title: Alternative facts

text: Two days later, Spicer corrected his statements concerning the WMATA ridership levels, stating that he had been relying on statistics "given to him". He stood by his widely disputed claim that the inauguration was the most-viewed, stating he also included online viewership in addition to in-person and television in his figures.


title: Alternative facts

text: During the week following Conway's comments, she discussed "alternative facts", substituting the phrases "alternative information" and "incomplete information". Two days after the Todd interview she defended Trump's travel restrictions by talking about a nonexistent "Bowling Green massacre" (she later said she was referring to the arrest of two Iraqis in Bowling Green, Kentucky, for sending aid to insurgents in Iraq), and by falsely claiming that President Obama in 2011 had "banned visas for refugees from Iraq for six months". Her false statements were described as having "taken 'alternative facts' to a new level".


title: Alternative facts

text: The phrase "alternative facts" was claimed to be similar to a phrase used in Trump's 1987 book, "". In that book, "truthful hyperbole" was described as "an innocent form of exaggeration—and ... a very effective form of promotion". The book claimed that "people want to believe that something is the biggest and the greatest and the most spectacular". The ghostwriter of the book, Tony Schwartz, said he coined that phrase and claimed that Trump "loved it".


title: Alternative facts

text: Conway later defended her remarks in an interview published in March 2017: "Two plus two is four. Three plus one is four. Partly cloudy, partly sunny. Glass half full, glass half empty. Those are alternative facts." In a radio interview with Mark Simone that was described by Salon in February 2018, she claimed that professional fact-checkers tend to be political liberals and are "selecting what [they] think should be fact-checked ... Americans are their own fact checkers. People know, they have their own facts and figures, in terms of meaning which facts and figures are important to them."


title: Alternative facts

text: Spicer's press conference and Conway's follow-up comments drew quick reactions on social media. Journalist Dan Rather posted a criticism of the incoming Trump administration on his Facebook page. Rather wrote:


title: Alternative facts

text: "The New York Times" responded with a fact check of statements made during Spicer's press conference. This included a side-by-side photographic comparison of the crowds from Obama's 2009 inauguration and that of Trump.


title: Alternative facts

text: Journalist and former "New York Times" executive editor Jill Abramson characterized Conway's comments about alternative facts as "Orwellian newspeak", and said Alternative facts' are just lies". NBC News quoted two experts on the psychology of lying who said that the Trump administration was engaging in gaslighting, and reported that the domain name "alternativefacts.com" had been purchased and redirected to an article on the subject.


title: Alternative facts

text: The Merriam-Webster dictionary website reported that lookups for the word "fact" spiked after Conway used the phrase "alternative facts". They also got involved by tweeting about it: "A fact is a piece of information presented as having objective reality." The tweet included a link to their article about Conway's use of the term.


title: Alternative facts

text: Following Conway's "Meet the Press" interview and the viral response on social media in which "alternative facts" was likened to Doublethink and Newspeak, terms from George Orwell's dystopian novel "Nineteen Eighty-Four", sales of the book increased by more than 9,500 percent, rising to the number one best-selling book on Amazon.com. "The New York Times" and others attributed this to Conway's statement. Penguin, the book's publisher, ordered a 75,000 unit reprint to meet demand.


title: Alternative facts

text: Snopes journalist Alex Kasprak noted that Carl Sagan's words in Sagan's book "" became a viral meme about alternative facts after the inauguration of Trump; Kasprak commented "the proffered description of that nightmare was authentic".


title: Alternative facts

text: On January 24, 2017, the Public Relations Society of America, a public relations trade group, put out a statement that said "Encouraging and perpetuating the use of alternative facts by a high-profile spokesperson reflects poorly on all communications professionals."


title: Alternative facts

text: In a "Breitbart News" article dated January 23, 2017, editor Joel Pollak defended Conway's use of "alternative facts" by arguing that it was a "harmless, and accurate term in a legal setting, where each side of a dispute will lay out its own version of the facts for the court to decide". However, "The Guardian" noted that "[a] search of several online legal dictionaries did not yield any results for the term."


title: Alternative facts

text: On February 23, 2017, fifteen professors of law, some of whom are themselves obliged to adhere to the District of Columbia Bar Association's Rule of Professional Conduct, rule 8.4(a), filed a disciplinary complaint with the D.C. Bar's Office of Disciplinary Conduct. Their complaint applies against Conway, a lawyer in public office, on the grounds that under rule 8.4(c): "It is professional misconduct for a lawyer to engage in conduct involving dishonesty, fraud, deceit, or misrepresentation", because of Conway's pattern of misrepresentation as well as her misuse of words such as "massacre" at a time when she holds high public office. The letter of complaint makes a specific reference to the use of the phrase "alternative facts" as being involved in one of the cases of alleged misconduct, citing as a reference for its claim an opinion article by a "New York Times" op-ed columnist.


title: Alternative facts

text: The term alternative facts became a mainstay in popular culture, from late night comedians to serious news outlets. Jimmy Fallon created a segment "Two Truths and an Alternative Fact" on "The Tonight Show". Stephen Colbert criticized Conway for saying she was not Inspector Gadget or "in the job of having evidence" on "The Late Show", claiming "Kellyanne Conway has only one move: 'Go, go, alternative facts!


title: Alternative facts

text: CNN's ad campaign "Facts First" was a direct response to the concept of alternative facts and fake news. "USA Today" listed it in their "Glossary of Trump terms".


title: Alternative facts

text: Both Robert De Niro and Steven Spielberg referred to alternative facts in their acceptance speech at the National Board of Review awards for the Spielberg film "The Post". Spielberg said: "We are in a fight and it's a fight not just about alternative facts but it's a fight for the objective truth."


title: Alternative facts

text: The 2017 short film "Alternative Math" is a satire about the absurdity of the concept of alternative facts.


title: Alternative facts

text: On January 16, 2018, German linguists declared the phrase "alternative facts" the un-word of the year 2017. It was also chosen by Austrian linguists as the un-word of the year in December 2017.


title: Skip Holtz

text: Louis Leo "Skip" Holtz Jr. (born March 12, 1964) is an American football coach who is the head coach, offensive coordinator, quarterbacks coach, and general manager for the Birmingham Stallions of the United States Football League (USFL). Previously, he was the head coach for the Louisiana Tech Bulldogs (2013-2021), South Florida Bulls (2010–2012), East Carolina Pirates (2005–2009), and Connecticut Huskies (1994–1998). He has also served as an assistant coach for the South Carolina Gamecocks (1999–2004), Notre Dame Fighting Irish (1990–1993), Colorado State Rams (1989) and Florida State Seminoles (1987-1988).


title: Skip Holtz

text: Skip's father, Lou Holtz, is a former head football coach and worked as a commentator on the television channel ESPN. Due to his father's career as a collegiate football coach, Skip was exposed to football from an early age. He played college football at Notre Dame, where he played mostly on special teams. He joined the coaching ranks immediately upon graduation from college, working initially for Bobby Bowden as an assistant at Florida State. He gradually worked his way through the ranks at various NCAA Division I schools before being named head coach at Connecticut in 1994. He has an overall record of 152 wins and 121 losses as a head coach, including eight bowl wins and two conference championships.


title: Skip Holtz

text: Skip Holtz grew up in many towns while his father coached football. After Skip was born in Connecticut, the Holtz family moved to Columbia, South Carolina for two years, as his father worked as an assistant coach at the University of South Carolina. In 1968, the family moved to Columbus, Ohio after Holtz took a job at Ohio State University. One year later, the Holtz family moved to Williamsburg, Virginia and The College of William & Mary for Lou's first head coaching position. After two seasons, Lou took a head coaching position with the Wolfpack of North Carolina State University. The family lived in Raleigh, North Carolina for four years until Lou accepted a head coaching job for the National Football League's New York Jets. The family lived in Cold Spring Harbor, New York for one year, while Lou coached the Jets. After resigning from the Jets, Lou took his family back to the American South when he accepted the head coaching job in Fayetteville, Arkansas, at the University of Arkansas in 1977. In Fayetteville, Skip attended Fayetteville High School and graduated in 1982.


title: Skip Holtz

text: While at high school in Fayetteville, Skip played for the school's football team at the quarterback position, bringing moderate success to the program. As a high school junior, he visited Notre Dame and met with head football coach Gerry Faust and head basketball coach Digger Phelps. In his final year of high school, Skip was denied admission to Notre Dame due to average grades and his failure to learn a foreign language. Coaches Faust and Phelps encouraged Skip to enroll at nearby Holy Cross College, located adjacent to the university in Notre Dame, Indiana. After two years of study at Holy Cross, Skip had improved his grades and transferred to Notre Dame. After his first year, Skip decided he wanted to speak with Coach Faust about walking on to the football team during his senior year. The discussions were cut short, however, as after the 1985 season, Coach Faust resigned. Replacing Faust was Skip's father, Lou, who eagerly accepted his son as a walk-on. Skip began spring practice before the 1986 season as a quarterback, but quickly changed to flanker due to his lack of throwing ability. As a flanker, he earned 54 yards on three receptions at the Blue-Gold intra-squad game in the spring of 1986. During the fall of 1986, Skip played in all 11 games on special teams. He never caught a pass, but rushed once for one yard.


title: Skip Holtz

text: Due to Skip's lack of success on the field and his desire to remain associated with football, he began to investigate the possibility of becoming a coach. After Skip told Lou he wanted to start coaching, Lou put together a list of potential coaches who would give him the best training. The list included Tom Osborne, Joe Paterno, and Terry Donahue, but upon hearing of Skip's interest, Florida State head coach Bobby Bowden said, "if you can be here in two days, I've got a job for you at Florida State."


