketing campaign in New Zealand in December 2016, the country's Ministry of Health stated in 2017 that the refill sticks are not legal for sale in New Zealand under the Smoke-free Environments Act 1990. A representative for the company in New Zealand stated that IQOS products comply with the Smoke-Free Environments Act. Three meetings between Ministry of Health officials and people from the tobacco industry were held from 30 May 2017 through 2 June 2017 to "discuss regulation of new tobacco and nicotine-delivery products". In August 2017, the government stated they would initiate a review process before products are sold for heated tobacco products such as IQOS. In 2018, PMI and the Ministry of Health were in a legal dispute over the legality of selling IQOS in New Zealand, before a New Zealand court decided in March that the HEETs sticks used in the IQOS product are legal to sell in the country. Individuals can import heated tobacco products to New Zealand for personal use.


title: Hoi polloi

text: Hoi polloi (; ) is an expression from Greek that means "the many" or, in the strictest sense, "the people". In English, it has been given a negative connotation to signify the masses. Synonyms for "hoi polloi" include "the plebs" (plebeians), "the rabble", "the masses", "the great unwashed", "riffraff", and "the proles" (proletarians).


title: Hoi polloi

text: The phrase probably became known to English scholars through Pericles' Funeral Oration, as mentioned in Thucydides' "History of the Peloponnesian War". Pericles uses it in a positive way when praising the Athenian democracy, contrasting it with "hoi oligoi", "the few" (Greek: ; see also "oligarchy").


title: Hoi polloi

text: Its current English usage originated in the early 19th century, a time when it was generally accepted that one must be familiar with Greek and Latin in order to be considered well educated. The phrase was originally written in Greek letters. Knowledge of these languages served to set apart the speaker from "hoi polloi" in question, who were not similarly educated.


title: Hoi polloi

text: Some linguists argue that, given that "hoi" is a definite article, the phrase "the hoi polloi" is redundant, akin to saying "the the masses". Others argue that this is inconsistent with other English loanwords. The word "alcohol", for instance, derives from the Arabic "al-kuhl", "al" being an article, yet "the alcohol" is universally accepted as good grammar.


title: Hoi polloi

text: There have been numerous uses of the term in English literature. James Fenimore Cooper, author of "The Last of the Mohicans", is often credited with making the first recorded usage of the term in English. The first recorded use by Cooper occurs in his 1837 work "Gleanings in Europe" where he writes "After which the oi polloi are enrolled as they can find interest."


title: Hoi polloi

text: Lord Byron had, in fact, previously used the term in his letters and journal. In one journal entry, dated 24 November 1813, Byron writes:


title: Hoi polloi

text: Byron also wrote an 1821 entry in his journal "... one or two others, with myself, put on masks, and went on the stage with the 'oi polloi."


title: Hoi polloi

text: In "Confessions of an English Opium-Eater", Thomas De Quincey uses the term during a passage discussing which of the English classes is most proud, noting "... the children of bishops carry about with them an austere and repulsive air, indicative of claims not generally acknowledged, a sort of "noli me tangere" manner, nervously apprehensive of too familiar approach, and shrinking with the sensitiveness of a gouty man from all contact with the οι πολλοι."


title: Hoi polloi

text: While Charles Darwin was at the University of Cambridge from 1828 to 1831, undergraduates used the term "hoi polloi" or "Poll" for those reading for an "ordinary" degree, the "pass degree". At that time only capable mathematicians would take the Tripos or honours degree. In his autobiography written in the 1870s, Darwin recalled that "By answering well the examination questions in Paley, by doing Euclid well, and by not failing miserably in Classics, I gained a good place among the οἱ πολλοί, or crowd of men who do not go in for honours."


title: Hoi polloi

text: W. S. Gilbert used the term in 1882 when he wrote the libretto of the comic opera Iolanthe. In Act I, the following exchange occurs between a group of disgruntled fairies who are arranging to elevate a lowly shepherd to the peerage, and members of the House of Lords who will not hear of such a thing:


title: Hoi polloi

text: Gilbert's parallel use of "canaille", "plebs" ("plebeians"), and "hoi polloi" makes it clear that the term is derogatory of the lower classes. In many versions of the vocal score, it is written as "οἱ πολλοί", likely confusing generations of amateur choristers who had not had the advantages of a British Public School education.


title: Hoi polloi

text: John Dryden used the phrase in his Essay of Dramatick Poesie, published in 1668. Dryden spells the phrase with Greek letters, but the rest of the sentence is in English (and he does precede it with "the").


title: Hoi polloi

text: The term has appeared in several films and radio programs. For example, one of the earliest short films from the Three Stooges, "Hoi Polloi" (1935), opens in an exclusive restaurant where two wealthy gentlemen are arguing whether heredity or environment is more important in shaping character. They make a bet and pick on nearby trashmen (the Stooges) to prove their theory. At the conclusion of three months in training, the Stooges attend a dinner party, where they thoroughly embarrass the professors.


title: Hoi polloi

text: The University of Dayton's Don Morlan says, "The theme in these shorts of the Stooges against the rich is bringing the rich down to their level and shaking their heads." A typical Stooges joke from the film is when someone addresses them as "gentlemen", and they look over their shoulders to see who is being addressed. The Three Stooges turn the tables on their hosts by calling them "hoi polloi" at the end.


title: Hoi polloi

text: At the English public school (i.e., private school) Haileybury and Imperial Service College, in the 1950s and '60s, grammar schoolboys from nearby Hertford were referred to as "oips", from "hoi polloi", to distinguish them from comprehensive and secondary modern schoolboys, the lowest of the low, who were called "oiks".


title: Hoi polloi

text: Carole King's TV special "Really Rosie" (based on Maurice Sendak's works) contains a song called "My Simple Humble Neighborhood", in which Rosie remembers those whom she's met over the years. In the process, she mentions the hoi polloi as well as the grand elite.


title: Hoi polloi

text: The term continues to be used in contemporary writing. In his 1983 introduction to Robert Anton Wilson's "Prometheus Rising", Israel Regardie writes, "Once I was even so presumptuous as to warn (Wilson) in a letter that his humor was much too good to waste on hoi polloi who generally speaking would not understand it and might even resent it."


title: Hoi polloi

text: The term "hoi polloi" was used in a dramatic scene in the film "Dead Poets Society" (1989). In this scene, Professor Keating speaks negatively about the use of the article "the" in front of the phrase:


title: Hoi polloi

text: Keating's tone makes clear that he considers this statement to be an insult. He used the phrase "the hoi polloi", to demonstrate the mistake he warned against.


title: Hoi polloi

text: The term was also used in the comedy film "Caddyshack" (1980). In a rare moment of cleverness, Spaulding Smails greets Danny Noonan as he arrives for the christening of The Flying Wasp, the boat belonging to Judge Elihu Smails (Spaulding's grandfather), with "Ahoy, polloi! Where did you come from, a scotch ad?" This is particularly ironic, because Danny has just finished mowing the Judge's lawn, and arrives overdressed, wearing a sailboat captain's outfit (as the girl seated next to him points out, Danny "looks like Dick Cavett").


