title: Danke Schoen

text: "Danke Schoen" ( , ) is a pop song of German origin. Bert Kaempfert, who composed the melody, recorded it as an instrumental, in 1959 and later in 1962, under the title "Candlelight Cafe". Kurt Schwabach wrote the German lyrics. The song gained international fame in 1963 when singer Wayne Newton recorded an American version, with English lyrics by Milt Gabler. The song achieved renewed popularity when it was featured in the 1986 American comedy film "Ferris Bueller's Day Off", lip-synced by the main character, Ferris Bueller (Matthew Broderick).


title: Danke Schoen

text: Wayne Newton's first version was released when he was 21 years old. The song was originally intended for singer Bobby Darin as a follow-up to his hit single "18 Yellow Roses" in the spring of 1963, but after seeing Newton perform at the Copacabana, Darin decided to give the song to Newton and transposed the key of the recording to fit Newton's voice. It has been featured in many television commercials and motion pictures, such as "Ferris Bueller's Day Off", "Meet the Parents", "Matchstick Men", "Vegas Vacation", "Fools Rush In" as well as the French-American comedy "Crime Spree". In 2015 it was used in a television commercial for Bank of America, and in 2017 in a trailer for the video game "". In 2016 the song was used in a series of commercials for Australian insurer AAMI. The Newton version peaked at No. 13 on "Billboard"s pop chart, and No. 3 on its easy listening chart.


title: Danke Schoen

text: Connie Francis recorded the song in French, Japanese, Spanish and Italian, keeping the original title line "Danke schoen" in all versions except the Italian recording, which was released as "Grazie a te".


title: Danke Schoen

text: In German, the phrase is equivalent to the English expressions 'thank you very much' or 'thank you kindly'. The word "Danke" means 'thanks' and "schön" means 'pretty', 'lovely', or 'nice'. In Standard German the word "schön" is pronounced with a close-mid front rounded vowel, that is not used in English phonology. In Newton's version of the song, however, the word "schön" is pronounced to rhyme with the English words "pain" and "explain".


title: Danke Schoen

text: In many High German dialects spoken in Austria, Switzerland, and central and southern Germany, the front rounded vowels , , , are lacking and are replaced in these dialects with their unrounded counterparts, , , , . Orthographically, when writing in these dialects, "ö" becomes "e" or "ee" and "ü" becomes "i" or "ie".


title: Danke Schoen

text: Hence, in Low German dialects commonly encountered in the United States, such as Pennsylvania German, the word "schön" rhymes with the English words 'pain' and 'explain'. Standard German "Danke schön" would be translated into Pennsylvania German as "danki schee" () or "dank scheene" (). Similarly, it would be translated into Yiddish (, ). The German letter "ö" can also be written using the older typography "oe" ("schön" = "schoen") – of which the umlauted "O" is a contraction – when umlauts are unavailable or not readily accessible. Milt Gabler, the author of the English lyrics of the song, was the son of Austrian and Russian Jewish immigrants and would have been most familiar with the Yiddish pronunciation of the word "schön" (or "schoen") as "sheyn".


title: Danke Schoen

text: In 2020, the song was used in the "Come Dance" trailer for the video game "" which premiered at the Inside Xbox online showcase.


title: ELO 2

text: ELO 2 is the second studio album by the Electric Light Orchestra (ELO), released in 1973. In the US, the album was released as Electric Light Orchestra II. It was the band's last album to be released by the Harvest label, the last (in the UK) on which the band used the definite article "The" in their name, and the one that introduced their abbreviated name 'ELO'.


title: ELO 2

text: The album was originally to be titled "The Lost Planet", but that concept was quietly dropped. During the initial recording sessions, Roy Wood left the band and formed Wizzard in June 1972, taking Bill Hunt and touring cellist Hugh McDowell with him. Although uncredited at the time, Wood performed on two tracks, playing cello and bass on "In Old England Town" and "From the Sun to the World". Classically trained cellist Colin Walker replaced Wood, and Wilfred Gibson played violin. Richard Tandy made his ELO studio debut on this album, playing keyboards; he had earlier performed live with the original lineup alongside Wood, Gibson, co-frontman Jeff Lynne, drummer Bev Bevan and cellist Mike Edwards, playing bass (and in TV appearances with the Move playing guitar). Bassist and vocalist Mike de Albuquerque also made his ELO studio debut on the album. All five pieces are longer than standard rock songs, and feature multi-layered orchestral instruments that create a dense, complex sound.


title: ELO 2

text: Along with its predecessor, "ELO 2" is the least commercial-sounding album the band released, although it reached the British Top 40 album chart, whereas its more concise follow-up, "On the Third Day", did not. An edit of "Roll Over Beethoven" was a top 10 hit in Britain and received radio airplay in America also. In 2006 the album was remastered and expanded in the US, with a slightly different running order to the UK 2003 EMI version, with both versions sharing the same Hipgnosis album art for the first time.


title: ELO 2

text: The British and American sleeves differed, as did the title; in the UK it was released in a gatefold sleeve titled "ELO 2" with a painting of a light bulb travelling through space with the wording 'ELO2' on the base of the bulb, while in the US the cover featured a more ornate light bulb against a night sky and was titled "Electric Light Orchestra II". For reasons unknown, "Roll Over Beethoven" was slightly edited in length compared with its US counterpart. Track 2 "Momma" was Americanised to "Mama" for the US release. An instrumental version of "In Old England Town", the opening track, became the B-side to the single "Showdown". The album contains the band's longest track, the anti-war song "Kuiama".


title: ELO 2

text: ELO 2 (First light Series) is an expanded 30th Anniversary edition of Electric Light Orchestra's second album.


title: ELO 2

text: The second in the EMI "First Light Series" released in 2003 to mark the album's 30th anniversary. The first five tracks comprise the original "ELO 2" album. After ELO had completed and released ELO 2, the band began recording new material for the third album. Tracks 6-8 on disc two were recorded in February 1973, and features original Move lead singer Carl Wayne. Tracks 9-12 on disc one were recorded in April 1973 and features glam rock superstar Marc Bolan, who was also recording at AIR Studios at that time, on double lead guitar on tracks 10–12. The band re-recorded two of these songs for the third album because of ELO's label change in the UK before it was released. Tracks 6-8 on disc one and track 5 on disc two were recorded in June 1973, with track 6 becoming a hit single in the UK. The second disc utilises the original album's working title "The Lost Planet", and features various live recordings, outtakes and rarities, in addition to the songs recorded with Carl Wayne.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: The 2022 Miami Grand Prix (officially known as the Formula 1 Crypto.com Miami Grand Prix 2022) was a Formula One motor race that was held on May 8, 2022, at the Miami International Autodrome in Miami Gardens, Florida, United States. It was the first edition of the Miami Grand Prix and the fifth round of the 2022 Formula One World Championship.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: The race was won by Max Verstappen, ahead of championship leader and pole-sitter Charles Leclerc in second and his teammate Carlos Sainz Jr. in third. Verstappen also set the fastest lap.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: Charles Leclerc was the Drivers' Championship leader after the fourth round, the Emilia Romagna Grand Prix, with 86 points, 27 ahead of Max Verstappen in second, with Sergio Pérez in third, five points behind Verstappen. In the Constructors' Championship, Ferrari led Red Bull Racing by 11 points and Mercedes by 47.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: The drivers and teams were the same as the season entry list with no additional stand-in drivers for the race.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: Tyre supplier Pirelli brought the C2, C3, and C4 tyre compounds (designated hard, medium, and soft, respectively) for teams to use at the event.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: There were three practice sessions, each lasted one hour. The first two practice sessions took place on Friday May 6 at 14:30 and 17:30 local time () and the third practice session took place at 13:00 on May 7. In the first session, Leclerc was the fastest ahead of George Russell and Verstappen, who had hydraulic and overheating issues. In the second session, Russell set the fastest lap ahead of Leclerc and Pèrez. In the final session, Pèrez was first, ahead of Leclerc and Verstappen. There was a crash and red flag in each session; in the first session, Valtteri Bottas crashed at turn 7, while Carlos Sainz Jr. and Esteban Ocon both crashed into the concrete barrier at turn 14 in the final two sessions, respectively.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: Leclerc led Sainz for a Ferrari front-row lockout, the first since the 2019 Mexican Grand Prix. Behind them were the Red Bull drivers, Verstappen and Pérez, and Alfa Romeo's Bottas, with Lewis Hamilton, Pierre Gasly, Lando Norris, Yuki Tsunoda, and Lance Stroll completing the top ten; Russell, Hamilton's Mercedes teammate, did not make the Q3. In his final Q3 lap, Verstappen made a mistake, which he blamed on his lack of knowledge of the car on the track, while both Leclerc and Sainz improved their fastest lap to take the front row.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: The race started at 15:30 EDT (UTC−4) on May 8 and lasted 57 laps. Stroll and Vettel, who respectively qualified 10th and 13th, started the race from the pit lane after a fuel temperature issue.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: In the first corner at the start, Verstappen overtook Sainz for second place and closed in on Leclerc, whom he passed for the lead on lap 9, as Leclerc struggled with the medium compound tyres. The race was interrupted on lap 41, as Norris's rear right tyre made contact with Gasly's front left, triggering a virtual safety car and then a safety car for five laps. Verstappen was pressured from Leclerc at the restart, and defended his position to take the win. On lap 52, Verstappen's teammate, Pérez, attempted to overtake Sainz into turn 1 but made a mistake and locked up. Vettel and Schumacher collided on lap 53, but no action was taken. Leclerc and Sainz finished second and third, respectively, while Pérez, who had temporarily suffered engine issues that cost him about 30 horsepower, and Russell made up the top five.