title: Skip Holtz

text: Upon arriving at Florida State in 1987, he became the graduate assistant coach. He met his future wife, Jennifer, in Coach Bowden's office while in Tallahassee. He left after two years to become the wide receivers coach at Colorado State University under coach Earle Bruce. After one season, he went back to Notre Dame to coach under his father.


title: Skip Holtz

text: Holtz's first job at his alma mater was to serve as wide receivers coach, and he filled the position for two years. In 1992, the team began a search for a new offensive coordinator. Lou's first choice, Joe Moore, declined. Lou then asked Skip for recommendations to fill the position. Skip initially said he wanted the position but said of Lou, "he couldn't do it at that time with me [Skip] being his son." Skip then mentioned Mark Richt, who was then the offensive coordinator at Florida State. Lou Holtz called Coach Bowden to ask permission to speak to Mark Richt. Coach Bowden said Holtz could hire Richt as long as he could hire Skip. Coach Holtz said, "Well, if I'm just going to switch coaches, I might as well hire Skip." Skip became Notre Dame's offensive coordinator in 1992. Between 1992 and 1994, Skip and his father recorded 40 wins, eight losses, and one tie, an 82.7% winning percentage. Together, they coached Notre Dame to the Cotton Bowl Classic twice, beating Texas A&M both times. Skip had the third-best total offense in the NCAA during the 1992 football season.


title: Skip Holtz

text: Following his success at Notre Dame, Skip Holtz was asked to become the head coach of the Connecticut Huskies. He accepted the offer and took his first head coaching job on December 23, 1993. He replaced Tom Jackson, who had gone 14–19 over the past three years and had decided to resign on November 17, 1993. He agreed to a four-year contract at a salary of $95,000 a year. Even though Skip came from a "major football institution" (Notre Dame), University of Connecticut President Dr. Harry J. Hartley said that the hire "should not be seen as a signal that Connecticut intends to upgrade its program." Despite Hartley's remarks, Holtz planned to help elevate the team from I-AA to I-A. Holtz commented on Hartley's remarks by saying "I'd love to have the opportunity to coach a Division I team here..." In 1998, UConn, after 100 years of football and five years with Skip Holtz as its head coach, played in its first Division I-AA playoff game. The Huskies scored two fourth-quarter touchdowns to beat Hampton University, 42–34. In the next round of the playoffs, the Huskies lost to eventual runner-up Georgia Southern on December 5. Two days later, Skip resigned as head coach of the Huskies in order to rejoin his father, who had taken the head coaching job at South Carolina the day before the Huskies' loss. As the leader of the Huskies football team, he accumulated a winning percentage of .596 (34–23) over five seasons.


title: Skip Holtz

text: On December 4, 1998, The University of South Carolina announced that Lou Holtz would serve as its next head football coach. Lou asked Skip if he would move down to Columbia to become his offensive coordinator—the same position Skip held during his final two years at Notre Dame. Skip accepted the offer, in part due to a desire to live closer to his parents and so his children could spend more time with their grandparents. In 1996, Skip's mother, Beth, was diagnosed with throat cancer. Two years later, the cancer spread to her liver, lung, adrenal glands, and ovary. Meanwhile, Skip and Lou continued to coach football at South Carolina. As Lou began to struggle as head coach, the question of his eventual successor arose. When Skip was hired in 1998, Lou had included a clause in the hiring contract that Skip would succeed him after he retired. South Carolina Athletic Director Mike McGee rebutted by saying, "There are no formal or informal guarantees at him," and "It's always helpful to have potential succession in a staff."


title: Skip Holtz

text: The 2000 and 2001 seasons brought South Carolina back to national prominence with consecutive Outback Bowl wins over Ohio State and season ending rankings in the Top 25. However, after going 5–7 the following two seasons and suffering a season-ending blowout in 2003 by intrastate rival Clemson, Skip was demoted from the offensive coordinator and assistant head coaching positions to quarterbacks coach. Four assistant coaches—including the team's defensive coordinator—were fired in the same shakeup that saw Skip demoted. On November 22, 2004, one season after Skip's demotion, Lou Holtz announced he was retiring as head coach of South Carolina. The next day, South Carolina announced Steve Spurrier as the next head football coach. Coach Spurrier announced that he was keeping only three members of Lou Holtz's staff. Letters were sent to all the other staffers—including Skip Holtz—informing them that they likely would not be retained.


title: Skip Holtz

text: With his firing imminent, Holtz resigned. Because he was formerly a head coach, Skip had several offers from Division I-A and Division I-AA teams. After several interviews, he elected to take the head coaching position at East Carolina University. East Carolina announced Skip Holtz as their 19th head football coach on December 3, 2004. Holtz assumed control of a program that won just three games in its past 25 contests. Skip signed 23 athletes in his first recruiting class, including his first commit, Rob Kass. Also included in the recruiting class was future NFL player Aundrae Allison. Skip's first victory at ECU came in the first game of the 2005 season as the Pirates defeated the Duke Blue Devils 24–21 at Dowdy–Ficklen Stadium. The victory was ECU's first non-conference Division I win since 2000, when the Pirates won the Galleryfurniture.com Bowl against Texas Tech. During Holtz's first season, the Pirates also defeated conference foes Rice, Southern Methodist University, Marshall University, and the University of Alabama Birmingham.


title: Skip Holtz

text: In 2006, Holtz's second season as head coach, ECU won seven games, including victories over intrastate rival North Carolina State University, Conference USA East rival Southern Miss, and ACC foe Virginia. As a reward for their season, the Pirates earned their first bowl game under Holtz's tenure, playing the Bulls of the University of South Florida in the Papajohns.com Bowl, losing 24–7. Despite the bowl loss, the 2006 season was ECU's first winning season since 2000, and the Papajohns.com Bowl was the Pirates' first bowl game since 2001.


title: Skip Holtz

text: In 2007, Holtz's team won eight games, including wins over intrastate rival North Carolina and going 3–2, versus Conference USA East opponents. Finishing second in the East Division, Holtz's team was invited to the Hawai'i Bowl to play #24 Boise State University. East Carolina won the bowl game 41–38. This was the first bowl victory since the 2000 Galleryfurniture.com Bowl versus Texas Tech. It was also the first back-to-back winning season and bowl berth since the 1999 and 2000 seasons.


title: Skip Holtz

text: The 2008 season was opened with two upsets over ranked opponents; 17th ranked Virginia Tech in week one and 8th ranked West Virginia. This was the first time a Conference USA team beat three ranked teams in a row. Skip finished up the season 9–5, which included a C-USA East Division title and C-USA Champions title. This was the first time the Pirates played in the C-USA Championship Game. It also was the first conference title since 1976. The Pirates played in the Liberty Bowl, losing to Kentucky, 25–19. This was the third Liberty Bowl appearance. The last time the Pirates went to three straight bowl games was the 1999, 2000 and 2001 seasons. In 2009 Skip Holtz led the ECU Pirates to a second CUSA championship.


title: Skip Holtz

text: On January 14, 2010, it was announced that Holtz accepted the head coach position at the University of South Florida, in Tampa, Florida, taking the place of the recently fired Jim Leavitt. A press conference to introduce Holtz to the community was held January 15, 2010. When someone in the crowd called out, "Beat Florida!", Holtz replied, "That's why I'm here!" However, the Bulls would eventually end up on the short end of the stick in their match-up with the Gators later that season, 38–14.


title: Skip Holtz

text: Holtz earned his first win as head coach of the Bulls on September 1, 2010, in USF's season opener against Stony Brook 59–14. Later that season, Holtz led his Bulls to the program's first victory over the Miami Hurricanes. At the end of the season Holtz lead the USF Bulls to a mostly dominant 31–26 victory over the Clemson Tigers at the Meineke Car Care Bowl. This would mark the first Bowl victory for USF over a BCS team. The Bulls finished with an 8–5 record, but 3–4 in Big East play.


title: Skip Holtz

text: To start the 2011 season, Skip Holtz led the Bulls to an emotional homecoming against his alma mater, Notre Dame. After the 6 hour game and 2 rain delays, USF left South Bend with a 23–20 victory. However, the Bulls finished the season with a disappointing record of 5–7, 1–6 in Big East play. The 2012 season was even worse as the Bulls fell to a dismal 3–9, 1–6 in Big East play. USF fired Holtz at the conclusion of the 2012 season.


title: Skip Holtz

text: On December 13, 2012, Holtz accepted an offer to become the head coach for the Louisiana Tech Bulldogs. His first season, 2013, was a down year, as he finished well below expectations at 4–8. However, 2014 would see a big turnaround. Holtz's Bulldogs went on to finish first in C-USA West at 9–5 with a 35–18 win over Illinois in the Heart Of Dallas Bowl. In 2015, the Bulldogs continued their success finishing 9–4 and winning the New Orleans Bowl over Arkansas State, 47–28. The 2020 season saw a final record of 5-5, and also saw a disastrous 3-38 bowl loss to Georgia Southern. The 2021 season was even worse, with a final record of 3-9 (and no bowl invite) after which Holtz was fired by Louisiana Tech.


title: Skip Holtz

text: On January 20, 2022, Holtz was named Head coach and General manager of the Birmingham Stallions of the United States Football League (USFL).


title: Skip Holtz

text: Holtz and his wife Jennifer Fitzgerald, whom he met while he was working at Florida State, have two sons and a daughter. Holtz co-hosts theannual spring golf tournament named the "Drew Steele-Skip Holtz Golf Classic". Drew Steele is the son of former East Carolina basketball coach Mike Steele and has Down syndrome. When they first met, Holtz was impressed by Drew's positive attitude, and he has since called upon Drew to help motivate the football team, both as a speaker and through work with the team. The "Drew Steele-Skip Holtz Golf Classic" benefits citizens of Pitt County with special needs.