title: Hoi polloi

text: Todd Rundgren's band Utopia recorded a song titled "Hoi Polloi" on their album "Deface the Music" (1980), in which all of the songs are written and performed in the style of the Beatles.


title: Hoi polloi

text: The Lovin' Spoonful's song "Jug Band Music" includes the line: "He tried to mooch a towel from the hoi polloi."


title: Hoi polloi

text: In the song "Risingson" on Massive Attack's "Mezzanine" album, the singer apparently appeals to his company to leave the club they're in, deriding the common persons' infatuation with them, and implying that he's about to slide into antisocial behaviour:


title: Hoi polloi

text: In an episode of "This American Life", radio host Ira Glass uses the term hoi polloi while relaying a story about a woman who believes the letter 'q' should occur later in the alphabet. He goes on to say that "Q does not belong in the middle of the alphabet where it is, with the hoi polloi of the alphabet, with your 'm' 'n' and 'p'. Letters that will just join any word for the asking."


title: Hoi polloi

text: The term was used in a first-series episode (The New Vicar, aired 5 November 1990) of the British sitcom "Keeping Up Appearances". The main character, Hyacinth Bucket, gets into a telephone argument with a bakery employee. When the employee abruptly hangs up in frustration, Hyacinth disparagingly refers to him as "hoi polloi". This is in keeping with her character; she looks down upon those she considers to be of lesser social standing, including working-class people.


title: Hoi polloi

text: Hoi Polloi was used in Larry Marder's "Tales of the Beanworld" to name the unusual group of creatures that lived beneath the Beanworld.


title: Hoi polloi

text: In the first scene of The PlayStation ad "Double Life," a British man says, "In the day, I do my job, I ride the bus, Roll up my sleeves with the Hoi polloi".


title: Hoi polloi

text: Sue Townsend's Adrian Mole writes a poem called "The Hoi Polloi Reception" and later works as a cook "offal chef" in a Soho restaurant called Hoi Polloi.


title: Hoi polloi

text: The August 14, 2001 episode of CNN's "Larry King Live" program included a discussion about whether the sport of polo was an appropriate part of the image of the British Royal Family. Joining King on the program were "best-selling biographer and veteran royal watcher Robert Lacey" and Kitty Kelley, author of the book "The Royals". Their discussions focused on Prince Charles and his son Prince William:


title: Hoi polloi

text: The term appears in the 2003 Broadway musical "Wicked", where it is used by the characters Elphaba and Glinda to refer to the many inhabitants of the Emerald City: "... I wanna be in this hoi polloi ..."


title: Hoi polloi

text: The term also appears in the 2007 film Hairspray, where it is used by the character Edna saying: "You see me hobnobbing and drinking Rum and Cokes with all those hoi polloi?"


title: Hoi polloi

text: Jack Cafferty, a CNN anchorman, was caught misusing the term. On 9 December 2004 he retracted his statement, saying "And hoi-polloi refers to common people, not those rich morons that are evicting those two red-tail hawks (ph) from that fifth Avenue co-op. I misused the word hoi-polloi. And for that I humbly apologize."


title: Hoi polloi

text: New media and new inventions have also been described as being by or for the hoi polloi. Bob Garfield, co-host of NPR's "On the Media" program, 8 November 2005, used the phrase in reference to changing practices in the media, especially Wikipedia, "The people in the encyclopedia business, I understand, tend to sniff at the wiki process as being the product of the mere hoi polloi."


title: Hoi polloi

text: In "Sunk Costs" (season 3 episode 3) of "Better Call Saul", Jimmy has been arrested and the DDA (Oakley) teases him "getting fingerprinted with the hoi polloi".


title: Hoi polloi

text: In "Hooray! Todd Episode!" (season 4 episode 3) of "BoJack Horseman", Princess Carolyn (in the hopes of making a celebrity actress more relatable to the public) orders a press release to be prepared, stating "Portnoy finds joy in hoi polloi boy toy", referring to Todd as a "down-to-earth boring nobody".


title: Hoi polloi

text: Cellar Darling uses the expression as the lyrical hook in the song "The Hermit" from their debut album This Is the Sound.


title: Hoi polloi

text: The phrase "hoi polloi" has been used to promote products and businesses. As described by the "Pittsburgh Dish", the name "Hoi Polloi" may be chosen to indicate that the brand or service will appeal to the "common people".


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: The Distinguished Service Medal (DSM) is a military decoration of the United States Army that is presented to soldiers who have distinguished themselves by exceptionally meritorious service to the government in a duty of great responsibility. The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service that is clearly exceptional. The exceptional performance of normal duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: The Army's Distinguished Service Medal is equivalent to the Navy and Marine Corps' Navy Distinguished Service Medal, Air Force and Space Force's Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, and the Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal. Prior to the creation of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal in 1960, United States Air Force airmen were awarded the Distinguished Service Medal.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: The Distinguished Service Medal is awarded to any person who, while serving in any capacity with the United States Army, has distinguished themselves by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: The performance must be such as to merit recognition for service which is clearly exceptional. Exceptional performance of normal duty will not alone justify an award of this decoration. For service not related to actual war, the term "duty of a great responsibility" applies to a narrower range of positions than in time of war and requires evidence of a conspicuously significant achievement. However, justification of the award may accrue by virtue of exceptionally meritorious service in a succession of high positions of great importance. Awards may be made to persons other than members of the Armed Forces of the United States for wartime services only, and only then under exceptional circumstances with the express approval of the president in each case.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: The Distinguished Service Medal was authorized by Presidential Order dated January 2, 1918, and confirmed by Congress on July 9, 1918. It was announced by War Department General Order No. 6, 1918-01-12, with the following information concerning the medal: "A bronze medal of appropriate design and a ribbon to be worn in lieu thereof, to be awarded by the President to any person who, while serving in any capacity with the Army shall hereafter distinguish himself or herself, or who, since 04-06-1917, has distinguished himself or herself by exceptionally meritorious service to the Government in a duty of great responsibility in time of war or in connection with military operations against an armed enemy of the United States." The Act of Congress on July 9, 1918, recognized the need for different types and degrees of heroism and meritorious service and included such provisions for award criteria. The current statutory authorization for the Distinguished Service Medal is Title 10, United States Code, Section 3743.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: More than 2,000 awards were made during World War I, and by the time the United States entered World War II, approximately 2,800 awards had been made. From July 1, 1941, to June 6, 1969, when the Department of the Army stopped publishing awards of the DSM in Department of the Army General Orders, over 2,800 further awards were made.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: Prior to World War II the DSM was the only decoration for non-combat service in the U.S. Army. As a result, before World War II the DSM was awarded to a wider range of recipients than during and after World War II. During World War I awards of the DSM to officers below the rank of brigadier general were fairly common but became rare once the Legion of Merit was established in 1942.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: Until the first award of the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal in 1965, United States Air Force personnel received this award as well, as was the case with several other Department of the Army decorations until the Department of the Air Force fully established its own system of decorations.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: Because the Army Distinguished Service Medal is principally awarded to general officers, a list of notable recipients would include nearly every general, and some admirals, since 1918, many of whom received multiple awards, as well as a few civilians and sergeants major prominent for their contributions to national defense.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: General Martin Dempsey, former chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, holds the record for receiving the greatest number of awards of the Army Distinguished Service Medal, at six. He also received three awards of the Defense Distinguished Service Medal as well as one award each of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, the Air Force Distinguished Service Medal, and the Coast Guard Distinguished Service Medal, for a total of twelve Distinguished Service Medals.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: Generals of the Army Douglas MacArthur and Dwight Eisenhower are tied with five awards each received of the Army Distinguished Service Medal. They also each received one award of the Navy Distinguished Service Medal, for a total of six DSMs each.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: General Lucius D. Clay (Four Star) received three Army DSM awards for his service that included Commanding General, U.S. Army Forces (European Theater) and Military Governor of Germany. During his tenure, Gen. Clay solved his greatest challenge: the Soviet Blockade of Berlin, which was imposed in June 1948. Gen. Clay triggered the Berlin Airlift, which served the city residents during the harsh winter of 1948–1949. He is also a recipient of the Legion of Merit.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: General Norman Schwarzkopf received two awards of the Army DSM and one award each of the Defense DSM, Navy DSM, the Air Force DSM and the Coast Guard DSM, for a total of six DSMs.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: General Lloyd Austin received four awards of the Army DSM and five awards of the Defense DSM for a total of nine DSMs.


