title: Angels Flight

text: In November 1952, the Beverly Hills Parlor of the Native Daughters of the Golden West erected a plaque to commemorate fifty years of service by the railway. The plaque reads:


title: Angels Flight

text: In 1962, at its first meeting, the city's new Cultural Heritage Board designated Angels Flight a Los Angeles Historic-Cultural Monument (No. 4), along with four other locations. Los Angeles was early in enacting preservation laws, and the first sites chosen each were "considered threatened to some extent," according to the history of the board, now the Cultural Heritage Commission.


title: Angels Flight

text: The railway was closed on May 18, 1969 when the Bunker Hill area underwent a controversial total redevelopment which destroyed and displaced a community of almost 22,000 working-class families renting rooms in architecturally significant but run-down buildings, to a modern mixed-use district of high-rise commercial buildings and modern apartment and condominium complexes. Both of the Angels Flight cars, "Sinai" and "Olivet", were then placed in storage at 1200 S. Olive Street, Los Angeles. This was the location of Sid and Linda Kastner's United Business Interiors. At this location the Kastners maintained "The Bandstand," a private museum. The Bandstand featured antique coin-operated musical instruments where one of the cars ("Sinai") was on display in the museum. "Olivet" was stored in the garage of the building. They were stored at this location for 27 years at no charge in anticipation of the railway's restoration and reopening, which according to the city's Redevelopment Agency, was originally slated to take place within two years.


title: Angels Flight

text: After being stored for 27 years, the funicular was rebuilt and reopened by the newly formed Angels Flight Railway Foundation on February 24, 1996, half a block south of the original site. Although the original cars, "Sinai" and "Olivet", were used, a new track and haulage system was designed and built, a redesign which had unfortunate consequences five years later. As rebuilt, the funicular was around 300 feet (90 meters) long on an approximately 33-percent grade.


title: Angels Flight

text: Car movement was controlled by an operator inside the upper station house, who was responsible for visually determining that the track and vehicles were clear for movement, closing the platform gates, starting the cars moving, monitoring the operation of the funicular cars, observing car stops at both stations, and collecting fares from passengers. The cars themselves did not carry any staff members. Angels Flight was added to the National Register of Historic Places on October 13, 2000.


title: Angels Flight

text: On February 1, 2001, Angels Flight had a serious accident when car "Sinai", approaching the upper station, instead rolled downhill uncontrollably and collided into "Olivet" near the lower station. The accident killed a tourist, 83-year-old Leon Praport, and injured seven others, including Praport's wife, Lola.


title: Angels Flight

text: The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) conducted an investigation into the accident and determined that the probable cause was the improper design and construction of the Angels Flight funicular drive and the failure of the various regulatory bodies to ensure that the railway system conformed to initial safety design specifications and known funicular safety standards. The NTSB further remarked that the company that designed and built the drive, control, braking and haul systems, Lift Engineering/Yantrak, was no longer in business and that the whereabouts of the company's principal was unknown.


title: Angels Flight

text: Unlike the original, the new funicular used two separate haulage systems (one for each car), with the two systems connected to each other, the drive motor, and the service brake by a gear train; it was the failure of this gear train that was the immediate cause of the accident since it effectively disconnected "Sinai" both from "Olivet"s balancing load and from the service brake. There were emergency brakes that acted on the rim of each haulage drum, but due to inadequate maintenance, the emergency brakes for both cars were inoperative, which left "Sinai" without any brakes once its physical connection to the service brake was lost. Contrary to what might be expected, the new funicular was constructed with neither safety cable nor track brakes, either of which would have prevented the accident; the NTSB was unable to identify another funicular worldwide that operated without either of these safety features.


title: Angels Flight

text: During the 17 to 26 months that the emergency braking system was not operating, the braking system was tested daily, but since the service brake and emergency brake were tested simultaneously, there was no way to tell if the emergency brake was functioning without looking at the brake pads or hydraulic pressure gauges during the test. The test was always performed with the "Sinai" car traveling uphill, which meant that when the power was cut and the brakes applied (as part of the test), "Sinai"s momentum caused the car to continue moving uphill a short distance (slackening the cable) and then to roll back from gravity, jerking the cable tight.


title: Angels Flight

text: If the emergency brakes had been functional, they would have caught "Sinai" when the cable snapped tight, but without the emergency brakes, the force of the jerk caused by the daily test was directed through the spline (the part that failed) and to the service brake. In addition, it was found that the original design called for the spline to be made of AISI 1018 steel on one drawing and of AISI 8822 steel on a different drawing, but it is unlikely that this ambiguity in the design contributed to the accident. However, regular analysis of gear box oil-samples was discontinued in May 1998, despite the fact that the company performing the tests recommending that the rising particulate level in the oil samples warranted the test occurring more frequently. The continued rising particulate level may have been in part caused by unusual wear of the splines. Continued testing could have resulted in an inspection to locate the cause of the unusual wear.Besides the design failures in the haulage system, the system was also criticised by the NTSB for the lack of gates on the cars and the absence of a parallel walkway for emergency evacuation. The funicular suffered serious damage in the accident.


title: Angels Flight

text: On November 1, 2008, both of the repaired and restored Angels Flight cars, "Sinai" and "Olivet", were put back on their tracks and, on January 16, 2009, testing began on the railway. On November 20, 2009, another step in the approval process was achieved. On March 10, 2010, the California Public Utilities Commission approved the safety certificate for the railroad to begin operating again.


title: Angels Flight

text: The new drive and safety system completely replaced the system which was the cause of the fatal 2001 accident. Like the original Angels Flight design and most traditional funicular systems, the new drive system incorporates a single main haulage cable, with one car attached to each end. Also like the original design, a second safety cable is utilized. To further enhance safety, unlike the original design, each car now has a rail brake system, as a backup to the main backup emergency brakes on each bull-wheel. Another added safety feature is an independent evacuation motor to move the cars should the main motor fail for any reason.


title: Angels Flight

text: Angels Flight reopened to the public for riding on March 15, 2010. The local media covered the event with interest. Only a month after re-opening, Angels Flight had had over 59,000 riders. It connected the Historic Core and Broadway commercial district with the hilltop Bunker Hill California Plaza urban park and the Museum of Contemporary Art – MOCA. The cost of a one-way ride at that time was 50 cents, 25 cents with TAP card.


title: Angels Flight

text: On June 10, 2011, the California Public Utilities Commission ordered Angels Flight to immediately cease operations due to wear on the steel wheels on the two cars. Inspectors determined that their fifteen-year-old wheels needed replacing. The railway reopened on July 5, 2011, after eight new custom-made steel wheels were installed on the two cars.


title: Angels Flight

text: On September 5, 2013, one car derailed near the middle of the guideway. One passenger was on board the derailed car, and five passengers were on board the other car. There were no injuries. Passengers had to be rescued from the cars by firefighters. The brake safety system had been "intentionally" bypassed using a small tree branch.


title: Angels Flight

text: The NTSB also noted a problem with the basic design: "The car body and the wheel-axle assembly are not articulated." The passing section of the track involves a short turning section which allows the cars to pass each other. The axles do not turn to follow the track, resulting in the wheel flanges grinding against the rail, causing excessive wheel wear. This problem, combined with safety system problems which caused unwanted track brake deployment, resulted in a derailment.


title: Angels Flight

text: Plans to bring the railway back into service began in January 2017. Safety upgrades were made to the doors of the cars, and an evacuation walkway was added adjacent to the track. These enhancements were made by ACS Infrastructure Development and SENER through an agreement with Angels Flight Railway Foundation in exchange for a share of the funicular's revenue over the next three decades. Angels Flight reopened for public service on August 31, 2017.


title: Pimlico

text: Pimlico () is an area of Central London in the City of Westminster, built as a southern extension to neighbouring Belgravia. It is known for its garden squares and distinctive Regency architecture. Pimlico is demarcated to the north by Victoria Station, by the River Thames to the south, Vauxhall Bridge Road to the east and the former Grosvenor Canal to the west. At its heart is a grid of residential streets laid down by the planner Thomas Cubitt, beginning in 1825 and now protected as the Pimlico Conservation Area. The most prestigious are those on garden squares, with buildings decreasing in grandeur away from St George's Square, Warwick Square, Eccleston Square and the main thoroughfares of Belgrave Road and St. George's Drive. Additions have included the pre–World War II Dolphin Square and the Churchill Gardens and Lillington and Longmoore Gardens estates, now conservation areas in their own right. The area has over 350 Grade II listed buildings and several Grade II* listed churches. At the western edge of Pimlico, on the borders of Chelsea, Pimlico Road has become known in recent years for its interiors and design stores.


title: Pimlico

text: Residents have included politician Winston Churchill who lived on Eccleston Square, designer Laura Ashley, philosopher Swami Vivekananda, actor Laurence Olivier, illustrator and author Aubrey Beardsley, Kenyan president Jomo Kenyatta, Australian prime minister Billy Hughes, lawn-tennis inventor Major Walter Wingfield, and world record–holding pilot Sheila Scott.


title: Pimlico

text: In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the Manor of Ebury was divided up and leased by the Crown to servants or favourites. In 1623, James I sold the freehold of Ebury for £1,151 and 15 shillings. The land was sold on several more times, until it came into the hands of heiress Mary Davies in 1666.


title: Pimlico

text: Mary's dowry not only included "The Five Fields" of modern-day Pimlico and Belgravia, but also most of what is now Mayfair and Knightsbridge. Understandably, she was much pursued but in 1677, at the age of twelve, married Sir Thomas Grosvenor, 3rd Baronet. The Grosvenors were a family of Norman descent long seated at Eaton Hall in Cheshire who, until this auspicious marriage, were of but local consequence in their native county of Cheshire. Through the development and good management of this land the Grosvenors acquired enormous wealth.