title: Skip Holtz

text: Holtz has participated in 21 postseason games in his coaching career. Twelve games occurred while he was head coach and eight when he was an assistant coach. Of the twelve games where he was the head coach, ten occurred in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) (formerly Division I-A) and two occurred in Division I-AA (now known as Football Championship Subdivision). As a FBS head coach, he is 8–3 in bowl games.


title: Slurry

text: A slurry is a mixture of denser solids suspended in liquid, usually water. The most common use of slurry is as a means of transporting solids or separating minerals, the liquid being a carrier that is pumped on a device such as a centrifugal pump. The size of solid particles may vary from 1 micrometre up to hundreds of millimetres.


title: Slurry

text: The particles may settle below a certain transport velocity and the mixture can behave like a Newtonian or non-Newtonian fluid. Depending on the mixture, the slurry may be abrasive and/or corrosive.


title: Slurry

text: To determine the percent solids (or solids fraction) of a slurry from the density of the slurry, solids and liquid


title: Slurry

text: In aqueous slurries, as is common in mineral processing, the specific gravity of the species is typically used, and since specific gravity of water is taken to be 1, this relation is typically written:


title: Slurry

text: and in a minerals processing context where the specific gravity of the liquid (water) is taken to be one:


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The population of Australia is estimated to be as of 28 2022. Australia is the 55th most populous country in the world and the most populous Oceanian country. Its population is concentrated mainly in urban areas, particularly on the Eastern, South Eastern and Southern seaboards, and is expected to exceed 28 million by 2030.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Australia's population has grown from an estimated population of between 300,000 and 1,000,000 Indigenous Australians at the time of British colonisation in 1788 due to numerous waves of immigration during the period since. Also due to immigration, the European component's share of the population rose sharply in the late 18th and 19th centuries, but is now declining as a percentage.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Australia has an average population density of / 7682300 round 1 persons per square kilometre of total land area, which makes it one of the most sparsely populated countries in the world. This is generally attributed to the semi-arid and desert geography of much of the interior of the country. Another factor is urbanisation, with 89% of its population living in a handful of urban areas, Australia is one of the world's most urbanised countries. The life expectancy of Australia in 2015–2017 was 83.2 years, among the highest in the world.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Australia contains five cities (including their suburbs) that consist of over one million people. Most of Australia's population live close to coastlines.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The earliest accepted timeline for the first arrivals of indigenous Australians to the continent of Australia places this human migration to at least 65,000 years ago, most probably from the islands of Indonesia and New Guinea.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Captain James Cook claimed the east coast for Great Britain in 1770; the west coast was later settled by Britain also. At that time, the indigenous population was estimated to have been between 315,000 and 750,000, divided into as many as 500 tribes speaking many different languages.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Between 1788 and the Second World War, the vast majority of settlers and immigrants came from the British Isles (principally England, Ireland and Scotland), although there was significant immigration from China and Germany during the 19th century. In the decades immediately following the Second World War, Australia received a large wave of immigration from across Europe, with many more immigrants arriving from Southern and Eastern Europe than in previous decades. Since the end of the White Australia policy in 1973, Australia has pursued an official policy of multiculturalism, and there has been a large and continuing wave of immigration from across the world, with Asia being the largest source of immigrants in the 21st century.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The Australian Bureau of Statistics no longer collects data on race, but does ask each Australian resident to nominate up to two ancestries each census. These ancestry responses are classified into broad standardised ancesty groups. At the 2021 census, the most commonly nominated individual ancestries as a proportion of the total population were:


title: Demographics of Australia

text: At the 2021 census, 3.2% of the Australian population identified as being Indigenous — Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders. In 2020, 7.5% of births were Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander persons up from 5.7% in 2010; Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander fertility rates have stayed above replacement levels even as the nation's has declined rapidly.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Australia's population has quadrupled since the end of World War I, much of this increase from immigration. Australia has the world's eighth-largest immigrant population, with immigrants accounting for 30% of the population, a higher proportion than in any other nation with a population of over 10 million. Most immigrants are skilled, but the immigration quota includes categories for family members and refugees.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The following table shows Australia's population by country of birth as estimated by the Australian Bureau of Statistics in 2021. It shows only countries or regions or birth with a population of over 100,000 residing in Australia.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: At the 2021 Census, 38.9% of the population identified as having "no religion", up from 15.5% in 2001. The largest religion is Christianity (43.9% of the population). The largest Christian denominations are the Roman Catholic Church (20% of the population) and the Anglican Church of Australia (9.8%). Multicultural immigration since the Second World War has led to the growth of non-Christian religions, the largest of which are Islam (3.2%), Hinduism (2.7%), Buddhism (2.4%), Sikhism (0.8%), and Judaism (0.4%).


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The Australian Bureau of Statistics 2001 Census Dictionary statement on religious affiliation states the purpose for gathering such information:


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Historically, Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology was the prevalent belief system in Australia until around 1840, when European Australians first outnumbered indigenous Australians. For a period, in the 19th and 20th centuries, Australia was majority Protestant with a large Catholic minority. Catholics first outnumbered Anglicans in the 1986 census. As a result of this history, while Australia has no official religion and "no religion" constitutes the largest group by religious identification, the various governments of Australia refer to the Christian God in their ceremonies, as do the various Australian Courts.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: As in many Western countries, the level of active participation in religious services is lower than would be indicated by the proportion of the population identifying themselves as affiliated with a religion; weekly attendance at Christian church services is about 1.5 million, or about 7.5% of the population. Christian charitable organisations, hospitals and schools play a prominent role in welfare and education services. The is the second biggest sector after government schools, with more than 650,000 students (and around 21 per cent of all secondary school enrolments).


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The vast majority of Australians speak English at home, with the exception of Aboriginal Australians and first-generation immigrants.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Although Australia has no official language, English has always been the "de facto" national language and the only common tongue. Australian English is a major variety of the language, with a distinctive accent and lexicon, and differs slightly from other varieties of English in grammar and spelling. General Australian serves as the standard variety.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: At the 2021 census English was the only language spoken in the homes of 72% of the population. The next most common languages spoken at home are Mandarin Chinese (2.7%), Arabic (1.4%), Vietnamese (1.3%), Cantonese Chinese (1.2%), and Punjabi (0.9%). Considerable proportions of first- and second-generation immigrants are bilingual.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Over 250 Indigenous Australian languages are thought to have existed at the time of first European contact; fewer than 20 are still in daily use by all age groups. About 110 others are spoken exclusively by older people. At the time of the 2006 census, 52,000 Indigenous Australians, representing 12% of the Indigenous population, reported that they spoke an Indigenous language at home.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The earliest accepted timeline for the first arrivals of indigenous Australians to the continent of Australia places this human migration to at least 40,000 years ago.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: These first inhabitants of Australia were generalised as hunter-gatherers, who over the course of many succeeding generations diversified widely throughout the continent and its nearby islands in over 500 different nations. Although their technical culture remained static—depending on wood, bone, and stone tools and weapons— they developed intricate agricultural systems and carefully managed their environment to ensure ongoing sustainability. In addition to this their spiritual lore (system of law) and social life was highly complex. Most spoke several languages, and nation groups sometimes linked widely scattered tribal groups. Aboriginal population density ranged from approximately one person per along the coasts to one person per in the arid interior. Food procurement was usually a matter for the nuclear family, requiring an estimated 3 days of work per week.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Dutch navigators landed on the coasts of modern Western Australia and Queensland several times during the 17th century. Captain James Cook wrote that he claimed the east coast for Great Britain in 1770 while standing on Possession Island off the west coast of Cape York Peninsula. The west coast was later settled by Britain also. At that time, the indigenous population was estimated to have numbered between as few as 315,000 and as many as 1,100,000, divided into many tribes speaking many different languages. In the , 495,757 respondents declared they were Aboriginal, 31,407 declared they were Torres Strait Islander, and a further 21,206 declared they were both Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Since the end of World War II, efforts have been made both by the government and by the public to be more responsive to Aboriginal rights and needs.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Today, most of Australia's Indigenous population live on the east coast of Australia, where almost 60% of Indigenous Australians live in New South Wales (208,476) and Queensland (188,954) which roughly represents 2–5% of those state's populations. The Northern Territory has an Indigenous population of almost 70,000 and represents about 30% of the total Northern Territory population.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Note that population estimates in the table below do not include the Aboriginal population before 1961. Estimates of Aboriginal population before European settlement range from 300,000 to one million, with archaeological finds indicating a sustainable maximum population of around 750,000. Where available, actual population figures from census years are included.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The total fertility rate is the number of children born per woman. It is based on fairly good data for the entire period. Sources: Our World In Data and Gapminder Foundation.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The crude birth rate is the total number of live births per 1,000 population in a year. Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics.