title: 2022 Miami Grand Prix

text: After the race, Alonso was given two separate five-second penalties, which dropped him out of the top 10 for points, with Stroll promoted to 10th. Magnussen had two separate incidents following the restart with Stroll, retiring on the last lap; he was classified 16th as he completed more than 90% of the race distance.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: Saputo Inc. is a Canadian dairy company based in Montreal, Quebec, founded in 1954 by the Saputo family. It produces, markets, and distributes a wide array of dairy products, including cheese, fluid milk, extended shelf-life milk and cream products, cultured products and dairy ingredients and is one of the top ten dairy processors in the world.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: The company has expanded predominantly through mergers and acquisitions. Its products are sold in over 60 countries worldwide, operating in Canada, the United States, Argentina, Australia and the United Kingdom, with about half of its revenues coming from its US operations. It operated in Wales and Germany from 2006 to 2013. It used to own the Canadian rights to Hostess Brands products.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: Master cheesemaker Giuseppe Saputo, his son Lino Saputo and family immigrated to Montreal from Montelepre, Italy, in the early 1950s. In September 1954, Lino convinced his father to start his own business. Using $500 to buy some basic equipment and a bicycle for deliveries, the Saputo family founded a cheesemaking company bearing its name. In 1957, Saputo's first sizable production facility was built in Montreal's Saint-Michel neighbourhood. Saputo went through considerable growth in the 1960s and 1970s as demand for its products increased. It became Canada's largest producer of mozzarella in the 1980s.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: In 1988, Saputo expanded to the United States by acquiring two cheese plants. In the 1990s, the company made several acquisitions to diversify its product offering and geographic reach. In 1997, it became a publicly traded company and tripled in size following the acquisition of Stella Foods in the US.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: In 2001, Saputo acquired Dairyworld Foods, the production and marketing arm of Agrifoods International Cooperative Ltd, which included the Dairyland milk and Armstrong cheese brands, for C$407 million. Agrifoods International was itself the result of a series of mergers between dairy cooperatives in Western Canada in the 1990s. Armstrong Cheese was formerly an independent cheese maker in Armstrong, British Columbia, which was acquired by Dairyworld in 1997. After Saputo obtained the brand, it closed the plant in Armstrong.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: In 2003, the firm continued to acquire businesses in the US and expanded into Argentina with the acquisition of Molfino Hermanos S.A. That same year, while remaining chairman of the board Lino Saputo stepped down as president and CEO and was succeeded in this role by his son, Lino A. Saputo. In 2008, Saputo acquired Neilson Dairy from George Weston Limited for C$465 million. The firm announced in 2012 it would buy Morningstar Food for US$1.45 billion. In January 2014, Saputo announced that they would be purchasing the fluid milk business of Scotsburn Co-operative Services Limited of Nova Scotia for $61 million. In February 2014, Saputo acquired a relevant interest of 87.920 percent of Victoria, Australia, dairy product firm Warrnambool Cheese & Butter Factory Company Holdings Limited shares. It acquired all the remaining shares in March 2017.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: On February 3, 2015, Canada Bread Company Limited completed a C$120 million acquisition of Saputo Bakery, a division of Saputo Inc. Canada Bread Company Limited is a subsidiary of Mexico's Grupo Bimbo.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: In September 2017, Saputo announced complete acquisition of the Extended Shelf-Life Dairy Product Activities of Southeast Milk, Inc. in the United States. In November 2017, According to the reports, Saputo acquired Betin Inc. a Belmont specialty cheese maker with a facility that employs 319 workers.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: On February 22, 2019, it was announced that Saputo would be buying British dairy company, Dairy Crest. The company was valued at C$1.7 billion (£975 million). The transaction was completed on April 15, 2019.


title: Saputo Inc.

text: Brands by Saputo include: Saputo, Alexis de Portneuf, Armstrong, Cathedral City, Cheer, Clover, Cracker Barrel (trademark used under licence), Dairyland, DairyStar, Devondale, Friendship Dairies, Frigo, Frigo Cheese Heads,Frylight, Joyya La Paulina, Milk2Go, Montchevre, Murray Goulburn Ingredients, Neilson, Nutrilait, Salemville, Scotsburn (trademark used under license), Sheese, South Cape, Stella, Sungold, Tasmanian Heritage, Treasure Cave, Woolwich Dairy and Yorkshire Wensleydale


title: Islam and secularism

text: Secularism—i.e. the separation of religion from civic affairs and the state—has been a controversial concept in Islamic political thought, owing in part to historical factors and in part to the ambiguity of the concept itself. In the Muslim world, the notion has acquired strong negative connotations due to its association with removal of Islamic influences from the legal and political spheres under foreign colonial domination, as well as attempts to restrict public religious expression by some secularist nation states. Thus, secularism has often been perceived as a foreign ideology imposed by invaders and perpetuated by post-colonial ruling elites, and is frequently understood to be equivalent to irreligion or anti-religion.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Especially in the late 19th to mid-20th century, some Muslim thinkers advocated secularism as a way to strengthen the Islamic world in the face of Russian, British and French colonialism. Some have advocated secularism in the sense of political order that does not impose any single interpretation of sharia (Ali Abdel Raziq and Mahmoud Mohammed Taha); argued that such a political order would not/does not violate Islam (Abdullah Saeed); and that combined with constitutionalism and human rights, is more consistent with Islamic history than modern visions of an Islamic state (Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im). Strongly opposed to limiting Islam to matters of personal belief, and strongly advocating an Islam encompassing law, politics, economics, culture and every other aspect of the lives of its citizens, are orthodox Islamic scholars and proponents of Islamism (political Islam). Islamist pioneer Abul A'la Maududi claimed that the goal of secularists was not to ameliorate tensions and divisions in multi-religious societies, but to avoid the "restraints of morality and divine guidance",


title: Islam and secularism

text: and thus eliminate "all morality, ethics, or human decency from the controlling mechanisms of society."


title: Islam and secularism

text: A number of pre-modern polities in the Islamic world demonstrated some level of separation between religious and political authority, even if they did not adhere to the modern concept of a state with no official religion or religion-based laws. Today, some Muslim-majority countries define themselves as or are regarded as secular. Many of them have a dual legal system in which Muslims can bring familial and financial disputes to "sharia" courts whose jurisdiction varies from country to country but usually includes marriage, divorce, inheritance, and guardianship.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Secularism is an ambiguous concept that can be understood to refer to a number of policies and ideas—anticlericalism, atheism, state neutrality toward religion, the separation of religion from state, banishment of religious symbols from the public sphere, or disestablishment (separation of church and state, although Islam has no institution corresponding to this sense of "church"). Secularism has been categorized into two types, "hard" or "assertive" and "soft" or "passive"—"hard" being irreligious, considering religion illegitimate and seeking to discourage and weaken religious faith as much as possible (an example being found under Communist governments); "soft" secularism emphasizes tolerance, and neutrality and seeking to exclude "the state from any involvement in doctrine", and exclude "upholders of any doctrine from using the coercive powers of the state.


title: Islam and secularism

text: There is no word in Arabic, Persian, or Turkish corresponding exactly to the English term "secularism". According to Mansoor Alam, the "common and prevalent" translation of secularism in the four main languages of Muslims—Arabic, Persian, Urdu, Turkish—is "ladeenia" or "ghair-mazhabee", which means "without religion" or "non religious". Alam protests that contrary to these translations, definitions of secularism found in "western languages" all indicate that secularism "does not mean anti-religious or anti-God", but has come to mean freedom of religion and non-interference by the state in religion and vice versa.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Nader Hashemi writing in "The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World", gives two more words commonly used as translations in Arabic : "ʿilmānīyah" (from the Arabic word for science) and "ʿalmanīyah" (apparently derived from the Arabic word for "world"). (The latter term, first appeared at the end of the nineteenth century in the dictionary "Muhit al-Muhit" written by the Christian Lebanese scholar Butrus al-Bustani.) In Persian, one finds the loan word "sekularizm", while in Turkish "laiklik" comes from the French "laïcité".


title: Islam and secularism

text: According to Mansoor Alam (who dismisses "hard secularism" from consideration as a policy for Muslim governments), Quranic verses that "clearly and unambiguously" support freedom of religion by assigning to the Prophet the job of "conveying the message of Allah" to humanity rather than imposing Islam on them; and that give each person personal responsibility "for his/her own acts and deeds" are:


title: Islam and secularism

text: Jakir Al Faruki and Md. Roknuzzaman Siddiky describe the Medina Covenant of Muhammad (also known as Constitution of Medina), as a "secular constitution".


title: Islam and secularism

text: Scholar Bernard Lewis points out that during its "first formative centuries", Christianity was separate from and often oppressed by the state, while "from the lifetime of its founder Islam "was" the state ... Islam was thus associated with the exercise of power from the very beginning".


title: Islam and secularism

text: A number of scholars have argued that a separation of religion and political power is not inconsistent with early Islamic history. The Sudanese-born Islamic scholar Abdullahi Ahmed An-Na'im has argued that a secular state built on constitutionalism, human rights and full citizenship is more consistent with Islamic history than modern visions of an Islamic state.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Ira M. Lapidus, an Emeritus Professor of Middle Eastern and Islamic History at The University of California at Berkeley, notes that religious and political power was united while the Prophet Muhammad was leading the ummah, resulting in a non-secular state. But Lapidus states that by the 10th century, some governments in the Muslim world had developed an effective separation of religion and politics, due to political control passing "into the hands of generals, administrators, governors, and local provincial lords; the Caliphs had lost all effective political power". These governments were still officially Islamic and committed to the religion, but religious authorities had developed their own hierarchies and bases of power separate from the political institutions governing them:


title: Islam and secularism

text: Lapidus argues that the religious and political aspects of Muslim communal life came to be separated by Arab rebellions against the Caliphate, the emergence of religious activity independent of the actual authority of the Caliphs, and the emergence of the Hanbali school of law.


