title: Deerstalker

text: Later, less-informed depictions of Holmes have him wearing this cap in the city, failing to take into account the fact that the fashion-conscious Holmes would be loath to commit such a sartorial faux pas; the deerstalker is traditionally a rural outdoorsman's cap. It is not appropriate headgear for the properly dressed urban gentleman. Still, while contemporaneous illustrators portrayed Holmes as wearing a deerstalker in the proper setting for such attire, travelling cross-country or operating in a rural outdoor setting, Paget chose to depict Holmes as wearing the deerstalker in London while keeping vigil for the appearance of the murderous Colonel Moran in illustrations made for "The Empty House" when the story first appeared in "The Strand Magazine" in 1904. This is uncharacteristic of Paget, who most often depicts Holmes wearing a black top hat and frock coat in the city, as shown in the Regent Street scene in "The Hound of the Baskervilles", or sporting a black bowler when wearing a black or plaid Inverness cape (or, more accurately, a macfarlane cape-coat) as seen in his illustrations for "The Blue Carbuncle" and "The Musgrave Ritual" respectively.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Ikram Aliskerov () (; born December 7, 1992) is a Russian mixed martial artist and combat sambo competitor who competes in the middleweight division of the Ultimate Fighting Championship (UFC).


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov is a Combat Sambo World Champion, who has won 4 world championship with two different organization (FIAS & WCSF), and has won 2 European championship, again under two organizations (ESF & ECSF).


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Ikram Aliskerov also has highly significant victories over fellow world champions like Yaroslav Amosov, Murad Kerimov and Raimond Magomedaliev in various combat sambo tournaments.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov was born in the village of Kasumkent in Dagestan, Russia. During his time as a combat sambo competitor, he became a World Champion in 2016, under world renowned FIAS banner a two-time World Cup champion in 2014 and 2015, again both under FIAS banner and a European Champion in 2017. under prestigious European Sambo Federation banner.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: In September 2012, Aliskerov earlier won World Championship in Combat Sambo in 82 kg, under less known European Combat Sambo Federation banner. It was here current Bellator welterweight champion Yaroslav Amosov came out third in 82 kg category against Aliskerov.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: And in December 2012, Aliskerov won World Combat Sambo Championship in 82 kg under less renowned World Combat Sambo Federation banner. It was again in this tournament Amosov came out third against Aliskerov. Ikram Aliskerov is one of a few combat athletes who have technically beaten Yaroslav Amosov on two occasions in Combat Sambo tournaments.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov then focused entirely on this sport in 2017, when he signed a contract with Brave Combat Federation. He was scheduled to make his promotional debut against Will Fleury on April 29, 2017, at BCF 6. However, Fleury was forced to pull out of the contest and was replaced by Rufat Asadov. He won the bout via submission in the first round.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov faced Jeremy Smith on November 17, 2017, at BCF 9. He won the fight via knockout in the first round.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: He was then scheduled to meet Diego Gonzalez on August 18, 2018, at BCF 14. However, Gonzalez pulled out of the bout and was replaced by Joey Michael Berkenbosch. He won the bout via technical knockout in the first round.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov faced Geraldo Coelho de Lima Neto on December 28, 2018, at BCF 21. He won the fight via technical knockout in the third round.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov faced undefeated prospect Khamzat Chimaev on April 19, 2019, at BCF 23. He lost the fight via knockout in the first round, marking his first and only defeat to date.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov was slated to came back against Mohammad Fakhreddine on October 4, 2019, at BCF 27. However, the bout was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Instead, he faced Diego Gonzalez on December 27, 2019, at BCF 33. He won the bout via technical knockout in round three.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov faced Denis Tiuliulin on September 17, 2020, at Brave CF 41. He won the fight via submission in the third round.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov faced Nah-Shon Burrell at on March 11, 2022. At weigh ins, Ikram Aliskerov missed weight for his bout. Aliskerov weighed in at 186.2 pounds, 0.2 pounds over the middleweight non-title limit. The bout proceeded at catchweight and he was fined a percentage of his purse, which went to Burrell. He won the bout via unanimous decision.


title: Ikram Aliskerov

text: Aliskerov faced Mário Sousa on September 13, 2022 at Dana White's Contender Series 54. He dominated the bout, submiting Sousa in the first round via kimura, winning a UFC contract in the process.


title: Hacky sack

text: A footbag is a small, round bag usually filled with plastic pellets or sand, which is kicked into the air as part of a competitive game or as a display of dexterity. "Hacky Sack" is the name of a brand of footbag popular in the 1970s (currently owned by Wham-O), which has since become a generic trademark.


title: Hacky sack

text: The most common game of footbag consists of two or more players standing in a circle and trying to keep the sack off the ground for as long as possible.


title: Hacky sack

text: Footbag-like activities have existed for many years. The game is similar to traditional Asian games of kicking the shuttlecock, known as "jianzi" or "chapteh". The game is also similar to some South East Asian games, such as "chinlone", "sepak takraw" and "sipa". This game is known as "jegichagi" (제기차기) in Korea. The Wu Style Tai Chi Chuan practice dates back to at least the 1930s, and French policemen are seen playing a shuttlecock game in the 1955 American film "To Catch a Thief". The same principle is applied in football-playing countries in activities of freestyle football and keepie uppie.


title: Hacky sack

text: The current Western incarnation of the sport was invented in 1972 by Mike Marshall and John Stalberger of Oregon City, Oregon, US with their "Hacky Sack" product, the rights to which are now owned by Wham-O. Although Marshall suffered a blood clot and fatal heart attack in 1975, Stalberger continued the business. It gained national popularity in the early 1980s, and Stalberger sold the title to Wham-O in 1983.


title: Hacky sack

text: For circle kicking, it is very common to use a crocheted footbag, which is usually filled with plastic beads. Casually, footbags are often differentiated as normal (indicating a plastic-pellet filling), or as "dirt bags" or "sand hacks" (indicating a sand filling).


title: Hacky sack

text: In the freestyle footbag discipline, a 32-panel bag is the generally accepted standard (the number of panels on commercially available bags can range from 2 to 120 panels). Stitchers generally use Plastic Poly Pellets, sand, BB's, steel shot, lead shot, seed bead, or tungsten shot as filler. Most professional stitchers use a custom combination of different fillers to make the bag play better. Bags usually weigh between 40 and 65 grams, depending on the type of filler and amount of filler used. 32-panel bags do not stall as easily as a "dirt bag" or "sand hack", but set truer from the foot, allowing for more complex tricks. Professional footbags are usually made out of the fabrics ultrasuede light, facile, or (a sub-brand of Clarino artificial leather). While these bags can last a long time with proper care, they are quite fragile relative to their more common crocheted cousins.


title: Hacky sack

text: The footbag net discipline uses a distinct bag, characterized by a harder outer surface than other footbags. These bags are not suitable for freestyle, and vice versa.


title: Hacky sack

text: There are also several novelty products available, including glow in the dark, chain mail, and even flame retardant bags that can be set on fire and played with. The fire footbag has been banned in South Australia.


title: Hacky sack

text: Most advanced freestylers wear various styles and brands of tennis shoes, the most popular being the Adidas Rod Laver tennis shoe.


title: Hacky sack

text: Several shoe modifications are common in freestyle footbag. In order to make toe stalling easier, many players use special lacing patterns that pull apart the sides of the shoe near the toe area, creating a broad, rimmed platform. Modified lacing is augmented by cutting away the stitching that joins the row of eyelets to the toe. The area that is created by completing these modifications is called a toe box.


title: Hacky sack

text: Shoes can be further modified for freestyle footbag by removing layers of fabric from the inside, outside, and toe surfaces. These modifications are advantageous because they allow players to more accurately feel the bag on their foot.


title: Hacky sack

text: Circle kicking is the most common game played with a footbag, and is often what people mean when they use the term "hacky sack". Players stand in a circle and keep the bag moving around the circle, with the goal of keeping the bag from touching the ground. There are a variety of terms used by different groups of players to note when the footbag has been touched by every member of the circle.


title: Hacky sack

text: The game starts when one player picks up the sack and tosses it to the chest of another player, who allows it to fall to their feet so they can kick it, and play begins. Play continues until the sack falls to the ground, then a player picks up the sack and the game resumes. The object of the game is to keep the sack off the ground for as long as possible. If every player gets a touch to the sack before it hits the ground, it is called a 'hack'. If every player gets two touches before the sack hits the ground, it is called a 'double-hack' and so on and so forth.


title: Hacky sack

text: Circle kick is generally accompanied by an unwritten set of etiquette guidelines designed to keep the game fun, friendly, and open to everyone including new players. The most basic rule is to respect all other players. Some other general guidelines include picking up the footbag after you drop it or kick it away, rather than having someone else retrieve it; not serving the footbag to yourself; not spitting in the circle; and not hogging the footbag (often called jestering, or the player may be called a hack-hog) and making sure to pass the bag to players who have not gotten it recently. Most circles are very open to new players and will not ostracize anyone for being less coordinated or well practiced than the rest. Some circles have an unwritten rule that there is no apologizing when a person drops the footbag. This guideline is designed to keep the new players from feeling as if it is their fault that the game is slow, and it keeps the experienced players from having to constantly reassure the new players that it is not their fault.


title: Hacky sack

text: Freestyle footbag is a sport in which the object is to perform tricks with the bag. The ending position of the footbag on one trick becomes the starting position of the footbag on the next trick. Tricks are created by combining different components between contacts with the bag (contacts can be either stalls or kicks, though stalls are more frequent). Components include spins, dexterities (using a leg to circle or cross the footbag's path in mid-air), jumps, and ducks (letting the footbag pass a few inches above the neck). Contacts are usually on the inside of the foot behind the opposite support leg (Clipper Stall) or on the toe, however, many inventive possibilities remain and are used to create an endless list of tricks. A partial list of freestyle footbag tricks can be found at the official Footbag WorldWide Information Service.