Demographics of Australia


title: Demographics of Australia

text: In 2012, the total fertility rate of Australian-born women was 1.94, while for overseas-born women, it was 1.81, while in 2013, it was 1.91 and 1.79 respectively.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: In 2017, TFR was 1.68 for overseas women (overseas father 1.73) and 1.78 for native women (native father 1.69).


title: Demographics of Australia

text: As of February 2018, the population growth rate was 0.9%. This rate was based on estimates of (April 2019):


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Much of the data that follows has been derived from the CIA World Factbook and the Australian Bureau of Statistics, through censuses.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: The following figures are ABS estimates for the resident population of Australia, based on the 2001 and 2006 Censuses and other data.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: At the time of Australian Federation in 1901, the rate of natural increase was 14.9 persons per 1,000 population. The rate increased to a peak of 17.4 per thousand population in the years 1912, 1913 and 1914. During the Great Depression, the rate declined to a low of 7.1 per thousand population in 1934 and 1935. Immediately after World War II, the rate increased sharply as a result of the start of the post–World War II baby boom and the immigration of many young people who then had children in Australia. A rate plateau of over 13.0 persons per 1,000 population occurred for every year from 1946 to 1962.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: There has been a fall in the rate of natural increase since 1962 due to falling fertility. In 1971, the rate of natural increase was 12.7 persons per 1,000 population; a decade later it had fallen to 8.5. In 1996 the rate of natural increase fell below seven for the first time, with the downward trend continuing in the late 1990s. Population projections by the Australian Bureau of Statistics indicate that continued low fertility, combined with the increase in deaths from an ageing population, will result in natural increase falling below zero sometime in the mid-2030s. However, in 2006 the fertility rate rose to 1.81, one of the highest rates in the OECD.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: Since 1901, the crude death rate has fallen from about 12.2 deaths per 1,000 population, to 6.4 deaths per 1,000 population in 2006.


title: Demographics of Australia

text: In March 2019, there were 43,320 adults imprisoned in Australia, which was an incarceration rate of 221 prisoners per 100,000 adult population., or 169 per 100,000 total population. Additionally, there was 75,544 people in community corrections (various non-custodial punishments such as parole, bail, probation and community service).


title: Demographics of Australia

text: , the population density of Australia was reported as . This makes Australia the 3rd least densely populated country in the world, after Namibia and Mongolia.


title: Scindia

text: The Scindia dynasty (anglicized from Shinde) is a Hindu Maratha dynasty of maratha origin that ruled the erstwhile State of Gwalior. It had the Patil-ship of Kumberkerrab in Wai. It was founded by Ranoji Scindia, who started as a personal servant of the Peshwa Bajirao I. Ranoji and his descendents along with their rivals the Holkars, played a leading role during the Maratha ascendency in North india during the 18th century. The Gwalior state was a princely state under the British Raj during the 19th and the 20th centuries. After India's independence in 1947, several members of the Scindia family went on to enter Indian politics.


title: Scindia

text: Ranoji prospered early under Bajirao because of the favorable circumstances created by the appointment of Bajirao as the Peshwa at the age of twenty.This had evoked jealousy from senior officials like Anant Ram Sumant, Shripatrao Pant Pratinidhi, Khanderao Dabhade and Kanhoji Bhosle.This led Baji Rao to promote as commanders of his troops, talented young men who were barely out of teens such as Malhar Rao Holkar, the Pawar brothers, Pilaji Jadhav, Fateh Singh Bhosle and of course, Ranoji.None of these men belonged to families that held hereditary Deshmukhi rights under earlier rulers such as the Deccan Sultanates. The Shindes or Scindias had served as shiledars (cavalrymen) under the Bahmani Sultanate and played an important role in the state of affairs and held Patilki of Kumberkerrab.


title: Scindia

text: According to records of British period there are several anecdotes about origin of Scindhias, specially "Sir John Malcolm's" record illustrates that:


title: Scindia

text: The Scindia dynasty was founded by Ranoji Scindia, who was the son of Jankojirao Scindia, the Patil of Kanherkhed, a village in Satara District, Maharashtra. Peshwa Baji Rao's career saw the strengthening of the Maratha Empire. Ranoji was in charge of the Maratha conquests in Malwa in 1726. Ranoji established his capital at Ujjain in 1731. His successors included Jayajirao, Jyotibarao, Dattajirao, Jankojirao, Mahadji Shinde and Daulatrao Scindia.The Scindias became a major regional power in the latter half of the 18th century, and figured prominently in the three Anglo-Maratha Wars.They held sway over many of the Rajput states, and conquered north India. In 1818, after accepting the terms of a subsidiary alliance with the British, the family shifted their base from Ujjain to The Gwalior.


title: Scindia

text: After the defeat of the allied Maratha states by the British in the Third Anglo-Maratha War of 1818, Daulatrao Shinde was forced to accept local autonomy as a princely state within British-occupied India and to give up Ajmer to the British. After the death of Daulatrao, Maharani Baiza Bai ruled the empire, saving it from the British power, till the adopted child Jankoji Rao took over the charge. Jankoji died in 1843, and his widow Tarabai Raje Scindia successfully maintained the position and adopted a child from close lineage named Jayajirao.


title: Scindia

text: The Scindia family ruled Gwalior until India's independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, when the Maharaja Jivajirao Scindia acceded to the Government of India. Gwalior was merged with a number of other princely states to become the new Indian state of Madhya Bharat. Jiwajirao Scindia served as the state's rajpramukh, or appointed governor, from 28 May 1948 to 31 October 1956, when Madhya Bharat was merged into Madhya Pradesh.


title: Scindia

text: In 1962, Vijayraje Scindia, the widow of Maharaja Jiwajirao, was elected to the Lok Sabha, beginning the family's career in electoral politics. She was first a member of the Congress Party, and later became an influential member of the Bharatiya Janata Party. Her son Madhavrao Scindia was elected to the Lok Sabha in 1971 representing the Jansangh Party, he joined Congress in 1980 and served until his death in 2001. His son, Jyotiraditya Scindia, joined the Congress Party and was elected to the seat formerly held by his father in 2004. He later joined the Bharatiya Janata Party on 11 March 2020.


title: Scindia

text: Vijayaraje's daughters have supported the Bharatiya Janata Party. Vasundhara Raje Scindia contested and won five parliamentary elections from Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan. Under the Vajpayee government from 1998 onwards, Vasundhara was in charge of several different ministries. In 2003 she led the Bharatiya Janata Party to its largest majority in Rajasthan, and became the state's Chief Minister. In 2013 again, she led Bharatiya Janata Party to a thumping win in the state of Rajasthan, winning over 160 out of the 200 seats in the assembly elections. Her other daughter, Yashodhara Raje Scindia, contested assembly elections from Shivpuri in Madhya Pradesh and won in 1998, 2003 and 2013 and also lok sabha 2004, 2009 from Gwalior. Upon the BJP's win in the state, she became the state's Minister for Tourism, Sports and Youth Affairs. Vasundhara's son Dushyant Singh entered the Lok Sabha in 2004 from Rajasthan.


title: Personal trainer

text: A personal trainer is an individual who creates and delivers safe and effective exercise programs for apparently healthy individuals and groups, or those with medical clearance to exercise. They motivate clients by collaborating to set goals, providing meaningful feedback, and by being a reliable source for accountability. Trainers also conduct a variety of assessments beginning with a preparticipation health-screening and may also include assessments of posture and movement, flexibility, balance, core function, cardio-respiratory fitness, muscular fitness, body composition, and skill-related parameters (e.g. power, agility, coordination, speed, and reactivity) to observe and gather relevant information needed to develop an effective exercise program and support client goal attainment. These assessments may be performed at the beginning of and after an exercise program to measure client progress toward improved physical fitness. Trainers create exercise programs following a progression model, using the baseline assessment as the starting point of a clients physical abilities and framing the program to fit the individual personally. They also provide education on many other aspects of wellness, including general health and nutrition guidelines. Helping clients to reach their full potential in various aspects of life requires a comprehensive client-centered approach along with a belief that clients are resourceful and capable of change.


title: Personal trainer

text: Qualified personal trainers or certified personal trainers (CPTs) recognize their own areas of expertise. If a trainer suspects that one of their clients has a medical condition that could prevent the client from safe participation in an exercise program, they must refer the client to the proper health professional for medical clearance.


title: Personal trainer

text: The scope of practice for a personal trainer has a primary focus on prevention and involves enhancing components of health and fitness for the general, healthy population or those cleared for exercise.


title: Personal trainer

text: Proper exercise prescription may result in improved body composition, physical performance, heart condition, and health outcomes. The decision to hire a personal trainer may be related to a perceived health threat, a lack of knowledge, a personal belief in one's ability to begin and adhere to an exercise program, or some sort of psychological effect. Often clients will seek the guidance of a personal trainer for factors related to motivation and adherence. A personal trainer pays close attention to the client's exercise technique, workout routine, goals, values, and nutrition. Personal training in men and women has been shown to improve the benefit-to-concern ratio for exercise (decisional balance), and increase confidence to choose exercise in the face of other time demands (scheduling self-efficacy). Personal training results in higher strength, higher workout intensities, and higher perceived exertion during exercise.


title: Personal trainer

text: The profession is generally not restricted by the venue, and personal trainers may work in fitness facilities, in their own homes, in client homes, over live video (also called "virtual personal trainers"), or outdoors. Almost all exercise professionals work in physical fitness facilities, health clubs, and fitness centers located in the amusement and recreation industry or in civic and social organizations. Personal training is not regulated in any jurisdiction in the United States except for Washington D.C. which adopted registration requirements for personal fitness trainers in February 2014. Some employers, such as gyms require personal trainers to be certified. However, this is not always the case and some personal trainers can find work without certification. Overall, personal trainers must possess certain skills, such as a passion for fitness and helping others achieve their goals, industry knowledge, leadership, and the ability to communicate effectively with their clients.


title: Personal trainer

text: Personal trainers may specialize in a certain training type, training philosophy, performance type, exercise modality, or client population. In general, most personal trainers develop exercise plans for aerobic exercise, resistance exercise, and/or flexibility training. With aerobic exercise prescription, personal trainers determine the type of exercise, duration of exercise, and frequency of exercise. For resistance exercise prescription, the type of exercise, total session volume, rest period, frequency, and intensity are determined. Personal trainers may also be involved in the prescription of stretching routines or other approaches. Personal trainers help clients to perform exercises with correct techniques, minimizing the risk of injury. While some discuss nutrition, ergogenic supplementation, and spiritual practices with clients, there is debate within the industry as to whether it fits within their scope of practice and training qualifications.