title: Distinguished Service Medal (U.S. Army)

text: Among notable recipients below flag rank are: X-1 test pilot Chuck Yeager and X-15 test pilot Robert M. White, who both received the DSM as U.S. Air Force majors; Air Force Major Rudolf Anderson, the U-2 pilot shot down during the Cuban Missile Crisis; director Frank Capra, decorated in 1945 as an army colonel; actor James Stewart, decorated in 1945 as an Army Air Forces colonel (later Air Force Brigadier General); Colonel Wendell Fertig, who led Filipino guerrillas behind Japanese lines; Colonel (later Major General) John K. Singlaub, who led partisan forces in the Korean War; and Major Maude C. Davison, who led the "Angels of Bataan and Corregidor" during their imprisonment by the Japanese, and Colonel William S. Taylor, Program Manager Multiple Launch Rocket System. Among notable civilian recipients are Harry L. Hopkins, Robert S. McNamara and Henry L. Stimson.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Clarksdale is a city in and the county seat of Coahoma County, Mississippi, United States. It is located along the Sunflower River. Clarksdale is named after John Clark, a settler who founded the city in the mid-19th century when he established a timber mill and business.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: The western boundary of the county is formed by the Mississippi River. In the Mississippi Delta region, Clarksdale is an agricultural and trading center. Many African-American musicians developed the blues here, and took this original American music with them to Chicago and other northern cities during the Great Migration.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: The Choctaw and Chickasaw Indians had occupied the Delta region for thousands of years prior to the arrival of European settlers, and had each developed complex cultures that took full advantage of their environment.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: European Americans built on this past, developing Clarksdale at the intersection of two former Indian routes: the Lower Creek Trade Path, which extended westward from present-day Augusta, Georgia, to New Mexico; and the Chakchiuma Trade Trail, which ran northeastward to the former village at present-day Pontotoc, Mississippi. They later improved these trails for roadways wide enough for wagons.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: The first removal treaty carried out under the Indian Removal Act was the 1830 Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, by which the Choctaw people were forced to cede 15 million acres of their homelands to the United States and to move to Indian Territory (now part of Oklahoma), west of the Mississippi River. A similar forced removal of the Chickasaw Nation began in 1837; when they reached Indian Territory, the federal government assigned them to what had been the westernmost part of the Choctaw Nation.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Following the removal of the Indians, European-American settlers migrated to the Delta region, where the fertile lowlands soil proved to be excellent for growing cotton after the land was cleared. They brought or purchased thousands of enslaved African Americans to work the several extensive cotton plantations developed in the county. The first ones were always developed with riverfront access, as the waterways were the chief forms of transportation.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: John Clark founded the town of Clarksdale in 1848, when he bought land in the area and started a timber business. It became a trading center. Clark married the sister of James Lusk Alcorn, a major planter who owned a nearby plantation. Alcorn became a politician, and was elected by the state legislature as US Senator. Later he was elected by voters as governor of the state. Thriving from the cotton trade and associated business, Clarksdale soon earned the title "The Golden Buckle on the Cotton Belt".


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: African-American slaves cultivated and processed cotton, worked as artisans, and cultivated and processed produce and livestock on the plantations. They built the wealth of "King Cotton" in the state. U.S. Census data shows Coahoma County, Mississippi's 1860 population was 1,521 whites and 5,085 slaves. James Alcorn was a major planter, owning 77 slaves according to the 1860 Slave Schedule.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Cedar Mound Plantation, located 5 miles south of Clarksdale, was purchased and named in 1834 by Alex Kerr Boyce. He died childless and it was inherited by his niece Mrs. Catherine (Kate) (née Henderson) Adams of South Carolina. She divided it among her unmarried children: Jennie, Will, and Lucia Adams. The sisters' correspondence (1845-1944) is held in a collection in their name at the University of Mississippi.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: After slavery was abolished, many black families labored as sharecroppers or tenant farmers. They gained some independence, no longer working in gangs of laborers, but were often at a disadvantage in negotiations with white planters, as they were generally illiterate. Planters advanced them supplies and seed at the beginning of the season, allowed them to buy other goods on credit, and settled with them at the end of harvest for a major portion of the crop. Historian Nicholas Lemann writes "segregation strengthened the grip of the sharecropper system by ensuring that most blacks would have no arena of opportunity in life except for the cotton fields" (p. 6).


