title: Joseph Addison

text: Addison's character has been described as kind and magnanimous, albeit somewhat cool and unimpassioned, with a tendency for convivial excess. His appealing manners and conversation contributed to his general popularity. He often put his friends under obligations for substantial favours, but he showed great forbearance toward his few enemies. His essays are noted for their clarity and elegant style, as well as their cheerful and respectful humour.


title: Joseph Addison

text: William Thackeray portrayed Addison and Steele as characters in his novel "The History of Henry Esmond".


title: Five crowns

text: The Five Crowns, also known as the Five Heavenly Crowns, is a concept in Christian theology that pertains to various biblical references to the righteous's eventual reception of a crown after the Last Judgment. Proponents of this concept interpret these passages as specifying five separate crowns, these being the Crown of Life; the Incorruptible Crown; the Crown of Righteousness; the Crown of Glory; and the Crown of Exultation. In the Greek language, "stephanos" (στέφανος) is the word for "crown" and is translated as such in the Bible, especially in versions descending from the King James Version. These five rewards can be earned by believers, according to the New Testament, as "rewards for faithfulness in this life".


title: Five crowns

text: The Crown of Life, also called the Martyr's Crown, is referred to in and ; it is bestowed upon "those who persevere under trials." Jesus references this crown when he tells the Church in Smyrna to "not be afraid of what you are about to suffer... Be faithful even to the point of death, and I will give you the crown of life."


title: Five crowns

text: The Incorruptible Crown is also known as the Imperishable Crown, and is referenced in . This epistle, written by Paul of Tarsus, deems this crown "imperishable" in order "to contrast it with the temporal awards Paul's contemporaries pursued". It is therefore given to those individuals who demonstrate "self-denial and perseverance".


title: Five crowns

text: The Crown of Righteousness is mentioned in , and is promised to "those who love and anticipate" the Second Coming of Christ. These Christians desire intimacy with God.


title: Five crowns

text: The Crown of Glory is discussed in and is granted to Christian clergy, who "shepherd the flock in unselfish love being a good example to others" .