title: Personal trainer

text: Personal trainer accreditation is a process that provides certification of competency as a personal trainer. Qualification standards for personal trainers vary between countries. Personal trainer accreditation is also viewed as experience in the field with many testimonials from clients on their achievements working with their personal trainer.


title: Personal trainer

text: The International Confederation of Registers for Exercise Professionals (ICREPs) is an international partnership between registration bodies around the world that register exercise professionals. Member countries conform to the international standards set by ICREPs for personal training (and other exercise education credentials) and are transferable to other member countries. The current members of ICREPs (as of 2019) are: Fitness Australia, NFLA Canada, REPs India, REPs Ireland, REPs New Zealand, REPs Poland, REPs South Africa, REPs United Arab Emirates, REPs United Kingdom, USREPs, and IranREPs.


title: Personal trainer

text: In Australia, personal trainers may work independently with suitable insurance or choose to be a member of a registering body (Fitness Australia or Physical Activity Australia). The qualifications levels include; Level 1 - Certificate III in Fitness, Level 2 - Certificate IV in Fitness and Level 3 - Diploma of Fitness. These can be obtained from nationally accredited colleges (TAFE, Australian College of Sport & Fitness, Fitness Industry Training, Global Fitness Institute, Australian Institute of Fitness, Australian Fitness Academy). Once working in the industry, trainers who are members of associations are also required to complete short courses to obtain continuing education credit (CEC) points they need to keep their registration. A minimum of 20 CEC points every two years is required. Many personal trainers also have additional qualifications in weight loss, strength training, kid's fitness, and nutrition, which is in part due to the CEC program. CEC courses can cover a wide variety of topics such as different training techniques, nutrition, exercise styles, health conditions, physiology, lifestyle, and rehabilitation.


title: Personal trainer

text: Once members obtain their Australian Cert III & IV in Fitness, they can practice nationally. This can be done with this certification and using the Global Portability Matrix. The Global Portability Matrix was designed by ICREPS. This stands for International Confederation of Registers for Exercise Professionals, which allows all members to practice in other countries. Members can train in Belgium, The Netherlands, Hungary, The United Kingdom, Ireland, Lebanon, Poland, The United States, The Caribbean, South Africa, United Arab Emirates, Canada, and New Zealand.


title: Personal trainer

text: In Brazil, personal trainers must have a bachelor's degree in "Physical Education" (a degree that combines knowledge in the fields of Exercise Science and Healthcare science) and be registered with the Conselho Federal de Educação Física (Federal Council of Physical Education), and risk criminal charges if they operate without these two requirements.


title: Personal trainer

text: In Canada, the main certifying bodies are Canadian Fitness Education Services (CFES), Canadian Fitness Professionals (CanFit Pro), Certified Personal Trainers Network, the Canadian Society of Exercise Physiology (CSEP), and the National Fitness Leadership Association (NFLA). CSEP requires a diploma or degree in the exercise field, most other organizations require experience and/or workshops to qualify for a credential. Many personal trainers receive a CFES, CanFit Pro, NFLA or an NCCA accredited certification, but there are no certifications required by law. Fitness instruction in Canada is an unregulated industry.


title: Personal trainer

text: In Iran, the main certifying bodies are IranREPs and Bodybuilding Federation which these two organizations signed a memorandum of understanding in the beginning of 2019. IranREPs requires a diploma or degree in the exercise field from EuropeActive accredited providers or Sport universities.


title: Personal trainer

text: In Europe, personal trainers may work independently, but will always need accreditation by one of the main certifying bodies such as:


title: Personal trainer

text: NASM: National Academy of Sports Medicine. NASM Certified Personal Trainers are eligible to join the European Register of Exercise Professionals (EREPS). The NASM has attributed to the success of personal trainers in Europe and accredited companies like UNITEDFIT in the Netherlands became recognized as a qualified fitness organization in Europe.


title: Personal trainer

text: ACE: American Council on Exercise. ACE is the first U.S. fitness certification provider to earn approval by the EuropeActive Standards Council and this makes ACE certified Personal Trainers and Group Fitness Instructors eligible to join the European Register of Exercise Professionals (EREPS).


title: Personal trainer

text: EREPS: The European Register of Exercise Professionals (EREPS) is an independent process for the registering of instructors, trainers and teachers working in the European health, fitness and physical activity sector. It is a pan-European system, based on independent national registers, which culminate in a central European database.


title: Personal trainer

text: New Zealand has one major registration body for exercise professionals – REPs New Zealand. REPs New Zealand is recognised by both Exercise New Zealand (the industry association) and ICREPs.


title: Personal trainer

text: In the UK, there are several ways to achieve a personal training qualification. Most personal training qualifications are accredited through awarding bodies like CYQ (Central YMCA Qualifications), Active IQ (Active International Qualifications) and City and Guilds. These qualifications are generally delivered by Further Education (FE) establishments like colleges, or by private training providers. Upon successful completion of an accredited awarding body qualification, candidates become eligible for Level 3 REPs(Register of Exercise Professionals) status. University graduates with an appropriate honors degree can also apply to become approved by REPs through Accreditation of Prior Learning (APL) and Accreditation of Prior Achievement (APA).


title: Personal trainer

text: REPs is the professional body for the UK health and fitness industry, and does not award qualifications directly. Most health and fitness qualifications endorsed by REPs vary in levels from 1 - 5, 1 being basic GCSE level and 5 being advanced specialized training professionals. For a qualification to become eligible for endorsement by REPs, it must conform to the National Occupational Standards (NOS), which are set at governmental level by the Sector Skills Council (SSC) Skills Active.


title: Personal trainer

text: There is no legal restriction on the title of Personal Trainer nor any formal body associated with regulating Personal Training.


title: Personal trainer

text: A number of certifications are available in the U.S., although a number are not accredited. Most require a high school diploma, cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) and automated external defibrillator (AED) certification, and some type of examination.


title: Personal trainer

text: The United States Registry of Exercise Professionals (USREPS) is the official registry of exercise professionals in the United States and provides clients, employers, healthcare practitioners, policymakers, and insurance providers a single source for finding well-qualified exercise professionals in specific locations or to verify credentials.


title: Personal trainer

text: A 2002 investigation evaluated a random sample of 115 personal trainers using the Fitness Instructors Knowledge Assessment (FIKA) (which measures knowledge in nutrition, health screening, testing protocols, exercise prescription, and special populations). The study described that:


title: Personal trainer

text: In partnership with the fitness industry, the International Health, Racquet & Sportsclub Association (IHRSA), which represents over 9,000 health and fitness facilities, started an initiative in 2002 to improve standards for both its own clubs and the industry as a whole. In January 2006, IHRSA implemented a recommendation that its facilities only accept personal trainers with certifications recognized by the National Commission for Certifying Agencies (NCCA) if recognized either by the Council for Higher Education Accreditation (CHEA) and/or the U.S. Department of Education (USDE). As a result, the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC) was recognized by IHRSA as a recognized accreditor of fitness professional certification organizations. Since then, the DEAC has accredited several personal trainer certification organizations, including the Athletics and Fitness Association of America (AFAA) and the International Sports Sciences Association (ISSA) among others. As of now, NASM, ISSA, AFAA, ACSM, ACE, and NSCA certifications are among the 16 accredited certifications recognized by IHRSA, three of which are accredited by the Distance Education Accrediting Commission (DEAC).


title: Personal trainer

text: Various organizations within the profession have lobbied for the adoption of more stringent criteria for certification developed by the NSF International. There remains no national legal restriction on the industry to date except for the District of Columbia (D.C.) which as of February 2014, passed legislation requiring personal fitness trainers to register in that jurisdiction.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: A hospital stood at the location of present-day since the 13th century. Named (St. George), the hospital gave its name to the nearby (George Gate) of the Berlin city wall. Outside the city walls, this area was largely undeveloped until around 1400, when the first settlers began building thatched cottages. As a gallows was located close by, the area earned the nickname the ('Devil's Pleasure Garden').


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The George Gate became the most important of Berlin's city gates during the 16th century, being the main entry point for goods arriving along the roads to the north and north-east of the city, for example from , and , and the big Hanseatic cities on the Baltic Sea.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: After the Thirty Years' War, the city wall was strengthened. From 1658 to 1683, a citywide fortress was constructed to plans by the Linz master builder, . The new fortress contained 13 bastions connected by ramparts and was preceded by a moat measuring up to wide. Within the new fortress, many of the historic city wall gates were closed. For example, the southeastern Gate was closed but the Georgian Gate remained open, making the Georgian Gate an even more important entrance to the city.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In 1681, the trade of cattle and pig fattening was banned within the city. Frederick William, the Great Elector, granted cheaper plots of land, waiving the basic interest rate, in the area in front of the Georgian Gate. Settlements grew rapidly and a weekly cattle market was established on the square in front of the Gate.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The area developed into a suburb – the – which continued to flourish into the late 17th century. Unlike the southwestern suburbs (, ) which were strictly and geometrically planned, the suburbs in the northeast (, and the ) proliferated without plan. Despite a building ban imposed in 1691, more than 600 houses existed in the area by 1700.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: At that time, the George Gate was a rectangular gatehouse with a tower. Next to the tower stood a remaining tower from the original medieval city walls. The upper floors of the gatehouse served as the city jail. A drawbridge spanned the moat and the gate was locked at nightfall by the garrison using heavy oak planks.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: A highway ran through the cattle market to the northeast towards . To the right stood the George chapel, an orphanage and a hospital that was donated by the Elector Sophie Dorothea in 1672. Next to the chapel stood a dilapidated medieval plague house which was demolished in 1716. Behind it was a rifleman's field and an inn, later named the .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: By the end of the 17th century, 600 to 700 families lived in this area. They included butchers, cattle herders, shepherds and dairy farmers. The George chapel was upgraded to the George church and received its own preacher.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: After his coronation in on 6 May 1701 the Prussian King Frederick I entered Berlin through the George Gate. This led to the gate being renamed the King's Gate, and the surrounding area became known in official documents as (King's Gate Square). The suburb was renamed (or 'royal suburbs' short).