title: Hacky sack

text: Various styles have developed as the sport has become more popular. Players can choreograph routines to music, alone or in pairs, executing difficult moves in sync with the music—the result is something like a cross between rhythmic gymnastics and figure skating.


title: Hacky sack

text: There is an annual footbag world championships held each year. The current freestyle world champion in singles category is Jan Weber, of Czech Republic.


title: Hacky sack

text: In footbag net, players (either playing individually or with a partner) volley a footbag back and forth over a five-foot-high net. This game combines elements of tennis, badminton, and volleyball. The court dimensions and layout are similar to those of badminton; the scoring is similar to the old scoring system in volleyball (a player must be serving to score); and serves must be diagonal, as in tennis. Footbag net games can be played to 11 or 15 points, although the winners must win by at least two points. Rallies in footbag net look a lot like volleyball (e.g., bump, set, and spike), with players spiking from an inverted position in mid-air (over the net) and opponents often digging very fast spikes into bumps or sets. Play in footbag net is very similar to Sepak Takraw. However, in footbag net, it is an "upper-body foul" if the footbag touches any part of a player's body above the shin.


title: Hacky sack

text: Hacky Attack is a particular "footbag" discipline, played by two teams made up of two players each. It is practiced on a field, generally of sand, formed by a rectangle of 10 x 15 meters. One of the two players, the "pitcher", tries to hit the opposing pitcher with the ball ("footbag"), who instead tries to avoid being hit. The other player, the "catcher", has instead the task of picking up the ball and passing it to his thrower. When a pitcher is hit, he switches positions with his teammate. The first team to reach 15 points (the point is scored each time the opposing pitcher is hit) wins the game.


title: Hacky sack

text: This particular discipline, practiced mainly in Northern Italy, was founded in 2009 by some university students and consists in hitting the opponent with precise and spectacular shots, on the street or in public places. In this game, footbag is commonly called Street Ball, due to its ability to play in the crowd.


title: Lorica segmentata

text: The lorica segmentata (), also called lorica lamminata (see §Name), is a type of personal armour that was used by soldiers of the Roman army, consisting of metal strips fashioned into circular bands, fastened to internal leather straps. The "lorica segmentata" has come to be viewed as iconic of the Roman legions in popular culture. The tendency to portray Roman legionaries clad in this type of armour often extends to periods of time that are too early or too late in history.


title: Lorica segmentata

text: Despite the armor being commonly associated with the Romans, it was used by other civilizations before the Romans. The armor was originally used by the Parthians and possibly the Dacians, Scythians, or Sarmatians before the Romans used it. Some sets of armor similar to the "lorica segmentata" dating back to the 4th century BC have been found in archaeological sites located in the steppe. Although the exact time at which the Romans adopted the armor remains unknown, it is possible that the "lorica segmentata" was introduced after Crassus' defeat at Carrhae in 53 BC. Another possibility is that the armor was adopted in 21 AD after the Revolt of Julius Sacrovir and Julius Florus. One form of the armor was used as early as 9 AD. Because the soldiers at the Battle of Teutoberg Forest wore the "lorica segmentata", it must have been in use before 9 AD.


title: Lorica segmentata

text: Around the middle of the third century the "lorica segmentata" fell out of favor with the Roman army, although it did remain in use during the Late Roman Empire. Soldiers wearing the "lorica segmentata" were depicted on the Arch of Constantine, a monument erected in 315. However, it has been argued that these depictions are from an earlier monument by Marcus Aurelius, from which Constantine incorporated portions into his Arch. The latest known use of the armor was in the 4th century.


title: Lorica segmentata

text: Over time the type of "lorica segmentata" would change. From 9 BC to 43 AD the Roman soldier wore the Dangstetten-Kalkriese-Vindonissa type, from 69 to 100 the Corbridge-Carnuntum type was used. From 164 to 180, the Newstead type was used. The time the armors were used overlapped. It is possible that there was a fourth type, covering the body with segmented armor joined to scale shoulder defenses. However, this is only known from one badly damaged statue originating at Alba Iulia in Romania. This armor was used from about 14 BC to the late 3rd century AD. The "lorica segmentata's" use in the Roman army was geographically widespread, but the mail armor "lorica hamata" may have been more common at all times.


title: Lorica segmentata

text: It is unclear who used this armor. On monuments, "Auxilia" are generally shown wearing mail, cuirasses, and carrying oval shields. Legionaries are depicted wearing the "lorica segmentata" and carrying the curved rectangular shield. On this basis, it has been supposed that "lorica segmentata" was exclusively used by legionaries and praetorians. However, some historians consider Trajan's Column to be inaccurate as a historical source due to its inaccurate and stylized portrayal of Roman armor. These historians also say that "it is probably safest to interpret the Column reliefs as 'impressions', rather than accurate representations." The discovery of parts of the "lorica segmentata" at areas where auxiliary soldiers would have been stationed implies that auxiliary troops used the "lorica segmentata". However, it is entirely possible that the reason behind the presence of the "lorica segmentata" in these areas could because these areas had a small number of legionaries stationed there. On the Adamclisi "Tropaeum", the "lorica segmentata" does not appear at all, and legionaries and "auxilia" alike are depicted wearing the "lorica squamata". Some experts are of the opinion that the Adamclisi monument is a more accurate portrayal of the situation. It may have been used rarely, maybe only for set-piece battles and parades. This viewpoint considers the figures in Trajan's Column to be highly stereotyped, in order to distinguish clearly between different types of troops. It's also debated if the lorica segmentata was only used in the west. Every archaeological find of such armor has been made in the western part of the Roman Empire but never in the east.


title: Lorica segmentata

text: The plates in the "lorica segmentata" armor were made by overlapping ferrous plates that were then riveted to straps made from leather. It is unknown what animal was used to make the leather and if it was tanned or tawed. The plates were made of soft iron on the inside and rolled mild steel on the outside. This made the plates hardened against damage without making them brittle. This case hardening was done by packing organic matter tightly around them and heating them in a forge, transferring carbon from the burnt materials into the surface of the metal. The plates were made from beating out ingots. The strips were arranged horizontally on the body, overlapping downwards, and they surrounded the torso in two halves, being fastened at the front and back. Additional strips, shoulder guards, breastplates, and backplates were used to protect the upper body and the shoulders. The form of the armor allowed it to be stored very compactly, since it was possible to separate it into four sections, each of which would collapse on itself into a compact mass. The fitments that closed the various plate sections together (buckles, lobate hinges, hinged straps, tie-hooks, tie-rings, etc.) were made of brass. In later variants dating from around 75–80 A.D., the fastenings of the armor were simplified. Bronze hinges were removed in favor of simple rivets, belt fastenings utilized small hooks, and the lowest two girdle plates were replaced by one broad plate. The component parts of the "lorica segmentata" moved in synchronization with the other parts. This made it so the armor was more flexible. The armor was very long lasting. The Kalkriese type of armor lasted 55 years, the Corbridge armor lasted 70 years, and the Newsteadtype lasted 90 years.


title: Lorica segmentata

text: In Latin, the name "lorica segmentata" translates to "segmented cuirass." However, this name was not given to the armor by the Romans. Instead, it was given by scholars in the 16th century. Despite the lack of knowledge on the Roman name for the armor, scholars can make educated guesses on the Roman name. It is obvious the name had the word "lorica" in its name. However, the following part of the name is unknown. Some scholars believe that the name was "lorica lamminata". This theory is based of the fact that the Romans referred to sheets of metal as lamina, although no firm evidence for any theory regarding the name of the armor currently exists.


title: Angelica Page

text: Angelica Sue Page (née Torn; February 17, 1964) is an American actress, director, producer and screenwriter. She is the only daughter of actors Rip Torn and Geraldine Page. Credited as Angelica Torn in her early career, she legally and professionally changed her name to Angelica Page in September 2011.


title: Angelica Page

text: Page began her career as an understudy in the 1993 Broadway revival of "Anna Christie", and made her feature film debut in "Nobody's Fool" (1994). In 1998, she starred in a Broadway production of "Side Man", which earned her a Helen Hayes Award for Best Actress. She subsequently appeared in the films "The Sixth Sense" (1999), and the political drama "The Contender" (2000).


title: Angelica Page

text: She continued to appear Off-Broadway throughout the 2000s, returning to Broadway with a supporting part in a 2012 revival of "The Best Man". In 2015, she starred as her mother, Geraldine Page, in the touring stage production "Turning Page", a biographical play which she also wrote. Additional film credits include Michael Imperioli's "The Hungry Ghosts" (2009), and the thriller "Never Here" (2017).


title: Angelica Page

text: Page was born Angelica Torn on February 17, 1964, in New York City to actors Rip Torn and Geraldine Page. She was raised in New York City, and has noted that her parents' marriage was turbulent and marked by frequent fighting. Though she was encouraged by her mother to act, Page described herself as a "shy child" and was resistant to pursuing it. For a time, she had considered a career as a chef. Page attended the Bank Street School for Children in Manhattan.


title: Angelica Page

text: After her mother's death in 1987, Page began exploring acting as a career option, as it had been her mother's "dying wish." She commented: "My mother died before she ever had a chance to see me realize this dream that she apparently had for me, but never spoke of. She wanted me to make my own decisions, but then at the end when she realized she didn't have any time left, she made me promise." Page studied acting at the William Esper Studio and HB Studios.


title: Angelica Page

text: Page's first professional role was on Broadway as an understudy in the 1993 revival of Eugene O’Neill's "Anna Christie". She subsequently made her feature film debut in "Nobody's Fool" (1994), and appeared in several independent films before having a supporting role in M. Night Shyamalan's "The Sixth Sense" (1999). Also in 2000, she had a supporting role in Amos Kollek's "Fast Food Fast Women" (2000), and in the Academy Award-nominated political drama "The Contender" (2000). The following year, she had a supporting role as Patty opposite John Travolta in the thriller "Domestic Disturbance" (2001).