title: Five crowns

text: The Crown of Rejoicing is also known as the Crown of Exultation, or Crown of Auxiliary. Delineated in and , it is given to people who engage in evangelism of those outside the Christian Church. In the New Testament, Paul earns this crown after winning the Thessalonians to faith in Jesus.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: Anthony Ray Lynn (born December 21, 1968) is an American football coach and former running back who is the assistant head coach and running backs coach for the San Francisco 49ers of the National Football League (NFL). He previously played in the NFL for six seasons, primarily with the Denver Broncos. Utilized in a reserve role, Lynn was a member of the Broncos teams that won two consecutive Super Bowls in Super Bowl XXXII and Super Bowl XXXIII. After retiring as a player, he served as the head coach of the Los Angeles Chargers from 2017 to 2020. He was also the interim head coach for the Buffalo Bills in 2016.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: The Lynn played at Celina High School, and later for the Texas Tech Red Raiders (1988–1991), where he was an All-Southwest Conference running back in 1990. His senior year was cut short by a knee injury, and concerns about the injury left him undrafted. He was a journeyman reserve running back and special teams player during his NFL career, playing for the Denver Broncos (1993, 1997–1999) and San Francisco 49ers (1995–1996). He retired in 2000 due to repeated neck stinger injuries. Lynn was part of Denver's back-to-back Super Bowl champion teams in 1997 and 1998.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: Upon retiring in 2000, he joined the Denver coaching staff as an offensive assistant and special teams coach.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: Lynn then joined the Jacksonville Jaguars as the running backs coach (2003–2004). He left Jacksonville after being switched to special teams coach following a coaching staff shakeup by head coach Jack Del Rio in 2005.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: On January 26, 2007, with the retirement of Bill Parcells as Dallas head coach, Lynn signed on with the Cleveland Browns to fill their running backs coach vacancy.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: Lynn was named the assistant head coach/running backs coach for the New York Jets on February 1, 2012, under head coach Rex Ryan, and was subsequently interviewed for the head coach job in January 2015, after Ryan left. From 2009 to 2013, with Lynn as running backs coach, the Jets running game produced an NFL-leading 137.0 yards per game. In 2013, Lynn helped Chris Ivory establish a team-leading 833 yards on 182 carries.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: When Lynn did not get the position of head coach of the New York Jets, he followed Rex Ryan to the Buffalo Bills where he took the same position of running back coach. The Bills had the top rushing game in the NFL during the 2015–2016 season. On September 16, 2016, Lynn was promoted to assistant head coach and offensive coordinator of the Bills when Greg Roman was fired. When asked what he wants his offensive identity to be, Lynn responded, "I want to play smart, physical football. I want to be explosive down the field... We're going to play a little bit faster and see if we can put a little pressure on the defense. Just execute." Lynn made his debut as offensive coordinator against the Arizona Cardinals, pulling out a 33–18 win.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: On December 30, 2015, the Miami Dolphins interviewed Lynn for their head coach position. He was the fourth head coaching candidate interviewed that week. Lynn also interviewed for the head coaching job with the New York Jets on January 6, 2015, shortly after head coach Rex Ryan was fired. Lynn knew the organization well and was extremely well-respected.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: In January 2016, Lynn was a head coaching candidate for the San Francisco 49ers, but removed his name from consideration before a decision was made. Despite not taking a head coaching position in 2016, media insider Ian Rapoport listed Lynn as one of his candidates in a good position to become a head coach. On January 12, 2017, Lynn was named head coach of the newly christened Los Angeles Chargers and one day later the Chargers officially confirmed his hiring as the new coach.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: On January 12, 2017, Lynn was hired to become the new head coach of the Los Angeles Chargers, the same day that owner Dean Spanos announced that the Chargers were relocating from San Diego to Los Angeles. Lynn's hire was confirmed by the Chargers one day later on January 13 on the team's website. Lynn became the franchise's first African-American head coach in its 56-year history.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: In his second season as the Chargers head coach, Lynn led Los Angeles to a 12–4 record, earning its first playoff berth since 2013. The Chargers went on to defeat the Baltimore Ravens in the 23–17, before being eliminated in the by the eventual Super Bowl LIII champion New England Patriots by a score of 41–28.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: Lynn would miss the playoffs in 2019, finishing last in the AFC West with a 5–11 record. During the subsequent offseason, the Chargers parted ways with Philip Rivers, who had been the team's starting quarterback since 2006. In the 2020 NFL Draft, the Chargers drafted quarterback Justin Herbert of Oregon sixth overall, seen as an eventual replacement for Rivers.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: In 2020, the Chargers missed the playoffs and finished third in the AFC West with a 7–9 record, winning their final four games of the season. On January 4, 2021, Lynn was fired by the Chargers. He finished his Chargers tenure with a 33–31 (.516) regular season record and 1–1 postseason record.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: On January 23, 2021, Lynn was hired by the Detroit Lions as their offensive coordinator. On January 10, 2022, Detroit Lions head coach Dan Campbell, announced that the Lions organization and Anthony Lynn were parting ways.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: On February 4, 2022, Lynn was hired by the San Francisco 49ers as their assistant head coach. After it was announced Bobby Turner was not returning for the season, Lynn gained the additional title of running backs coach.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: Lynn has a son, D'Anton, and a daughter, Danielle, with his ex-wife, Cynda. He married journalist Stacey Bell on March 5, 2011, in Dallas, Texas. His son, D'Anton, played college football for the Penn State Nittany Lions, and was signed as an undrafted rookie by the New York Jets following the 2012 NFL Draft. D’Anton was soon released. Lynn was supportive of his son's decision to follow in his footsteps, and taught him about the hard work that goes into being a professional football player both on and off the field.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: During Cowboys training camp on August 20, 2005, Lynn was a victim of a hit-and-run automobile accident. Lynn and Todd Haley, both offensive assistants for Bill Parcells, were out for pizza after training camp in Ventura, California. As Lynn and Haley were crossing the street, Lynn was hit by drunk driver Sergio Sandoval. Lynn suffered two collapsed lungs, facial and shoulder damage, and temporary paralysis in his lower body. He had four surgeries on his face, knee and shoulder due to the incident. Lynn returned to coaching less than two weeks later. Lynn's story was featured in a Verizon advertisement during Super Bowl LIII in 2019, where he was introduced to the first responders who treated him.


title: Anthony Lynn

text: On May 12, 2018, Lynn graduated from the University of Nevada, Las Vegas with a Bachelor of Arts in interdisciplinary studies.


title: Design by contract

text: Design by contract (DbC), also known as contract programming, programming by contract and design-by-contract programming, is an approach for designing software.


title: Design by contract

text: It prescribes that software designers should define formal, precise and verifiable interface specifications for software components, which extend the ordinary definition of abstract data types with preconditions, postconditions and invariants. These specifications are referred to as "contracts", in accordance with a conceptual metaphor with the conditions and obligations of business contracts.


title: Design by contract

text: The DbC approach assumes all "client components" that invoke an operation on a "server component" will meet the preconditions specified as required for that operation.


title: Design by contract

text: Where this assumption is considered too risky (as in multi-channel or distributed computing), the inverse approach is taken, meaning that the "server component" tests that all relevant preconditions hold true (before, or while, processing the "client component"'s request) and replies with a suitable error message if not.