title: Pimlico

text: At some point in the late seventeenth or early eighteenth century, the area ceased to be known as Ebury or "The Five Fields" and gained the name by which it is now known. While its origins are disputed, it is ""clearly of foreign derivation... Gifford, in a note in his edition of Ben Jonson, tells us that 'Pimlico is sometimes spoken of as a person, and may not improbably have been the master of a house once famous for ale of a particular description."" Supporting this etymology, Rev. Brewer describes the area as "a district of public gardens much frequented on holidays. According to tradition, it received its name from Ben Pimlico, famous for his nut-brown ale. His tea-gardens, however, were near Hoxton, and the road to them was termed Pimlico Path, so that what is now called Pimlico was so named from the popularity of the Hoxton resort".


title: Pimlico

text: H.G. Wells, in his novel "The Dream", says that there was a wharf at Pimlico where ships from America docked and that the word Pimlico came with the trade and was the last word left alive of the Algonquin Indian language (Pamlico).


title: Pimlico

text: By the 19th-century, and as a result of an increase in demand for property in the previously unfashionable West End of London following the Great Plague of London and the Great Fire of London, Pimlico had become ripe for development. In 1825, Thomas Cubitt was contracted by Lord Grosvenor to develop Pimlico. The land up to this time had been marshy but was reclaimed using soil excavated during the construction of St Katharine Docks.


title: Pimlico

text: Cubitt developed Pimlico as a grid of handsome white stucco terraces. The largest and most opulent houses were built along St George's Drive and Belgrave Road, the two principal streets, and Eccleston, Warwick and St George's Squares. Lupus Street contained similarly grand houses, as well as shops and, until the early twentieth century, a hospital for women and children. Smaller-scale properties, typically of three storeys, line the side streets.


title: Pimlico

text: An 1877 newspaper article described Pimlico as "genteel, sacred to professional men… not rich enough to luxuriate in Belgravia proper, but rich enough to live in private houses." Its inhabitants were "more lively than in Kensington… and yet a cut above Chelsea, which is only commercial."


title: Pimlico

text: Although the area was dominated by the well-to-do middle and upper-middle classes as late as Booth's 1889 Map of London Poverty, parts of Pimlico are said to have declined significantly by the 1890s. When Rev Gerald Olivier moved to the neighbourhood in 1912 with his family, including the young Laurence Olivier, to minister to the parishioners of St Saviour, it was part of a venture to west London "slums" that had previously taken the family to the depths of Notting Hill.


title: Pimlico

text: Through the late nineteenth century, Pimlico saw the construction of several Peabody Estates, charitable housing projects designed to provide affordable, quality homes.


title: Pimlico

text: Proximity to the Houses of Parliament made Pimlico a centre of political activity. Prior to 1928, the Labour Party and Trades Union Congress shared offices on Eccleston Square, and it was here in 1926 that the general strike was organised.


title: Pimlico

text: In the mid-1930s Pimlico saw a second wave of development with the construction of Dolphin Square, a self-contained "city" of 1,250 up-market flats built on the site formerly occupied by Cubitt's building works. Completed in 1937, it quickly became popular with MPs and public servants. It was home to fascist Oswald Mosley until his arrest in 1940, and the headquarters of the Free French for much of the Second World War.


title: Pimlico

text: Pimlico survived the war with its essential character intact, although parts sustained significant bomb damage. Through the 1950s these areas were the focus of large-scale redevelopment as the Churchill Gardens and Lillington and Longmoore Gardens estates, and many of the larger Victorian houses were converted to hotels and other uses.


title: Pimlico

text: To provide affordable and efficient heating to the residents of the new post-war developments, Pimlico became one of the few places in the UK to have a district heating system installed. District heating became popular after World War II to heat the large residential estates that replaced areas devastated by the Blitz. The Pimlico District Heating Undertaking (PDHU) is just north of the River Thames. The PDHU first became operational in 1950 and continues to expand to this day. The PDHU once relied on waste heat from the now-disused Battersea Power Station on the south side of the River Thames. It is still in operation, the water now being heated locally by a new energy centre which incorporates 3.1 MWe /4.0 MWTh of gas-fired CHP engines and 3 × 8 MW gas-fired boilers.


title: Pimlico

text: In 1953, the Second Duke of Westminster sold the part of the Grosvenor estate on which Pimlico is built.


title: Pimlico

text: In 1970, Roger Byron-Collins, a partner at Mullett Booker Estate Agents in Albion Street on the Hyde Park Estate was instrumental in the sale and purchase of the Pimlico Estate covering 27 acres in Victoria, including 480 homes for the owners CR Developments for £4.4 million. The purchasers being Jack Dellal of the Dalton Barton Bank and Peter Crane of City and Municipal Properties part of a consortium in the Hanson Trust. Byron-Collins was introduced to the Pimlico Estates' joint owners Lord Ashcombe, the chairman of Holland, Hannen and Cubitt, who was in partnership with Harry Reynolds of Reynolds Engineering by Colin Tennant Lord Glenconner and his partner The Hon Brian Alexander of the Mustique Company.


title: Pimlico

text: Pimlico was connected to the London Underground in 1972 as a late addition to the Victoria line. Following the designation of a conservation area in 1968 (extended in 1973 and again in 1990), the area has seen extensive regeneration. Successive waves of development have given Pimlico an interesting social mix, combining exclusive restaurants and residences with Westminster City Council-run facilities.


title: Pimlico

text: Dolphin Square is a block of private apartments built between 1935 and 1937. At the time of their construction the development was billed as the largest self-contained block of flats in Europe. It is home to many Members of Parliament (MPs).


title: Pimlico

text: Churchill Gardens is a large housing estate covering the south-west corner of Pimlico. It was developed between 1946 and 1962 to a design by the architects Powell and Moya, replacing docks, industrial works, and several Cubitt terraces damaged in the Blitz.


title: Pimlico

text: On Buckingham Palace Road is the former "Empire Terminal" of Imperial Airways, a striking Art Moderne building designed in 1938 by architect Albert Lakeman. Mail, freight and passengers were transported from the terminal to Southampton via rail before transferring to flying boats. The building now serves as the headquarters of the National Audit Office.


title: Pimlico

text: The area contains a number of attractive Anglican churches, most constructed at the time the neighbourhood was laid down. Among them are St Gabriel's (of which a former Vicar is now Archdeacon of Chichester), St Saviour and St James the Less. From its founding St Peter's, Eaton Square, Belgravia was usually recorded as St Peter's, Pimlico (at least prior to 1878). The area's Catholic church, Holy Apostles, was destroyed in the Blitz and rebuilt in 1957. The headquarters of the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales are located in Eccleston Square.


title: Pimlico

text: Tate Britain is located within the ward of Millbank, but is a short walk from Pimlico underground station and is regarded as a Pimlico landmark. The district's association with fine art has been reinforced by the Chelsea College of Art and Design's recent move to the former Royal Army Medical College next to the Tate.


title: Pimlico

text: Pimlico School, a comprehensive built between 1967 and 1970, was a notable example of Brutalist architecture. It was demolished in 2010.


title: Pimlico

text: In G. K. Chesterton's "Orthodoxy", Pimlico is used as an example of "a desperate thing." Arguing that things are not loved because they are great but become great because they are loved, he asserts that if merely approved of, Pimlico "will remain Pimlico, which would be awful," but if "loved with a transcendental tie and without any earthly reason" it "in a year or two might be fairer than Florence."


title: Pimlico

text: While still only partially built, the area is the abode of a criminal gang in Charles Palliser's 1989 novel, "The Quincunx". They live in 'carcasses', part-built houses on which work has ceased owing to the drying-up of funds, due in turn to an involved conspiracy central to the book's convoluted plot.


title: Pimlico

text: Alexander McCall Smith's on-line "Daily Telegraph" serial novel "Corduroy Mansions" is set in Pimlico.


title: Pimlico

text: The main character in the 2015 novel Watchmaker of Filigree Street, set in the late 19th century, lives in Pimlico.


title: Pimlico

text: Pimlico is served by Pimlico station on the Victoria line and Victoria station on the Victoria, District and Circle lines. It is also served by National Rail services to London Victoria Station.


title: Pimlico

text: Bus routes that run centrally through Pimlico are the 24, 360 and the C10. Many more buses run along Vauxhall Bridge Road (Pimlico’s eastern boundary).


title: Pimlico

text: Pimlico would be connected at Victoria to the proposed Chelsea-Hackney line (Crossrail 2). Plans under consideration for the redevelopment of Nine Elms and Battersea Power Station include a pedestrian bridge stretching across the river from St George's Square; in 2015, Wandsworth council awarded Bystrup and partners the design for the £40m bridge, with spiral ramps preserving parks at both ends.


title: Pimlico

text: The area is represented on Westminster City Council by the wards of Churchill, Tachbrook, Vincent Square and Warwick. These all form part of the Cities of London and Westminster parliamentary constituency, currently represented by MP Nickie Aiken, a Conservative. Of the twelve local councillors, two are Labour and ten are Conservative. Pimlico is part of the West Central constituency on the London Assembly, which is represented by Tony Devenish AM.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The Moorgate tube crash occurred on 28 February 1975 at 8:46 am on the London Underground's Northern City Line. In total, 43 people died and 74 were injured after a train failed to stop at the line's southern terminus, Moorgate station, and crashed into its end wall. It is considered the worst peacetime accident on the London Underground. No fault was found with the train, and the inquiry by the Department of the Environment concluded that the accident was caused by the actions of Leslie Newson, the 56-year-old driver.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The crash forced the first carriage into the roof of the tunnel at the front and back, but the middle remained on the trackbed. The coach was crushed to a length of . The second carriage was concertinaed at the front as it collided with the first, and the third rode over the rear of the second. The brakes were not applied and the dead man's handle was still depressed when the train crashed. It took 13 hours to remove the injured, many of whom had to be cut free from the wreckage. With no services running into the adjoining platform to produce the piston effect pushing air into the station, ventilation was poor and temperatures in the tunnel rose to over . It took a further four days to extract the last body, that of Newson, whose cab, normally deep, had been crushed to .