title: Angelica Page

text: On stage, Page received the Helen Hayes Award (Best Actress 2000) for her work in the Tony Award-winning "Side Man" at the Kennedy Center. This followed closely after being honored with the New York People's Choice Award in the Best Supporting Actress category (1999) for her portrayal of Patsy, a role she originated for the same production.


title: Angelica Page

text: Nominated for her second Helen Hayes Award (Best Actress 2010) for her portrayal of Ivy Weston in the Pulitzer Prize- and Tony Award-winning "" (Broadway and National Tour), her performance was heralded as "revelatory" by the "Chicago Tribune". On television, she appeared as Julia Brinn in "" (2005); other television credits include "", "The Sopranos", "100 Centre Street", and "As the World Turns". In 2009, she had a supporting role in the Michael Imperioli-directed drama "The Hungry Ghosts".


title: Angelica Page

text: In 2015, Page developed the one-woman show "Turning Page", a biographical play in which she portrayed her mother. The production opened in Los Angeles before touring nationally, and Charles McNulty of the "Los Angeles Times" praised it, writing: "For those who have been touched by Page's sorcery—and I personally don't know any great actor who hasn't been—Angelica's virtuosic conjuring of her mother's spirit is something to behold." The production continued to tour into 2017.


title: Angelica Page

text: Page is a lifetime member of the Actors Studio and serves on its board of directors. Actively involved with the charities PAVE and Opening Act, she is developing a foundation for the arts to foster emerging artists in her mother's name.


title: Angelica Page

text: Page married Keith William Burkhardt in 1984, and with him gave birth to a son, Elijah (born 1985), and a daughter. The couple divorced in 1992. She subsequently married actor Tim Williams in 1998 after the two had met while performing in a 1996 stage production titled "Strangers in the Land of Canaan", directed by her father. She married Dmitry Lipkin in 2017.


title: Angelica Page

text: She had commented that she had a combative relationship with her father, stating: "He's a worthy adversary. He's a very strong personality. He's an amazing person, an amazing father, but sometimes there are certain things we don't see eye to eye on. I call him on it and we fight, just like anybody else."


The Laureus World Sports Award for Sportsman of the Year is an annual award honouring the achievements of individual men from the world of sports. It was first awarded in 2000 as one of the seven constituent awards presented during the Laureus World Sports Awards. The awards are presented by the Laureus Sport for Good Foundation, a global organisation involved in more than 150 charity projects supporting 500,000 young people. The first ceremony was held on 25 May 2000 in Monte Carlo, at which Nelson Mandela gave the keynote speech. , a shortlist of six nominees for the award comes from a panel composed of the "world's leading sports editors, writers and broadcasters". The Laureus World Sports Academy then selects the winner who is presented with a Laureus statuette, created by Cartier, at the annual awards ceremony held in various locations around the world. The awards are considered highly prestigious and are frequently referred to as the sporting equivalent of "Oscars".


The inaugural winner of the award was the American golfer Tiger Woods who finished the 1999 season with eight wins, a feat not achieved since 1974, including the PGA Championship. He went on to become the most dominant player of his era, earning a second Laureus Award the following year, and five further nominations between 2002 and 2008. The 2003 winner of the Laureus World Sports Award for Sportsman of the Year was the American road cyclist Lance Armstrong. He had been nominated the previous year, and earned further nominations in 2004, 2005 and 2006. Following Armstrong's 2013 admission of doping, all his Laureus awards and nominations were rescinded. Tennis players dominate the winners list, with eleven awards, while athletes and Formula One drivers have won four times, and golfers twice. Excluding Armstrong, the Laureus World Sports Award for Sportsman of the Year has been won by just nine individuals since its inception. Roger Federer holds the record for the most awards with five. The 2022 award was won by Dutch racing driver Max Verstappen.


title: River Mersey

text: The River Mersey () is in North West England. Its name derives from Old English and means "boundary river", possibly referring to its having been a border between the ancient kingdoms of Mercia and Northumbria. For centuries it has formed part of the boundary between the historic counties of Lancashire and Cheshire.


title: River Mersey

text: The Mersey starts at the confluence of the River Tame and River Goyt in Stockport. It flows westwards through south Manchester, then into the Manchester Ship Canal at Irlam, becoming a part of the canal and maintaining its water levels. After it exits the canal, flowing towards Warrington where it widens. It then narrows as it passes between Runcorn and Widnes. From Runcorn the river widens into a large estuary, which is across at its widest point near Ellesmere Port. The course of the river then turns northwards as the estuary narrows between Liverpool and Birkenhead on the Wirral Peninsula to the west, and empties into Liverpool Bay. In total the river flows .


title: River Mersey

text: A railway tunnel between Birkenhead and Liverpool as part of the Mersey Railway opened in 1886. Two road tunnels pass under the estuary from Liverpool: the Queensway Tunnel opened in 1934 connecting the city to Birkenhead, and the Kingsway Tunnel, opened in 1971, to Wallasey. A road bridge, completed in 1961 and later named the Silver Jubilee Bridge, crosses between Runcorn and Widnes, adjacent to the Runcorn Railway Bridge which opened in 1868. A second road bridge, the Mersey Gateway, opened in October 2017, carrying a six-lane road connecting Runcorn's Central Expressway with Speke Road and Queensway in Widnes. The Mersey Ferry operates between Pier Head in Liverpool and Woodside in Birkenhead and Seacombe, and has become a tourist attraction offering cruises that provide an overview of the river and surrounding areas.


title: River Mersey

text: Water quality in the Mersey was severely affected by industrialisation, and in 1985, the Mersey Basin Campaign was established to improve water quality and encourage waterside regeneration. In 2009 it was announced that the river is "cleaner than at any time since the industrial revolution" and is "now considered one of the cleanest in the UK". The Mersey Valley Countryside Warden Service manages local nature reserves such as Chorlton Ees and Sale Water Park.


title: River Mersey

text: The river gave its name to Merseybeat, developed by bands from Liverpool, notably the Beatles. In 1965 it was the subject of the top-ten hit single "Ferry Cross the Mersey" by Gerry and the Pacemakers.


title: River Mersey

text: Its name is derived from the Anglo-Saxon , 'of a boundary' and , 'a river'. The Mersey was possibly the 'border river' between Mercia and Northumbria. Its Welsh name is .


title: River Mersey

text: The Mersey is formed from three tributaries: the River Etherow, the River Goyt and the River Tame. The modern accepted start of the Mersey is at the confluence of the Tame and Goyt, in central Stockport, Greater Manchester. However, older definitions, and many older maps, place its start a few miles up the Goyt at Compstall; for example the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica states "It is formed by the junction of the Goyt and the Etherow a short distance below Marple in Cheshire on the first-named stream." The 1784 John Stockdale map shows the River Mersey extending to Mottram, and forming the boundary between Cheshire and Derbyshire. In the west of Stockport it flows at the base of a cliff below the road called Brinksway before reaching flat country. An early Ordnance Survey map indicates the spring at Red Hole on the Lancashire/Yorkshire boundary at the head of one of the Etherow's longest headwaters, as being the "Source of the River Mersey".


title: River Mersey

text: From Central Stockport the river flows through or past Heaton Mersey, Didsbury, Northenden, Chorlton-cum-Hardy, Stretford, Sale, Ashton on Mersey, Urmston and Flixton, then at Irlam flows into the Manchester Ship Canal, which is the canalised section of the River Irwell at this point. The old course of the Mersey has been obliterated by the canal past Hollins Green to Rixton although the old river bed can be seen outside Irlam and at Warburton. At Rixton the River Bollin enters the canal from the south and the Mersey leaves the canal to the north, meandering through Woolston, where the ship canal company's dredgings have formed the Woolston Eyes nature reserve, and on to Warrington. The river is tidal from Howley Weir in Warrington, although high spring tides often top the weir. Before construction of the ship canal, work to improve navigation included Woolston New Cut, bypassing a meander, and Howley Lock for craft to avoid the weir; the new cut and lock are still evident. The island formed between the weir and the lock is known locally as "Monkey Island".


title: River Mersey

text: West of Warrington the river widens, and then narrows as it passes through the Runcorn Gap between the towns of Runcorn and Widnes, in Halton. The Manchester Ship Canal passes through the gap to the south of the river. The gap is bridged by the Silver Jubilee Bridge and Runcorn Railway Bridge. Another crossing, the Mersey Gateway road bridge opened in October 2017, and is situated about 1 mile upstream from the Runcorn Gap where the river is considerably wider.


title: River Mersey

text: From the Runcorn Gap, the river widens into a large estuary, which is wide at its widest point near Ellesmere Port. The course of the river then heads north, with Liverpool to the east and the Wirral Peninsula to the west. The Manchester Ship Canal enters the river at Eastham Locks. The eastern part of the estuary is much affected by silting, and part of it is marked on modern maps as dry land rather than tidal. The wetlands are of importance to wildlife, and are listed as a Ramsar site.


title: River Mersey

text: Most of the conurbation on both sides of the estuary is known as Merseyside. The estuary narrows between Liverpool and Birkenhead, where it is constricted to a width of , between Albert Dock in Liverpool and the Woodside ferry terminal in Birkenhead. On the Liverpool side, Liverpool Docks stretch for over , the largest enclosed interconnected dock system in the world. American author Herman Melville described Liverpool Docks as being comparable to the pyramids in the vast scale of their construction. The docks were built out into the river bed. The Mersey Docks and Harbour Board used granite from a quarry it owned in Scotland for construction of the quays. Birkenhead grew quickly in the 19th century following the introduction of steamships, the earliest being the wooden paddle steamer "Elizabeth" in 1815. Docks were developed along with a shipbuilding industry, flour milling and soap manufacture on the river's Cheshire bank.


title: River Mersey

text: Seaforth Dock, a freeport on the Liverpool side of the estuary where it meets Liverpool Bay, opened in 1971. The dock deals with around 500,000 containers, over 1.2 million tonnes of oil, over 2.5 million tonnes of grain and animal feed, 452,000 tonnes of wood per year. About 25% of all container traffic between the UK and USA passes through the port making it one of the most successful in the world and known as the "Atlantic Gateway". Liverpool was the first UK port with radar assisted operations.