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: During the Reconstruction Era following the Civil War, Mississippi's blacks and poor whites both benefited from the State's new constitution of 1868, which adopted universal suffrage; repealed property qualifications for suffrage or for office; provided for the state's first public school system; forbade race distinctions in the possession and inheritance of property; and prohibited limiting civil rights in travel.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Those gains were short-lived, as insurgent white paramilitary groups such as the Red Shirts worked to suppress black voting from 1868 on. By 1875 conservative white Democrats regained control of the state legislature in Mississippi. They later passed Jim Crow laws, including legal segregation of public facilities.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: A freedman named Bill Peace, who had served in the Union Army and returned to Clarksdale after the war, persuaded his former owner to allow him to form a security force to prevent theft from the plantation. On October 9, 1875, whites in Clarksdale began hearing rumors that "General Peace" was preparing his troops to plunder the town; rumors spread that he was planning to murder the whites. A white militia was formed, and they suppressed Peace's "revolt". Across Mississippi, white militias frequently formed in response to similar fears of armed black revolt.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Like the establishment of sharecropping, the restoration to power of the all-white Democratic Party in the South was a development of such magnitude to whites that it became encrusted in legend; many towns have their own mythic stories of the redemption of the white South. In Clarksdale, it is the story of the "race riot" of October 9, 1875.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: After the Reconstruction era and construction in 1879 of the Louisville, New Orleans and Texas Railway through the town, Clarksdale was incorporated in 1882. In 1886, the town's streets were laid out; it was not until 1913 that any were paved.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: African Americans composed most of the farm labor in the county into the 1940s, when increasing mechanization reduced the need for field workers. Thousands of blacks left Mississippi in the Great Migration to Chicago, St. Louis, and later, West Coast cities to work in the defense industry. They developed a rich musical tradition drawing from many strands of music, and influencing jazz and the blues in Chicago.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: In the early 20th century, Jewish immigrants from Eastern Europe began to settle in Mississippi, often working as merchants. From the 1930s to the 1970s, Clarksdale had one of the largest Jewish populations in Mississippi. In the 1930s, they founded Beth Israel Cemetery. However, most left as the city declined in population, with rural areas losing residents.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: The movement of large numbers of people both to and from Clarksdale is prominent in the city's history. Prior to 1920, Delta plantations were in constant need of laborers, and many black families moved to the area to work as sharecroppers. After World War I, plantation owners even encouraged blacks to move from the other parts of Mississippi to the Delta region for work. By this time, Clarksdale had also become home to a multi-cultural mixture of Lebanese, Italian, Chinese and Jewish immigrant merchants.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: By 1920, the price of cotton had fallen, and many blacks living in the Delta began to leave. The Illinois Central Railroad operated a large depot in Clarksdale and provided a Chicago-bound route for those seeking greater economic opportunities in the north; it soon became the primary departure point for many.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: During the 1940s, three events occurred which increased the exodus of African-Americans from Clarksdale. First, it became possible to commercially produce a cotton crop entirely by machine, which lessened the need for a large, low-paid workforce. (Coincidentally, it was on 28 acres of the nearby Hopson Plantation where the International Harvester Company perfected the single-row mechanical cotton picking machine in 1946; soil was prepared, seeded, picked and bailed entirely by machines, while weeds were eradicated by flame.)


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Second, many African-American GIs (soldiers) returned from World War II to find slim opportunities for employment in the Delta region. Finally, there appeared an accelerated climate of racial hatred, as evidenced by the violence against such figures as NAACP representative Aaron Henry.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: "The Great Migration" north became the largest movement of Americans in U.S. history, and was recounted with Clarksdale triangulated with Chicago and Washington D.C. in Nicholas Lemann's award-winning book "The Promised Land: The Great Black Migration and How it Changed America". The History Channel later produced a documentary based on the book, narrated by actor Morgan Freeman, who is also a co-owner of Ground Zero Blues Club.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Clarksdale played a very important role in the civil rights movement in Mississippi. The starting point for a civil rights movement in Clarksdale was the rape at gunpoint of two African-American women, Leola Tates and Erline Mills, in August 1951. The two white teenagers they said assaulted them, who admitted the event but said it was consensual, were arrested, but "despite the overwhelming evidence against them, the justice of peace court judge freed the accused perpetrators".


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Clarksdale's citizens are famous for their civil rights activism and Clarksdale's police department is equally famous for its efforts to limit these rights. On May 29, 1958, Martin Luther King Jr. visited Clarksdale for the first major meeting of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC). In 1960, Aaron Henry, a local pharmacist, was named state president of the NAACP, and went on to organize a two-year-long boycott of Clarksdale businesses. In 1962, King again visited Clarksdale on the first stop on a region-wide tour, where he urged a crowd of 1,000 to "stand in, sit in, and walk by the thousands".


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: National headlines in February 2013 covered the discovery of mayoral candidate Marco McMillian, who was found murdered near the town of Sherard, to the west of his home town of Clarksdale. Because McMillian was openly gay and was badly beaten before his death, there was speculation that his murder qualified to be classified as a hate crime. Lawrence Reed, an acquaintance of McMillian, was charged, tried, and found guilty of the murder in April 2015.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Clarksdale has been historically significant in the history of the blues. The Mississippi Blues Trail places interpretative markers for historic sites such as Clarksdale's Riverside Hotel, where Bessie Smith died following an auto accident on Highway 61. The Riverside Hotel is just one of many historical blues sites in Clarksdale. Early supporters of the effort to preserve Clarksdale's musical legacy included the award-winning photographer and journalist Panny Mayfield, "Living Blues" magazine founder Jim O'Neal, and attorney Walter Thompson, father of sports journalist Wright Thompson. In 1995, Mt. Zion Memorial Fund founder Skip Henderson, a vintage guitar dealer from New Brunswick, New Jersey and friend of Delta Blues Museum founder Sid Graves, purchased the Illinois Central Railroad passenger depot to save it from planned demolition. With the help of local businessman Jon Levingston, as well as the Delta Council, Henderson received a US$1.279 million grant from the federal government to restore the passenger depot. These redevelopment funds were then transferred on the advice of Clarksdale's City attorney, Hunter Twiford, to Coahoma County, in order to establish a tourism locale termed "Blues Alley", after a phrase coined by then Mayor, Henry Espy. The popularity of the Delta Blues Museum and the growth of the Sunflower River Blues & Gospel Festival and Juke Joint Festivals have provided an economic boost to the city.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which is land and 0.07% is water.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: As of the 2020 United States Census, there were 14,903 people, 5,847 households, and 3,808 families residing in the city.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: As of the 2010 United States Census, there were 17,962 people living in the city. 79.0% were African American, 19.5% White, 0.6% Asian, 0.6% Native American, 0.4% of some other race, and 0.5% from two or more races. 0.9% were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 20,645 people, 7,233 households, and 5,070 families living in the city. The population density was 1,491.8 people per square mile (575.9/km). There were 7,757 housing units at an average density of 560.5 per square mile (216.4/km). The racial makeup of the city was 68.52% African American, 29.95% White, 0.58% Asian, 0.11% Native American, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.22% from other races, and 0.60% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 0.65% of the population.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: There were 7,233 households, out of which 36.8% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 35.7% were married couples living together, 30.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 29.9% were non-families. 27.1% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.1% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.77 and the average family size was 3.38.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 32.9% under the age of 18, 14.6% from 18 to 24, 25.2% from 25 to 44, 16.3% from 45 to 64, and 10.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 28 years. For every 100 females, there were 89.8 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 81.1 males.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: The median income for a household in the city was US$20,188, and the median income for a family was US$22,592. Males had a median income of US$23,881 versus US$18,918 for females. The per capita income for the city was US$11,611. About 32.7% of families and 39.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 46.1% of those under age 18 and 31.4% of those age 65 or over.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: In late 1979, Carnegie Public Library Director Sid Graves began a nascent display series which later became the nucleus of the Delta Blues Museum. Graves single-handedly nurtured the beginnings of the museum in the face of an indifferent community and an often recalcitrant Library Board, at times resorting to storing displays in the trunk of his car when denied space in the library. When the fledgling museum was accidentally discovered by Billy Gibbons of the rock band ZZ Top through contact with Howard Stovall Jr., the Delta Blues Museum became the subject of national attention as a pet project of the band, and the Museum began to enjoy national recognition.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: In 1995, the museum, at that time Clarksdale's only attraction, grew to include a large section of the newly renovated library building, but remained under the tight control of the Carnegie Library Board, who subsequently fired Sid Graves, at the time seriously ill. Graves died in Hattiesburg, Mississippi, in January 2005. In an interim move from the renovated Library building, the Museum spent most of 1996 in a converted retail storefront on Delta Avenue under the direction of a politically connected former Wisconsin native, the late Ron Gorsegner. In 1997–1998, Coahoma County would finally provide funds to form a separate Museum Board of Directors composed mainly of socially prominent, local white blues fans, and to renovate the adjoining Illinois Central Railroad freight depot, providing a permanent home for the Delta Blues Museum.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: One is located on Stovall Road at a cabin believed to have been lived in by famed bluesman McKinley Morganfield, also known as Muddy Waters. Morganfield supposedly lived there from 1915 until 1943 while he worked on the large Stovall cotton plantation before moving to Chicago after mistreatment at the hands of a Stovall overseer.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Another Blues Trail marker is located at the Riverside Hotel, which provided lodging to blues entertainers passing through the delta.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: In 2009, a marker devoted to Clarksdale native Sam Cooke was unveiled in front of the New Roxy Theater.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Established in 2008, the Clarksdale Walk of Fame are plaques located in downtown which honor notable people from Clarksdale. Honorees include John Lee Hooker, Ike Turner, Muddy Waters, and Sam Cooke.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Coahoma Community College, a historically black college, is located in unincorporated Coahoma County, north of Clarksdale.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: The city of Clarksdale is served by the Clarksdale Municipal School District. The district has nine schools, including Clarksdale High School, with a total enrollment of 3,600 students. During the 1960s, the Clarksdale gained notoriety for being the first school district in the state of Mississippi to achieve SACS accreditation for both black and white schools, beginning the desegregation process in its schools.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Coahoma Early College High School, a non-district public high school in unincorporated Coahoma County, is located on the campus of Coahoma Community College, approximately north of Clarksdale.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Coahoma County Junior-Senior High School of the Coahoma County School District is in the city limits of Clarksdale, but does not serve the city.