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The post-mortem on Newson showed no medical reason to explain the crash. A cause has never been established, and theories include suicide, that he may have been distracted, or that he was affected by conditions such as transient global amnesia or akinesis with mutism. The subsequent inquest established that Newson had also inexplicably overshot platforms on the same route on two other occasions earlier in the week of the accident. Tests showed that Newson had a blood alcohol level of 80 mg/100 ml—the level at which one can be prosecuted for drink-driving, though the alcohol may have been produced by the natural decomposition process over four days at a high temperature.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: In the aftermath of the crash, London Underground introduced a safety system that automatically stops a train when travelling too fast. This became known informally as Moorgate protection. Northern City Line services into Moorgate ended in October 1975 and British Rail services started in August 1976. After a long campaign by relatives of the dead, two memorials were unveiled near the station, one in July 2013 and one in February 2014.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The London Underground—also known as the Underground or the Tube—is a public rapid transit system serving London and some parts of the adjacent counties of Buckinghamshire, Essex and Hertfordshire. The first line opened in 1863 and by 1975 the network contained of route track; that year three million people used the service each day. The Tube was one of the safest methods of transport in Britain in 1975. Apart from suicides, there were only 14 deaths on the Underground between 1938 and 1975, 12 of which occurred in the 1953 Stratford crash.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: Moorgate station, in the City of London, was the terminus at the southern end of the Northern City Line, five stops and from the northern end at Drayton Park. Moorgate is an interchange between the Underground network and suburban overground services. The station contains ten platforms; numbers 7 to 10 are deep level, and numbers 9 and 10 are used for the Northern City Line service.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: At the end of platform 9 in 1975 was a red warning light atop a post, situated in front of a sand drag placed to stop overrunning trains. The drag was long, of which was on the tracks in front of the platform, and was inside an overrun tunnel that was long, high and wide. The tunnel had been designed to accommodate larger main line rolling stock and so was wider than the standard tube tunnel width of . A buffer stop, which had once been hydraulic, but had not been functioning as such for some time prior to the crash, was at the end of the tunnel, in front of a solid wall. The approach to Moorgate from Old Street station, the stop prior to the terminus, was on a falling gradient of 1 in 150 for before levelling out for to platform 9; a scissors crossover was located just prior to platforms 9 and 10. There was a speed limit of on the line, and a limit of on entry into Moorgate station.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: From November 1966 the Northern City Line ran 1938 rolling stock. Weekly checks were made on the stock's brakes, doors and compressors; all equipment on the train was examined on a six-week basis and the cars were lifted from their bogies for a thorough examination once a year.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: On 28 February 1975 the first shift of the Northern City Line service was driven by Leslie Newson, 56, who had worked for London Transport since 1969 and been driving on the Northern City Line for the previous three months. Newson was known by his colleagues as a careful and conscientious motorman (driver). On 28 February he carried a bottle of milk, sugar, his rule book, and a notebook in his work satchel; he also had £270 in his jacket to buy a second-hand car for his daughter after work. According to staff on duty his behaviour appeared normal. Before his shift began he had a cup of tea and shared his sugar with a colleague; he jokingly said to the colleague "Go easy on it, I shall want another cup when I come off duty".


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The first return trips of the day between Drayton Park and Moorgate, which started at 6:40 am, passed without incident. Robert Harris, the 18-year-old guard who had started working for London Underground in August 1974, was late and joined the train when it returned to Moorgate at 6:53 am; a driver waiting to go on duty took his place until his arrival. Newson and Harris made three further return trips before the train undertook its final journey from Drayton Park at 8:38 am, thirty seconds late. The train carried approximately 300 passengers; it was a Friday and, as it was the peak of rush hour, most of the travellers were commuters. As the exit from platform 9 was next to the overrun tunnel, the first two carriages were more popular with commuters and more full than the remaining four. Although pupils from the nearby City of London School for Girls would normally have been on the service at that time, the pupils had a day's holiday as the school was in use for external examinations. The journalist Sally Holloway, in her history of the crash, observes that the number of casualties could have been higher if the girls had been attending school.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: After the train departed Old Street on its 56-second journey to Moorgate, Harris was bored and left his position at the guard's control panel—which contained the controls for the emergency brake—at the front of the rear carriage and walked to the back of the train to look for a newspaper. He did not find one and spent his time reading the advertisements on the walls at the rear of the carriage.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: On arrival at Moorgate at 8:46 am, the train, which comprised two units of three connected cars, did not slow. It was still under power and no brakes were applied; it passed through the station at . The signalman on duty later reported that the train appeared to be accelerating as it passed along the platform. A passenger waiting to take the return journey stated that Newson appeared "to be staring straight ahead and to be somewhat larger than life". Tests were later done on trains entering platform 9 at slow speed. These showed that because of the station lighting, it was impossible to clearly see the driver's eyes. Witnesses standing on the platform saw Newson sitting upright and facing forward, his uniform neat and still wearing his hat; his hands appeared to be on the train's controls as far as they could tell.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The brakes were not applied and the dead man's handle was still depressed when the train entered the overrun tunnel, throwing up sand from the drag; when the driver's cab crashed into the hydraulic buffer, the carriage was separated from its bogie and the coachwork was forced into the end wall and the roof. The first 15 seats of the carriage were crushed into . The second coach was forced under the rear of the first, which buckled at three points into the shape of a V with a tail, and had its rear forced into the tunnel roof. With the weight of the train piling up behind it, the front coach was crushed to . The third car was damaged at both ends, more significantly at the leading end as it rode over the second. Javier Gonzalez, a passenger who was travelling in the front carriage, described the moment the train crashed:


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: Just above my newspaper I saw a lady sitting opposite me and then the lights went out. I have the image of her face to this day. She died.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: As darkness came, there was a very loud noise of the crash, metal and glass breaking, no screams, all in the fraction of the second, one takes to breathe in. It was all over in no time.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: Forty-two passengers and the driver died; seventy-four people were treated in hospital for their injuries. It was, and remains, the worst peacetime accident on the Underground.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The first call to the emergency services was received at 8:48 am; the London Ambulance Service arrived at 8:54 am and the London Fire Brigade at 8:57 am. At around the same time the City of London Police alerted nearby St Bartholomew's Hospital (Barts) that "a tube train had hit the buffers" at Moorgate, but there was no indication at that stage of the seriousness of the crash. A small assessment team comprising a casualty officer and a medical student was sent from the hospital; 15 minutes later a resuscitation unit was sent, although the hospital staff were still unaware of the scale of the problem. The City of London Police also contacted the medical unit of BP at Britannic House, Finsbury Circus. Dr Donald Dean and a team of two doctors and two nurses walked around to the station to assist, and were the first medical assistance at the scene. After assessing the situation, Dean realised that he did not have enough painkillers with him, or in BP stores, so he went to the Moorgate branch of Boots where the pharmacist gave him the shop's entire supply of morphine and pethidine. The Fire Brigade undertook a brief inspection of the site and, once they saw what they were dealing with, the status was updated to a Major Accident event; additional ambulances and fire tenders were soon sent. One of the doctors from Barts later described the scene:


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The front carriage was an indescribable tangle of twisted metal and in it the living and the dead were heaped together, intertwined among themselves and the wreckage.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: It was impossible to estimate the number [of casualties] involved with any degree of accuracy because the lighting was poor, the victims were all tangled together, and everything was covered with a thick layer of black dust. Many of the victims were writhing in agony and were screaming for individual attention. It was obvious from an early stage that the main problem was the disentanglement of a heap of people, many of whom appeared to be in imminent danger of suffocation.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: By around 9:00 am the last casualty had been removed from the third carriage. By 9:30 am Moorgate and many of the surrounding roads had been cordoned off to allow space for the co-ordination teams above ground to manage the flow of vehicles—particularly for ambulances taking casualties to hospitals. A message was sent from the London Fire Brigade headquarters to all fire stations in London; it estimated that there were still 50 people trapped and warned that "this incident will be protracted". To make a clear passage through the wreckage for equipment, the emergency services and injured commuters, a circular route was organised through the carriages. Firemen cut holes in parts of the structure, including in the floors and ceilings of the carriages through which it was possible to move, even if it meant crawling through some areas. At 10:00 am a medical team arrived from The London Hospital and set up a makeshift operating theatre on a platform near the triage team.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: Platform 9 was underground, and fire and ambulance crews had to carry all the equipment they needed through the station and down to the scene of the accident. The depth at which they were operating, and the shielding effect of the soil and concrete, meant their radios could not get through to the surface. Messages and requests for further supplies were passed by runners, which led to mistakes: one doctor requested further supplies of the pain-killing gas Entonox, but by the time the request reached the surface, it had been garbled to "the doctor wants an empty box". The fire brigade deployed a small team with "Figaro", an experimental radio system that worked in deep locations. Working conditions for the emergency services became increasingly difficult throughout the day. The crash had thrown soot and dirt into the air from the sand drag, and from between the two metal layers of the tube carriages. Everything was covered with a thick layer of the residue which was easily disturbed. The lamps and cutting gear used by the fire brigade raised the temperature to over and oxygen levels began to drop. In the deep lines at Moorgate, ventilation is produced by the piston effect, created by trains forcing air through the tube lines. With services stopped since the crash, no fresh air was reaching platforms 9 and 10. A large electric fan was placed at the top of the escalators in an attempt to remedy the situation, but soot and dirt was disturbed and little draught was created; the machine was soon turned off.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: By 12:00 noon only five live casualties were left to be extracted; by 3:15 pm only two were left: Margaret Liles, a 19-year-old Woman Police Constable (WPC), and Jeff Benton, who worked at the London Stock Exchange. They were in the front part of the first carriage at the time of the crash and ended up trapped together, pinned down under the girders of the carriage's structure. The Fire Brigade worked for several hours to release Benton, but it became apparent that Liles needed to be removed first, which could only be done by amputating her left foot. She was finally removed from the wreckage after the procedure at 8.55 pm; Benton was removed at 10:00 pm. As soon as Benton had been removed, all equipment was turned off and silence was ordered among the emergency services. Shouts were made for any people trapped to respond; there were no responses and the site medical officer declared that all the remaining bodies in the wreckage were dead. During the day mouth-to-mouth resuscitation had been needed to save two people, and two victims died of crush syndrome soon after being released from the wreckage. Benton also died of crush syndrome, in hospital on 27 March 1975, despite initially good progress.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: Work on removing the bodies and clearing the wreckage from the tunnel began after the last casualty had been removed. With no casualties remaining, the Fire Brigade were able to use flame cutting equipment. After the third carriage was cut free from the second, at 1:00 am on 1 March the third carriage began to be winched back down the track; as it began moving a body that no-one had seen fell from the wreckage and onto the track. According to Joseph Milner, the chief fire officer of the London Fire Brigade, the body gave "the first indication of how protracted would be the work ahead". Once the carriage had been removed, a doctor again checked for further signs of living casualties; none were found.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The use of the flame cutting equipment had a detrimental effect on the atmosphere on the platform. Oxygen levels dropped from the norm of 21 per cent to 16 per cent and the smell of decomposition from the bodies trapped in the wreckage was noticed by workers. Those working on the platform or tunnel were restricted to 20-minute spells working, followed by 40 minutes' recovery time on the surface. All workers had to wear gloves and masks; any cuts had to be reported, and no-one with a cut was allowed to be involved in the extrication of a body. Temperatures improved after a company donated an air conditioning unit, which was installed at ground level, and the air piped down into the tunnel.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: During 1 and 2 March the wreckage of the second carriage was cut away in sections and winched free; clearance of the carriages continued round the clock until a break was forced by a telephoned bomb scare at 10:00 pm on 2 March, which forced the crews to evacuate the station. The last passenger was removed from the front carriage at 3:20 pm on 4 March, which left only the driver's body. Gordon Hafter, London Underground's chief engineer, and Lieutenant Colonel Ian McNaughton, the Chief Inspecting Officer of Railways, examined the driver's cab; normally deep, it had been crushed to . They ascertained that Newson was at his controls, although his head had been forced through the front window. Hafter reported his examination about Newson to the subsequent inquiry:


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: His left hand was close to, but not actually on the driver's brake handle and his right arm was hanging down to the right of the main controller. His head was to the left of the dead man's handle which had been forced upwards, beyond its normal travel, and was resting on his right shoulder.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: Newson's body was removed at 8:05 pm on 4 March; the Fire Brigade cleared the remainder of the wreckage by 5:00 am on 5 March and handed control of the platform back to London Underground. The rescue and clean-up operation involved the efforts of 1,324 firemen, 240 policemen, 80 ambulance men, 16 doctors and several nurses.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: Services on the line had been suspended on the day of the crash. A shuttle service between Drayton Park and Old Street was used from 1 March 1975 until normal traffic returned on 10 March.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The post-mortem was undertaken on Newson by the Home Office pathologist Keith Simpson on 4 March 1975. He found no physical conditions, such as a stroke or heart attack, that would have explained the crash. Initial findings showed no drugs or alcohol in Newson's bloodstream, and there was no evidence of liver damage from heavy drinking.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: On 7 March 1975 Anthony Crosland, the Secretary of State for the Environment, instructed McNaughton to undertake an investigation of the crash. McNaughton's inquiry began on 13 March and was paused after a day and a half; during that time it was established that the mechanics of the train were in working order and that there were no known problems with Newson's health, although the results of pathological tests were still awaited. McNaughton said he was perplexed as to the causes of the crash, but that he would proceed with the next part of his inquiry, which was to undertake further enquiries and to consider measures so the accident could not be repeated.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: The coroner's inquest was held between 14 and 18 April 1975. David Paul, the coroner, was unhappy that a government inquiry had already begun, as evidence was in the public domain, and could affect the inquest's jury. Sixty-one witnesses gave evidence. An analysis of Newson's kidneys by the toxicologist Dr Anne Robinson showed his blood alcohol level at the time of the post-mortem was 80 mg/100 ml. Robinson stated that there were several biological processes that produced alcohol in the body after death, and it was not possible to reach a definite conclusion as to whether this was the result of consumption of alcohol or a product of the process of decomposition. She added "there are so many unknown factors here that it is difficult to be precise and definite. One has to make a number of assumptions", although she stated that it was likely that he had been drinking. 80 mg/100 ml was—and, as at 2022, still is—the legal limit in England for driving. It was the highest reading of four samples taken from Newson's body; the lowest was 20 mg/100 ml. Newson's widow stated that her husband drank spirits only rarely; David Paul agreed that it was out of character with all he had heard, and agreed that further tests could be run on Newson's samples. On the final day of the inquiry, Dr Roy Goulding, a specialist in the forensic examination of poisons, stated that while he reached the same results of 80 mg/100 ml, his conclusions differed from Robinson's; Goulding stated that as alcohol was naturally produced in the blood after death, it was not possible to confirm that Newson had been drinking prior to the crash. Several of Newson's colleagues reported that they had no suspicions that Newson had been drinking, and that his behaviour on the morning of the crash was normal. David Paul asked Simpson to comment on the findings relating to alcohol levels. He informed the coroner that "it is generally accepted that as much as 80 mg/100ml may make its appearance in a decomposing body after four days in a [relatively] high temperature". The jury returned verdicts of accidental death.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: On 19 March a memorial service was held at St Paul's Cathedral, London, attended by 2,000 mourners, including representatives of the emergency services and Newson's widow and family.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: McNaughton published his report almost a year later, on 4 March 1976. He wrote that tests showed no equipment fault on the train, and that the dead man's handle had no defect. From X-rays it was clear that at the moment of the crash Newson's hand was on the dead man's handle. There were no electrical burns on his skin or clothing to indicate an electrical fault. McNaughton observed that because of Harris's lack of experience, he could not have taken any action to stop the accident from happening, although he thought the young man "displayed himself as idle and undisciplined". He concluded that "the accident was solely due to a lapse on the part of the driver, Motorman Newson".


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: Given the inquest findings relating to alcohol in Newson's bloodstream, McNaughton examined the possibility that Newson was drunk. He received expert advice that even if Newson had drunk sufficient alcohol to achieve a blood alcohol level of 80 mg/100 ml, it would not account for the crash. McNaughton also examined the possibility of suicide by Newson, but considered it unlikely, given other indications, including Newson's plans for purchasing a car later in the day and that he had driven the route without error for the preceding 2 hours. During the inquest Harris testified that Newson had also overshot a platform three or four days before the accident, and a passenger had also reported a second overshoot by Newson that week. The suicide expert Bruce Danto stated of the overshoots, "that does not sound like misjudgment to me. That sounds like a man who is getting the feeling of how to run a train into a wall".


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: McNaughton investigated the possibility that Newson may have been daydreaming or distracted to the point that he did not realise the train was entering Moorgate. McNaughton concluded that as the train went over the scissor crossing before the platform, it would have brought the driver to his senses. It was also likely that Newson would have realised his circumstances before the train hit the wall, and would have thrown his hands up in front of his face in a reflex action. Medical evidence presented to the inquiry raised the possibility that the driver had been affected by conditions such as transient global amnesia or akinesis with mutism, where the brain continues to function and the individual remains aware, although not being able to move physically. There was no evidence to indicate either condition: to positively diagnose akinesis with mutism would depend on a microscopic examination of the brain, which was not possible because of decomposition, and transient global amnesia leaves no traces. McNaughton's report found that there was insufficient evidence to say if the accident was due to a deliberate act or a medical condition.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: I must conclude, therefore, that the cause of this accident lay entirely in the behaviour of Motorman Newson during the final minute before the accident occurred. Whether his behaviour was deliberate or whether it was the result of a suddenly arising physical condition not revealed as a result of post-mortem examination, there is not sufficient evidence to examine, but I am satisfied that no part of the responsibility for the accident rests with any other person and that there was no fault or condition of the train, track or signalling that in any way contributed to it.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: London Underground services into Moorgate on the Northern City Line had previously been scheduled to be replaced by British Rail services from Welwyn Garden City and Hertford; the accident did not change the plan. The last London Underground services on the Northern City Line ran into Moorgate on 4 October 1975 and British Rail services started in August 1976, having previously terminated at Broad Street station.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: When platform 9 reopened there had been changes introduced to aid drivers. The back wall of the tunnel was painted white and a large, heavy-duty buffer preceded the sand drag. Shortly after the crash, London Underground imposed a speed limit of for all trains entering terminal platforms. Operating instructions were changed so that the protecting signal at terminal platforms was held at danger until trains approaching were travelling slowly, or had been brought to a stop, although this caused delays and operating problems.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: Since the death of a driver in 1971, when an empty stock train crashed into buffers in a tunnel siding near Tooting Broadway, London Underground had been introducing speed controls at such locations. By the time of the Moorgate crash, 12 of the 19 locations had the equipment installed. In July 1978, approval was given for Moorgate protection, Moorgate control or Trains Entering Terminal Stations (TETS) to be introduced at all dead-end termini on manually driven lines on the Underground system.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: At Moorgate's platform 9, three timed train stops were installed; the first at the scissors crossing, the second at the start of the platform and the third halfway down the platform. If the train passes any of these at more than the emergency brake is applied. Resistors were placed in the traction supply of trains, to prevent a train accelerating when entering the platform, although the value of these resistors had to be changed after installation. Relays switch the resistors out when the train is permitted to leave. The system was operational in all locations by 1984.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: This accident also led to changes in signalling. Previously it had always been standard policy for the last signal indication before a buffer-stop or bay platform to indicate "clear" (green) light to the train driver and "caution" (single-yellow) light if the platform was partly occupied. Following the Moorgate accident, signalling was changed to give an approach-controlled delayed yellow aspect when the line was clear to the buffer-stops and red plus a subsidiary aspect (two white lights at 45 degrees) when the line or platform was partly occupied.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: In the south-west corner of Finsbury Square, north of Moorgate station, a memorial lists those who died. Measuring , it was unveiled in July 2013 after a long campaign by relatives of the victims and supporters. On 28 February 2014 a memorial plaque was unveiled by Fiona Woolf, the Lord Mayor of London, on the side of the station building, in Moor Place.