title: River Mersey

text: The river empties into Liverpool Bay on the Irish Sea, after a total course of . From neap tide to spring tide, the River Mersey has the second highest tidal range in Britain – second only to the River Severn. The narrows in the river estuary between Dingle Point on the Liverpool banks to New Brighton on the Wirral, forces water to flow faster creating a deep channel along the section of river.


title: River Mersey

text: For 200 years an admiral was appointed as a conservator to ensure the river remained navigable. Mary Kendrick was the first woman to the post and she had spent years studying a Mersey barrage in the 1980s.


title: River Mersey

text: Taylor's Bank is a large sandbank extending out to sea on the north side of the channel entrance to the river on which many ships have come to grief over the years.


title: River Mersey

text: Historically the lowest bridging point on the Mersey was at Warrington where there has been a bridge since medieval times. The first ferry across the estuary was introduced in medieval times by monks from Birkenhead Priory. They transported travellers or accommodated them at the priory in bad weather.


title: River Mersey

text: Countless people died on the River Mersey until the advent of safe passage via bridges and tunnels. Many of these deaths were of people who earned their living on the river, either as mariners or dock workers. The majority of mariners to die worked on the Mersey flat boats and drowned due to the weather conditions or poor craft maintenance, although many ordinary civilians perished too. Another ferry existed at Runcorn Gap and by today's safety standards was highly dangerous. Passengers had to traverse wooden planks over the mud flats to reach the ferry boats which themselves were often poorly maintained and leaking. Even the steps down to the river bank were described as "beautifully slippery". In the dark the ferry was particularly worrying as there were few or no lights and the journey was only undertaken on a "needs must" basis. Complaints about the appalling conditions were reported in the local and national press consistently for over 40 years.


title: River Mersey

text: In the early 19th century steam operated ferries were introduced. The Mersey Ferry, managed and operated by Merseytravel, operates between Pier Head in Liverpool and Woodside in Birkenhead and Seacombe. It has become a tourist attraction offering cruises that provide an overview of the river and surrounding areas.


title: River Mersey

text: The Mersey Railway completed its tunnel through the estuary's underlying Triassic sandstone using manual labour in 1885. Intended as a pneumatic railway, the company opted for steam trains from its opening until it was electrified in 1903. The centre of the running tunnel is between and below the river bed. The railway is now part of the Merseyrail network. Two road tunnels pass under the estuary from Liverpool. By road, the Queensway Tunnel opened in 1934 connecting the city to Birkenhead, and the Kingsway Tunnel, opened in 1971, connects with Wallasey.


title: River Mersey

text: Further upstream, the Runcorn Railway Bridge over the river at Runcorn Gap was built in the 1860s for the London and North Western Railway on the mainline between London and Liverpool. It had a cantilevered footway providing an alternative crossing to a ferry. In 1905 the now demolished Widnes-Runcorn Transporter Bridge opened and took cars and passengers via a cable car. The Silver Jubilee Bridge, completed in 1961, is immediately adjacent.


title: River Mersey

text: East of Warrington, the M6 motorway crosses the river and the Manchester Ship Canal on the Thelwall Viaduct. When the viaduct opened in 1963, it was the longest motorway bridge in England. A second viaduct alongside opened in 1995; northbound traffic uses the old viaduct and southbound the new.


title: River Mersey

text: A new 6-lane bridge, the "Mersey Gateway", between Runcorn and Widnes began its construction phase in May 2014 and opened just after midnight on 14 October 2017. At the same time the Silver Jubilee Bridge was closed to undergo maintenance for approximately 6–12 months, but will remain open to pedestrians and cyclists. The new bridge uses tolls and the existing Silver Jubilee Bridge will also be tolled.


title: River Mersey

text: Water quality in the Mersey was severely affected by industrialisation, and in 1985, the Mersey Basin Campaign was established to improve water quality and encourage waterside regeneration. In 2002, oxygen levels that could support fish along the entire length were recorded for the first time since industry began on the Mersey.


title: River Mersey

text: In 2009 it was announced that the river is "cleaner than at any time since the industrial revolution" and is "now considered one of the cleanest [rivers] in the UK".


title: River Mersey

text: Persistent organic and mercury (Hg) pollution contained within sediments of the Mersey estuary have been evaluated by British Geological Survey. Mersey river sediments from outer to inner estuary (Alfred Dock to Widnes) contain a variety of common organic pollutants, including polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) with concentrations which fall in the middle of the range of similarly industrial-urban river-estuaries. The distribution of individual PAH compounds suggests that the Mersey has contaminants mainly derived from combustion sources such as vehicle exhaust as well as coal burning. The distribution of the toxic heavy metal Mercury (Hg) has been assessed by measuring 203 sediments taken from shallow cores (0.4 – 1.6 m) extracted from both the main river and adjacent salt marshes. The average amount of Hg in the Mersey was found to be 2 mg/kg with the highest amounts of 5 mg/kg occurring below the surface at concentrations harmful to sediment dwelling biota. The vertical rise and fall in Hg pollution observed at four Mersey salt marshes indicated a decline in metal pollution since the 1980s.


title: River Mersey

text: Salmon have returned to the river and have been seen jumping at Woolston and Howley Weirs between September and November. Salmon parr and smolt have been caught in the Mersey's tributaries, the River Goyt and the River Bollin. Atlantic grey seals from Liverpool Bay occasionally venture into the estuary along with bottlenose dolphin and harbour porpoise. Otter tracks have been observed near Fiddlers Ferry. Other fish in the estuary include cod, whiting, dab, plaice and flounder. Spiny dogfish, mackerel and tope feed on shrimp and whitebait in the estuary. For ducks, the estuary is important to common shelducks and Eurasian teal. Waders include redshank, black-tailed godwit, dunlin, pintail and turnstone.


title: River Mersey

text: The section of the estuary between Runcorn Railway Bridge and Bromborough, including Hale Duck Decoy and Mount Manisty, is designated as a Site of Special Scientific Interest, the SSSI citation describing it as an "internationally important site for wildfowl". There are further SSSIs at New Ferry and Mersey Narrows. The Mersey Estuary, and the Mersey Narrows and North Wirral Foreshore, are also Ramsar sites.


title: River Mersey

text: Capt. William Gill of the Isle of Man Steam Packet Company, charted a safe, navigable channel (the Victoria Channel) through the treacherous uncharted waters of the estuary in 1836.


title: River Mersey

text: Since the construction of the Manchester Ship Canal, large commercial vessels do not usually navigate the estuary beyond Garston on the north bank, or the locks into the ship canal at Eastham. Deep-water channels are maintained to both. Until the early 20th century, commercial traffic bound for further upstream carried cargo in large flat-bottomed sailing barges known as Mersey Flats to Howley Wharf in Warrington and (via the Sankey Canal) to St Helens. Motor barges delivered to riverside factories at Warrington until at least the 1970s, but nowadays only pleasure craft and yachts use the upper estuary and the tidal river where a number of sailing clubs are based. On most high tides, seagoing yachts with masts raised can navigate as far upstream as Fiddlers Ferry – about downstream of Warrington – where there is a small marina accessed via a river lock. Although river craft can continue upstream to Howley Weir, there are no landing or mooring facilities. Before construction of the ship canal, a lock bypassing Howley Weir allowed navigation further upstream via a straight "cut" avoiding a meander around Woolston.


title: River Mersey

text: The Mersey Valley Countryside Warden Service manages local nature reserves such as Chorlton Ees and Sale Water Park recreational sites and provides an educational service along the Mersey from Manchester to the Manchester Ship Canal.


title: River Mersey

text: It is possible to canoe on parts of the river between Stockport and Carrington. Liverpool Sailing Club located at Garston Coastal Park on the north bank of the estuary has a 1000 feet slipway giving access to river for water sports.


title: River Mersey

text: The wooded suburban stretch of the river from above Howley Weir to Woolston is also used for recreational and competitive rowing, operated from the Warrington Rowing Club.


title: River Mersey

text: Angling has become popular on some stretches of the river as fish such as perch, barbel, grayling, carp, roach, chub, trout, pike, bream and dace have been caught.


title: River Mersey

text: Warrington Anglers Association have fishing rights on a large stretch of the River through most of Warrington. Prince Albert Angling Society also have a small stretch near Rixton.


title: River Mersey

text: The river has also faced problems regarding the poaching of fish despite a strict 'catch and release' policy imposed on anglers for ecological reasons which applies to most UK waterways.


title: River Mersey

text: Proposals continue for the construction of the Mersey Barrage, a tidal scheme to generate electricity and create another crossing of the river. Very high spring tides can generate a tidal bore from Hale as far upstream as Warrington. On 7 December 2022, the Liverpool City Region mayor announced cooperation between the City Region and K-water of South Korea, who built and operates the Sihwa Lake Tidal Power Station, in order to construct a similar operation on the River Mersey.


title: River Mersey

text: The river gave its name to Merseybeat, developed by bands from Liverpool, notably the Beatles. In 1965 it was the subject of the top-ten hit single "Ferry Cross the Mersey" by Gerry and the Pacemakers, and a musical film of the same name. The Liverpool poets published an anthology of their work, "The Mersey Sound", in 1967.


title: River Mersey

text: The river's stretch through Manchester is the main theme in the Stone Roses song "Mersey Paradise", included on the B-side of the 12" version of their 1989 hit "She Bangs the Drums", and on their 1992 compilation album "Turns into Stone".


title: River Mersey

text: The Tall ships' fleet has visited the Mersey on four occasions, first in 1984, then in 1992, 2008 and 2012.