title: Clarksdale, Mississippi

text: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant named their 1998 album "Walking Into Clarksdale" as a tribute to the significance that Clarksdale made in the history of the Delta Blues.


title: Pada (film)

text: Pada () is a 2022 Indian Malayalam-language Political social-thriller film directed by Kamal K. M. (who directed "I.D.") and starring Kunchacko Boban, Joju George, Vinayakan, and Dileesh Pothan. The film is based on a true incident that occurred in 1996 when the then Palakkad collector was held hostage. The film was released on 11 March 2022 and opened to critical acclaim.


title: Pada (film)

text: The film is based on a true incident that occurred in 1996 when the then Palakkad collector was held hostage. Pada begins with showing how five men in different places planning for something big to be done by them which might trigger a revolution. The group arrives at their destination, and waits for the collector to come. After a day's wait, they get into collector's chamber and forcibly ties him by chasing others around him out. On the collector's insistence to reveal, they identify themselves as 'Ayyankali Pada', activists working for the welfare of tribals and their current resolve is to keep the collector as a hostage and bargain with the current government to repeal the controversial Adivasi Land Amendment Bill. The miserable plight of Adivasi community is drawn more literally on the screen through the exchanges between the collector and the five men, the former however sympathizes with their plight and align with their cause.


title: Pada (film)

text: The film began production in 2019 with Kunchacko Boban, Joju George, Vinayakan and Dileesh Pothan. Mammootty was reported to make a cameo. Shooting finished by August 2019.


title: Pada (film)

text: The film released to highly positive reviews. Anna Mathews of A critic from "The Times of India" gave the film a rating of four out of five and said that "Basically, writer-director Kamal KM used a striking incident in the State's political history and converted it into a good cinema with a compelling, thought-provoking screenplay, perfectly captured scenes that convey not only the very different times but also the working of our government offices, and great acting. This is a highly recommended film for all". S. R. Praveen of "The Hindu" called the film "a sympathetic portrayal of the justified anger of the oppressed". Gautham VS of "The Indian Express" opined that "The movie is a powerful political statement and throws light on the policies of changing governments, be it the left or the right, who diluted the tribal laws over the years in favour of corporate interests by taking away the rights of tribal communities over forests". Sreeju Sudhakaran of "LatestLY" gave the film a rating of 4/5 and wrote "Kunchako Boban’s Malayalam Film Is Bold, Arresting Callback to a Revolt Against Systemic Indifference".


title: School segregation in the United States

text: School segregation in the United States is the separation of students based on their race. This has taken two forms, legally mandated segregation (historically), and segregation in fact. In the United States, public schools are primarily a U.S. state and local matter, not a national matter, and historically, public school systems in parts of the United States were racially segregated by law (see, Jim Crow laws). All such laws were overturned in the 1950s and 1960s, but for a variety of reasons racial concentrations continue in many areas. Currently more than half of all students in the United States attend school districts with high racial concentrations (over 75% either white or nonwhite students) and about 40% of black students attend schools where 90%-100% of students are non-white. Contemporary school racial segregation is most noticeable in California and New York.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Racial segregation in schools has a long history in the United States. Although enforced racial segregation is now illegal, American schools are more racially segregated now than in the late 1960s, when segregation laws were finally dismantled. It's been proposed that school segregation is increasing due to redistricting, housing patterns, school secession, and a 2007 Supreme Court decision that made it illegal for school districts to voluntarily use racial classifications to try to reduce racial segregation.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Segregation took "de jure form" with the passage of Jim Crow laws in the 19th century in the Southern United States where at the time 90% and more of African Americans lived. These laws were influenced by the history of slavery and discrimination in the US, and stated that schools must be separated by race but offer equal amenities; however, facilities and services were far from equal, and sometimes even non-existent for minorities. Secondary schools for African Americans in the South were called training schools instead of high schools in order to appease racist whites and focused on vocational education.  After the ruling of "Brown v. Board of Education", which banned segregated school laws, school segregation took "de facto" form. School segregation declined rapidly during the late 1960s and early 1970s as the government became strict on schools' plans to combat segregation more effectively as a result of Green v. County School Board of New Kent County. However, voluntary segregation appears to have increased since 1990 based on decreases in the amount of interactions between black and white students, also known as the black-white exposure index, and the resegregation of blacks in public schools. Residential segregation in the United States and school choice, both historically and currently, have had a considerable effect on school segregation. Not only does the current segregation of neighborhoods and schools in the US affect social issues and practices, but it is considered by some to be a factor in the achievement gap between Black and white students. Some authors such as Jerry Roziek and Ta-Nehisi Coates highlight the importance of tackling the root concept of racism instead of desegregation efforts that arise as a result of the end of de jure segregation. Along with educational and social outcomes, the average income and occupational aspirations of minority households that are products of segregated schooling have worse outcomes than the products of desegregated schooling.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: In 1832, Prudence Crandall admitted an African American girl to her all-white Canterbury Female Boarding School in Canterbury, Connecticut, which was the subject of public backlash and protests. She converted the boarding school to one for only African American girls, but Crandall was jailed for her efforts for violating a Black Law. In 1835, an anti-abolitionist mob attacked and destroyed Noyes Academy, an integrated school in Canaan, New Hampshire founded by abolitionists in New England. In 1849, the Massachusetts Supreme Court ruled that segregated schools were allowed under the Constitution of Massachusetts (Roberts v. City of Boston).