title: Moorgate tube crash

text: In 1977 the BBC One programme "Red Alert" examined whether an accident like Moorgate could happen again. The writer Laurence Marks, whose father died in the disaster, presented "Me, My Dad and Moorgate", a Channel 4 documentary broadcast on 4 June 2006; he stated that he believed the crash was due to suicide by Newson. In 2009 the BBC Radio 4 programme "In Living Memory" examined the causes of the crash, and in 2015 "Real Lives Reunited", aired on BBC One, recorded survivors meeting the firemen who cut them from the wreckage.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: The Justice Party (JP; ) is a centre-left political party in South Korea. Many sources refer to the party as liberal and/or progressive, with some stating the party to be social democratic. It was founded on 21 October 2012 when it split from moderates of the Unified Progressive Party. The Justice Party now takes a more moderate stance than the United Progressive Party or the Democratic Labor Party in the past.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: The Progressive Justice Party changed its name to the Justice Party at the 2nd party congress on 16 July 2013. At the 4th party congress on 22 November 2015, the party officially merged with the extra-parliamentary groups: Preparatory Committee for the People's Party (2015), Labor Politics Coalition (노동정치연대), Members of Labor Party, after motions to merge the party with the Justice Party failed.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: After the merger, Na Gyung-che, Ex-leader of the Labor Party, and Kim Se-kyun, leader of Preparatory Committee for the People's Party, were elevated to co-leadership roles, while Sim Sang-jung remained as a standing party leader. Kim Se-kyun stepped down from the co-leadership role in September 2016.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: In the legislative election held in April 2016, the party increased its seat total by one with the election of Roh Hoe-chan to the Seongsan constituency in the city of Changwon. The party polled 7.2% in the party list ballot, returning a total of six legislators to the National Assembly.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: In the 2017 election, Sim Sang-jung ran as the party's nominee after winning the party primary. Sim was endorsed by Korean Confederation of Trade Unions (KCTU) and ran a campaign focused on labor and social issues. Sim received media attention for being the only candidate arguing in favor of marriage equality during the debate. Sim won 6.2% of the vote, making her the most successful left-wing presidential candidate since the democratization of the country in 1987.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: In July 2017, with Sim's two-year leadership term coming to an end, the party elected sitting National Assembly member Lee Jeong-mi as the new leader over Park Won-suk by 56 to 44.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: On 31 March 2018, the party confirmed its decision to form a parliamentary group with Party for Democracy and Peace, under the name of Members group of Peace and Justice. The parliamentary group will be officially registered on 2 April. The incumbent floor leader of the party, Roh Hoe-chan was chosen to head the parliamentary group in the National Assembly. Roh Hoe-chan's abrupt passing on 23 July 2018 resulted in the automatic dissolution of the parliamentary group. Roh's death was widely mourned, attracting thousands of mourners and tributes across the South Korean political spectrum. The party retained Roh's Changwon seat, beating Liberty Korea challenger in the by-election held on 13 April 2019.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: In July 2019, the party elected Sim Sang-jung as the new leader. It is her second non-consecutive term as the party's leader.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: The Justice Party's political position is mainly referred to as centre-left. However In Korea's conservative political structure, it is also called left-wing. Though experts in South Korea have also evaluated the Justice Party as closer to the centre than centre-left like social democratic parties in Europe.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: The Justice Party officially advocates social democracy (사회민주주의) and liberalism (자유주의). The party symbol is derived from the first letter L of "Labor" (노동) and "Liberty" (자유). JP rejects social conservatism and takes a socially progressive stance on feminism and LGBT rights issues. JP has a prominent cultural liberal tendency, and is also considered a "social-liberal" party compared to DPK, which is relatively "conservative-liberal" than JP. Major JP politicians, including Jang Hye-young, criticize the Democratic Party of Korea, but have a fairly favorable view of the U.S. Democratic Party style of modern liberalism and Joe Biden.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: JP values fiscal responsibility and advocates tax increases for the creation of a welfare state. JP also opposes basic income. However, they are active in the area of labor rights, where left-wing populists in the DPK are not interested in them.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: The Justice Party, like historical social-democratic to progressive parties or the liberal Uri Party in the past, advocates the abolition of the National Security Law.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: The party calls for structural change of the Korean economy through change to the current chaebol-dominated economic system, democratic control of capitalistic excess through the implementation of economic democracy, and public ownership of basic utilities. The party is pursuing an alternative form of economic system in which basic standards of living are provided for everyone, equally. Where public ownership or the market economy are inefficient, the party advocates a social economy, including cooperatives, and further increasing the power levels of the social economy to that traditionally held by the market. The party also calls for the protection and increase of labor rights, and they promote unionization in the workplace, in order to equalize the power balance between capitalists and workers. The party advocates for the creation of a welfare state, drastically increasing funding in the public sector, providing universal welfare services such as childcare, education, employment, housing, healthcare, and post-retirement life. The party will fund these programs through increased taxation based on redistributive fiscal policy.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: The party calls for an end to unrestricted development, pursuing sustainable development and climate justice. It is also in favor of animal welfare. It argues in favor of developing renewable energy, with an aim of doing away with oil and coal altogether. The party is against nuclear energy as an alternative, and advocates closing down old nuclear power plants and ceasing further construction of the plants.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: The party calls for the eradication of all forms of discrimination, advocating increased participation of the minorities in the political sphere. It further advocates pursuing gender equality in the workplace and preserving women's right to choose to have an abortion. The party stands strongly against any form of oppression based on one's sexuality or gender identity. It calls for legislation cracking down on hate crimes to protect the human rights of minorities. It also acknowledges diverse family structures without any discrimination.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: In the midst of the conflict between the United States and China for regional hegemony and Japanese attempts at rearmament, the party believes peace in the Korean peninsula is a paramount issue. The party rejects any form of hegemony from both sides and refuses to take a side on the issue.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: However, JP is much more critical of China than the United States. Representatively, there is an online dialogue with Ryu Ho-jeong and Joshua Wong in 2019, and in the same year, JP officially supported the Hong Kong democracy movement in 2019 at the party level. At the time, the main opposition LKP and the ruling DPK did not reveal the party's position in Hong Kong's pro-democracy movement, fearing excessive friction with China.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: On the other hand, unlike JP's strong criticism of China, the level of criticism of the United States is weak and rather friendly. The reason why JP officially supports neutrality in the U.S.-China conflict is more related to anti-Japanese sentiment within the South Korean liberal camp than to sentiment toward the United States. JP opposes the "U.S.-led United States, Japan, and South Korea Triangle Alliance" (한미일 삼각 동맹). JP is also absolutely opposed to the entry of Japan's Self-Defense Forces into the Korean peninsula when a war breaks out on the Korean Peninsula.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: Jang Hye-young, the party's main politician, is actively expressing her pro-American diplomatic and cultural views. She also participated in a project funded by the National Democratic Institute in the United States.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: JP criticizes the ultra-nationalist project led by the Japanese conservative government, but, unlike DPK, opposes excessive use of anti-Japanese sentiment in economics and diplomacy, leaving much more room for improving relations with Japan than DPK.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: The Justice Party insists that diplomacy with North Korea should be approached with the values of universal human rights rather than an unconditional appeasement approach.


title: Justice Party (South Korea)

text: On 28 September 2020, Justice Party leader Sim Sang-jung expressed a critical view of the Democratic Party's conciliatory policy toward North Korea based on Korean nationalism, saying, "Some of the ruling party prioritize inter-Korean relations over the lives of our people, and this must be corrected." This critical view of North Korea, in particular, has deepened since 2020 due to conflicts with the ruling Democratic Party.


title: Gossamer (Looney Tunes)

text: Gossamer is an animated character in the Warner Bros. "Looney Tunes" and "Merrie Melodies" series of cartoons. He is a large, hairy, orange or red monster. His body is perched on two giant tennis shoes, and his heart-shaped face is composed of only two oval eyes and a wide mouth, with two hulking arms ending in dirty, clawed fingers. The monster's main trait is his uncombed, orange hair. He originally was voiced by Mel Blanc and has been voiced by Frank Welker, Maurice LaMarche, Joe Alaskey, Jim Cummings, Kwesi Boakye, Eric Bauza and currently Fred Tatasciore.


title: Gossamer (Looney Tunes)

text: The word "gossamer" means any sort of thin, fragile, transparent material. In particular, it can refer to a kind of delicate, sheer gauze or a light cobweb. The name is meant to be ironic because the character is large, menacing, and destructive.