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In 1734, the Berlin Customs Wall, which initially consisted of a ring of palisade fences, was reinforced and grew to encompass the old city and its suburbs, including . This resulted in the King's Gate losing importance as an entry point for goods into the city. The gate was finally demolished in 1746.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: By the end of the 18th century, the basic structure of the royal suburbs of the had been developed. It consisted of irregular-shaped blocks of buildings running along the historic highways which once carried goods in various directions out of the gate. At this time, the area contained large factories (silk and wool), such as the (one of Berlin's first cloth factories, located in a former barn) and a workhouse established in 1758 for beggars and homeless people, where the inmates worked a man-powered treadmill to turn a mill.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Soon, military facilities came to dominate the area, such as the 1799–1800 military parade grounds designed by David Gilly. At this time, the residents of the were mostly craftsmen, petty-bourgeois, retired soldiers and manufacturing workers. The southern part of the later was separated from traffic by trees and served as a parade ground, whereas the northern half remained a market. Beginning in the mid-18th century, the most important wool market in Germany was held in .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Between 1752 and 1755, the writer lived in a house on Alexanderplatz. In 1771, a new stone bridge (the ) was built over the moat and in 1777 a colonnade-lined row of shops () was constructed by architect . Between 1783 and 1784, seven three-storey buildings were erected around the square by , including the famous , where lived as a permanent tenant and stayed in the days before his suicide.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: On 25 October 1805 the Russian Tsar Alexander I was welcomed to the city on the parade grounds in front of the old King's Gate. To mark this occasion, on 2 November, King Frederick William III ordered the square to be renamed :


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In the southeast of the square, the cloth factory buildings were converted into the Theater by at a cost of 120,000 Taler. The foundation stone was laid on 31 August 1823 and the opening ceremony occurred on 4 August 1824. Sales were poor, forcing the theatre to close on 3 June 1851. Thereafter, the building was used for wool storage, then as a tenement building, and finally as an inn called until the building's demolition in 1932.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: During these years, was populated by fish wives, water carriers, sand sellers, rag-and-bone men, knife sharpeners and day laborers.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Because of its importance as a transport hub, horse-drawn buses ran every 15 minutes between and in 1847.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: During the March Revolution of 1848, large-scale street fighting occurred on the streets of , where revolutionaries used barricades to block the route from to the city. Novelist and poet , who worked in the vicinity in a nearby pharmacy, participated in the construction of barricades and later described how he used materials from the Theater to barricade .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The continued to grow throughout the 19th century, with three-storey developments already existing at the beginning of the century and fourth storeys being constructed from the middle of the century. By the end of the century, most of the buildings were already five storeys high. The large factories and military facilities gave way to housing developments (mainly rental housing for the factory workers who had just moved into the city) and trading houses.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: At the beginning of the 1870s, the Berlin administration had the former moat filled to build the Berlin city railway, which was opened in 1882 along with (' Railway Station').


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In 1883–1884, the Grand Hotel, a neo-Renaissance building with 185 rooms and shops beneath was constructed. From 1886 to 1890, built the police headquarters, a huge brick building whose tower on the northern corner dominated the building. In 1890, a district court at was also established.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In 1886, the local authorities built a central market hall west of the rail tracks, which replaced the weekly market on the in 1896. During the end of the 19th century, the emerging private traffic and the first horse bus lines dominated the northern part of the square, the southern part (the former parade ground) remained quiet, having green space elements added by garden director in 1889. The northwest of the square contained a second, smaller green space where, in 1895, the copper Berolina statue by sculptor was erected.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: At the beginning of the 20th century, experienced its heyday. In 1901, founded the first German cabaret, the , in the former ('Secession stage') at , initially under the name . It was announced as " as upscale entertainment with artistic ambitions. Emperor-loyal and market-oriented stands the uncritical amusement in the foreground."


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The merchants , and opened large department stores on : (1904–1911), (1910–1911) and (1911). marketed itself as a department store for the Berlin people, whereas modelled itself as a department store for the world.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In October 1905, the first section of the department store opened to the public. It was designed by architects and, who had already won second prize in the competition for the construction of the building. The department store underwent further construction phases and, in 1911, had a commercial space of and the longest department store façade in the world at in length.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: For the construction of the department store, by architects and , the were removed in 1910 and now stand in the Park in .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In October 1908, the ('house of teachers') was opened next to the at . It was designed by and Henry Gross. The building belonged to the ('teachers’ association'), who rented space on the ground floor of the building out to a pastry shop and restaurant to raise funds for the association. The building housed the teachers' library which survived two world wars, and today is integrated into the library for educational historical research. The rear of the property contained the association's administrative building, a hotel for members and an exhibition hall. Notable events that took place in the hall include the funeral services for and on 2 February 1919 and, on 4 December 1920, the (Unification Party Congress) of the Communist Party and the USPD.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The First Ordinary Congress of the Communist Workers Party of Germany was held in the nearby restaurant, 1–4 August 1920.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: 's position as a main transport and traffic hub continued to fuel its development. In addition to the three underground lines, long-distance trains and trains ran along the 's viaduct arches. Omnibuses, horse-drawn from 1877 and, after 1898, also electric-powered trams, ran out of in all directions in a star shape. The subway station was designed by Alfred Grenander and followed the colour-coded order of subway stations, which began with green at and ran through to dark red.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In the Golden Twenties, was the epitome of the lively, pulsating cosmopolitan city of Berlin, rivalled in the city only by . Many of the buildings and rail bridges surrounding the platz bore large billboards that illuminated the night. The Berlin cigarette company Manoli had a famous billboard at the time which contained a ring of neon tubes that constantly circled a black ball. The proverbial "" of those years was characterized as "". Writer wrote a poem referencing the advert, and the composer Rudolf Nelson made the legendary with the dancer Lucie Berber. The writer named his novel, , after the square, and filmed his 1927 film parts of ("Berlin: The Symphony of the Big City") at .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: One of Berlin's largest air-raid shelters during the Second World War was situated under . It was built between 1941 and 1943 for the by .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The war reached in early April 1945. The Berolina statue had already been removed in 1944 and probably melted down for use in arms production. During the Battle of Berlin, Red Army artillery bombarded the area around . The battles of the last days of the war destroyed considerable parts of the historic , as well as many of the buildings around .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The had entrenched itself within the tunnels of the underground system. Hours before fighting ended in Berlin on 2 May 1945, troops of the SS detonated explosives inside the north–south tunnel under the Canal to slow the advance of the Red Army towards Berlin's city centre. The entire tunnel flooded, as well as large sections of the network via connecting passages at the underground station. Many of those seeking shelter in the tunnels were killed. Of the then of subway tunnel, around were flooded with more than one million cubic meters () of water.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Before a planned reconstruction of the entire could take place, all the war ruins needed to be demolished and cleared away. A popular black market emerged within the ruined area, which the police raided several times a day.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Reconstruction planning for post-war Berlin gave priority to the dedicated space to accommodate the rapidly growing motor traffic in inner-city thoroughfares. This idea of a traffic-orientated city was already based on considerations and plans by and from the 1930s.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: has been subject to redevelopment several times in its history, most recently during the 1960s, when it was turned into a pedestrian zone and enlarged as part of the German Democratic Republic's redevelopment of the city centre. It is surrounded by several notable structures including the (TV Tower).