title: River Mersey

text: The Mersey is considered sacred by British Hindus, and worshipped in a similar way to the River Ganges. Festival of Immersion ceremonies are held annually on the river, in which clay figures representing the Hindu Lord Ganesha, the elephant deity riding a mouse, are submerged in the river from a ferry boat. Followers throw flowers, pictures and coins into the river.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: Paul John Tagliabue (; born November 24, 1940) is an American lawyer who was the commissioner of the National Football League (NFL). He took the position in 1989 and served until September 1, 2006. He had previously served as a lawyer for the NFL. Tagliabue also served as Chairman of Board of Directors of Georgetown University from 2009 to 2015.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: Tagliabue was born in Jersey City, New Jersey, the third of four sons of Charles and May Tagliabue. He is of Italian descent. Tagliabue received an athletic scholarship to play basketball at Georgetown University and was captain of the 1961–62 team. He graduated in 1962 as president of his senior class, a Rhodes Scholar finalist and a Dean's List graduate.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: Tagliabue graduated from New York University School of Law in 1965. He has received honorary degrees from Colgate University and Northeastern University.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: After serving as a lawyer for the NFL, Tagliabue was selected by NFL owners to succeed Pete Rozelle as Commissioner of the NFL in 1989.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: During his tenure as commissioner, the NFL expanded from 28 teams to 32. New franchises were announced in 1993 to begin play in 1995 in Charlotte and Jacksonville. Subsequent moves by other teams resulted in a 31st team being added in Cleveland in 1999; this team, though technically an expansion team, inherited the name, colors and history (including all team and individual records) from the Cleveland Browns, who had relocated to Baltimore in 1996 and been renamed the Baltimore Ravens. The 32nd franchise was the Houston Texans, added in 2002.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: The NFL continued to play pre-season games in Europe with the American Bowl series. Paul Tagliabue started a spring developmental league, the World League of American Football (WLAF), with seven teams in North America, plus three in Europe. The European teams dominated in 1991, the first season. After the second season, 1992, in which US-based teams played in the World Bowl, the World League was shut down as it was unsuccessful in the US. In 1995, the spring league returned as the NFL Europe with six teams in Europe. When Tagliabue retired, five teams were based in Germany. Tagliabue's successor Roger Goodell shut down the NFL Europe after the 2007 season. but replaced it with the NFL International Series in October 2007 with regular season games in London.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: In 2022 the NFL played its first ever Regular Season Game in mainland Europe. The game was played in Munich, Germany on November 13, 2022.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: In 1995, Los Angeles lost both its franchises, as the Los Angeles Rams relocated to St. Louis, and the Raiders returned to Oakland. In 1996, the Browns moved to Baltimore, under a new name, as indicated above. In 1997, the Houston Oilers relocated to Tennessee, for one year in Memphis and another year using Vanderbilt Stadium as their home field. (The team changed its name from the Oilers to the Titans upon moving to their permanent stadium in Nashville.)


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: Two days after the terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, Tagliabue announced that the games scheduled for the upcoming weekend were cancelled, citing the magnitude of the events and security concerns. It was the first time the league canceled an entire week's slate of games since the 1987 NFL strike.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: A week later, it was announced that the postponed games would be added to the end of the regular season, pushing the Super Bowl into February for the first time.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: In 2008, Tagliabue was selected to serve a three-year term as chairman of Georgetown University's board of directors.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: He has served on the Advisory Board of The Iris Network, a nonprofit blindness rehabilitation agency in Portland, Maine.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: In 2012, Tagliabue was appointed by current NFL commissioner Roger Goodell to hear the appeals of the players suspended in the New Orleans Saints bounty scandal. Tagliabue affirmed Goodell's findings of the investigation but overturned all players' suspensions.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: On September 4, 2014, Tagliabue was named to the executive board of DC2024, a group trying to bring the 2024 Summer Olympics to Washington, D.C.


title: Paul Tagliabue

text: Tagliabue won the 1992 Eagle Award from the United States Sports Academy. The Eagle Award is the Academy's highest international honor and was awarded to Tagliabue for his significant contributions to international sport.


title: A Girl Who Sees Smells

text: A Girl Who Sees Smells () is a 2015 South Korean television series adapted from the KTOON webtoon of the same title by Seo Soo-kyung a/k/a Man Chwi. Starring Park Yoo-chun, Shin Se-kyung, Namgoong Min and Yoon Jin-seo, it aired on SBS on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21:55 for 16 episodes from April 1 to May 21, 2015.


title: A Girl Who Sees Smells

text: Its early working title was "Sensory Couple" (), before reverting to the name of the original webtoon. The drama managed to top the Contents Power Index (CPI) rankings for the most influential dramas.


title: A Girl Who Sees Smells

text: Choi Eun-seol (Shin Se-kyung) arrives home to find her parents murdered. When the murderer is distracted, she escapes but is hit by a car. Eun-seol's parents are later found with a barcode carved into their skin, the work of the "Barcode" serial killer. The lead detective on the case, Oh Jae-pyo (Jung In-gi) realizes that the now-comatose daughter Eun-seol is the sole surviving witness.


title: A Girl Who Sees Smells

text: On that same night, Choi Moo-gak (Park Yoo-chun) is at the hospital visiting his younger sister (Kim So-hyun), also named Choi Eun-seol, who's being treated for mild injuries after a bus accident. But when he returns to her bed, he finds her dead with her throat slit.


title: A Girl Who Sees Smells

text: Six months later, Eun-seol comes out of her coma. But she has no memories at all of her life before waking up at the hospital, and her left eye has turned green with no scientific explanation. She has also gained the unique ability to "see" smells as visible colors and shapes, and can even trace where people have been because their lingering scents are like a trail. To protect her, Jae-pyo adopts her and invents a new life for her, telling her that he's her real father and that her name is Oh Cho-rim. Three years and six months pass, and Cho-rim is a cheerful girl who's adjusted to her ability. She dreams of a becoming a comedian, and works as a gofer for a small, struggling theater company called Frog Troupe.


title: A Girl Who Sees Smells

text: On the other hand, Moo-gak had been so traumatized by his sister's death that after two months of no sleep and constant pain, he'd fainted and was clinically dead for ten days. When he woke up, he'd lost the sense of smell and taste, and is unable to feel pain. And unlike his previous warm personality, Moo-gak is now stoic, emotionless, and speaks in a monotone. He leaves his job at the aquarium to become a police officer, vowing to reopen the case and catch the killer. But to do so, he must first get promoted to detective, and has to prove himself to the head of the homicide unit Detective Kang Hyuk (Lee Won-jong) in ten days or to never ask for a promotion again. Cho-rim also needs a skit partner for her upcoming audition in ten days, and when she offers to help him with his cases in exchange, they decide to team up. After a model (Park Han-byul) turns up dead, seemingly another victim of the Barcode serial killer, Moo-gak joins the investigation headed by Lieutenant Yeom Mi (Yoon Jin-seo), and he zeroes in on two possible suspects: the model's boyfriend, chef Kwon Jae-hee (Namgoong Min) and her doctor (Song Jong-ho).


title: A Girl Who Sees Smells

text: After the murder of his sister, Moo-gak is determined to become a police inspector and take revenge for his sister's death. He is desensitised and is unable to smell or taste his food.


title: A Girl Who Sees Smells

text: Cho-rim witnessed the murder of her parents and lived on as the sole witness of the barcode serial murders. She has a strange ability-being able to see smells as patterns in the air. She forms a team with Moo-gak, and together, they work to solve the series of barcode murders.


title: Keyboard technology

text: The technology of computer keyboards includes many elements. Among the more important of these is the switch technology that they use. Computer alphanumeric keyboards typically have 80 to 110 durable switches, generally one for each key. The choice of switch technology affects key response (the positive feedback that a key has been pressed) and pre-travel (the distance needed to push the key to enter a character reliably). Virtual keyboards on touch screens have no physical switches and provide audio and haptic feedback instead. Some newer keyboard models use hybrids of various technologies to achieve greater cost savings or better ergonomics.


title: Keyboard technology

text: The modern keyboard also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide feedback to the user (and to the central processor) about what state the keyboard is in. Plug and play technology means that its 'out of the box' layout can be notified to the system, making the keyboard immediately ready to use without need for further configuration unless the user so desires.


title: Keyboard technology

text: There are two types of membrane-based keyboards, flat-panel membrane keyboards and full-travel membrane keyboards:


title: Keyboard technology

text: Flat-panel membrane keyboards are most often found on appliances like microwave ovens or photocopiers. A common design consists of three layers. The top layer has the labels printed on its front and conductive stripes printed on the back. Under this it has a spacer layer, which holds the front and back layer apart so that they do not normally make electrical contact. The back layer has conductive stripes printed perpendicularly to those of the front layer. When placed together, the stripes form a grid. When the user pushes down at a particular position, their finger pushes the front layer down through the spacer layer to close a circuit at one of the intersections of the grid. This indicates to the computer or keyboard control processor that a particular button has been pressed.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Generally, flat-panel membrane keyboards do not produce a noticeable physical feedback. Therefore, devices using these issue a beep or flash a light when the key is pressed. They are often used in harsh environments where water- or leak-proofing is desirable. Although used in the early days of the personal computer (on the Sinclair ZX80, ZX81 and Atari 400), they have been supplanted by the more tactile dome and mechanical switch keyboards.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Full-travel membrane-based keyboards are the most common computer keyboards today. They have one-piece plastic keytop/switch plungers which press down on a membrane to actuate a contact in an electrical switch matrix.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Dome-switch keyboards are a hybrid of flat-panel membrane and mechanical-switch keyboards. They bring two circuit board traces together under a rubber or silicone keypad using either metal "dome" switches or polyurethane formed domes. The metal dome switches are formed pieces of stainless steel that, when compressed, give the user a crisp, positive tactile feedback. These metal types of dome switches are very common, are usually reliable to over 5 million cycles, and can be plated in either nickel, silver or gold. The rubber dome switches, most commonly referred to as polydomes, are formed polyurethane domes where the inside bubble is coated in graphite. While polydomes are typically cheaper than metal domes, they lack the crisp snap of the metal domes, and usually have a lower life specification. Polydomes are considered very quiet, but purists tend to find them "mushy" because the collapsing dome does not provide as much positive response as metal domes. For either metal or polydomes, when a key is pressed, it collapses the dome, which connects the two circuit traces and completes the connection to enter the character. The pattern on the PC board is often gold-plated.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Both are common switch technologies used in mass market keyboards today. This type of switch technology happens to be most commonly used in handheld controllers, mobile phones, automotive, consumer electronics and medical devices. Dome-switch keyboards are also called direct-switch keyboards.