title: Islam and secularism

text: According to Jakir Al Faruki, secularism was found "for centuries" under the "tolerant and liberal" reign of most of the Mughal rulers "in particular, Akbar‘s regime (1556-1605)"


title: Islam and secularism

text: Researcher Olivier Roy argues that "a defacto separation between political power" of sultans and emirs and religious power of the caliph was "created and institutionalized ... as early as the end of the first century of the hegira". Nonetheless, what has been lacking in the Muslim world was and is "political thought regarding the autonomy of this space." No positive law was developed outside of sharia. The sovereign's religious function was to defend the Islamic community against its enemies, institute the sharia, ensure the public good ("maslaha"). The state was an instrument to enable Muslims to live as good Muslims and Muslims were to obey the sultan if he did so. The legitimacy of the ruler was "symbolized by the right to coin money and to have the Friday prayer ("Jumu'ah khutba") said in his name."


title: Islam and secularism

text: The Umayyad caliphate was seen as a secular state by many Muslims at the time, some of whom disapproved of the lack of integration of politics and religion. This perception was offset by a steady stream of wars that aimed to expand Muslim rule past the caliphate's borders.


title: Islam and secularism

text: In early Islamic philosophy, Averroes presented an argument in "The Decisive Treatise" providing a justification for the emancipation of science and philosophy from official Ash'ari theology. Because of this, some consider Averroism a precursor to modern secularism.


title: Islam and secularism

text: The concept of secularism was imported along with many of the ideas of post-Enlightenment modernity from Europe into the Muslim world, namely Middle East and North Africa. Among Muslim intellectuals, the early debate on secularism centered mainly on the relationship between religion and state, and how this relationship was related to European successes in science, technology and governance. In the debate on the relationship between religion and state, (in)separability of religious and political authorities in the Islamic world or status of the Caliph, was one of the biggest issues. Many Islamic modernist thinkers (especially from the late 19th century to the 1970s) argued against the inseparability of religious and political authorities in the Islamic world and described the system of separation between religion and state (along with concepts like freedom, nationalism, and democracy) within their ideal Islamic world.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Muhammad ʿAbduh (1849–1905), a prominent Muslim modernist thinker, claimed in his book "Al-Idtihad fi Al-Nasraniyya wa Al-Islam" (Persecution in Christianity and in Islam) that no one had exclusive religious authority in the Islamic world. He argued that even the Caliph did not have religious authority over common Muslims because the caliph was neither infallible nor the person to whom divine revelation had been given. ʿAbduh argued that the Caliph should have the respect of the umma but not rule it; the unity of the umma is a moral unity that does not prevent its division into national states.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi (c. 1854–c.1902), in his book "Taba'i' Al-Istibdad" (The Characteristics of Tyranny), discussed the relationship between religion and despotism, arguing that "while most religions tried to enslave the people to the holders of religious office who exploited them, the original Islam was built on foundations of political freedom standing between democracy and aristocracy." Al-Kawakibi suggested that people can achieve a non-religious national unity, saying: "Let us take care of our lives in this world and let the religions rule in the next world." Moreover, in his second book "Umm Al-Qura" (The Mother of Villages) his most explicit statement with regard to the question of religion and state appeared in an appendix to the book, where he presented a dialogue between the Muslim scholar from India and an amir. The amir expressed his opinion that "religion is one thing and the government is another ... The administration of religion and the administration of the government were never united in Islam."


title: Islam and secularism

text: The thoughts of Rashid Rida (1865–1935) about the separation of religion and state had some similarities with ʿAbduh and Al-Kawakibi. According to the scholar, Eliezer Tauber:


title: Islam and secularism

text: Rida provided details of his ideas about the future Arab empire in a document titled the "General Organic Law of the Arab Empire". Rida argued that the general administrative policy of the future empire should be managed by a president, a council of deputies to be elected from the entire empire, and a council of ministers to be chosen by the president from among the deputies. There, the caliph must recognize the 'General Organic Law' and abide by it. He would manage all the religious matters of the empire. Rida's ideal Islamic empire would be administered in practice by a president, while the caliph would administer only religious affairs and would be obliged to recognize the organic law of the empire and abide by it.


title: Islam and secularism

text: As seen above, these arguments about the separability of religious and political authorities in the Islamic world were greatly connected with the presence of the Caliphate. Therefore, the abolishment of the Caliphate by the Turkish government in 1924 had considerable influence on such arguments among Muslim intellectuals.


title: Islam and secularism

text: A work even more controversial than those mentioned above is a 1925 tract, "Al-Islam Wa Usul Al-Hukm" (Islam and the Foundations of Governance) by Ali Abd al-Raziq (1888–1966), an Islamic Scholar and Shari’a judge. He argued that there was no clear evidence in the Quran and the hadith, which would justify a common assumption—that to accept the authority of the caliph is a religious obligation. Furthermore, he claimed that it was not even necessary that the ummah should be politically united and that religion has nothing to do with one form of government rather than another. He argued that nothing in Islam forbids Muslims from destroying their old political system and building a new one on the basis of the newest conceptions of the human spirit and the experience of nations. This publication caused a fierce debate especially as he recommended that religion can be separated from government and politics; and he was later removed from his position. Franz Rosenthal argued that in Abd al-Raziq "we meet for the first time a consistent, unequivocal theoretical assertion of the purely and exclusively religious character of Islam".


title: Islam and secularism

text: Taha Hussein (1889–1973), an Egyptian writer, was also an advocate for the separation of religion and politics from a viewpoint of Egyptian nationalism. Hussein believed that Egypt always had been part of Western civilization and that Egypt had its renaissance in the nineteenth century and had re-Europeanized itself. For him, the distinguishing mark of the modern world is that it has brought about a virtual separation of religion and civilization, each in its own sphere. It is therefore quite possible to take the bases of civilization from Europe without its religion, Christianity. Moreover, he believed that it is easier for Muslims than for Christians, since Islam has no priesthood, and so in his view, there was no vested interest in the control of religion over society.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Writing around 2013, Mansoor Alam argues that the "plunge into bloodshed" between Shias, Sunnis and other sects in Pakistan since the mid-1980s have "made mosques, imambargahs and even cemeteries unsafe places to visit". The "only antidote" the polarization of sects is the one Christians learnt after "a few hundred years of internecine bloodshed", i.e. secularism.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Faisal Al Yafai, a columnist for "The National", wrote in 2012 that secularism in the Arab World had declined and that "There is no major political party in the Arab world that would today be understood as secular."


title: Islam and secularism

text: John L. Esposito, a professor of international affairs and Islamic studies, points out: the post-independent period witnessed the emergence of modern Muslim states whose pattern of development was heavily influenced by and indebted to Western secular paradigms or models. Saudi Arabia and Turkey reflected the two polar positions. [...] The majority of Muslim states chose a middle ground in nation building, borrowing heavily from the West and relying on foreign advisers and Western-educated elites.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Esposito also argues that in many modern Muslim countries, the role of Islam in state and society as a source of legitimization for rulers, state, and government institutions was greatly decreased, though the separation of religion and politics was not total. However, while most Muslim governments replaced Islamic law with legal systems inspired by western secular codes, Muslim family law (marriage, divorce, and inheritance) remained in force.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Opinion polls indicate a majority of Muslims believe that Islam does not separate religion from the state, unlike Christianity, and many Muslims around the world welcome a significant role for Islam in their countries' political life.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Historian Bernard Lewis argues secularism developed in Europe as a reaction to bitter and devastating religious wars of the sixteenth and seventeenth century—a malady Islam did not suffer from. Islam history has had "regional, tribal, and dynastic wars with ... a religious coloration", "great power rivalries" such as between Sunni Ottoman Empire and Shia Persian one, but not religious wars; religious discrimination but not persecution, prosecution of disloyal apostates but not campaigns against heresy and the burning of heretics; and no scripture such as Matthew 22:21 "Render unto Caesar the things that are Caesar's, and unto God the things that are God's". (Lewis ends by noting that in the late 20th century the problem of religion and state interfering in each other's affairs may have spread to the Islamic world and that "Jews and Muslims may perhaps have caught a Christian disease and might therefore consider a Christian remedy."


title: Islam and secularism

text: The resurgence of Islam/Islamic revival, beginning with the Iranian revolution of 1978–9, defied the illusions of advocates of secularization theory. The resurgence of Islam in politics in the most modernizing of Muslim countries, such as Egypt, Algeria and Turkey, betrayed expectations of those who believed religion should be at the margins not the center of public life. Furthermore, in most cases, it was not a rural but an urban phenomenon, and its leaders and supporters were educated professionals. A striking example of the power of the religious revival to reverse secularism was in Iraq where in 1990-1991 the leader of the putatively secular Arab nationalist Ba'ath Party (Saddam Hussein), "finding himself at war, inscribed "Allahu Akbar" on his banner and, after seeing the Prophet in a dream, proclaimed jihad against the infidels."


title: Islam and secularism

text: Scholars like Vali Nasr argue that the secular elites in the Muslim world were imposed by colonial powers to maintain hegemony.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Islamists believe that Islam fuses religion and politics, with normative political values determined by the divine texts. It is argued that this has historically been the case and the secularist/modernist efforts at secularizing politics are little more than "jahiliyyah" (pre-Islamic ignorance), "kafir" (unbelief/infidelity), "irtidad" (apostasy) and atheism. Mawlana Mawdudi, founder of Jamaat e-Islami, proclaimed in 1948 that those who participated in secular politics were raising the flag of revolt against Allah and his messenger.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Saudi scholars denounce secularism as un-Islamic. Prior to the reign of Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman, the Saudi Arabian Directorate of Ifta', Preaching and Guidance, issued a directive decreeing that whoever believes that there is a guidance ("huda") more perfect than that of the Prophet of Islam (as spelled out in hadith and other literature), or that someone else's rule is better than the Prophet is a "kafir".