title: Design by contract

text: The term was coined by Bertrand Meyer in connection with his design of the Eiffel programming language and first described in various articles starting in 1986 and the two successive editions (1988, 1997) of his book "Object-Oriented Software Construction". Eiffel Software applied for trademark registration for "Design by Contract" in December 2003, and it was granted in December 2004. The current owner of this trademark is Eiffel Software.


title: Design by contract

text: Design by contract has its roots in work on formal verification, formal specification and Hoare logic. The original contributions include:


title: Design by contract

text: The central idea of DbC is a metaphor on how elements of a software system collaborate with each other on the basis of mutual "obligations" and "benefits". The metaphor comes from business life, where a "client" and a "supplier" agree on a "contract" that defines, for example, that:


title: Design by contract

text: Similarly, if the method of a class in object-oriented programming provides a certain functionality, it may:


title: Design by contract

text: The contract is semantically equivalent to a Hoare triple which formalises the obligations. This can be summarised by the "three questions" that the designer must repeatedly answer in the contract:


title: Design by contract

text: Many programming languages have facilities to make assertions like these. However, DbC considers these contracts to be so crucial to software correctness that they should be part of the design process. In effect, DbC advocates writing the assertions first. Contracts can be written by code comments, enforced by a test suite, or both, even if there is no special language support for contracts.


title: Design by contract

text: The notion of a contract extends down to the method/procedure level; the contract for each method will normally contain the following pieces of information:


title: Design by contract

text: Subclasses in an inheritance hierarchy are allowed to weaken preconditions (but not strengthen them) and strengthen postconditions and invariants (but not weaken them). These rules approximate behavioural subtyping.


title: Design by contract

text: All class relationships are between client classes and supplier classes. A client class is obliged to make calls to supplier features where the resulting state of the supplier is not violated by the client call. Subsequently, the supplier is obliged to provide a return state and data that does not violate the state requirements of the client.


title: Design by contract

text: For instance, a supplier data buffer may require that data is present in the buffer when a delete feature is called. Subsequently, the supplier guarantees to the client that when a delete feature finishes its work, the data item will, indeed, be deleted from the buffer. Other design contracts are concepts of class invariant. The class invariant guarantees (for the local class) that the state of the class will be maintained within specified tolerances at the end of each feature execution.


title: Design by contract

text: When using contracts, a supplier should not try to verify that the contract conditions are satisfied—a practice known as offensive programming—the general idea being that code should "fail hard", with contract verification being the safety net.


title: Design by contract

text: DbC's "fail hard" property simplifies the debugging of contract behavior, as the intended behaviour of each method is clearly specified.


title: Design by contract

text: This approach differs substantially from that of defensive programming, where the supplier is responsible for figuring out what to do when a precondition is broken. More often than not, the supplier throws an exception to inform the client that the precondition has been broken, and in both cases—DbC and defensive programming alike—the client must figure out how to respond to that. In such cases, DbC makes the supplier's job easier.


title: Design by contract

text: Design by contract can also facilitate code reuse, since the contract for each piece of code is fully documented. The contracts for a module can be regarded as a form of software documentation for the behavior of that module.


title: Design by contract

text: Contract conditions should never be violated during execution of a bug-free program. Contracts are therefore typically only checked in debug mode during software development. Later at release, the contract checks are disabled to maximize performance.


title: Design by contract

text: In many programming languages, contracts are implemented with assert. Asserts are by default compiled away in release mode in C/C++, and similarly deactivated in C# and Java.


title: Design by contract

text: Launching the Python interpreter with "-O" (for "optimize") as an argument will likewise cause the Python code generator to not emit any bytecode for asserts.


title: Design by contract

text: This effectively eliminates the run-time costs of asserts in production code—irrespective of the number and computational expense of asserts used in development—as no such instructions will be included into production by the compiler.


title: Design by contract

text: Design by contract does not replace regular testing strategies, such as unit testing, integration testing and system testing. Rather, it complements external testing with internal self-tests that can be activated both for isolated tests and in production code during a test-phase.


title: Design by contract

text: The advantage of internal self-tests is that they can detect errors before they manifest themselves as invalid results observed by the client. This leads to earlier and more specific error detection.


title: Design by contract

text: The use of assertions can be considered to be a form of test oracle, a way of testing the design by contract implementation.


title: Design by contract

text: Additionally, the standard method combination in the Common Lisp Object System has the method qualifiers codice_1, codice_2 and codice_3 that allow writing contracts as auxiliary methods, among other uses.