title: Keyboard technology

text: A special case of the computer keyboard dome-switch is the scissor-switch. The keys are attached to the keyboard via two plastic pieces that interlock in a "scissor"-like fashion, and snap to the keyboard and the key. It still uses rubber domes, but a special plastic 'scissors' mechanism links the keycap to a plunger that depresses the rubber dome with a much shorter travel than the typical rubber dome keyboard. Typically scissor-switch keyboards also employ 3-layer membranes as the electrical component of the switch. They also usually have a shorter total key travel distance (2 mm instead of 3.5–4 mm for standard dome-switch keyswitches). This type of keyswitch is often found on the built-in keyboards on laptops and keyboards marketed as 'low-profile'. These keyboards are generally quiet and the keys require little force to press.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Scissor-switch keyboards are typically slightly more expensive. They are harder to clean (due to the limited movement of the keys and their multiple attachment points) but also less likely to get debris in them as the gaps between the keys are often smaller (as there is no need for extra room to allow for the 'wiggle' in the key, as typically found on a membrane keyboard).


title: Keyboard technology

text: In this type of keyboard, pressing a key changes the capacitance of a pattern of capacitor pads. The pattern consists of two D-shaped capacitor pads for each switch, printed on a printed circuit board (PCB) and covered by a thin, insulating film of soldermask which acts as a dielectric.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Despite the sophistication of the concept, the mechanism of capacitive switching is physically simple. The movable part ends with a flat foam element about the size of an aspirin tablet, finished with aluminum foil. Opposite the switch is a PCB with the capacitor pads. When the key is pressed, the foil tightly clings to the surface of the PCB, forming a daisy chain of two capacitors between contact pads and itself separated with thin soldermask, and thus "shorting" the contact pads with an easily detectable drop of capacitive reactance between them. Usually this permits a pulse or pulse train to be sensed. Because the switch does not have an actual electrical contact, there is no debouncing necessary. The keys do not need to be fully pressed to be actuated, which enables some people to type faster. The sensor tells enough about the position of the key to allow the user to adjust the actuation point (key sensitivity). This adjustment can be done with the help of the bundled software and individually for each key, if so implemented.


title: Keyboard technology

text: The IBM Model F keyboard is mechanical-key design consisted of a buckling spring over a capacitive PCB, similarly to the later Model M keyboard that used a membrane in place of the PCB.


title: Keyboard technology

text: The Topre Corporation design for key switches uses a spring below a rubber dome. The dome provides most of the force that keeps the key from being pressed, similar to a membrane keyboard, while the spring helps with the capacitive action.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Every key on a mechanical-switch keyboard contains a complete switch underneath. Each switch is composed of a housing, a spring, and a stem, and sometimes other parts such as a separate tactile leaf or a clickbar. Switches come in three variants: "linear" with consistent resistance, "tactile" with a non-audible bump, and "clicky" with both a bump and an audible click. Depending on the resistance of the spring, the key requires different amounts of pressure to actuate and to bottom out. The shape of the stem as well as the design of the switch housing varies the actuation distance and travel distance of the switch. The sound can be altered by the material of the plate, case, lubrication, the keycap profile, and even modifying the individual switch. These modifications, or "mods" include applying lubricant to reduce friction inside the switch itself, inserting "switch films" to reduce wobble, swapping out the spring inside to modify the resistance of the switch itself and many more. Mechanical keyboards allow for the removal and replacement of keycaps with a common stem type.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Alongside the mechanical keyboard switch is the stabilizer, which supports longer keys such as the "spacebar", "enter", "backspace", and "shift" keys. Although these are not as diverse as switches, they come in different sizes. These different sizes are designed for keyboards that are longer than normal. Similar to a mechanical keyboard switch, the stabilizer can be modified to alter the sound and feel of these certain keys. Lubricant can be used to reduce the rattle of the metal wire that makes up a stabilizer. Furthermore, implementing padding in the "housing" of the stabilizer will lessen rattle and improve acoustics.


title: Keyboard technology

text: A major producer of mechanical switches is Cherry, who has manufactured the MX family of switches since the 1980s. Cherry's color-coding system of categorizing switches has been imitated by other mechanical switch manufacturers, such as Gateron and Kailh amongst many others.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Hot-swappable keyboards are keyboards where switches can be pulled out and replaced rather than requiring the typical solder connection. Instead of the "switch" being soldered to the keyboard's PCB, hot-swap "sockets" are instead soldered on. They are mostly used by keyboard enthusiasts that build custom keyboards, and have recently begun being adopted by larger companies on production keyboards. Hot-swap sockets typically cost anywhere from $10–25 USD to fill a complete board and can allow users to try a variety of different switches without having the tools or knowledge required to solder electronics.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Many typists prefer buckling spring keyboards. The buckling spring mechanism (expired ) atop the switch is responsible for the tactile and aural response of the keyboard. This mechanism controls a small hammer that strikes a capacitive or membrane switch.


title: Keyboard technology

text: In 1993, two years after spawning Lexmark, IBM transferred its keyboard operations to the daughter company. New Model M keyboards continued to be manufactured for IBM by Lexmark until 1996, when Unicomp was established and purchased the keyboard patents and tooling equipment to continue their production.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Hall effect keyboards use magnets and Hall effect sensors instead of switches with mechanical contacts. When a key is depressed, it moves a magnet that is detected by a solid-state sensor. Because they require no physical contact for actuation, Hall-effect keyboards are extremely reliable and can accept millions of keystrokes before failing. They are used for ultra-high reliability applications such as nuclear power plants, aircraft cockpits, and critical industrial environments. They can easily be made totally waterproof, and can resist large amounts of dust and contaminants. Because a magnet and sensor are required for each key, as well as custom control electronics, they are expensive to manufacture.


title: Keyboard technology

text: A laser projection device approximately the size of a computer mouse projects the outline of keyboard keys onto a flat surface, such as a table or desk. This type of keyboard is portable enough to be easily used with PDAs and cellphones, and many models have retractable cords and wireless capabilities. However, sudden or accidental disruption of the laser will register unwanted keystrokes. Also, if the laser malfunctions, the whole unit becomes useless, unlike conventional keyboards which can be used even if a variety of parts (such as the keycaps) are removed. This type of keyboard can be frustrating to use since it is susceptible to errors, even in the course of normal typing, and its complete lack of tactile feedback makes it even less user-friendly than the lowest quality membrane keyboards.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Keyboards made of flexible silicone or polyurethane materials can roll up in a bundle. Tightly folding the keyboard may damage the internal membrane circuits. When they are completely sealed in rubber, they are water resistant. Roll-up keyboards provide relatively little tactile feedback, and silicone will tend to attract dirt, dust, and hair.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Also known as photo-optical keyboard, light responsive keyboard, photo-electric keyboard, and optical key actuation detection technology.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Optical keyboard technology was introduced in 1962 by Harley E. Kelchner for use in a typewriter machine with the purpose of reducing the noise generating by actuating the typewriter keys.


title: Keyboard technology

text: An optical keyboard technology utilizes light-emitting devices and photo sensors to optically detect actuated keys. Most commonly the emitters and sensors are located at the perimeter, mounted on a small PCB. The light is directed from side to side of the keyboard interior, and it can only be blocked by the actuated keys. Most optical keyboards require at least two beams (most commonly a vertical beam and a horizontal beam) to determine the actuated key. Some optical keyboards use a special key structure that blocks the light in a certain pattern, allowing only one beam per row of keys (most commonly a horizontal beam).


title: Keyboard technology

text: The mechanism of the optical keyboard is very simple – a light beam is sent from the emitter to the receiving sensor, and the actuated key blocks, reflects, refracts or otherwise interacts with the beam, resulting in an identified key.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Some earlier optical keyboards were limited in their structure and required special casing to block external light, no multi-key functionality was supported and the design was very limited to a thick rectangular case.


title: Keyboard technology

text: The advantages of optical keyboard technology are that it offers a real waterproof keyboard, resilient to dust and liquids; and it uses about 20% PCB volume, compared with membrane or dome switch keyboards, significantly reducing electronic waste.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Additional advantages of optical keyboard technology over other keyboard technologies such as Hall effect, laser, roll-up, and transparent keyboards lie in cost (Hall effect keyboard) and feel – optical keyboard technology does not require different key mechanisms, and the tactile feel of typing has remained the same for over 60 years.


title: Keyboard technology

text: The specialist DataHand keyboard uses optical technology to sense keypresses with a single light beam and sensor per key. The keys are held in their rest position by magnets; when the magnetic force is overcome to press a key, the optical path is unblocked and the keypress is registered.


title: Keyboard technology

text: When a key is pressed, it oscillates ("bounces") against its contacts several times before settling. When released, it oscillates again until it comes to rest. Although it happens on a scale too small to be visible to the naked eye, it can be enough to register multiple keystrokes.


title: Keyboard technology

text: To resolve this, the processor in a keyboard "debounces" the keystrokes, by averaging the signal over time to produce one "confirmed" keystroke that (usually) corresponds to a single press or release. Early membrane keyboards had limited typing speed because they had to do significant debouncing. This was a noticeable problem on the ZX81.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Keycaps are used on full-travel keyboards. While modern keycaps are typically surface-printed, they can also be double-shot molded, laser printed, sublimation printed, engraved, or they can be made of transparent material with printed paper inserts.


title: Keyboard technology

text: There are also keycaps which are thin shells that are placed over key bases. These were used on IBM PC keyboards.