title: Islam and secularism

text: It lists a number of specific tenets which would be regarded as a serious departure from the precepts of Islam, punishable according to Sharia/Islamic law. For example:


title: Islam and secularism

text: In the view of Tariq al-Bishri, "secularism and Islam cannot agree except by means of talfiq [falsification, i.e. combining the doctrines of more than one school of Islam], or by each turning away from its true meaning."


title: Islam and secularism

text: Mansoor Alam argues that the because the Ottoman and the Mughal empires were disintegrating at the same time as Britain, France and Russia were colonizing areas of the Muslim world, this "created a perception among the Muslims that secularism and democracy together with modern scientific revolution were responsible not only for the demise of the formal role of the church in state affairs but also for the decline of Muslim power. ... Muslim orthodoxy developed an antipathy for western politics, economics, science and technology. It is well known that the Saudi conservatives had bitterly opposed the introduction of the telephone and television in Saudi Arabia."


title: Islam and secularism

text: A number of scholars have argued that secular governments in Muslim countries at the end of the 20th century, have become more repressive and authoritarian to protect their rule (and their secularism) and from the spread of Islamism, or used the threat of Islamism as an excuse to become more authoritarian. Some (Fareed Zakaria) have argued that when government repression increases discontent, hostility to the secularism the government is allegedly trying to protect—and the popularity of its pious Islamist enemies—also grows.


title: Islam and secularism

text: After Islamists won elections in the secularist, nationalist states of Turkey and Algeria, the elections were overturned by the militaries in order to "protect secularism". In Algeria, a military coup followed the sweeping 1991 victory of the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS). The FIS supporters rose up and a bloody civil war followed.


title: Islam and secularism

text: In Turkey, the Welfare Party was victorious in 1995 elections, but was forced to resign from the office by the Turkish military in February 1997 with a military intervention which is known as "post-modern coup". No civil war followed that intervention but a later version of the Welfare party, (the AKP), went on to win power in 2001 and has become known for both its authoritarianism and its elimination of secularists from positions of power. (see below)


title: Islam and secularism

text: In some countries, the fear of Islamist takeover via democratic processes has led to authoritarian measures against Islamist political parties.


title: Islam and secularism

text: "The Syrian regime was able to capitalize on the fear of Islamist coming to power to justify the massive clampdown on the Syrian Muslim Brotherhood." When American diplomats asked Hosni Mubarak to give more rights to the press and stop arresting the intellectuals, Mubarak rejected it and said, "If I do what you ask, the fundamentalists will take over the government in Egypt. Do you want that?" When President Bill Clinton asked Yasser Arafat to establish democracy in Palestine in 2001, Yasser Arafat replied similarly, claiming that with "a democratic system Islamist Hamas will surely take control of the government".


title: Islam and secularism

text: Fareed Zakaria (writing in 2003) argues less authoritarianism might weaken the Islamist enemies of secularism, pointed out that (before its 2011 revolution) Egypt banned Islamic fundamentalists from running for election for parliament, even though that parliament was "utterly powerless". Had they (and other authoritarian Muslim countries) not done so, the fundamentalists might "stop being seen as distant heroes" by the Muslim masses and "be viewed instead as local politicians."


title: Islam and secularism

text: Fred Halliday and others have pointed out that increasing authoritarianism has also left the mosque the only safe place in much of the Muslim world to voice political opposition.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Azza Karam described secular feminists in 1988 as follows: "Secular feminists firmly believe in grounding their discourse outside the realm of any religion, whether Muslim or Christian, and placing it instead within the international human rights discourse. They do not 'waste their time' attempting to harmonize religious discourses with the concept and declarations pertinent to human rights. To them, religion is respected as a private matter for each individual, but it is totally rejected as a basis from which to formulate any agenda on women's emancipation. By so doing, they avoid being caught up in interminable debates on the position of women with religion." Generally, secular feminist activists call for total equality between the sexes, attempt to ground their ideas on women's rights outside religious frameworks, perceive Islamism as an obstacle to their equality and a linkage to patriarchal values. They argue that secularism was important for protecting civil rights.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Of the 51 muslim majority countries in the world, the following 21 countries are listed to be secular :


title: Islam and secularism

text: The first secularist movements appeared in the late Russian Empire. A Crimean Tatar intellectual Ismail Gasprinski was the first Muslim intellectual in Russia, who realized the need for education and cultural reform and modernization of the Turkic and Islamic communities. The movement started by him got the name "Usul-i Cedid" which means "new movement".


title: Islam and secularism

text: In 1917, Crimean Tatars declared their independence (Crimean People's Republic) which was the first state in the modern Muslim world which introduced women's suffrage.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Secularism in Turkey was both dramatic and far-reaching as it filled the vacuum of the fall of the Ottoman Empire after World War I. Starting with an amendment to the constitution in 1928 eliminating state religion, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk led a political and cultural revolution. "Official Turkish modernity took shape basically through a negation of the Islamic Ottoman system and the adoption of a West-oriented mode of modernization."


title: Islam and secularism

text: Throughout the 20th century secularism was continuously challenged by Islamists. At the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st century, political Islamists and Islamic democrats such as the Welfare Party and Justice and Development Party (AKP) gained influence. In the 2002 elections the AKP came to power and (as of 2021) has held on to it with increasingly authoritarian methods;


title: Islam and secularism

text: eliminating the "old secularist guard" from positions of authority and replacing them with members/supporters of the AKP; Islamizing education to "raise a devout generation" became government policy; reversing the role of the governmental body established to control and limit religious affairs ("Diyanet"), to promote a conservative ("Hanafi" Sunni) version of Islam.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Lebanon is a parliamentary democracy within the overall framework of Confessionalism, a form of consociationalism in which the highest offices are proportionately reserved for representatives from certain religious communities.


title: Islam and secularism

text: A growing number of Lebanese, however, have organized against the confessionalist system, advocating for an installation of laïcité in the national government. The most recent expression of this secularist advocacy was the Laïque Pride march held in Beirut on April 26, 2010, as a response to Hizb ut-Tahrir's growing appeal in Beirut and its call to re-establish the Islamic caliphate.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Under the leadership of Habib Bourguiba (1956–1987), Tunisia's post independence government pursued a program of secularization.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Bourguiba modified laws regarding "habous" (religious endowments), secularized education and unified the legal system so that all Tunisians, regardless of religion, were subject to the state courts. He restricted the influence of the religious University of Ez-Zitouna and replaced it with a faculty of theology integrated into the University of Tunis, banned the headscarf for women, made members of the religious hierarchy state employees and ordered that the expenses for the upkeep of mosques and the salaries of preachers to be regulated.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Moreover, his best known legal innovations were the ‘Code du Statut Personel’ (CSP) the laws that govern issues related to the family: marriage, guardianship of children, inheritance and most importantly the abolishing of polygamy and making divorce subject to judicial review.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Bourguiba clearly wanted to undercut the religious establishment's ability to prevent his secularization program, and although he was careful to locate these changes within the framework of a modernist reading of Islam and presented them as the product of "ijtihad" (independent interpretation) and not a break with Islam, he became well known for his secularism. John Esposito says that "For Bourguiba, Islam represented the past; the west was Tunisia's only hope for a modern future, but he was mistaken, Islam is modernization"


title: Islam and secularism

text: Following increasing economic problems, Islamist movements came about in 1970 with the revival of religious teaching in Ez-Zitouna University and the influence which came from Arab religious leaders like Syrian and Egyptian Muslim Brotherhoods. There is also influence by Hizb ut-Tahrir, whose members issue a magazine in Tunis named "Azeytouna". In the aftermath, the struggle between Bourguiba and Islamists became uncontrolled and in order to repress the opposition the Islamist leaderships were exiled, arrested and interrogated.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Ennahda Movement, also known as Renaissance Party or simply Ennahda, is a moderate Islamist political party in Tunisia. On 1 March 2011, after the secularist dictatorship of Zine El Abidine Ben Ali collapsed in the wake of the 2011 Tunisian revolution, Tunisia's interim government granted the group permission to form a political party. Since then it has become the biggest and most well-organized party in Tunisia, so far outdistancing its more secular competitors. In the Tunisian Constituent Assembly election, 2011, the first honest election in the country's history with a turn out of 51.1% of all eligible voters, the party won 37.04% of the popular vote and 89 (41%) of the 217 assembly seats, far more than any other party.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Secularism in Egypt has had a very important role to play in both the history of Egypt and that of the Middle East. Egypt's first experience of secularism started with the British Occupation (1882–1952), the atmosphere which allowed the propagation of western ideas. In this environment, pro-secularist intellectuals like Yaqub Sarruf, Faris Nimr, Nicola Haddad who sought political asylum from Ottoman Rule were able to publish their work. This debate had then become a burning issue with the work of Egyptian Shaykh Ali abd al-Raziq (1888–1966), "The most momentous document in the crucial intellectual and religious debate of modern Islamic history"


title: Islam and secularism

text: By 1919, Egypt had its first political secular entity called the "Hizb 'Almani" (Secular Party) this name was later changed to the Wafd party. It combined secular policies with a nationalist agenda and had the majority support in the following years against both the rule of the king and the British influence. The Wafd party supported the allies during World War II and then proceeded to win the 1952 parliamentary elections, following these elections the prime minister was overthrown by the King leading to riots. These riots precipitated a military coup after which all political parties were banned including the Wafd and the Muslim Brotherhood.