title: Gossamer (Looney Tunes)

text: Animator Chuck Jones introduced the unnamed monster in the 1946 cartoon "Hair-Raising Hare". In it, Bugs Bunny is lured to the lair of a mad scientist (a caricature of actor Peter Lorre). The monster serves as the scientist's henchman.


title: Gossamer (Looney Tunes)

text: Part of this plot was repeated in the 1952 Jones cartoon "Water, Water Every Hare" in which the monster's character is referred to as "Rudolph" or simply "Monster". In need of a live brain for his giant robot, the mad scientist (this time a caricature of Boris Karloff) releases Rudolph from his chamber on a mission to capture Bugs Bunny; the monster shows a sudden burst of joyousness and quickly sets out when the mad scientist promises the reward of "spider goulash" for capturing the rabbit.


title: Gossamer (Looney Tunes)

text: The monster next appears in "Duck Dodgers and the Return of the 24½th Century" in 1980. This is the first cartoon where the character is called "Gossamer", and is so named by Marvin the Martian. Jones gave the monster this name "because he's the opposite looking of gossamer. He's a big, hairy thing."


title: Plain bearing

text: A plain bearing, or more commonly sliding contact bearing and slide bearing (in railroading sometimes called a solid bearing, journal bearing, or friction bearing), is the simplest type of bearing, comprising just a bearing surface and no rolling elements. Therefore, the journal (i.e., the part of the shaft in contact with the bearing) slides over the bearing surface. The simplest example of a plain bearing is a shaft rotating in a hole. A simple linear bearing can be a pair of flat surfaces designed to allow motion; e.g., a drawer and the slides it rests on or the ways on the bed of a lathe.


title: Plain bearing

text: Plain bearings, in general, are the least expensive type of bearing. They are also compact and lightweight, and they have a high load-carrying capacity.


title: Plain bearing

text: The design of a plain bearing depends on the type of motion the bearing must provide. The three types of motions possible are:


title: Plain bearing

text: "Integral" plain bearings are built into the object of use as a hole prepared in the bearing surface. Industrial integral bearings are usually made from cast iron or babbitt and a hardened steel shaft is used in the bearing.


title: Plain bearing

text: Integral bearings are not as common because bushings are easier to accommodate and can be replaced if necessary. Depending on the material, an integral bearing may be less expensive but it cannot be replaced. If an integral bearing wears out, the item may be replaced or reworked to accept a bushing. Integral bearings were very common in 19th-century machinery, but became progressively less common as interchangeable manufacture became popular.


title: Plain bearing

text: For example, a common integral plain bearing is the hinge, which is both a thrust bearing and a journal bearing.


title: Plain bearing

text: A "bushing", also known as a "bush", is an independent plain bearing that is inserted into a housing to provide a bearing surface for rotary applications; this is the most common form of a plain bearing. Common designs include "solid" ("sleeve" and "flanged"), "split", and "clenched" bushings. A sleeve, split, or clenched bushing is only a "sleeve" of material with an inner diameter (ID), outer diameter (OD), and length. The difference between the three types is that a solid sleeved bushing is solid all the way around, a split bushing has a cut along its length, and a clenched bearing is similar to a split bushing but with a clench (or clinch) across the cut connecting the parts. A flanged bushing is a sleeve bushing with a flange at one end extending radially outward from the OD. The flange is used to positively locate the bushing when it is installed or to provide a thrust bearing surface.


title: Plain bearing

text: Sleeve bearings of inch dimensions are almost exclusively dimensioned using the SAE numbering system. The numbering system uses the format -XXYY-ZZ, where XX is the ID in sixteenths of an inch, YY is the OD in sixteenths of an inch, and ZZ is the length in eighths of an inch. Metric sizes also exist.


title: Plain bearing

text: A linear bushing is not usually pressed into a housing, but rather secured with a radial feature. Two such examples include two retaining rings, or a ring that is molded onto the OD of the bushing that matches with a groove in the housing. This is usually a more durable way to retain the bushing, because the forces acting on the bushing could press it out.


title: Plain bearing

text: "Two-piece" plain bearings, known as "full bearings" in industrial machinery, are commonly used for larger diameters, such as crankshaft bearings. The two halves are called "shells". There are various systems used to keep the shells located. The most common method is a tab on the parting line edge that correlates with a notch in the housing to prevent axial movement after installation. For large, thick shells a button stop or dowel pin is used. The button stop is screwed to the housing, while the dowel pin keys the two shells together. Another less common method uses a dowel pin that keys the shell to the housing through a hole or slot in the shell.


title: Plain bearing

text: The distance from one parting edge to the other is slightly larger than the corresponding distance in the housing so that a light amount of pressure is required to install the bearing. This keeps the bearing in place as the two halves of the housing are installed. Finally, the shell's circumference is also slightly larger than the housing circumference so that when the two halves are bolted together the bearing "crushes" slightly. This creates a large amount of radial force around the entire bearing, which keeps it from "spinning". It also forms a good interface for heat to travel out of the bearings into the housing.


title: Plain bearing

text: Plain bearings must be made from a material that is durable, low friction, low wear to the bearing and shaft, resistant to elevated temperatures, and corrosion resistant. Often the bearing is made up of at least two constituents, where one is soft and the other is hard. In general, the harder the surfaces in contact the lower the coefficient of friction and the greater the pressure required for the two to gall or to seize when lubrication fails.


title: Plain bearing

text: Babbitt is usually used in integral bearings. It is coated over the bore, usually to a thickness of , depending on the diameter. Babbitt bearings are designed to not damage the journal during direct contact and to collect any contaminants in the lubrication.


title: Plain bearing

text: Bi-material bearings consist of two materials, a metal shell and a plastic bearing surface. Common combinations include a steel-backed PTFE-coated bronze and aluminum-backed Frelon. Steel-backed PTFE-coated bronze bearings are rated for more load than most other bi-metal bearings and are used for rotary and oscillating motions. Aluminum-backed Frelon are commonly used in corrosive environments because the Frelon is chemically inert.


title: Plain bearing

text: A common plain bearing design utilizes a hardened and polished steel shaft and a softer bronze bushing. The bushing is replaced whenever it has worn too much.


title: Plain bearing

text: A cast iron bearing can be used with a hardened steel shaft because the coefficient of friction is relatively low. The cast iron glazes over therefore wear becomes negligible.


title: Plain bearing

text: In harsh environments, such as ovens and dryers, a copper and graphite alloy, commonly known by the trademarked name graphalloy, is used. The graphite is a dry lubricant, therefore it is low friction and low maintenance. The copper adds strength, durability, and provides heat dissipation characteristics.


title: Plain bearing

text: Unalloyed graphite bearings are used in special applications, such as locations that are submerged in water.


title: Plain bearing

text: Solid plastic plain bearings are now increasingly popular due to dry-running lubrication-free behavior. Solid polymer plain bearings are low weight, corrosion resistant, and maintenance free. After studies spanning decades, an accurate calculation of the service life of polymer plain bearings is possible today. Designing with solid polymer plain bearings is complicated by the wide range, and non-linearity, of coefficient of thermal expansion. These materials can heat rapidly when used in applications outside the recommended pV limits.


title: Plain bearing

text: Solid polymer type bearings are limited by the injection molding process. Not all shapes are possible with this process, and shapes that are possible are limited to what is considered good design practice for injection molding. Plastic bearings are subject to the same design cautions as all other plastic parts: creep, high thermal expansion, softening (increased wear/reduced life) at elevated temperature, brittle fractures at cold temperatures, and swelling due to moisture absorption. While most bearing-grade plastics/polymers are designed to reduce these design cautions, they still exist and should be carefully considered before specifying a solid polymer (plastic) type.


title: Plain bearing

text: Plastic bearings are now quite common, including usage in photocopy machines, tills, farm equipment, textile machinery, medical devices, food and packaging machines, car seating, and marine equipment.


title: Plain bearing

text: Common plastics include nylon, polyacetal, polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE), ultra-high-molecular-weight polyethylene (UHMWPE), rulon, PEEK, urethane, and vespel (a high-performance polyimide).


title: Plain bearing

text: Examples of the second type of bearing are Oilites and plastic bearings made from polyacetal; examples of the third type are metalized graphite bearings and PTFE bearings.


title: Plain bearing

text: Most plain bearings have a plain inner surface; however, some are grooved, such as spiral groove bearing. The grooves help lubrication enter the bearing and cover the whole journal.


title: Plain bearing

text: Self-lubricating plain bearings have a lubricant contained within the bearing walls. There are many forms of self-lubricating bearings. The first, and most common, are sintered metal bearings, which have porous walls. The porous walls draw oil in via capillary action and release the oil when pressure or heat is applied. An example of a sintered metal bearing in action can be seen in self-lubricating chains, which require no additional lubrication during operation. Another form is a solid one-piece metal bushing with a figure eight groove channel on the inner diameter that is filled with graphite. A similar bearing replaces the figure eight groove with holes plugged with graphite. This lubricates the bearing inside and out. The last form is a plastic bearing, which has the lubricant molded into the bearing. The lubricant is released as the bearing is run in.


title: Plain bearing

text: There are three main types of lubrication: "full-film condition", "boundary condition", and "dry condition". Full-film conditions are when the bearing's load is carried solely by a film of fluid lubricant and there is no contact between the two bearing surfaces. In mix or boundary conditions, load is carried partly by direct surface contact and partly by a film forming between the two. In a dry condition, the full load is carried by surface-to-surface contact.


title: Plain bearing

text: Bearings that are made from bearing grade materials always run in the dry condition. The other two classes of plain bearings can run in all three conditions; the condition in which a bearing runs is dependent on the operating conditions, load, relative surface speed, clearance within the bearing, quality and quantity of lubricant, and temperature (affecting lubricant viscosity). If the plain bearing is not designed to run in the dry or boundary condition, it has a high coefficient of friction and wears out. Dry and boundary conditions may be experienced even in a fluid bearing when operating outside of its normal operating conditions; e.g., at startup and shutdown.