title: Keyboard technology

text: The modern PC keyboard also includes a control processor and indicator lights to provide feedback to the user about what state the keyboard is in. Depending on the sophistication of the controller's programming, the keyboard may also offer other special features. The processor is usually a single chip 8048 microcontroller variant. The keyboard switch matrix is wired to its inputs and it processes the incoming keystrokes and sends the results down a serial cable (the keyboard cord) to a receiver in the main computer box. It also controls the illumination of the "caps lock", "num lock" and "scroll lock" lights.


title: Keyboard technology

text: A common test for whether the computer has crashed is pressing the "caps lock" key. The keyboard sends the key code to the keyboard driver running in the main computer; if the main computer is operating, it commands the light to turn on. All the other indicator lights work in a similar way. The keyboard driver also tracks the shift, alt and control state of the keyboard.


title: Keyboard technology

text: The keyboard switch matrix is often drawn with horizontal wires and vertical wires in a grid which is called a matrix circuit. It has a switch at some or all intersections, much like a multiplexed display.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Almost all keyboards have only the "switch" (but no diode) at each intersection, which causes "ghost keys" and "key jamming" when multiple keys are pressed (rollover). Certain, often more expensive, keyboards have a diode between each intersection, allowing the keyboard microcontroller to accurately sense any number of simultaneous keys being pressed, without generating erroneous ghost keys.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Optical character recognition (OCR) is preferable to rekeying for converting existing text that is already written down but not in machine-readable format (for example, a Linotype-composed book from the 1940s). In other words, to convert the text from an image to editable text (that is, a string of character codes), a person could re-type it, or a computer could look at the image and deduce what each character is. OCR technology has already reached an impressive state (for example, Google Book Search) and promises more for the future.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Speech recognition converts speech into machine-readable text (that is, a string of character codes). This technology has also reached an advanced state and is implemented in various software products. For certain uses (e.g., transcription of medical or legal dictation; journalism; writing essays or novels) speech recognition is starting to replace the keyboard. However, the lack of privacy when issuing voice commands and dictation makes this kind of input unsuitable for many environments.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Pointing devices can be used to enter text or characters in contexts where using a physical keyboard would be inappropriate or impossible. These accessories typically present characters on a display, in a layout that provides fast access to the more frequently used characters or character combinations. Popular examples of this kind of input are Graffiti, Dasher and on-screen virtual keyboards.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Unencrypted Bluetooth keyboards are known to be vulnerable to signal theft for keylogging by other Bluetooth devices in range. Microsoft wireless keyboards 2011 and earlier are documented to have this vulnerability.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Keystroke logging (often called keylogging) is a method of capturing and recording user keystrokes. While it can be used legally to measure employee activity, or by law enforcement agencies to investigate suspicious activities, it is also used by hackers for illegal or malicious acts. Hackers use keyloggers to obtain passwords or encryption keys.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Keystroke logging can be achieved by both hardware and software means. Hardware key loggers are attached to the keyboard cable or installed inside standard keyboards. Software keyloggers work on the target computer's operating system and gain unauthorized access to the hardware, hook into the keyboard with functions provided by the OS, or use remote access software to transmit recorded data out of the target computer to a remote location. Some hackers also use wireless keylogger sniffers to collect packets of data being transferred from a wireless keyboard and its receiver, and then they crack the encryption key being used to secure wireless communications between the two devices.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Anti-spyware applications are able to detect many keyloggers and remove them. Responsible vendors of monitoring software support detection by anti-spyware programs, thus preventing abuse of the software. Enabling a firewall does not stop keyloggers per se, but can possibly prevent transmission of the logged material over the net if properly configured. Network monitors (also known as reverse-firewalls) can be used to alert the user whenever an application attempts to make a network connection. This gives the user the chance to prevent the keylogger from "phoning home" with his or her typed information. Automatic form-filling programs can prevent keylogging entirely by not using the keyboard at all. Most keyloggers can be fooled by alternating between typing the login credentials and typing characters somewhere else in the focus window.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Keyboards are also known to emit electromagnetic signatures that can be detected using special spying equipment to reconstruct the keys pressed on the keyboard. Neal O'Farrell, executive director of the Identity Theft Council, revealed to InformationWeek that "More than 25 years ago, a couple of former spooks showed me how they could capture a user's ATM PIN, from a van parked across the street, simply by capturing and decoding the electromagnetic signals generated by every keystroke," O'Farrell said. "They could even capture keystrokes from computers in nearby offices, but the technology wasn't sophisticated enough to focus in on any specific computer."


title: Keyboard technology

text: The use of any keyboard may cause serious injury (such as carpal tunnel syndrome or other repetitive strain injuries) to the hands, wrists, arms, neck or back. The risks of injuries can be reduced by taking frequent short breaks to get up and walk around a couple of times every hour. Users should also vary tasks throughout the day, to avoid overuse of the hands and wrists. When typing on a keyboard, a person should keep the shoulders relaxed with the elbows at the side, with the keyboard and mouse positioned so that reaching is not necessary. The chair height and keyboard tray should be adjusted so that the wrists are straight, and the wrists should not be rested on sharp table edges. Wrist or palm rests should not be used while typing.


title: Keyboard technology

text: Some adaptive technology ranging from special keyboards, mouse replacements and pen tablet interfaces to speech recognition software can reduce the risk of injury. Pause software reminds the user to pause frequently. Switching to a much more ergonomic mouse, such as a vertical mouse or joystick mouse may provide relief.


title: Keyboard technology

text: By using a touchpad or a stylus pen with a graphic tablet, in place of a mouse, one can lessen the repetitive strain on the arms and hands.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari, formerly known as Hurricane and Mercury, is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. The character is depicted as a member of the Eternals, a race of superhumans in the Marvel Universe. He first appeared in the 1976–78 comic book series "The Eternals", where the name was spelled Makarri. He was also a member of the First Line and Monster Hunters.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Lauren Ridloff portrays a deaf female version of Makkari in the Marvel Cinematic Universe, debuting in "Eternals" (2021).


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Originally, Makkari was a character in Jack Kirby's "The Eternals". Mark Gruenwald later reintroduced Makkari as a long-running supporting character in the "Quasar" series.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Hurricane reappears as a member of the Monster Hunters in "Marvel Universe" #4 (September 1998), in a story set in the 1950s. By the end of this three-issue story, it turns out the monsters they are hunting are actually Deviants and Hurricane is revealed to be Makkari.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Marvel Comics continuity was later retconned so that the character presented as the mythological god Mercury, introduced in "Red Raven Comics" #1 (August 1940; "Mercury in the 20th Century" by artist Kirby and writer Martin A. Bursten, pen name "Burstein"), was, in fact, Makkari. Mercury was only seen in that single story, in which he worked to thwart the machinations of Pluto.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari is featured as one of the main characters in the Marvel limited series "Eternals" (2006–07), written by Neil Gaiman and penciled by artist John Romita Jr.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari is the son of Verona and Mara, born in Olympia, the capital city of the Eternals of Earth. He is a member of the Eternals' Technologist's Guild and is skilled at designing and building high-speed vehicles. Makkari has involved himself in Earth's affairs more often than most Eternals. Under the name Thoth, he taught writing to the Egyptians. He was taught philosophy by Plato. He rescued Sersi from Nero's Fire. He spent some time as the charioteer of Darius I of Persia. He witnessed the Trojan War, the reign of Vlad the Impaler, and the Alamo.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: In the 1940s, he worked on Earth, per Zuras' request, under the aliases "Hurricane" and "Mercury" (an example of retcon, these Golden Age characters were not originally supposed to be related), and fought Warlord Kro and Deviant Mutates alongside the Monster Hunters, a team he formed using his identity as National Security Agent Jake Curtiss. Later on, he taught Elvis Presley a few guitar tricks. Following the disbanding of the Monster Hunters, Makkari was convinced by Pixie to join the First Line as "Major Mercury". He and First Line fought against the original Skrull invasion of Earth, and, along with Yeti and Pixie, was one of the few members of First Line to survive the conflict.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari accompanied Thena to New York City to help rescue Sersi and repulse the Deviant invasion. He was with the Eternals who introduced themselves to the students at City College during the Fourth Host of the Celestials. He then returned to Olympia with Ikaris and Margo Damian, where he encountered Sprite. He also participated in the Uni-Mind ritual. Alongside Ikaris and Sersi, he battled the Hulk robot. Makkari then battled Ikaris, who was under the mental influence of Dromedan.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari later battled Hermes of Olympus. He battled Maelstrom alongside the Avengers. Makkari elected to remain while the majority of Eternals departed Earth. Makkari accompanied Ikaris on his mission to assemble the Eternals to wage war against the Deviants. Makkari then encountered Lord Ghaur. Makkari accompanied the other Eternals to Lemuria to battle the Deviants. Makkari battled Ghaur alongside the Eternals, Thor, and the West Coast Avengers, and participated in the defeat of Ghaur. Some time later, alongside the Eternals, Makkari fought the Super-Skrull and encountered the Silver Surfer.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari was later rescued by Quasar when he began running rampant, literally. He revealed that he had traded his other Eternal abilities for greater speed and endurance. He became friends with Quasar when he enlisted Quasar to go to Lemuria to help him save Master Elo, who was tutoring Makkari in how to channel his cosmic energy into more speed. He then accompanied Quasar to the Stranger's laboratory world. There, he encountered the Star-Dancer, and battled Trikon and the Whizzer. Makkari later worked in Quasar's office under the alias "Mike Khary." He participated in a marathon to the Moon sponsored by the Runner, one of the Elders of the Universe, and nearly won; he bested Quicksilver, Captain Marvel, Whizzer, Speed Demon, Black Racer, and Super Sabre, only to lose the race in the last moments by an amnesiac, dimensions-spanning human being. Makkari then became Quasar's roommate. He was killed when his heart was stopped by Maelstrom, but returned to life, as part of an agreement struck between Eternity, Death, Infinity and Oblivion. Maelstrom later attempted to seize more power by draining the kinetic energy from Makkari, but Maelstrom was ultimately defeated by the other Eternals. However, he soon found he had become so fast that he could no longer move in synch with the rest of the universe.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: In the 2006 "Eternals" limited series, the Eternals are the victims of memory and reality manipulation by Sprite, and have thus forgotten their true identities. Makkari believes himself to be a medicine student named Mark Curry, and is the first Eternal shown in the series. He meets Ikaris, and causes his capture by the Deviants. By issues #2 and #3, he finally begins to experience his powers of super-speed, and uses them to stop terrorists from attacking a party. However, after telling him what has happened Sprite tricks Curry into opening a passageway to the long-dormant Celestial underneath San Francisco, and in doing so incapacitates Curry. During this time the Dreaming Celestial and Makkari began to talk in his dreams, firstly in the form of Sersi, and told him that it personally made him. By the end of the series he has become the Dreaming Celestial's prophet.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Later when the Celestials' Final Host arrived on Earth, Makkari along with all the Eternals killed themselves after realizing the true purpose for which they were created.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari is a member of the race of superhumans known as Eternals. He possesses superhuman strength, speed, and reflexes. He can create cyclones by running in circles, and can run up walls and across water. Makkari's body eventually accumulates fatigue poisons and is susceptible to injury.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Although in most of his appearances Makkari has the typical powers of an Eternal, his obsession with speed, starting in the Quasar series, causes him to focus most of his body's Cosmic Energy on enhancing his running speed. As a result, he lost his ability to fly and many of his other powers were weakened in the process. Makkari possesses none of the psionic powers of the average Eternal (levitation, ocular force projection, and molecular rearrangement), having purposefully readapted all his specialized cell enclaves to speed and running-related attributes. At present, he can run at near light speed for extended periods, but his physical strength (while still far greater than human) has been reduced by half, and he seemingly cannot project energy or manipulate matter.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari sometimes wears a protective crash helmet, though he does not truly need it. He wears synthetic stretch fabric, specially treated to resist the rigors of high velocity movement.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari has great mechanical aptitude, and the ability to pilot most land and air vehicles. He has moderate experience at hand-to-hand combat; his fighting style incorporates his superhuman speed. He has finished the standard Eternal higher education, and underwent special tutoring in the applications of speed.