title: Islam and secularism

text: The government of Gamel Abdel Nasser was secularist-nationalist in nature which at the time gathers a great deal of support both in Egypt and other Arab states. Key elements of Nasserism:


title: Islam and secularism

text: Secular legacy of Nasser's administration subsequently influenced periods of Anwar Sadat and Hosni Mubarak and secularists ruled Egypt until 2011 Egyptian revolution. Nevertheless, the Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood has become one of the most influential movements in the Islamic world, particularly in the Arab world. For many years it was described as "semi-legal" and was the only opposition group in Egypt able to field candidates during elections. In the 2011–12 Egyptian parliamentary election, the political parties identified as "Islamist" (the Brotherhood's Freedom and Justice Party, Salafi Al-Nour Party and liberal Islamist Al-Wasat Party) won 75% of the total seats. Mohamed Morsi, an Islamist democrat of Muslim Brotherhood was the first democratically elected president of Egypt. Nowadays, most Egyptian proponents of secularism emphasize the link between secularism and ‘national unity’ between Coptic Christians and Muslims.


title: Islam and secularism

text: The process of secularization in Syria began under the French mandate in the 1920s and went on continuously under different governments since the independence. Syria has been governed by the Arab nationalist Ba'ath Party since 1963. The Ba'ath government combined Arab socialism with secular ideology and an authoritarian political system. The constitution guarantees religious freedom for every recognized religious community, including many Christian denominations. All schools are government-run and non-sectarian, although there is mandatory religious instruction, provided in Islam and/or Christianity. Political forms of Islam are not tolerated by the government. The Syrian legal system is primarily based on civil law, and was heavily influenced by the period of French rule. It is also drawn in part from the Egyptian law of Abdel Nasser, quite from the Ottoman Millet system and very little from Sharia. Syria has separate secular and religious courts. Civil and criminal cases are heard in secular courts, while the Sharia courts handle personal, family, and religious matters in cases between Muslims or between Muslims and non-Muslims. Non-Muslim communities have their own religious courts using their own religious law.


title: Islam and secularism

text: Following the military coup of 21 February 1921, Reza Khan had established himself as the dominant political personality in the country. Fearing that their influence might be diminished, the clergy of Iran proposed their support and persuaded him to assume the role of the Shah.


title: Islam and secularism

text: 1925–1941: Reza Shah began to make some dramatic changes to Iranian society with the specific intention of westernization and removing religion from the public sphere. He changed religious schools to secular schools, built Iran's first secular university and banned the hijab in public. Nevertheless, the regime became totally undemocratic and authoritarian with the removal of Majles power (the first parliament in 1906) and the clampdown on free speech.


title: Islam and secularism

text: 1951–1953: During the early 1950s, Prime Minister Mohammad Mosaddegh was again forming a secular government with a socialist agenda with the specific aim of reducing the power held by the clergy. However, his plan to nationalize the colonial oil interests held by the Anglo-Iranian Oil Company, (later British Petroleum), attracted the ire of the United Kingdom. In response, the United Kingdom with the help of the CIA, supported a coup that removed Mossadeq from power and reinstated Mohammad Reza Shah.


title: Islam and secularism

text: 1962–1963: Using the mandate of westernization, Mohammad Reza Shah introduced White Revolution, aiming to transform Iran into a Westernized secular capitalist country.


title: Islam and secularism

text: 1963–1973: Opposition rallied united behind Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini and by the end of the 1970s the Shah was overthrown in an Islamic Revolution (1979).


title: Islam and secularism

text: Early in the history of the state of Pakistan (12 March 1949), a parliamentary resolution (the Objectives Resolution) was adopted, just a year after the death of Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the founder of Pakistan, in accordance with the vision of other founding fathers of Pakistan (Muhammad Iqbal, Liaquat Ali Khan). proclaiming:


title: Islam and secularism

text: According to Pakistani secularists, this resolution differed from the Muhammad Ali Jinnah's 11th August Speech that he made in the Constitutive Assembly, however, this resolution was passed by the rest of the members in the assembly after Muhammad Ali Jinnah's death in 1948. This resolution later became the key source of inspiration for writers of Constitution of Pakistan and is included in the constitution as a preamble. Pakistan is an Islamic republic, with Islam as the religion of the presidency. The Pakistani constitution, while granting freedom of religion and practice to all its citizens rejects any amendment in conflict with the Quran and Sunnah. Sharia is the Supreme Law of Pakistan and section 4 of the Shariat Act demands that courts interpret the laws in a way closer to Islamic jurisprudence.


title: Islam and secularism

text: The Council of Islamic Ideology is a body that is supposed to advise the Parliament of Pakistan on bringing laws and legislation in alignment with the principles of the Quran and Sunnah, though it has no enforcement powers. According to the council, most of the British era legislation did not contradict the Quran and Sunnah. The Federal Shariat Court can strike down any law deemed un-Islamic, though its decisions can be appealed to the Shariat Appellate Bench of the Supreme Court of Pakistan.


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: Thorsten Kaye (born Thorsten Ernst Kieselbach, 22 February 1966) is a German-British actor. His best known roles include Patrick Thornhart on "One Life to Live", Dr. Ian Thornhart on "Port Charles", Zach Slater on "All My Children" and Ridge Forrester on "The Bold and the Beautiful".


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: Kaye was born in Frankfurt, Federal Republic of Germany. He appeared in many classical theater roles, including "The Winter's Tale", "Tartuffe", "Macbeth", "Much Ado About Nothing", "Hamlet", "Love's Labour's Lost", "Twelfth Night", and "The Taming of the Shrew", both in London and with the Hilberry Repertory Company in Detroit.


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: Kaye then moved to Los Angeles, where he acted in many television shows, including the miniseries, Sidney Sheldon's "Nothing Lasts Forever," before moving to New York to play Patrick Thornhart on ABC's "One Life to Live" (1995–1997). The character gained quite a bit of popularity, and it is where he would meet his real life partner, Susan Haskell. After completing a two-year stint on "OLTL", Thorsten did some guest starring work for other shows, as well as starring in a few feature films.


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: In April 2000, Thorsten accepted the role of the dedicated physician Ian Thornhart (Patrick's older brother) on the ABC daytime soap (and the spin-off show of "General Hospital"), "Port Charles" (2000–2003). He appeared on the soap until its run ended in October 2003. Thorsten received two Daytime Emmy Award Nominations for Outstanding Lead Actor for his portrayal of Ian in 2003 and 2004.


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: In April 2004, Thorsten returned to New York to join the cast of the ABC soap "All My Children" in the role of casino owner, Zach Slater. He was nominated for two Daytime Emmy Awards in 2006 and 2009. Thorsten portrayed Slater until December 2009. He returned three times in 2010, and again in 2011 to bring Zach's storyline to a close when "AMC" came to an end after 41 years, in September 2011.


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: Thorsten Kaye has one of the lead roles in a new psychological thriller (feature-length film) titled "Occupant", which was released in the U.S and Canada in October 2011 on demand in many cable/satellite markets as well as on most digital platforms, including iTunes, Amazon, Blockbuster, and PlayStation.


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: In 2012, Kaye began appearing in the role of Nick, a recurring character on the NBC series "Smash". In October 2013, it was announced that Kaye was cast to portray Ridge Forrester on "The Bold and the Beautiful", replacing originator Ronn Moss, who departed the series in 2012 after 25 years in the role.


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: When not working, Kaye enjoys music, literature and riding American motorcycles. He is a fan of the Miami Dolphins and the Detroit Red Wings.


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: While appearing on "One Life to Live", he met his partner, Susan Haskell, who played his on-show love interest (Margaret "Marty" Saybrooke). The two currently have two daughters, McKenna (born February 2003) and Marlowe (born January 2007).


title: Thorsten Kaye

text: Kaye was an active blogger for the Detroit Red Wings at NHL.com during the 2008 and 2009 Stanley Cup Playoffs.


title: FlyBig

text: flybig is a regional airline based in Indore, Madhya Pradesh, India. It is promoted by Gurugram-based Big Charter Private Limited. The airline began operations in December 2020 and is focused on connecting tier-2 cities within India.


title: FlyBig

text: The company has received a No Objection Certificate from the Ministry of Civil Aviation and received its Air Operator's Certificate (AoC) on 14 December 2020. It began operations with a single ATR-72-500. The company's focus is to serve Tier-2 cities and it aims to build a fleet of more ATR-72s and HAL manufactured Dornier 228 aircraft and eventually expand to a fleet of 20.


title: FlyBig

text: Before the airline began any scheduled flights, it had won its first route under a government tender to serve Shillong from Delhi. The flights commenced on 21 December 2020 and to fulfil its obligations, the airline wet-leased a Dash 8 Q400 from SpiceJet.


title: FlyBig

text: The airline conducted proving flights on 4 December 2020 and operated its first scheduled flight on 3 January 2021 from Indore to Ahmedabad.


title: FlyBig

text: flybig flies to following domestic destinations, with its hub at Devi Ahilya Bai Holkar Airport in Indore


title: Apache Airflow

text: Apache Airflow is an open-source workflow management platform for data engineering pipelines. It started at Airbnb in October 2014 as a solution to manage the company's increasingly complex workflows. Creating Airflow allowed Airbnb to programmatically author and schedule their workflows and monitor them via the built-in Airflow user interface. From the beginning, the project was made open source, becoming an Apache Incubator project in March 2016 and a top-level Apache Software Foundation project in January 2019.


title: Apache Airflow

text: Airflow is written in Python, and workflows are created via Python scripts. Airflow is designed under the principle of "configuration as code". While other "configuration as code" workflow platforms exist using markup languages like XML, using Python allows developers to import libraries and classes to help them create their workflows.


title: Apache Airflow

text: Airflow uses directed acyclic graphs (DAGs) to manage workflow orchestration. Tasks and dependencies are defined in Python and then Airflow manages the scheduling and execution. DAGs can be run either on a defined schedule (e.g. hourly or daily) or based on external event triggers (e.g. a file appearing in Hive). Previous DAG-based schedulers like Oozie and Azkaban tended to rely on multiple configuration files and file system trees to create a DAG, whereas in Airflow, DAGs can often be written in one Python file.