title: Alexanderplatz

text: During the Peaceful Revolution of 1989, the demonstration on 4 November 1989 was the largest demonstration in the history of the German Democratic Republic. Protests starting 15 October and peaked on 4 November with an estimated 200,000 participants who called on the government of the ruling Socialist Unity Party of Germany to step down and demanded a free press, the opening of the borders and their right to travel. Speakers were , , , , , and . The protests continued and culminated in the unexpected Fall of the Berlin Wall on 9 November 1989.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Ever since German reunification, has undergone a gradual process of change with many of the surrounding buildings being renovated. After the political turnaround in the wake of the fall of the Berlin Wall, socialist urban planning and architecture of the 1970s no longer corresponded to the current ideas of an inner-city square. Investors demanded planning security for their construction projects. After initial discussions with the public, the goal quickly arose to reinstate 's tram network for better connections to surrounding city quarters. In 1993, an urban planning ideas competition for architects took place to redesign the square and its surrounding area.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In the first phase, there were 16 submissions, five of which were selected for the second phase of the competition. These five architects had to adapt their plans to detailed requirements. For example, the return of the Alex's trams was planned, with the implementation to be made in several stages.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The winner, who was determined on 17 September 1993, was the Berlin architect . 's plan was based on Behrens’ design, provided a horseshoe-shaped area of seven- to eight-storey buildings and high towers with 42 floors. The and the – both listed buildings – would form the southwestern boundary. Second place went to the design by and . The proposal of the architecture firm Kny & Weber, which was strongly based on the horseshoe shape of Wagner, finally won the third place. The design by was chosen on 7 June 1994 by the Berlin Senate as a basis for the further transformation of .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In 1993, architect 's master plan for a major redevelopment including the construction of several skyscrapers was published.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In 1995, completed the renovation of the . In 1998, the first tram returned to , and in 1999, the town planning contracts for the implementation of and 's plans were signed by the landowners and the investors.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: On 2 April 2000, the Senate finally fixed the development plan for . The purchase contracts between investors and the Senate Department for Urban Development were signed on 23 May 2002, thus laying the foundations for the development.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The CUBIX multiplex cinema (CineStar Cubix am Alexanderplatz, styled CUBIX), which opened in November 2000, joined the team of Berlin International Film Festival cinemas in 2007, and the festival shows films on three of its screens.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Renovation of the department store began in 2004, led by Berlin professor of architecture, and his son . The building was enlarged by about and has since operated under the name .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Beginning with the reconstruction of the department store in 2004, and the biggest underground railway station of Berlin, some buildings were redesigned and new structures built on the square's south-eastern side. Sidewalks were expanded to shrink one of the avenues, a new underground garage was built, and commuter tunnels meant to keep pedestrians off the streets were removed. Between 2005 and 2006, was renovated and later became a branch of the clothing chain, C&A.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In 2005, the began work to extend the tram line from to (Alex II). This route was originally to be opened in 2000 but was postponed several times. After further delays caused by the 2006 FIFA World Cup, the route opened on 30 May 2007.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In February 2006, the redesign of the walk-in plaza began. The redevelopment plans were provided by the architecture firm Gerkan, Marg and Partners and the Hamburg-based company . The final plans emerged from a design competition launched by the state of Berlin in 2004. However, the paving work was temporarily interrupted a few months after the start of construction by the 2006 FIFA World Cup and all excavation pits had to be provisionally asphalted over. The construction work could only be completed at the end of 2007.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The renovation of , the largest Berlin underground station, had been ongoing since the mid-1990s and was finally completed in October 2008.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The was given a pavement of yellow granite, bordered by grey mosaic paving around the buildings. Wall AG modernized the 1920s-era underground toilets at a cost of 750,000 euros. The total redesign cost amounted to around 8.7 million euros.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: On 12 September 2007 the Alexa shopping centre opened. It is located in the immediate vicinity of the , on the site of the old Berlin police headquarters. With a sales area, it is one of the largest shopping centres in Berlin.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In May 2007, the Texas property development company Hines began building a six-story commercial building named . The building was built on a plot of , which, according to the plans, closes the square to the east and thus reduces the area of the Platz. The building was opened on 25 March 2009.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: At the beginning of 2007, the construction company created an underground garage with three levels below the , located between the hotel tower and the building, which cost 25 million euros to build and provides space for around 700 cars. The opening took place on 26 November 2010. At the same time, the Senate narrowed from almost wide to wide (), thus reducing it to three lanes in each direction.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Behind the station, next to the CUBIX cinema in the immediate vicinity of the TV tower, the high residential and commercial building, Alea 101, was built between 2012 and 2014.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: As of 2014 it as assessed that due to a lack of demand the skyscrapers planned in 1993 were unlikely to be constructed.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In January 2014, a 39-story residential tower designed by Frank Gehry was announced, but this project was put on hold in 2018.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The area is the largest area for crime in Berlin. As of October 2017, was classified a ("crime-contaminated location") by the (General Safety and Planning Laws).


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Despite the reconstruction of the tram line crossing, it has retained its socialist character, including the much-graffitied , a popular venue.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Many historic buildings are located in the vicinity of . The traditional seat of city government, the , or 'Red City Hall', is located nearby, as was the former East German parliament building, the . The was demolished from 2006–2008 to make room for a full reconstruction of the Baroque Berlin Palace, or , which is set to open in 2019.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: It also accommodates the Park Inn Berlin and the World Time Clock, a continually rotating installation that shows the time throughout the globe, the House of Travel, and 's (House of Teachers)'.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Long-term plans exist for the demolition of the high former (now the Hotel Park-Inn), with the site to be replaced by three skyscrapers. If and when this plan will be implemented is unclear, especially since the hotel tower received a new façade as recently as in 2005, and the occupancy rates of the hotel are very good. However, the plans could give way in the next few years to a suggested high new block conversion. The previous main tenant of the development, Saturn, moved into the building in March 2009. In 2014, Primark opened a branch inside the hotel building.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The majority of the planned high skyscrapers will probably never be built. The state of Berlin has announced that it will not enforce the corresponding urban development contracts against the market. Of the 13 planned skyscrapers, 10 remained as of 2008, after modifications to the plans – eight of which had construction rights. Some investors in the Alexa shopping centre announced several times since 2007 that they would sell their respective shares in the plot to an investor interested in building a high-rise building.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The first concrete plans for the construction of a high-rise were made by Hines, the investor behind die mitte. In 2009, the construction of a high tower to be built behind die mitte was announced. On 12 September 2011, a slightly modified development plan was presented, which provided for a residential tower housing 400 apartments. In early 2013, the development plan was opened to the public.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: In autumn 2015, the Berlin Senate organized two forums in which interested citizens could express their opinions on the proposed changes to the . Architects, city planners and Senate officials held open discussions. On that occasion, however, it was reiterated that the plans for high-rise developments were not up for debate. According to the master plan of the architect , up to eleven huge buildings will continue to be built, which will house a mixture of shops and apartments.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: At the beginning of March 2018, it was announced that the district office had granted planning permission for the first residential high-rise in , the high Alexander Tower. On 29 of the 35 floors, 377 apartments are to be built. It would be located next to the Alexa shopping centre, with a planned completion date of 2021.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: During the post-war reconstruction of the 1960s, was completely pedestrianized. Since then, trams were reintroduced to the area in 1998.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: station provides connections, access to the U2, U5 and U8 subway lines, regional train lines for DB Regio and ODEG services and, on weekends, the (HBX). Several tram and bus lines also service the area.


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Several arterial roads lead radially from to the outskirts of Berlin. These include (clockwise from north to south-east):


title: Alexanderplatz

text: The Fountain of Friendship () was erected in 1970 during the redesign of and inaugurated on October 7. It was created by and his group of artists. Its water basin has a diameter of 23 meters, it is 6.20 meters high and is built from embossed copper, glass, ceramics and enamel. The water spurts from the highest point and then flows down in spirals over 17 shells, which each have a diameter between one and four meters. After German reunification, it was completely renovated in a metal art workshop during the reconstruction of the .


title: Alexanderplatz

text: Apart from , is the only existing square in front of one of the medieval gates of Berlin's city wall.


title: Female urinal

text: A female urinal is a urinal designed for the female anatomy to allow for ease of use by women and girls. Different models enable urination in standing, semi-squatting, or squatting postures, but usually without direct bodily contact with the toilet. Sitting models also exist, and are designed for body contact with the urinal.


title: Female urinal

text: Unisex urinals are also marketed by various companies, and can be used by both sexes. Female and unisex urinals are much less common than male urinals (often assumed by the term "urinal"). Moreover, male urinals are more abundant in men's or boys' public toilets than in the toilets of private homes.


title: Female urinal

text: Danish brand Pollee sells a portable female urinal (similar to porta johns) for public, outdoor events.


title: Female urinal

text: Urinals for female users could potentially have some of the same advantages as urinals for male users, when compared to toilets (solely with regards to urination):


title: Female urinal

text: Due to an increased number of units in the same amount of floor space, there is usually a faster and shorter queue for public urinals; up to 30% more people can use the toilet facilities at the same time.


title: Female urinal

text: Female urinals could possibly be suitable for use in public toilets which are heavily used during peak hours and which are likely to attract large numbers of visitors, especially places like theaters, stadiums, schools, universities, discotheques, shopping centers, and public transit facilities. In addition, temporary mobile female urinals have been developed for use at open-air events and festivals, as well as free-standing units for public spaces.


title: Female urinal

text: Urinals are being developed that can be used by both sexes. While urinals for men and boys can be found almost everywhere in public toilets, unisex and female urinals are still niche products. Many people feel that this is satisfactory because of anatomical differences that make use of a urinal more convenient for the male population than it would be for the female population. According to Mete Demiriz, a professor of sanitary technology at the Westphalian University of Applied Sciences in Gelsenkirchen, economic considerations and social conventions also prevent the wider installation of female urinals in public toilets.


title: Female urinal

text: The female urinal models offered today are conceptually similar to each other and follow the shape and design of male urinals but are more closely tailored to the female anatomy. One difference is most females chose to stand with their back toward the urinal and adopt a half-squatting position, which is also sometimes called the "skier's posture" or "hovering stance". This is based on the posture that females generally adopt in conventional public toilets if they are dirty and when physical contact is not desired, but hovering may leave urine behind in the bladder and may not be good for the pelvic floor muscles. Thus some people hover only in cases of dire necessity.


title: Female urinal

text: In countries where squat toilets are the norm, female urinals can also be found as a ceramic pan at floor level. This kind of urinal would be used in a full squat position to avoid splashing back of urine. In the past, models that were used in a full squat (similar to Asian squat-style toilets) have been developed to the prototype stage or brought to the market, like the "Peeandgo" by Chen-Karlsson, but those did not achieve commercial success. all female urinals available on the western market were wall-mounted and used in a half-squat, "skiing" position.