title: Makkari (comics)

text: Makkari appears in "Eternals", portrayed by Lauren Ridloff. This version of the character is a woman of color as well as deaf. Makkari is shown to have lived on her ship the Domo for years and it is implied that she is in a relationship with Druig. Makkari rejoined the team to stop and prevent the destruction of planet Earth. Makkari and the team confronted Ikaris and Sprite to stop Tiamut. Makkari merged with the others to form the Uni-Mind and petrified Tiamut. Makkari, Druig, and Thena traveled in the Domo to seek out more Eternals to tell them the truth. Upon discovering that Sersi, Phastos, and Kingo had been captured by Arishem (who intends to study their memories to see if humanity is worthy enough to live) during the mid-credits, the trio allied with Eros and Pip Gofern to save them.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: The North Atlantic right whale (Eubalaena glacialis) is a baleen whale, one of three right whale species belonging to the genus "Eubalaena", all of which were formerly classified as a single species. Because of their docile nature, their slow surface-skimming feeding behaviors, their tendencies to stay close to the coast, and their high blubber content (which makes them float when they are killed, and which produced high yields of whale oil), right whales were once a preferred target for whalers.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: At present, they are among the most endangered whales in the world, and they are protected under the U.S. Endangered Species Act and Marine Mammal Protection Act and Canada's Species at Risk Act. There are fewer than 370 individuals in existence in the western North Atlantic Ocean—they migrate between feeding grounds in the Labrador Sea and their winter calving areas off Georgia and Florida, an ocean area with heavy shipping traffic. In the eastern North Atlantic, on the other hand—with a total population reaching into the low teens at most—scientists believe that they may already be functionally extinct. Vessel strikes and entanglement in fixed fishing gear, which together account for nearly half of all North Atlantic right whale mortality since 1970, are their two greatest threats to recovery.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: Like other right whales, the North Atlantic right whale, also known as the northern right whale or black right whale, is readily distinguished from other cetaceans by the absence of a dorsal fin on its broad back, short, paddle-like pectoral flippers and a long arching mouth that begins above the eye. Its coloration is dark grey to black, with some individuals occasionally having white patches on their stomachs or throats. Other unique features include a large head, which makes up a quarter of its total body length, narrow tail stock in comparison to its wide fluke and v-shaped blowhole which produces a heart-shaped blow.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: The most distinguishing feature for right whales is their callosities, rough, white patches of keratinized skin found on their heads. The right whale's callosities provide habitat for large colonies of cyamids or whale lice, which feed on the right whale's skin as these small crustaceans cannot survive in open water. The relationship between cyamids and right whales is symbiotic in nature but is poorly understood by scientists. Callosities are not caused by the external environment and are present on fetuses before birth. However, Cyamids near the blowhole have been linked to chronic entanglement and other injuries; their presence in this area has been used as measure of individual health in visual health assessments.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: Adult North Atlantic right whales average in length and weigh approximately , they are slightly smaller on average than the North Pacific species. The largest measured specimens have been long and . Females are larger than males.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: Up to forty-five percent of a right whale's body weight is blubber. This high percentage causes their body to float after death due to the low density of blubber.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: There is little data on their lifespan, but it is believed to be at least 70 years although individuals in species closely related to right whales have been found to live more than 100 years. Currently, female North Atlantic Right whales live on average 45 years and males 65 years. Age of right whales can be determined by examining their earwax postmortem.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: Aside from mating activities performed by groups of single female and several males, so called SAG (Surface Active Group), North Atlantic right whales seem less active compared to subspecies in southern hemisphere. However, this could be due to intense difference in number of surviving individuals especially calves that tend to be more curious and playful than adults, and small amount of observations. They are also known to interact with other baleen whales especially with Humpback whales or Bottlenose dolphins.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: North Atlantic right whales recordings are available online. Many effective automated methods, such as signal processing, data mining, and machine learning techniques are used to detect and classify their calls.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: North Atlantic right whales are promiscuous breeders. They first give birth at age nine or ten after a year-long gestation; the interval between births seems to have increased since the 1990s, and now averages three to six years. Calves are long at birth and weigh approximately .


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: Right whales feed mainly on copepods and other small invertebrates such as krill, pteropods, and larval barnacles, generally by slowly skimming through patches of concentrated prey at or below the ocean surface. Sei whales and basking sharks (sometimes minke whales as well) are in positions as food competitors and are known to feed in the same areas, swimming next to each other, but there have not been any conflicts observed between these species.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: The cladogram is a tool for visualizing and comparing the evolutionary relationships between taxa. The point where a node branches off is analogous to an evolutionary branching – the diagram can be read left-to-right, much like a timeline. The following cladogram of the family Balaenidae serves to illustrate the current scientific consensus as to the relationships between the North Atlantic right whale and the other members of its family.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: Another so-called species of right whale, the "Swedenborg whale" as proposed by Emanuel Swedenborg in the 18th century, was by scientific consensus once thought to be the North Atlantic right whale. However, the 2013 results of DNA analysis of those fossil bones revealed that they were in fact those of the bowhead whale.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: As the "right" whale continued to float long after being killed, it was possible to 'flense' or strip the whale of blubber without having to take it on board ship. Combined with the right whale's lack of speed through water, feeding habits, and coastal habitat, they were easy to catch, even for whalers equipped only with wooden boats and hand-held harpoons.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: Basques were the first to commercially hunt this species. They began whaling in the Bay of Biscay as early as the eleventh century. The whales were hunted initially for whale oil, but, as meat preservation technology improved, their value as food increased. Basque whalers reached eastern Canada by 1530. The last Basque whaling voyages were made prior to the commencement of the Seven Years' War (1756–1763). A few attempts were made to revive the trade, but they failed. Shore whaling continued sporadically into the 19th century. It had previously been assumed that Basque whaling in eastern Canada had been the primary cause for the depletion of the sub-population in the western North Atlantic, but later genetic studies disproved this.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: Setting out from Nantucket and New Bedford in Massachusetts and from Long Island, New York, Americans took up to one hundred right whales each year, with the records including one report of 29 whales killed in Cape Cod Bay in a single day during January 1700. By 1750, the North Atlantic right whale population was, for commercial purposes, depleted. Yankee whalers moved into the South Atlantic before the end of the 18th century. The population was so low by the mid-19th century that the famous Whitby whaler Rev. William Scoresby, son of the successful British whaler William Scoresby senior (1760–1829), claimed to have never seen a right whale (although he mainly hunted bowhead whales off eastern Greenland, outside the normal range of right whales).


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: Based on back calculations using the present population size and growth rate, the population may have numbered fewer than 100 individuals by 1935. As it became clear that hunting right whales was unsustainable, international protection for right whales came into effect, as the practice was banned globally in 1937. The ban was largely successful, although violations continued for several decades. Madeira took its last two right whales in 1967. After the fall of the iron Curtain, it was discovered that from the 1950s to the 1970s the Soviet Whaling fleet had actually killed several thousand right whales, with little regard to the IWC's regulations. The actual numbers that were killed were kept a close secret, but the scandal came to light when Russian biologists stepped forward to correct data that had been misreported to the IWC.


title: North Atlantic right whale

text: For the period 1970 to October 2006, humans have been responsible for 48% of the 73 documented deaths of the North Atlantic right whale. A 2001 forecast showed a declining population trend in the late 1990s, and indicated a high probability that North Atlantic right whales would go extinct within 200 years if the then-existing anthropogenic mortality rate was not curtailed. The combined factors of small population size and low annual reproductive rate of right whales mean that a single death represents a significant increase in mortality rate. Conversely, significant reduction in the mortality rate can be obtained by preventing just a few deaths. It was calculated that preventing the deaths of just two females per year would enable the population to stabilize. The data suggests, therefore, that human sources of mortality may have a greater effect relative to population growth rates of North Atlantic right whales than for other whales. The principal factors known to be retarding growth and recovery of the population are ship strikes and entanglement with fishing gear.