title: Apache Airflow

text: Three notable providers offer ancillary services around the core open source project. Astronomer has built a SaaS tool and Kubernetes-deployable Airflow stack that assists with monitoring, alerting, devops, and cluster management. Cloud Composer is a managed version of Airflow that runs on Google Cloud Platform (GCP) and integrates well with other GCP services. Starting from November 2020, Amazon Web Services offers Managed Workflows for Apache Airflow.


title: Güiro

text: The güiro () is a Puerto Rican percussion instrument consisting of an open-ended, hollow gourd with parallel notches cut in one side. It is played by rubbing a stick or tines (see photo) along the notches to produce a ratchet sound.


title: Güiro

text: The güiro is commonly used in Puerto Rican, Cuban and other forms of Latin American music, and plays a key role in the typical rhythm section of important genres like son, trova and salsa. Playing the güiro usually requires both long and short sounds, made by scraping up and down in long or short strokes.


title: Güiro

text: The güiro, like the maracas, is often played by a singer. It is closely related to the Cuban guayo, Dominican güira, and Haitian graj which are made of metal. Other instruments similar to the güiro are the Colombian guacharaca, the Brazilian reco-reco, the quijada (cow jawbone) and the frottoir (French) or fwotwa (French Creole) (washboard).


title: Güiro

text: In the Arawakan language, a language of the indigenous people of Latin America and spread throughout the Caribbean spoken by groups such as the Taíno, güiro referred to fruit of the güira and an instrument made from fruit of the güira.


title: Güiro

text: The güiro is a notched, hollowed-out gourd. Often, the calabash gourd is used. The güiro is made by carving parallel circular stripes along the shorter section of the elongated gourd. Today, many güiros are made of wood or fiberglass.


title: Güiro

text: The güiro was adapted from an instrument which might have originated in either South America or Africa. The Aztecs produced an early cousin to the güiro, called the "omitzicahuastli", which was created from a small bone with serrated notches and was played in the same manner as the güiro. The Taíno people of the Caribbean have been credited with the origins of the güiro. The Taínos of Puerto Rico developed the "güajey", a long gourd or animal bone with notches, an antecedent of the modern day güiro.


title: Güiro

text: Alternatively, the güiro is also believed to have origins in Africa and to have been brought over to Latin American and the Caribbean by African slaves. Blench (2009) suggests a connection with the scraped idiophones of Cameroon and other regions of West and Central Africa ("see" list of musical instruments of Cameroon). The Berom people of central Nigeria also have scraper or guiro-like instrument called "gwák" or "gwàshák".


title: Güiro

text: Across Latin America and the Caribbean, the güiro can be found in a variety of traditional, folk dance music and used in dance ensembles and religious festivals. In the Yucatán Peninsula, the güiro is used in two Mayan dances, the and the jarana. In Cuba, the güiro is used in the genre danzón. In Puerto Rico, the güiro often associated with the music of the jíbaro and is used in the musical genres of the plena, the seis, and the danza. In the Caribbean coast, the güiro was used in traditional, folk dance cumbia music and is still used in modern cumbia music. In Panama, the güiro can be found in folk dances such as the merjorana and cumbia.


title: Güiro

text: The güiro is used in classical music both to add Latin American flavor, and also purely for its instrumental qualities.


title: Güiro

text: Examples of compositions including a güiro are "Uirapuru" by Heitor Villa-Lobos (though the score specifies reco-reco), "Latin-American Symphonette" by Morton Gould and "The Rite of Spring" "(Le Sacre du printemps") by Stravinsky.


title: James Shigeta

text: James Saburo Shigeta () (June 17, 1929 – July 28, 2014) was an American actor of Japanese descent. He was noted for his roles in "The Crimson Kimono" (1959), "Walk Like a Dragon" (1960), "Flower Drum Song" (1961), "Bridge to the Sun" (1961), "Die Hard" (1988), and "Mulan" (1998). In 1960, he won the Golden Globe Award for Most Promising Newcomer – Male, along with three other actors.


title: James Shigeta

text: In his early career, Shigeta often played romantic male lead roles, which were almost nonexistent for an actor of Asian descent during his time, making him a trailblazer in Asian American representation in media. The Goldsea Asian-American Daily magazine listed him as one of the "Most Inspiring Asian-Americans Of All Time".


title: James Shigeta

text: Before his Hollywood career he found success as a pop singer and performer abroad, especially in Japan and Australia.


title: James Shigeta

text: Born in the Territory of Hawaii in 1929 as a Sansei, a third-generation Japanese-American, Shigeta was a 1947 graduate of President Theodore Roosevelt High School, and studied drama at New York University. After completing ROTC, he enlisted in the Hawaii National Guard's 298th Infantry, prior to his 1951 enlistment in the United States Marine Corps during the Korean War. He served for two-and-a-half years, and rose to the rank of Staff Sergeant.


title: James Shigeta

text: Shigeta entered and won first prize on Ted Mack's television talent show, "The Original Amateur Hour" in 1950. Embarking on a singing career in Los Angeles, he teamed with Hawaiian operatic tenor Charles K.L. Davis. Their agent at the time gave them the non-ethnic sounding stage names of "Guy Brion" for Shigeta, and "Charles Durand" for Davis. They developed a supper club musical career in the United States, singing at venues such as the Mocambo and the Los Angeles Players Club. Despite that success, breaking into the movies eluded him.


title: James Shigeta

text: During the Korean War Shigeta enlisted in the United States Marine Corps, where he entertained troops in California. En route to Korea, the ceasefire led Shigeta to Japan, where he was discharged from the Marines and hired by the theatrical division of Toho Studios.


title: James Shigeta

text: Shigeta did not speak Japanese until Toho Studios in Tokyo invited him to be a musical star under his real name in Japan. He became a success in all media aspects of his day –radio, television, stage, supper clubs, movies, recordings– to such an extent that he became widely known as "The Frank Sinatra of Japan".


title: James Shigeta

text: In 1958, the Nichigeki Theatre in Tokyo exported their extravaganza "Cherry Blossom Show" to Australia with Shigeta as the male lead. The show was performed at the Empire Theatre in Sydney, Her Majesty's Theatre in Brisbane, the Theatre Royal in Adelaide, and Her Majesty's Theatre in Melbourne. The show was a big success, with one Australian reviewer writing about Shigeta, "... has matinee idol good looks and a soothing baritone voice that should send the record companies mad for his autograph on recording contracts."


title: James Shigeta

text: Shigeta returned to the United States to sing on "The Dinah Shore Show". By 1959 he was the star of the Shirley MacLaine–Steve Parker production of "Holiday in Japan" at the New Frontier Hotel and Casino in Las Vegas.


title: James Shigeta

text: In 1969, Shigeta toured the United States in the lead role of "The King and I", with Melva Niles and Pam Cavan co-starring in the production.


title: James Shigeta

text: When movies began to open up for him, Shigeta took acting lessons from seasoned dialogue coach Leon Charles.


title: James Shigeta

text: Shigeta first came on screen in the U.S., in 1959 as Detective Joe Kojaku in "The Crimson Kimono", a detective story that featured an interracial romantic triangle between Kojaku, his partner Sgt. Charlie Bancroft (played by Glenn Corbett), and Christine Downes (portrayed by Victoria Shaw). Shigeta's character was groundbreaking for the 1950s, an Asian American detective played by an Asian American actor with regular American speech patterns, rather than a non-Asian made up to pass as Asian who speaks in broken English.


title: James Shigeta

text: Paramount Pictures and James Clavell cast Shigeta in the 1960 release "Walk Like a Dragon", as Cheng Lu, a young Chinese man in the American old west who resents that Chinese must be subservient to white people. When filming began, Shigeta was still starring in "Holiday in Japan" in Las Vegas. An arrangement was made to transport him after his last show to the Paramount studio by ambulance to make sure he arrived on time. The technical advisor to Shigeta on the film was Benson Fong, who taught Shigeta how to mount a horse Chinese style. Jack Lord has first billing in this movie, which pits Shigeta against Lord for the affections of Kim Sung, played by Nobu McCarthy. Shigeta and McCarthy would work together again in the 1965 "Perry Mason" episode, "The Case of the Wrongful Writ," while Shigeta and Lord would work together in the 1968 "Hawaii Five-O" episode "Deathwatch".


title: James Shigeta

text: The 1961 romantic comedy "Cry for Happy" had Shigeta co-starring with Glenn Ford, Donald O'Connor and Miyoshi Umeki in a tale about Korean War era United States Navy photographers in Japan.


title: James Shigeta

text: In 1961, Shigeta was cast as Wang Ta, a role originated by Ed Kenney on Broadway, in the Academy Award-nominated movie version of Rodgers and Hammerstein's "Flower Drum Song" with Nancy Kwan and Miyoshi Umeki playing the love interests.


title: James Shigeta

text: He was cast as World War II Japanese diplomat Hidenari Terasaki opposite Carroll Baker as Gwen Terasaki in the 1961 biographical movie "Bridge to the Sun". A rarity for its era, the movie told the true story of a racially mixed marriage set against the background of the war between the United States and Japan.


title: James Shigeta

text: Shigeta guest starred in many television shows, beginning with "Alcoa Premiere" in 1961, as a Korean War era Chinese Communist who tortured star Lloyd Bridges. He continued to act in television up through "" in 2005.


title: James Shigeta

text: In 1965, Shigeta worked with Raymond Burr in the "Perry Mason" episode "The Case of the Wrongful Writ", cast as lawyer Ward Toyama who finds himself as the defendant. Shigeta worked with Raymond Burr two more times, in the 1969 "Ironside" episode "Love My Enemy", and the 1971 episode "No Motive for Murder" of the same series.


title: James Shigeta

text: From 1969 to 1972, Shigeta had recurring appearances on the TV hospital drama "Medical Center", in which he alternately appeared as the Resident Doctor and Doctor Osaka, for seven episodes. He played the role of Chief Resident in the series 1969 2-hour pilot "U.M.C."