title: School segregation in the United States

text: The formal segregation of Black and White people in the United States began long before the passage of Jim Crow laws following the end of the Reconstruction Era in 1877. The United States Supreme Court's Dred Scott v. Sandford decision upheld the denial of citizenship to African Americans and found that descendants of slaves are "so far inferior that they had no rights which the white man was bound to respect."


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Following the American Civil War and the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment which ended slavery throughout the entire United States, the Fourteenth Amendment, guaranteeing "equal protection under the law", was ratified in 1868, and citizenship was extended to African Americans. Congress also passed the Civil Rights Act of 1875, banning racial discrimination in public accommodations. But in 1883, the Supreme Court struck down the Civil Rights Act of 1875, finding that discrimination by individuals or private businesses is constitutional.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Segregation took "de jure form" with the passage of Jim Crow laws in the 19th century. The Reconstruction Era saw efforts at integration in the South, but these laws were also passed by state legislatures in the South and parts of the lower Midwest and Southwest, segregating Black and White people in all aspects of public life, including attendance of public schools. These laws were influenced by the history of slavery and discrimination in the US, and stated that schools should be separated by race and offer equal amenities; however, facilities and services were far from equal.The constitutionality of Jim Crow laws was upheld in the Supreme Court's decision in "Plessy v. Ferguson" (1896), which ruled that separate facilities for Black and White people were permissible provided that the facilities were of equal quality. The fact that separate facilities for Black people and other minorities were chronically underfunded and of lesser quality was not successfully challenged in court for decades.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Franklin D. Roosevelt enacted certain housing reforms that focused their benefits on home buying aid to only white Americans. These restrictions in loans further separated black and white neighborhoods, which introduced the long term effects of residential segregation projects on schooling. The boundaries housing projects were intentionally drawn so that black neighborhoods had less access to education and jobs. This depletion of resources led to an increase in average poverty rates which broaden academic achievement gaps.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: The establishment of the NAACP Legal Defense and Educational Fund (LDF) in 1939 serves as the foundation of the efforts and funding to challenge school segregation. Charles Hamilton Houston initially ran the LDF, and focused heavily on proving that Black schools were severely unequal to white schools Eventually, the LDF shifted its leadership to Thurgood Marshall, who became the first director of the LDF and was a leader in significant court battles including "Brown v. Board of Education".