title: Plain bearing

text: Fluid lubrication results in a full-film or a boundary condition lubrication mode. A properly designed bearing system reduces friction by eliminating surface-to-surface contact between the journal and bearing through fluid dynamic effects.


title: Plain bearing

text: Fluid bearings can be "hydrostatically" or "hydrodynamically" lubricated. Hydrostatically lubricated bearings are lubricated by an external pump that maintains a "static" amount of pressure. In a hydrodynamic bearing the pressure in the oil film is maintained by the rotation of the journal. Hydrostatic bearings enter a "hydrodynamic state" when the journal is rotating. Hydrostatic bearings usually use oil, while hydrodynamic bearings can use oil or grease, however bearings can be designed to use whatever fluid is available, and several pump designs use the pumped fluid as a lubricant.


title: Plain bearing

text: Hydrodynamic bearings require greater care in design and operation than hydrostatic bearings. They are also more prone to initial wear because lubrication does not occur until there is rotation of the shaft. At low rotational speeds the lubrication may not attain complete separation between shaft and bushing. As a result, hydrodynamic bearings may be aided by secondary bearings that support the shaft during start and stop periods, protecting the fine tolerance machined surfaces of the journal bearing. On the other hand, hydrodynamic bearings are simpler to install and are less expensive.


title: Plain bearing

text: In the hydrodynamic state a lubrication "wedge" forms, which lifts the journal. The journal also slightly shifts horizontally in the direction of rotation. The location of the journal is measured by the "attitude angle", which is the angle formed between the vertical and a line that crosses through the center of the journal and the center of the bearing, and the eccentricity ratio, which is the ratio of the distance of the centre of the journal from the centre of the bearing, to the overall radial clearance. The attitude angle and eccentricity ratio are dependent on the direction and speed of rotation and the load. In hydrostatic bearings the oil pressure also affects the eccentricity ratio. In electromagnetic equipment like motors, electromagnetic forces can counteract gravity loads, causing the journal to take up unusual positions.


title: Plain bearing

text: One disadvantage specific to fluid-lubricated, hydrodynamic journal bearings in high-speed machinery is "oil whirl"—a self-excited vibration of the journal. Oil whirl occurs when the lubrication wedge becomes unstable: small disturbances of the journal result in reaction forces from the oil film, which cause further movement, causing both the oil film and the journal to "whirl" around the bearing shell. Typically the whirl frequency is around 42% of the journal turning speed. In extreme cases oil whirl leads to direct contact between the journal and the bearing, which quickly wears out the bearing. In some cases the frequency of the whirl coincides with and "locks on to" the critical speed of the machine shaft; this condition is known as "oil whip". Oil whip can be very destructive.


title: Plain bearing

text: Oil whirl can be prevented by a stabilising force applied to the journal. A number of bearing designs seek to use bearing geometry to either provide an obstacle to the whirling fluid or to provide a stabilising load to minimize whirl. One such is called the "lemon bore" or "elliptical bore". In this design, shims are installed between the two halves of the bearing housing and then the bore is machined to size. After the shims are removed, the bore resembles a lemon shape, which decreases the clearance in one direction of the bore and increases the pre-load in that direction. The disadvantage of this design is its lower load carrying capacity, as compared to typical journal bearings. It is also still susceptible to oil whirl at high speeds, however its cost is relatively low.


title: Plain bearing

text: Another design is the "pressure dam" or "dammed groove", which has a shallow relief cut in the center of the bearing over the top half of the bearing. The groove abruptly stops in order to create a downward force to stabilize the journal. This design has a high load capacity and corrects most oil whirl situations. The disadvantage is that it only works in one direction. Offsetting the bearing halves does the same thing as the pressure dam. The only difference is the load capacity increases as the offset increases.


title: Plain bearing

text: A more radical design is the tilting-pad design, which uses multiple pads that are designed to move with changing loads. It is usually used in very large applications but also finds extensive application in modern turbomachinery because it almost completely eliminates oil whirl.


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan (2 April 1902 – 23 April 1968) was an Indian Hindustani classical vocalist, from the Patiala gharana.


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: Ustad Bade Ghulam Ali Khan was born Kasur, of the erstwhile Punjab Province, British India in 1902. Following partition of India in 1947, Kasur Tehsil was allocated to Pakistan.


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: At the age of five, Bade Ghulam began training in vocal music from his chacha Kale Khan, and later from his father. He had three younger brothers namely Barkat Ali Khan, Mubarak Ali Khan and Amanat Ali Khan.


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: Though he started his career by singing a few compositions of his late father Ali Baksh Khan and uncle Kale Khan, Bade Ghulam amalgamated the best of three traditions into his own Patiala-Kasur style:


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: Many of his raga expositions were brief, contrary to convention, and, while he agreed that the beauty of classical music lay in leisurely improvisation, he believed that the audience would not appreciate long alaps, particularly considering his tendency towards singing for the masses. He, therefore, changed the music to what the audience wanted. He excelled at more light-hearted ragas such as:


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: Under the pen name of Sabrang, he created many new compositions. Unlike his younger son, Munawar Ali Khan, who had an open-throated voice, Khan Sahib's voice was slurred.


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: After the Partition of India in 1947, Bade Ghulam Ali Khan went to his hometown Kasur in Pakistan, but returned to India later to migrate to India permanently in 1957. With the help of the Bombay Chief Minister, Morarji Desai, he acquired Indian citizenship and moved to a bungalow at Malabar Hill in Mumbai. He lived at various times in Lahore, Bombay, Calcutta, and finally Hyderabad.


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: For a long time, he stayed away from singing in films, despite requests and persuasion from well-known producers and music directors. Finally, after much coaxing, he was convinced by the film producer, K Asif, to sing two songs based on the ragas Sohni and Rageshri for the 1960 film Mughal-e-Azam, with music directed by Naushad. He demanded and received an extremely high price, reportedly ₹ 25,000 per song, at a time when the rates of popular and star playback singers such as Lata Mangeshkar and Mohammed Rafi were below ₹ 500 per song.


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: He died in Basheer Bagh Palace in Hyderabad on 23 April 1968 after a prolonged illness that had left him partially paralyzed in the last few years of his life. He continued to sing and perform in public with the support of his son, Munawar Ali Khan, until his death.


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: Indian film director Harisadhan Dasgupta made a documentary film about Khan in 1968, titled "Bade Ghulam Ali Khan Sahib".


title: Bade Ghulam Ali Khan

text: In 2017, the "Bade Ghulam Ali Khan Yaadgaar Sabha" was founded by his disciple Malti Gilani. It helps to keep his music and memory alive even today.


title: Djarum Black

text: Djarum Black (stylised as DJARUM BL∆CK) is an Indonesian brand of clove cigarettes and cigars, currently owned and manufactured by Djarum.


title: Djarum Black

text: It is sold in a stretched pack, two cigarettes wide and ten cigarettes long. The cigarette itself is black, flavored paper. The cigarette features a clove flavor both in scent and taste, and the paper has a sweet taste. It is made with natural Indonesian tobacco, and is widely distributed throughout the world.


title: Djarum Black

text: A federal law passed in the United States in 2009 has made it illegal for tobacco shops and stores to carry cigarettes that contain flavors other than menthol. The law affects the Djarum Black cigarette brand and has made it unavailable for purchase within the United States.


title: Djarum Black

text: Now to purchase any type of kretek it must be classified as a cigar. The current Djarum Black cloves are now rolled in tobacco paper. As of 2010, in the United States Djarum Blacks are available again in smaller 12-pack cigars, which are much thicker than the cigarettes that come in 20 packs.


title: Djarum Black

text: Djarum Black cigarettes were or still are sold in the following countries: Brazil, United Kingdom, Austria, Poland, India and Indonesia, Romania.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: HM Prison Manchester is a Category A and B men's prison in Manchester, England, operated by His Majesty's Prison Service. It is still commonly referred to as Strangeways, which was its former official name derived from the area in which it is located, until it was rebuilt following a major riot in 1990.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: It is a local prison, holding prisoners remanded into custody from courts in the Manchester area and Category A prisoners (those held under maximum security conditions).


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: The prison featured an execution chamber prior to the abolition of capital punishment in the United Kingdom in the 1960s; the last execution at the prison took place in 1964.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: Strangeways was designed by Alfred Waterhouse and opened in 1868 alongside the demolished Manchester Assize Courts. The prison is known for its prominent ventilation tower and imposing design, structured by the principles of the separate system.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: Construction of the Grade II listed prison was completed in 1869, and it was opened on 25 June 1869, to replace the New Bailey Prison in Salford, which closed in 1868. The prison, designed by Alfred Waterhouse in 1862 with input from Joshua Jebb, cost £170,000 () and had a capacity of 1,000 inmates. Its ventilation tower (often mistaken for a watchtower) has become a local landmark. The prison's walls, which are rumoured to be 16 feet thick, are said to be impenetrable from either inside or out.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: The prison has an element of the separate system with its plan in the form of a star or a snowflake, with two blocks housing ten wings that emanate from a central core where the ventilation tower is situated. The prison consists of two radial blocks branching from the central core with a total of ten wings (A, B, C, D, E, F in one block, and G, H, I, K in the second).


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: The jail was built on the grounds of Strangeways Park and Gardens, from which it was named. Strangeways was recorded in 1322 as "Strangwas" from the Anglo-Saxon "Strang" and "gewæsc" meaning "[a place by] a stream with a strong current".