title: James Shigeta

text: He also continued starring in films. In 1976, he portrayed the famous Japanese admiral Chūichi Nagumo in "Midway". In 1988, he played the ill-fated corporate executive Joseph Yoshinobu Takagi in the action adventure film "Die Hard". "Cage II: The Arena of Death" from 1994 pits star Lou Ferrigno against Shigeta's character of underworld crime boss Tim Yum Yum. Shigeta lent his voice to Disney's 1998 animated film "Mulan".


title: James Shigeta

text: James Shigeta shared the 1960 Golden Globe Award for Most Promising Male Newcomer with actors George Hamilton, Troy Donahue and Barry Coe.


title: James Shigeta

text: In 2005, Shigeta received a "Visionary Award" from the Asian-American theatre organization, East West Players, at their annual anniversary gala in Los Angeles.


title: James Shigeta

text: In 2006, Shigeta was among the actors, producers and directors interviewed in the documentary "The Slanted Screen," directed by Jeff Adachi, about the representation of Asian and Asian American men in Hollywood.


title: James Shigeta

text: Shigeta died in his sleep on July 28, 2014, at age 85 in Beverly Hills. He was interred in the National Memorial Cemetery of the Pacific.


title: International security

text: International security, also called global security is a term which refers to the measures taken by states and international organizations, such as the United Nations, European Union, and others, to ensure mutual survival and safety. These measures include military action and diplomatic agreements such as treaties and conventions. International and national security are invariably linked. International security is national security or state security in the global arena.


title: International security

text: By the end of World War II, a new subject of academic study, security studies, focusing on international security emerged. It began as an independent field of study, but was absorbed as a sub-field of international relations. Since it took hold in the 1950s, the study of international security has been at the heart of international relations studies. It covers areas such as security studies, strategic studies, peace studies, and other areas.


title: International security

text: The meaning of "security" is often treated as a common sense term that can be understood by "unacknowledged consensus". The content of international security has expanded over the years. Today it covers a variety of interconnected issues in the world that affect survival. It ranges from the traditional or conventional modes of military power, the causes and consequences of war between states, economic strength, to ethnic, religious and ideological conflicts, trade and economic conflicts, energy supplies, science and technology, food, as well as threats to human security and the stability of states from environmental degradation, infectious diseases, climate change and the activities of non-state actors.


title: International security

text: While the wide perspective of international security regards everything as a security matter, the traditional approach focuses mainly or exclusively on military concerns.


title: International security

text: Edward Kolodziej has compared international security to a Tower of Babel and Roland Paris (2004) views it as "in the eye of the beholder". Security has been widely applied to "justify suspending civil liberties, making war, and massively reallocating resources during the last fifty years".


title: International security

text: Walter Lippmann (1944) views security as the capability of a country to protect its core values, both in terms that a state need not sacrifice core values in avoiding war and can maintain them by winning war. David Baldwin (1997) argues that pursuing security sometimes requires sacrificing other values, including marginal values and prime values. Richard Ullman (1983) has suggested that a decrease in vulnerability is security.


title: International security

text: Arnold Wolfers (1952) argues that "security" is generally a normative term. It is applied by nations "in order to be either expedient—a rational means toward an accepted end—or moral, the best or least evil course of action". In the same way that people are different in sensing and identifying danger and threats, Wolfers argues that different nations also have different expectations of security. Not only is there a difference between forbearance of threats, but different nations also face different levels of threats because of their unique geographical, economic, ecological, and political environment.


title: International security

text: Barry Buzan (2000) views the study of international security as more than a study of threats, but also a study of which threats that can be tolerated and which require immediate action. He sees the concept of security as not either power or peace, but something in between.


title: International security

text: The concept of an international security actor has extended in all directions since the 1990s, from nations to groups, individuals, international systems, NGOs, and local governments.


title: International security

text: Traditional approaches to international security usually focus on state actors and their military capacities to protect national security. However, over the last decades the definition of security has been extended to cope with the 21st century globalized international community, its rapid technological developments and global threats that emerged from this process. One such comprehensive definition has been proposed by Nayef Al-Rodhan. What he calls the "Multi-sum security principle" is based on the assumption that "in a globalized world, security can no longer be thought of as a zero-sum game involving states alone. Global security, instead, has five dimensions that include human, environmental, national, transnational, and transcultural security, and therefore, global security and the security of any state or culture cannot be achieved without good governance at all levels that guarantees security through justice for all individuals, states, and cultures."


title: International security

text: Each of these five dimensions refers to a different set of substrates. The first dimension refers to human security, a concept that makes the principle referent object of security the individual, not the state. The second dimension is environmental security and includes issues like climate change, global warming, and access to resources. The third substrate refers to national security, defined as being linked to the state's monopoly over use of force in a given territory and as a substrate of security that emphasizes the military and policing components of security. The fourth component deals with transnational threats such as organized crime, terrorism, and human trafficking. Finally, the integrity of diverse cultures and civilisational forms tackles the issue of transcultural security. According to this multi-faceted security framework all five dimensions of security need to be addressed in order to provide "just" and "sustainable" global security. It therefore advocates cooperative interaction between states and peaceful existence between cultural groups and civilizations.


title: International security

text: The traditional security paradigm refers to a realist construct of security in which the referent object of security is the state. The prevalence of this theorem reached a peak during the Cold War. For almost half a century, major world powers entrusted the security of their nation to a balance of power among states. In this sense international stability relied on the premise that if state security is maintained, then the security of citizens will necessarily follow. Traditional security relied on the anarchistic balance of power, a military build-up between the United States and the Soviet Union (the two superpowers), and on the absolute sovereignty of the nation state. States were deemed to be rational entities, national interests and policy driven by the desire for absolute power. Security was seen as protection from invasion; executed during proxy conflicts using technical and military capabilities.


title: International security

text: As Cold War tensions receded, it became clear that the security of citizens was threatened by hardships arising from internal state activities as well as external aggressors. Civil wars were increasingly common and compounded existing poverty, disease, hunger, violence and human rights abuses. Traditional security policies had effectively masked these underlying basic human needs in the face of state security. Through neglect of its constituents, nation states had failed in their primary objective.


title: International security

text: In the historical debate on how best to achieve national security, writers like Hobbes, Machiavelli, and Rousseau tended to paint a rather pessimistic picture of the implications of state sovereignty. The international system was viewed as a rather brutal arena in which states would seek to achieve their own security at the expense of their neighbors. Inter-state relations were seen as a struggle for power, as states constantly attempted to take advantage of each other. According to this view, permanent peace was unlikely to be achieved. All that states could do was to try to balance the power of other states to prevent any one from achieving overall hegemony. This view was shared by writers such as E.H. Carr and Hans Morgenthau.


title: International security

text: More recently, the traditional state-centric notion of security has been challenged by more holistic approaches to security. Among the approaches which seeks to acknowledge and address these basic threats to human safety are paradigms that include cooperative, comprehensive and collective measures, aimed to ensure security for the individual and, as a result, for the state.


title: International security

text: To enhance international security against potential threats caused by terrorism and organized crime, there have been an increase in international cooperation, resulting in transnational policing. The international police Interpol shares information across international borders and this cooperation has been greatly enhanced by the arrival of the Internet and the ability to instantly transfer documents, films and photographs worldwide.


title: International security

text: In the field of international relations, realism has long been a dominant theory, from ancient military theories and writings of Chinese and Greek thinkers, Sun Tzu and Thucydides being two of the more notable, to Hobbes, Machiavelli and Rousseau. It is the foundation of contemporary international security studies. The twentieth century classical realism is mainly derived from Edward Hallett Carr's book "The Twenty Years' Crisis". The realist views anarchy and the absence of a power to regulate the interactions between states as the distinctive characteristics of international politics. Because of anarchy, or a constant state of antagonism, the international system differs from the domestic system. Realism has a variety of sub-schools whose lines of thought are based on three core assumptions: groupism, egoism, and power-centrism. According to classical realists, bad things happen because the people who make foreign policy are sometimes bad.


title: International security

text: Beginning in the 1960s, with increasing criticism of realism, Kenneth Waltz tried to revive the traditional realist theory by translating some core realist ideas into a deductive, top-down theoretical framework that eventually came to be called neorealism. "Theory of International Politics" brought together and clarified many earlier realist ideas about how the features of the overall system of states affects the way states interact:


title: International security

text: The main theories of neorealism are balance of power theory, balance of threat theory, security dilemma theory, offense-defense theory, hegemonic stability theory and power transition theory.


title: International security

text: Liberalism has a shorter history than realism but has been a prominent theory since World War I. It is a concept with a variety of meanings. Liberal thinking dates back to philosophers such as Thomas Paine and Immanuel Kant, who argued that republican constitutions produce peace. Kant's concept of Perpetual Peace is arguably seen as the starting point of contemporary liberal thought.


title: International security

text: Economic liberalism assumes that economic openness and interdependence between countries makes them more peaceful than countries who are isolated. Eric Gartzke has written that economic freedom is 50 times more effective than democracy in creating peace. Globalization has been important to economic liberalism.


title: International security

text: Liberal institutionalism views international institutions as the main factor to avoid conflicts between nations. Liberal institutionalists argue that; although the anarchic system presupposed by realists cannot be made to disappear by institutions; the international environment that is constructed can influence the behavior of states within the system. Varieties of international governmental organizations (IGOs) and international non-governmental organizations (INGOs) are seen as contributors to world peace.


title: International security

text: Some believe that these international institutions lead to neotrusteeship, or postmodern imperialism. International institutions lead to an interconnectedness between strong and weak or post-conflict nations. In a situation such as a collapsed, weak-nation without the means of autonomous recovery, international institutions often lead to involvement by a stronger nation to aid in recovery. Because there is no definite international security policy to address weak or post-conflict nations, stronger nations sometimes face “mission-creep,” a shift from supplying and aiding nations to an escalation of mission goals, when aiding weaker nations. In addition, there is some debate due to lack of testing that international intervention is not the best institution to aid weak or post-war nations. Possible mission-creep, as well as inefficiencies in international intervention, creates debate as to the effectiveness of international institutions in peacekeeping.