title: School segregation in the United States

text: "Plessy v. Ferguson" was subsequently overturned in 1954, when the Supreme Court ruling in "Brown v. Board of Education" ended "de jure" segregation in the United States. The state of Arkansas would experience some of the first successful school integrations below the Mason-Dixon Line. In the decade following "Brown," the South resisted enforcement of the Court's decision. States and school districts did little to reduce segregation, and schools remained almost completely segregated until 1968, after Congressional passage of civil rights legislation. In response to pressures to desegregate in the public school system, some white communities started private segregated schools, but rulings in "Green v. Connally" (1971) and "Runyon v. McCrary" (1976) prohibited racial discrimination in private schools and revoked IRS-granted non-profit status of schools in violation. Desegregation efforts reached their peak in the late 1960s and early 1970s, a period in which the South transitioned from complete segregation to being the nation's most integrated region.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: While African Americans faced legal segregation in civil society, Mexican Americans often dealt with "de facto" "segregation", meaning no federal laws explicitly barred their access to schools or other public facilities, yet they were still separated from white people. The proponents of Mexican-American segregation were often officials who worked at the state and local school level and often defended the creation and sustaining of separate "Mexican schools". Prior to the 1930s, segregation of Mexican children in schools was a rarity. Following the Great Depression, funding from the New Deal and legislation such as the 1934 Sugar Act enabled the creation of segregated schools for Mexican American children in Wyoming. An example of Mexican-American school segregation is from the city of Oxnard, California. According to the district records, the schools and neighborhoods in Oxnard were segregated based on ethnicity. The number of Latino migrants in Oxnard was climbing, causing overcrowding in the schools, which triggered local officials to “solve” this issue by creating a “school-within-a-school” form of segregation, and eventually by establishing a separate school for Latino students. School segregation occurred due to the residential segregation that was also present in Oxnard. By placing restrictive policies and covenants on properties, officials in Oxnard were able to keep Latino residents in a separate neighborhood from the “American” (or non-Latino residents), which provided a justification for segregating the schools. The segregation of Mexican children occurred throughout much of the U.S. West. During the Depression era in Wyoming, the segregation of Mexican children—whether they were US citizens or not—mirrored Jim Crow laws. Wyoming was not alone. The segregation of Mexicans also took place in Colorado, Montana, Nebraska, and Texas. The Blackwell School in Texas is one of the few remaining formerly "de facto" segregated Mexican school buildings.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Parents of both African-American and Mexican-American students challenged school segregation in coordination with civil rights organizations such as the NAACP, ACLU, and LULAC. Both groups challenged discriminatory policies through litigation in courts, with varying success, and at times challenging policies. They often had small successes. For instance, the NAACP initially challenged graduate and professional school segregation because they believed that desegregation at this level would result in the least backlash and opposition by whites.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Initially, Catholic schools in the South generally followed the pattern of segregation of public schools, sometimes forced to do so by law. However, most Catholic dioceses began moving ahead of public schools to desegregate. In St. Louis, Catholic schools were desegregated in 1947. In Washington, DC, the Catholic schools were desegregated in 1948. Catholic schools in Tennessee were desegregated in 1954, Atlanta in 1962, and Mississippi in 1965, all ahead of the public school systems.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: In the late 1950s and early 1960s, when some states (including Alabama, Virginia, and Louisiana) closed their public schools to protest integration, Jerry Falwell Sr. seized the opportunity to open "Christian academies" for white students.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: From 1968 to 1980, segregation between blacks and whites in schools declined. School integration peaked in the 1980s and then gradually declined over the course of the 1990s. In the 1990s and early 2000s, minority students attended schools with a declining proportion of white students, so that the rate of segregation as measured as isolation resembled that of the 1960s. There is some disagreement about what to make of trends since the 1980s; while some researchers have presented trends as evidence of "resegregation," others argue that changing demographics in school districts, including class and income, are responsible for most of the changes in the racial composition of schools. A 2013 study by Jeremy Fiel found that, "for the most part, compositional changes are to blame for the declining presence of whites in minorities' schools," and that racial balance increased from 1993 to 2010. The study found that minority students became more isolated and less exposed to whites within a school although districts were statistically more integrated. Another 2013 study found that segregation measured as exposure increased over the previous 25 years due to changing demographics. The study did not, however, find an increase in racial balance; rather, racial unevenness remained stable over that time period. Researcher Kori Stroub found that the "racial/ethnic resegregation of public schools observed over the 1990s has given way to a period of modest reintegration," but that segregation between school districts has increased even though within-district segregation is low. Fiel believes that increasing interdistrict segregation will exacerbate racial isolation.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: One reason for the resegregation of blacks is the fact that public schools were mandated by law to institute effective plans to desegregate, but these plans were only enforced for five years starting in 1968. After the peak of desegregation in 1980, the pressure of conservatives under Richard Nixon's presidency was instrumental in the ruling of "Freeman v. Pitts" which allowed for the preservation of school segregation. Today, the increase in inter-district segregation is present because of the ruling of Milliken v. Bradley, which banned desegregation across district lines and allowed for diverse districts to simply contain a few majority minority schools, while most schools remain predominantly white.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Another aspect that supports the reversion back to segregated schools is the concept of white flight which occurs when white families choose to move their children into schools with lower minority populations. White Flight was observable in that white student enrollment was significantly decreasing in districts that had a high level of desegregation, especially in the late 60s/early 70s. Factors such as zoning of schools, housing policies, and school choice are the driving factors in the segregation today which shifts to incorporate not only grouping by race, but also by economic class. A wealthier family becomes more likely to relocate and invest in the educational resources of that school zone because it is more affordable. An extension of this choice becomes classroom specific in desegregated schools by way of implementations of courses at the levels of Advanced Placement, International Baccalaureate, and Honors programs which tend to have a higher white majority. Card and Rothstein provide statistical data that highlights the inverse relationship between standardized test scores and exposure to minority students. In this way, given an integrated school, white students are more likely to enroll in more advanced level courses when this choice serves as a way to become less exposed to minority students than when in an all-white environment. Due to these factors, Rosiek concludes that school choice only increases segregation or has no effect at all.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: A principal source of school segregation is the persistence of residential segregation in American society; residence and school assignment are closely linked due to the widespread tradition of locally controlled schools. Residential segregation is related to growing income inequality in the United States.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: The deterioration of cities and urban education systems between the 1950-80s is the consequence of several post-war policies like the Home Owners' Loans Corporation, Federal Housing Administration, Interstate Highway Act, discriminative zoning practices, and loss of war-time industrial employment perpetuated ‘white flight’ and suburban sprawl at the expense of poor, marginalized urban residents. Mid-20th century urban divestment and suburban development redirected social services and federal funding to predominantly white residencies. Remaining urban residents witnessed dramatic decreases in quality of living, creating countless barriers to a stable life, including in academic success. Consequently, urban school districts became relatively accurate measures for documenting the increasing educational inequalities among students of color.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: A study conducted by Sean Reardon and John Yun found that from 1990 to 2000, residential black/white and Hispanic/white segregation declined by a modest amount in the United States, while public school segregation increased slightly during the same time period. Because the two variables moved in opposite directions, changes in residential patterns were not responsible for changes in school segregation trends. Rather, the study determined that in 1990, schools showed less segregation than neighborhoods, indicating that local policies were helping to ameliorate the effects of residential segregation on school composition. By 2000, however, racial composition of schools had become more closely correlated to neighborhood composition, indicating that public policies no longer redistributed students as evenly as before.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: In the 2005 Civil Rights Project conducted at Harvard University, researchers reported that over 80% of high-minority schools—where the student population is over 90% non-white—are high poverty schools as indicated by a large majority qualifying for free and reduced lunch. Additionally, of five million enrolled students in two dozen of the largest central cities, 70% are Black and Latino students in predominantly minority-majority, urban schools.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Another study targets spatial inequalities and student outcomes based on the physical and social presence in specific neighborhoods. Factors like pollution, perceived safety, proximity to other students, and healthy learning environments can all affect academic outcomes of various student groups. In correspondence to high poverty environments, students are likely to face various obstacles that prevent effective learning environments including food and housing insecurity. Likewise, Black, Latino, and Indigenous students experience twice the exposure to poor students than their Asian and white counterparts.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Award-winning CQ Researcher Peter Katel amplifies the argument made by Maya Rockeymoore, CEO of Global Policy Solutions, who addresses the geospatial resegregation of schools as structural barriers for impoverished students in inner-city neighborhoods who are never actually prepared to achieve higher education. Katel also reports that educational experts see high densities of marginalized students as a loss of financial resources that most white families do not experience because they are more likely to have the capability to move schools. Acknowledging the resegregation of school and disproportionate allocation of resources is crucial to addressing how the achievement gap is concentrated in underserved urban communities.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: A 2013 study corroborated these findings, showing that the relationship between residential and school segregation became stronger over the decade between 2000 and 2010. In 2000, segregation of blacks in schools was lower than in their neighborhoods; by 2010, the two patterns of segregation were "nearly identical".


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Although the US Supreme Court's decision in "Brown v. Board of Education" set desegregation efforts in motion, subsequent rulings have created serious obstacles to continued integration. The court's 1970 ruling in "Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education" furthered desegregation efforts by upholding busing as a constitutional means to achieve integration within a school district, but the ruling had no effect on the increasing level of segregation between school districts. The court's ruling in "Milliken v. Bradley" in 1974 prohibited interdistrict desegregation by busing.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: The 1990 decision in "Board of Education of Oklahoma City v. Dowell" declared that once schools districts had made a practicable, "good faith" effort to desegregate, they could be declared to have achieved "unitary" status, releasing them from court oversight. The decision allowed schools to end previous desegregation efforts even in cases where a return to segregation was likely. The court's ruling in "Freeman v. Pitts" went further, ruling that districts could be released from oversight in "incremental stages", meaning that courts would continue to supervise only those aspects of integration that had not yet been achieved.A 2012 study determined that "half of all districts ever under court-ordered desegregation [had] been released from court oversight, with most of the releases occurring in the last 20 years". The study found that segregation levels in school districts did not rise sharply following court dismissal, but rather increased gradually for the next 10 to 12 years. As compared to districts that had never been placed under court supervision, districts that had achieved unitary status and were released from court-ordered desegregation had a subsequent change in segregation patterns that was 10 times as great. The study concludes that "court-ordered desegregation plans are effective in reducing racial school segregation, but ... their effects fade over time in the absence of continued court oversight."