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: The prison was open to male and female prisoners until 1963 when the facility became male-only, and in 1980 it began to accept remand prisoners. As of 2005 the prison held more than 1,200 inmates.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: Originally, the prison contained an execution shed in B wing and after World War I a special execution room and cell for the condemned criminal was built. Strangeways was one of the few prisons to have permanent gallows. The first execution at Strangeways was that of twenty-year-old murderer Michael Johnson, who was hanged by William Calcraft on 29 March 1869.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: Twenty-nine hangings took place over the next twenty years and 71 took place in the 20th century, bringing the total number to 100. During the second half of the century, the number of executions decreased, with no hangings between 1954 and 28 November 1962, when James Smith was executed. John Robson Walby (alias Gwynne Owen Evans), one of the last two people to be hanged in England, was executed here on 13 August 1964. Out of the 100 hangings, four were double hangings, while the rest were done individually. The "quickest hanging" of James Inglis, in seven seconds, carried out by Albert Pierrepoint, took place here.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: The bodies of executed criminals were buried in unmarked graves within the prison walls, as was the custom. During prison rebuilding work in 1991, the remains of 63 executed prisoners (of which 45 were identifiable) were exhumed from unmarked graves in the prison cemetery and cremated at Blackley Crematorium in Manchester. The cremated remains were re-interred in two graves (plot C2710 and C2711) at the adjacent cemetery.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: Between 1 April and 25 April 1990, 147 staff and 47 prisoners were injured in a series of riots by prison inmates. There was one fatality among the prisoners, and one prison officer died from heart failure. Much of the old prison was damaged or destroyed in the rioting. Several inmates were charged with various offences, and Paul Taylor and Alan Lord faced a five-month trial as ringleaders.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: The riots resulted in the Woolf Inquiry, and the prison was rebuilt and renamed Her Majesty's Prison, Manchester. Repair and modernisation cost more than £80 million after the riot, and rebuilding was completed in 1994.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: The prison is a high-security category A prison for adult males and has a maximum capacity of 1,269 as of 4 August 2008. Operation of the prison was put out to tender in 1994 and 2001. Accommodation is divided into nine wings in two radial blocks. Cells are a mixture of single and double occupancy, all having in-cell power points and integral sanitation.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: The prison has become known for a high suicide rate following its reopening in 1994. From 1993 to 2003, Strangeways prison had the second highest number of suicides among inmates of any prison in the United Kingdom and, in 2004, Strangeways had the highest number of suicides in the country.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: Education and vocational training is provided by the Manchester College. Courses offered include information technology, ESOL, numeracy, industrial cleaning, bricklaying, painting and decorating, plastering, textiles and laundry. The prison's gym runs courses in physical education and offers recreational sport and fitness programmes.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: In 2015, "The Daily Telegraph" reported that a drone aircraft was being used in an attempt to deliver drugs and smartphones to precise locations within the prison.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: In 2016, Nicky Reilly, also known as Mohammed Saeed Alim, a Muslim convert was found dead in his cell after hanging himself. Reilly had a chronic history of self harm, he suffered from Asperger's Syndrome and a personality disorder. A jury decided it was "more likely than not" that he did not intend to die and "acted impulsively." It is unclear if Reilly understood the concept of death or could form the intent to die. Senior coroner, Joanne Kearsley said evidence given at the court raised "significant concerns." Kearsley said she was not convinced the prison had a clear plan and awareness of his needs and she questioned why he was not under a care programme approach (CPA) where care coordinators are given to individual prisoners. The coroner asked whether a type of review should be considered for prisoners with recognised lifelong mental health problems and chronic risk of self-harm.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: In 2017, a report by the Independent Monitoring Board described Manchester Prison as squalid, vermin infested and reminiscent of Dickensian England. The report added that the prison urgently needed modernisation and assaults on staff have risen owing to staff shortages.


title: HM Prison Manchester

text: In 2022, Manchester City Council leader Bev Craig called on the Ministry of Justice (MoJ) to move HMP Manchester elsewhere in the region, as the building is "not suitable for the significant remodelling or expansion it would need to meet modern-day requirements for a prison". However, the MoJ said there were "no plans to close or relocate" the jail.


title: Coset

text: In mathematics, specifically group theory, a subgroup of a group may be used to decompose the underlying set of into disjoint, equal-size subsets called cosets. There are "left cosets" and "right cosets". Cosets (both left and right) have the same number of elements (cardinality) as does . Furthermore, itself is both a left coset and a right coset. The number of left cosets of in is equal to the number of right cosets of in . This common value is called the index of in and is usually denoted by .


title: Coset

text: Cosets are a basic tool in the study of groups; for example, they play a central role in Lagrange's theorem that states that for any finite group , the number of elements of every subgroup of divides the number of elements of . Cosets of a particular type of subgroup (a normal subgroup) can be used as the elements of another group called a quotient group or factor group. Cosets also appear in other areas of mathematics such as vector spaces and error-correcting codes.


title: Coset

text: Let be a subgroup of the group whose operation is written multiplicatively (juxtaposition denotes the group operation). Given an element of , the left cosets of in are the sets obtained by multiplying each element of by a fixed element of (where is the left factor). In symbols these are,


title: Coset

text: As varies through the group, it would appear that many cosets (right or left) would be generated. Nevertheless, it turns out that any two left cosets (respectively right cosets) are either disjoint or are identical as sets.


title: Coset

text: If the group operation is written additively, as is often the case when the group is abelian, the notation used changes to or , respectively.


title: Coset

text: Let be the dihedral group of order six. Its elements may be represented by . In this group, and . This is enough information to fill in the entire Cayley table:


title: Coset

text: Since all the elements of have now appeared in one of these cosets, generating any more can not give new cosets, since a new coset would have to have an element in common with one of these and therefore be identical to one of these cosets. For instance, .


title: Coset

text: Let be the subgroup . The left cosets of are and . The right cosets of are and . In this case, every left coset of is also a right coset of .


title: Coset

text: The disjointness of non-identical cosets is a result of the fact that if belongs to then . For if then there must exist an such that . Thus . Moreover, since is a group, left multiplication by is a bijection, and .


title: Coset

text: Thus every element of belongs to exactly one left coset of the subgroup , and is itself a left coset (and the one that contains the identity).


title: Coset

text: Two elements being in the same left coset also provide a natural equivalence relation. Define two elements of , and , to be equivalent with respect to the subgroup if (or equivalently if belongs to ). The equivalence classes of this relation are the left cosets of . As with any set of equivalence classes, they form a partition of the underlying set. A coset representative is a representative in the equivalence class sense. A set of representatives of all the cosets is called a transversal. There are other types of equivalence relations in a group, such as conjugacy, that form different classes which do not have the properties discussed here.


title: Coset

text: If is an abelian group, then for every subgroup of and every element of . For general groups, given an element and a subgroup of a group , the right coset of with respect to is also the left coset of the conjugate subgroup with respect to , that is, .


title: Coset

text: A subgroup of a group is a normal subgroup of if and only if for all elements of the corresponding left and right cosets are equal, that is, . This is the case for the subgroup in the first example above. Furthermore, the cosets of in form a group called the quotient group or factor group .


title: Coset

text: If is not normal in , then its left cosets are different from its right cosets. That is, there is an in such that no element satisfies . This means that the partition of into the left cosets of is a different partition than the partition of into right cosets of . This is illustrated by the subgroup in the first example above. ("Some" cosets may coincide. For example, if is in the center of , then .)


title: Coset

text: On the other hand, if the subgroup is normal the set of all cosets forms a group called the quotient group with the operation defined by . Since every right coset is a left coset, there is no need to distinguish "left cosets" from "right cosets".


title: Coset

text: Every left or right coset of has the same number of elements (or cardinality in the case of an infinite ) as itself. Furthermore, the number of left cosets is equal to the number of right cosets and is known as the index of in "G", written as . Lagrange's theorem allows us to compute the index in the case where and are finite:


title: Coset

text: This equation also holds in the case where the groups are infinite, although the meaning may be less clear.


title: Coset

text: Let be the additive group of the integers, and the subgroup . Then the cosets of in are the three sets , , and , where . These three sets partition the set , so there are no other right cosets of . Due to the commutivity of addition and . That is, every left coset of is also a right coset, so is a normal subgroup. (The same argument shows that every subgroup of an Abelian group is normal.)


title: Coset

text: This example may be generalized. Again let be the additive group of the integers, , and now let the subgroup , where is a positive integer. Then the cosets of in are the sets , , ..., , where . There are no more than cosets, because . The coset is the congruence class of modulo . The subgroup is normal in , and so, can be used to form the quotient group the group of integers mod "m".


title: Coset

text: Another example of a coset comes from the theory of vector spaces. The elements (vectors) of a vector space form an abelian group under vector addition. The subspaces of the vector space are subgroups of this group. For a vector space , a subspace , and a fixed vector in , the sets


title: Coset

text: are called affine subspaces, and are cosets (both left and right, since the group is abelian). In terms of 3-dimensional geometric vectors, these affine subspaces are all the "lines" or "planes" parallel to the subspace, which is a line or plane going through the origin. For example, consider the plane . If is a line through the origin , then is a subgroup of the abelian group . If is in , then the coset is a line parallel to and passing through .


title: Coset

text: That is, the left cosets consist of all the matrices in having the same upper-left entry. This subgroup is normal in , but the subgroup


title: Coset

text: A subgroup of a group can be used to define an action of on in two natural ways. A "right action", given by or a "left action", given by . The orbit of under the right action is the left coset , while the orbit under the left action is the right coset .


title: Coset

text: The concept of a coset dates back to Galois's work of 1830–31. He introduced a notation but did not provide a name for the concept. The term "co-set" appears for the first time in 1910 in a paper by G. A. Miller in the "Quarterly Journal of Mathematics" (vol. 41, p. 382). Various other terms have been used including the German "Nebengruppen" (Weber) and "conjugate group" (Burnside).