title: International security

text: Since its founding in the 1980s, constructivism has become an influential approach in international security studies. "It is less a theory of international relations or security, however, than a broader social theory which then informs how we might approach the study of security." Constructivists argue that security is a social construction. They emphasize the importance of social, cultural and historical factors, which leads to different actors construing similar events differently.


title: International security

text: As stated previously on this page, international and national security are inherently linked. Former U.S. Secretary of State Hillary Clinton has been prominent in highlighting the importance of women in national and thus international security. In what has been referred to as "the Hillary Doctrine", she highlights the adversarial relationship between extremism and women's liberation in making the point that with women's freedom comes the liberation of whole societies. As states like Egypt and Pakistan grant more rights to women, further liberation and stability within such countries will inevitably ensue, fostering greater security throughout the international realm. Along the same lines, Secretary of State John Kerry stated that "no country can get ahead if it leaves half of its people behind. This is why the United States believes gender equality is critical to our shared goals of prosperity, stability, and peace, and why investing in women and girls worldwide is critical to advancing US foreign policy". Elevating women to equal standing internationally will help achieve greater peace and security. This can be seen in both developmental and economic factors, as just two examples among many. Built into American foreign policy is the idea that empowering women leads to greater international development due to their increased ability to maintain "the well-being of their families and communities, drive social progress, and stabilize societies." Female empowerment through economic investment, such as supporting their participation in the workforce, allows women to sustain their families and contribute to overall economic growth in their communities. Such principles must be propagated nationally and globally in order to increase the agency of women to achieve the necessary gender equality for international security.


title: International security

text: There is much consideration within feminist international relations (IR) surrounding the importance of female presence to international security. The inclusion of women in discussions surrounding international cooperation increases the likelihood of new questions being asked that may not be given consideration in an otherwise masculine-dominated environment. As a renowned theorist within Feminist IR, J. Ann Tickner points out questions that women would likely be more inclined to ask in regards to war and peace. For example, why men have been the predominant actors in combat, how gender hierarchies contribute to the legitimation of war, and the consequences of associating women with peace. In general, the main issue of concern to feminists within IR is why in political, social, and economic realms, femininity remains inferior to masculinity, as they see the effects of this transcendental hierarchy both nationally and internationally. Such considerations contribute significant perspective to the role that women play in maintaining peaceful conditions of international security.


title: International security

text: Despite acknowledgment of the importance of recognizing women's role in maintaining international security by Clinton, Kerry, and conceivably many others, the fact remains that women are disproportionately presented as victims, rather than actors or leaders. This can be derived by looking at information and statistics presented in Joni Seager's book "The Penguin Atlas of Women in the World". For example, in combat zones, women face heightened risks of sexual assault, and their familial responsibilities are complicated by reduced access to necessary resources. In terms of governmental presence, (to support their role as leaders), women have not yet achieved equal representation in any state, and very few countries have legislative bodies that are more than 25% female. While prominent female politicians are becoming more frequent, "women leaders around the world like those who become presidents or prime ministers or foreign ministers or heads of corporations cannot be seen as tokens that give everyone else in society the change to say we've taken care of our women". This statement by Clinton reiterates the necessity to confront such on-going challenges to female participation, making such issues pertinent to international security.


title: International security

text: Human security derives from the traditional concept of security from military threats to the safety of people and communities. It is an extension of mere existence (survival) to well-being and dignity of human beings. Human security is an emerging school of thought about the practice of international security. Under The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA), the Commission on Human Security (CHS), in its final report, Human Security Now defines human security as “…to protect the vital core of all human lives in ways that enhance human freedoms and human fulfillment." Critics of the concept of human security claim that it covers almost everything and that it is too broad to be the focus of research. There have also been criticisms of its challenge to the role of states and their sovereignty. The challenge continues with the debate between responsibility for protection of the international community versus the sovereignty of each state.


title: International security

text: Human security offers a critique of and advocates an alternative to the traditional state-based conception of security. Essentially, it argues that the proper referent for security is the individual and that state practices should reflect this rather than primarily focusing on securing borders through unilateral military action. The justification for the human security approach is said to be that the traditional conception of security is no longer appropriate or effective in the highly interconnected and interdependent modern world in which global threats such as poverty, environmental degradation, and terrorism supersede the traditional security threats of interstate attack and warfare. Further, state-interest-based arguments for human security propose that the international system is too interconnected for the state to maintain an isolationist international policy. Therefore, it argues that a state can best maintain its security and the security of its citizens by ensuring the security of others. It is need to be noted that without the traditional security no human security can be assured.


title: International security

text: Human security is more aligned with non-traditional threats of international security. Compared to the traditional security issues, human security "has been related more to nation-states than to people." Thus, the emphasis on security transitions from territorial security between states to the individual people's security. The two main components includes freedom from fear and freedom from want. The list of human security threats is broad, but can be narrowed under seven main categories: economic security, food security, health security, environmental security, personal security, community security, and political security. Some examples include human trafficking, disease, environmental and natural disasters, degradation, poverty, and more.


title: International security

text: The report elaborates on seven components to human security. Tadjbakhsh and Chenoy list them as follows:


title: Television channel

text: A television channel is a terrestrial frequency or virtual number over which a television station or television network is distributed. For example, in North America, "channel 2" refers to the terrestrial or cable band of 54 to 60 MHz, with carrier frequencies of 55.25 MHz for NTSC analog video (VSB) and 59.75 MHz for analog audio (FM), or 55.31 MHz for digital ATSC (8VSB). Channels may be shared by many different television stations or cable-distributed channels depending on the location and service provider


title: Television channel

text: Depending on the multinational bandplan for a given regional n, analog television channels are typically 6, 7, or 8 MHz in bandwidth, and therefore television channel frequencies vary as well. Channel numbering is also different. Digital terrestrial television channels are the same as their analog predecessors for legacy reasons, however through multiplexing, each physical radio frequency (RF) channel can carry several digital subchannels. On satellites, each transponder normally carries one channel, however multiple small, independent channels can be on one transponder, with some loss of bandwidth due to the need for guard bands between unrelated transmissions. ISDB, used in Japan and Brazil, has a similar segmented mode.


title: Television channel

text: Preventing interference between terrestrial channels in the same area is accomplished by skipping at least one channel between two analog stations' frequency allocations. Where channel numbers are sequential, frequencies are not contiguous, such as channel 6 to 7 skip from VHF low to high band, and channel 13 to 14 jump to UHF. On cable TV, it is possible to use adjacent channels only because they are all at the same power, something which could only be done terrestrially if the two stations were transmitted at the same power and height from the same location. For DTT, selectivity is inherently better, therefore channels adjacent (either to analog or digital stations) can be used even in the same area.


title: Television channel

text: Commonly, the term "television channel" is used to mean a television station or its pay television counterpart (both outlined below). Sometimes, especially outside the U.S. and in the context of pay television, it is used instead of the term television network, which otherwise (in its technical use above) describes a group of geographically-distributed television stations that share affiliation/ownership and some or all of their programming with one another.


title: Television channel

text: This terminology may be muddled somewhat in other jurisdictions, for instance Europe, where terrestrial channels are commonly mapped from physical channels to common numerical positions (i.e. BBC One does not broadcast on any particular "channel 1" but is nonetheless mapped to the "1" input on most British television sets). On digital platforms, such (location) channels are usually arbitrary and changeable, due to virtual channels.


title: Television channel

text: A television station is a type of terrestrial station that broadcasts both audio "and" video to television receivers in a particular area. Traditionally, TV stations made their broadcasts by sending specially-encoded radio signals over the air, called terrestrial television. Individual television stations are usually granted licenses by a government agency to use a particular section of the radio spectrum (a channel) through which they send their signals. Some stations use LPTV broadcast translators to retransmit to further areas.


title: Television channel

text: Many television stations are now in the process of converting from analogue terrestrial (NTSC, PAL or SECAM) broadcast, to digital terrestrial (ATSC broadcast, DVB or ISDB).


title: Television channel

text: Because some regions have had difficulty picking up terrestrial television signals (particularly in mountainous areas), alternative means of distribution such as direct-to-home satellite and cable television have been introduced. Television channels specifically built to run on cable or satellite blur the line between TV station and TV network. That fact led some early cable channels to call themselves superstations.


title: Television channel

text: Satellite and cable have created changes. Local programming TV stations in an area can sign-up or even be required to be carried on cable, but content providers like TLC cannot. They are not licensed to run broadcast equipment like a station, and they do not regularly provide content to licensed broadcasters either. Furthermore, a distributor like TNT may start producing its own programming, and shows presented exclusively on pay-TV by one distributor may be syndicated to terrestrial stations. The cost of creating a nationwide channel has been reduced and there has been a huge increase in the number of such channels, with most catering to a small group. See also: significantly viewed.


title: Television channel

text: From the definitions above, use of the terms "network" or "station" in reference to nationwide cable or satellite channels is technically inaccurate. However, this is an arbitrary, inconsequential distinction, and varies from company to company. Indeed, the term "cable network" has entered into common usage in the United States in reference to such channels, even with the existence of direct broadcast satellite. There is even some geographical separation among "national" pay television channels in the U.S., be it programming (e.g., the Bally Sports group of regional sports channels, which share several programs), or simply regionalized advertising inserted by the local cable company.


title: Television channel

text: Should a legal distinction be necessary between a (location) channel as defined above and a television channel in this sense, the terms "programming service" (e.g.) or "programming undertaking" (for instance,) may be used instead of the latter definition.