title: School segregation in the United States

text: In a pair of rulings in 2007 ("Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1" and "Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education"), the court's decision limited schools' ability to use race as a consideration in school assignment plans. In both cases, the Court struck down school assignment plans designed to ensure that the racial composition of schools roughly reflected the composition of the district as a whole, saying that the plans were not "narrowly tailored" to achieve the stated goal and that race-neutral alternatives had not been given adequate consideration.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: While greater school choice could potentially increase integration by drawing students from larger and more geographically diverse areas (as opposed to segregated neighborhoods), expanded choice often has the opposite effect. Studies conducted on the relationship between expanded school choice and school segregation show that when studies compare the racial/ethnic composition of charter schools to local public schools, researchers generally find that charter schools preserve or intensify existing racial and economic segregation, and/or facilitate white flight from public schools. Furthermore, studies that compare individual students' demographic characteristics to the schools they are leaving (public schools) and the schools they are switching to (charter schools) generally demonstrate that students "leave more diverse public schools and enroll in less diverse charter schools".


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Private schools constitute a second important type of school choice. A 2002 study found that private schools continued to contribute to the persistence of school segregation in the South over the course of the 1990s. Enrollment of whites in private schools increased sharply in the 1970s, remained unchanged in the 1980s, and increased again over the course of the 1990s. Because the changes over the latter two decades was not substantial, however, researcher Sean Reardon concludes that changes in private school enrollment is not a likely contributor to any changes in schools segregation patterns during that time.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: In contrast to charter and private schools, magnet schools generally foster racial integration rather than hinder it. Such schools were initially presented as an alternative to unpopular busing policies, and included explicit desegregation goals along with provisions for recruiting and providing transportation for diverse populations. Although today's magnet schools are no longer as explicitly oriented towards integration efforts, they continue to be less racially isolated than other forms of school choice.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Jerry Roziek analyzes the importance of combatting racism itself to solve the problem of school segregation instead of aspects like school choice, housing patterns, and zoning policies which avoid the root of the problem. Society fails not as a result of insufficient data, which demonstrates the negative educational outcomes, but as a result of the societal pressure of racism that overshadows this data. He introduces Derrick Bell's critical race theory, specifically focusing on the concept of racial realism: to view the U.S. as a place where racism will always reside and believe that the reality of curing racism was a threat to the motives of civil rights. In relation to schooling, the removal of desegregation orders was a result of the view that communities were becoming less racist. However, this removal led to an increase in school segregation.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Another theory that influences school segregation is the anti-blackness theory which paints blackness as external to Western human rights. Michael Dumas relates this theory by acknowledging that the awareness of the theory can help teachers respond to the pervasiveness of the social force of racism by supporting black children everywhere. In Ta-Nehisi Coates's "Between the World and Me", he focuses on navigating life in a black body in a world built off of such racial brutality that racism is the single most important driving force in prohibiting movement in society.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: The level of racial segregation in schools has important implications for the educational outcomes of minority students. Desegregation efforts of the 1970s and 1980s led to substantial academic gains for black students; as integration increased, blacks' educational attainment increased while that of whites remained largely unchanged. Historically, greater access to schools with higher enrollments of white students helped "reduce blacks' high school dropout rate, reduce the black-white test score gap, and improve outcomes for black in areas such as earnings, health, and incarceration."


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Nationwide, minority students continue to be concentrated in high-poverty, low-achieving schools, while white students are more likely to attend high-achieving, more affluent schools. Resources such as funds and high-quality teachers attach unequally to schools according to racial and socioeconomic composition. Schools with high proportions of minority enrollment are often characterized by "less experienced and less qualified teachers, high levels of teacher turnover, less successful peer groups and inadequate facilities and learning materials." These schools also tend to have less challenging curricula and fewer offerings of Advanced Placement courses.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Access to resources is not the only factor determining education outcomes; the very racial composition of schools can have an effect independent of the level of other resources. A 2009 study determined that attending school with a high proportion of black students negatively affected black academic achievement, even after controlling for school quality, differences in ability, and family background. The effect of racial composition on white achievement was insignificant. However, a 2006 study found that white students are more inclined to take higher level courses at integrated schools to decrease exposure to minorities while the black-white test score gap still decreases with movement from a segregated city to an integrated city.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: The categorization of ‘at-risk’ youth typically defines learning differences as disabilities based on a standardized, non-inclusive curriculum; the label ‘at-risk’ inherently follows students of color and low-income students as a generalized academic failure. National academic standardization also extends to federal policies like the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), which implemented high-stakes standardized testing across the country in an attempt to address socio-economic disparities in learning outcomes. Schools that were labelled “failures” and faced sanctions under the NCLB Act were typically high poverty schools in segregated districts. Both the standardization of learning outcomes and the implementation of these policies fail to address the structural barriers that created high poverty, highly segregated schools.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: The research that has been conducted on the effects of school segregation can be divided into studies that observe short-term and long-term outcomes of segregated schooling; these outcomes can be either academic or non-academic in nature.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: The mixed findings of research on the effects of integration on Black students has resulted in ambiguous conclusions as to the influence of desegregation plans. Generally, integration has a small but beneficial impact on short-term outcomes for Black students (i.e. education achievement), and a clearly beneficial impact on longer-term outcomes, such as school attainment (i.e. level of education attained) and earnings. Integrated education is positively related to short-term outcomes such as K–12 school performance, cross-racial friendships, acceptance of cultural differences, and declines in racial fears and prejudice.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: Short-term and long-term benefits of integration are found for minority and white students alike. Students who attend integrated schools are more likely to live in diverse neighborhoods as adults than those students who attended more segregated schools. Integrated schools also reduce the maintenance of stereotypes and prevent the formation of prejudices in both majority and minority students.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: In the long run, integration is associated with higher educational and occupational attainment across all ethnic groups, better intergroup relations, greater likelihood of living and working in an integrated environment, lower likelihood of involvement with the criminal justice system, espousal of democratic values, and greater civic engagement. On the other hand, a 2014 study highlights that as segregated schooling increases, the socioeconomic inequalities based on race increases. Billings, Deming, and Rockoff demonstrate how a certain school district focused on the allocation of funds redistributed to schools with a high volume of minority students. Majority-minority schools present areas with high percentages of property that correspond to fewer resources and lower academic capability.


title: School segregation in the United States

text: A 1994 study found support for the theory that interracial contact in elementary or secondary school positively affects long-term outcomes in a way that can overcome perpetual segregation against Black communities. The study reviewed previous research and determined that, as compared to segregated Black people, desegregated Black people are more likely to set higher occupational aspirations, attend desegregated colleges, have desegregated social and professional networks as adults, gain desegregated employment, and work in white-collar and professional jobs in the private sector. In schools with a relatively high average income per students, students are more likely to perform better because they feel safer.