title: Female urinal

text: In the 1990s, a number of prototypes were developed for female urinals, of which only three were finally ready for the market and are now used: the "Lady P" by Sphinx Sanitair, the "Lady Loo" by GBH and the "Girly" by Ceramica Catalano, which has won several design awards. Since the 2000s, female urinals have been introduced in a few European public toilets, with more models, like "Ona" designed by Cajsa Flensburg, "She-Pee", "WC3" used with P-mate, "Peescape" by Alexander Schweder, "madamePee" founded by Nathalie des Isnards (2018), "Lapee" created by Gina Périer (2019), "Marcelle" (2019), "Peequal", and "MISSOIR" by Lena Olvedi having been developed.


title: Female urinal

text: In the course of the development towards unisex toilets, designers and developers are increasingly faced with the challenge of creating gender-appropriate solutions. Models, like "Uni-Pee" designed by Tamar Dax, "We P" designed by Michal Farago, "MissWizz" from Ellen Lejeune, "UriLift" from Pop-Up Toilet Company, "Captain" by Uridan, "Ti'Pi" by Ves Bat Eco and "Weestand" by LiquidGold, have been developed that can be used comfortably by females and males alike.


title: Female urinal

text: Berlin now has some unisex toilets and unisex urinals, to be used by both sexes. , with the expiration of a contract for public toilets with Wall GmbH, a new toilet concept for public spaces in Berlin is being developed. Urinals which can be used in a similar fashion (facing the wall) by both sexes are an essential part of the future unisex toilet facilities.


title: Female urinal

text: At present, two different arrangements are currently being implemented in practice: a row arrangement (usually with a partition as a separating element), comparable to male urinals; and in individual booths or cabins, as in classic toilets. The main advantage compared to the classic toilet, compact space requirements, is lost with the latter design. With a row arrangement, the density of facilities can be increased, resulting in shorter wait times. However, this is not the case with the booth arrangement, in which a classic toilet bowl is simply replaced by a urinal.


title: Female urinal

text: The booth solution is often proposed with the argument that female use of open urinals is socially unacceptable and associated with embarrassment. However, urination while in the company of others can be a problem for some males as well. There is always the possibility to switch to a classical toilet stall if the use of urinals is associated with shame (e.g. in the case of paruresis).


title: Female urinal

text: This problem arises more in the context of increasing trends towards unisex toilets for males and females. A sharing of toilets raises the question of how urinals should be arranged for both sexes in the room. While toilets are usually housed in booths with lockable doors, urinals are usually installed openly in a row in gender-separated toilets. This construction method requires less space, allows for more people to urinate at the same time while promoting better hygiene and economics, and keeps the toilet stalls cleaner and more available for those who need them - which is currently one of the main advantages of installing male urinals. One possibility would be to continue offering urinals in rows. These could, whether separated into male and female urinals or as unisex urinals, be separated by so-called "pubic walls".


title: Female urinal

text: However, it is questionable whether the lower level of privacy compared to conventional toilets would be accepted by the general public. Due to socio-cultural conventions, the concept of men/boys urinating with their backs visible to women/girls would possibly create awkwardness for both genders and would currently seem strange and contrary to common morals and etiquette for many users. There are even more practical issues for females, such as women/girls needing toilet paper, having to lower their pants, and sometimes tending to their menstrual hygiene needs while going to the toilet for urination.


title: Female urinal

text: An alternative would be to accommodate urinals for both sexes in booths or to continue offering urinals for males only. However, this would at least limit the above-mentioned advantages of the urinals for females. Accordingly, the German lawyer and author Marcus Werner sees a significant disadvantage in unisex toilets if these would lead to the elimination of urinals in classic open rows.


title: Female urinal

text: Urinals arranged in booths have not been popular, since the advantages compared to conventional toilets were not obvious, given the unchanged space requirement. After 13 years, the four ladies' urinals in the Salzburg Congress Center were removed in August 2015 due to a lack of interest. They have been replaced by conventional toilets.


title: Female urinal

text: In the unisex toilets planned for the Alamo Drafthouse in Austin (Texas) in 2017, the urinals are to be located in an area separated from the entrance area by a door. These are designed as unisex urinals and are arranged in open rows within this range. This would allow men and women to use side-by-side urinals in this room, preferably with both sexes standing with their face towards the wall, while those who prefer to not see persons of the opposite sex urinating may use a traditional toilet booth nearby. According to Richard Weiss, the architect who is planning this restroom, this would create the greatest possible freedom of choice for all genders.


title: Female urinal

text: Recent developments in creating urinals for females and for use by both sexes are not a new revolution in sanitation, as some manufacturers suggest. Rather, it is the renaissance of a concept whose roots lie in the 19th century. During the 19th century, in the early days of public toilet development, female urinals were installed and urinals were not thought of as being exclusively for males. For example, the 1897 German "Handbuch der Architektur" ("Handbook of architecture") shows "women's urinals with automatic rinsing"; at that time the advantages featured were less costly installation and water savings:


title: Female urinal

text: At that time, the female urinal was unable to establish itself in Germany, and they were installed only occasionally. In 1902, on the initiative of the City Building Office, a decision was taken in Munich to install women's urinals throughout the city in public convenience stores. A letter to the Kirchmair Board of Directors, for example, explains the plenary decision of the Baumagistrat on 13 February 1902:


title: Female urinal

text: This idea was pursued further, so that the documents of 13 January 1906 contained plans for concrete implementation:


title: Female urinal

text: In the architectural guide "München und seine Bauten" ("Munich and its buildings") from 1912, the women's urinals in three public toilets (Lerchenfeldstraße, Ottostraße and Max-Weber-Platz) were mentioned in the chapter on "Nursing homes". In contrast to the actual toilets, these were intended as "freehold toilets", i.e. for free use. They enjoyed great popularity and were highly frequented. In the course of the 1910s, there was no further expansion, probably because the free use did not generate income for the city's treasury funds. Finally, the "Freiaborte" (free public lavatories) for women were converted into fee facilities. A later proposal by the first female city councillor of Munich in 1922 for the reintroduction of those free urinals was dismissed by the exclusively male directors of the "Bade- und Bedürfnisanstalten" establishments.


title: Female urinal

text: This development at the turn of the century was not followed up in Germany and these first approaches were increasingly forgotten.


title: Female urinal

text: In the 1970s, Alexander Kira, professor of architecture and sanitary engineering at Cornell University, conducted studies on urination behavior of both genders. He pursued the goal of developing sanitary fixtures that are adapted to the human body and its needs, breaking with conventional design specifications.


title: Female urinal

text: On a conventional toilet bowl, the "correct" use is determined by the shape of the sanitary fixture. Amongst other things, Kira investigated the body positions that males and females prefer to use when no external guidelines are given, for example while urinating outdoors. Examples include urinating in the forest, on a rock, or in a hole. He examined the trajectories of the urine stream and its controllability, as well as comfort and health aspects of different body positions. Males usually urinate in a standing posture and direct the stream forward by hand. Females prefer to take a squatting position with the stream controlled by the posture of the entire body and directed vertically downwards to slightly obliquely backwards. This position is generally the most comfortable for females and is associated with the lowest spray dispersion.


title: Female urinal

text: Until the 1970s, a few female urinals were available in the United States from different manufacturers, such as the Sanistand by American Standard Companies and "Hygia" by Kohler Co. In the 1980s and 1990s various concepts and prototypes were proposed, although most of them were not developed beyond the design stage. Female urinals have become more common since the turn of the millennium and are marketed commercially, primarily in Europe.


title: Female urinal

text: From 1950 to 1973, the American Standard company marketed its mass-produced Sanistand. It did not provide significant advantages over conventional toilets, because it used just as much floor space and water for flushing. Its main selling point was that it was specifically designed for women to use without bodily contact.


title: Female urinal

text: Several other commercially-unsuccessful designs, like "She-inal" by Kathie Jones (1990s), have been tried since then, but they required the user either to hover awkwardly or to bring her genitals into close contact with the fixture. Current clothes fashions, such as pantyhose and slacks, inhibit females from using them because they do not want their garments to touch the urinal or the floor. In case any females have little experience with urinals and do not know whether to approach them forward or backward, instructions may be posted.


title: Female urinal

text: Towards the end of the century the artist Kim Dickey produced several designs of a vitreous china prosthetic that allowed women to urinate while standing upright, while J. Yolande Daniels exhibited a design which, by means of stirrups and leaning back, allowed a user to "allow its user to observe her body evacuating itself of urine", the design being the first with this characteristic.


title: Female urinal

text: Standard trough models intended for use with a specialised disposable funnel have been introduced with some success, at outdoor festivals such as Glastonbury in 2004, to reduce dwell times and to alleviate long queues.


title: Female urinal

text: In 2011 a portable female urinal, the Pollee, was introduced at the Roskilde Festival in Denmark and was received enthusiastically by female festival visitors:


title: Female urinal

text: Lapee mobile urinals have been tested in Toulouse (France).Those of MadamePee - mobile and without water - have equipped the Hellfest festival (Clisson, France) or Solidays (Paris) and longer-lasting events such as Paris Plages.


title: Female urinal

text: The practice of urination by females in public space is conditioned by cultural and societal features:


title: Female urinal

text: The differences in needs, conventions, and practices translate into a natural biological inequality of urination access between males and females, with queues often longer for females.


title: Female urinal

text: The current practice for arranging toilets in public space, to allocate an equal surface area for males (seated toilets and urinals) and for females (seated toilets only), is a source of inequality because females require more time in the restroom than males and the less space occupied by urinals makes it possible to increase the number of stations for males. Urinals for females (non-seated position) are therefore a possible means to move towards "equality of urination".


title: Female urinal

text: A 1999 study surveyed 600 women to determine their interest in having female urinals which could be used in a standing position. The majority of respondents indicated a desire to have such facilities.


title: Female urinal

text: A 2011 study conducted in Australia showed that more than half of the women interviewed would use a urinal if it were available.