title: Design by contract

text: Various libraries, preprocessors and other tools have been developed for existing programming languages without native design by contract support:


title: Shadow Hearts

text: Shadow Hearts is a series of role-playing video games, consisting of a trilogy of titles for the PlayStation 2 (PS2) and their predecessor "Koudelka" for the PlayStation. The entire series was developed by Sacnoth (later Nautilus); "Koudelka" was published by SNK in 1999, while the "Shadow Hearts" trilogy were published by Aruze from 2001 to 2005. Multiple other publishers handled the titles overseas. The "Shadow Hearts" chronology extends from the late 1890s to the 1920s, following different casts of characters caught in supernatural mysteries. The setting combines alternate history and cosmic horror, with real-world figures making appearances, and each title has multiple endings.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: Production of "Koudelka" began with the formation of Sacnoth in 1997 by Hiroki Kikuta and a number of other former Square staff. Internal conflict between Kikuta and the developers eventually led to Kikuta resigning, with planned sequels to "Koudelka" being cancelled. The setting was instead used by Matsuzo Machida for the original "Shadow Hearts". While Machida planned to continue the series after 2005's "", these plans never materialized, with Sacnoth being absorbed into Aruze and ceasing game production in 2007.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: The series saw limited media expansions, with "Koudelka" in particular receiving both a novelization and a manga continuation based on the initial story plan. While "Koudelka" saw mixed reactions from critics, the "Shadow Hearts" trilogy saw both contemporary and retrospective praise and is Sacnoth's best-known product. "" in particular has been praised as one of the PS2's best RPGs, and was a commercial success for its publishers.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: The gameplay of the "Shadow Hearts" series follows a similar formula; they are role-playing video games featuring the exploration of multiple locations across the world, and turn-based battle systems triggered through both random and scripted encounters. Other elements include optional content such as minigames and side quests. The basic system was established in the first "Shadow Hearts", with the next two entries adding new battle elements such as combination attacks and versions of actions that allowed a character to act twice in one turn.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: A key element of all three entries for both battle and elements outside battle is the Judgement Ring. Represented as a disc with colored areas on its surface, the player's aim is to hit those areas as a pointer passes over them; hit areas are split into different colors, with narrower red areas at the end of each areas increasing the effectiveness of the chosen action. Each entry features at least one character who has the power to either absorb or make pacts with supernatural entities and take on their forms and abilities. Transforming takes sanity points, a resource that when fully depleted causes a character to go berserk and act independently in battle.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: "Koudelka" combines two distinct styles of gameplay; exploration from fixed camera perspectives and puzzle solving similar to earlier entries in the "Resident Evil" series; and turn-based combat playing out on a grid triggered through a random encounter system. The game's original concept called for real-time combat during exploration using surrounding objects as weapons, but internal staff conflict led to a more traditional RPG combat system, separating it from the rest of the gameplay and narrative.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: The "Shadow Hearts" universe is set in an alternate history version of Earth; this version of Earth blends real events and figures from history with supernatural events and cosmic horror. Multiple elements of the series' world and enemy design were drawn from H. P. Lovecraft's Cthulhu Mythos, meant as a deliberate contrast with the enemies of other RPGs at the time. All titles within the series have multiple endings, with a recurring element in "Koudelka" and "Shadow Hearts" being that the canon narrative led from their "bad" endings. The original world design drew from several sources, including the writing of Lovecraft, Umberto Eco, William Hope Hodgson and Lord Dunsany. Later narrative design drew from the work of manga creator Go Nagai and screenwriter Keisuke Fujikawa.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: "Koudelka" takes place in the late 1890s, a time chosen as a turning point between an era of superstition and the modern technological age. It is set in Nemeton, a fictional converted priory in Aberystwyth, Wales; the setting was inspired by ruins seen on a research trip taken by the developers to Pembrokeshire. "Shadow Hearts", which takes place in 1913-1914, spreads its events across the Eurasian continent. "Covenant" takes place six months after the first game in 1915 during World War I. "From the New World", while taking place in the same universe as earlier entries, is a spin-off set in the Americas in 1929 during the Prohibition era.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: The plots of "Shadow Hearts" and "Covenant" are linked by the romance between Yuri Hyuga, a "Harmonixer" capable of capturing and shapeshifting into monsters; and Alice Elliot, an exorcist who holds a key power. During the canon series of events, Alice dies saving Yuri's soul, then Yuri uses an opportunity to return to the beginning of "Shadow Hearts" and redo events so he can save her. Other recurring characters are "Koudelka" protagonist Koudelka Iasant; Roger Bacon, a 12th-century philosopher who achieved imperfect immortality; and the Valentine family, a clan of friendly vampires. A recurring plot point across the series is the Émigré Manuscript or Document, a text filled with an ancient civilization's magic for reviving the dead; use of the Émigré Manuscript forms the central mystery of "Koudelka" and acts as a key plot point in each "Shadow Hearts" entry.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: The "Shadow Hearts" series began with the production and release of "Koudelka". It was developed at Sacnoth, a game developer founded with funding from SNK by former Square composer Hiroki Kikuta; he acted as the game's producer, director, writer and composer. Production began in 1997 following the company's foundation. His aim was to create an unconventional horror RPG, though he ended up clashing with the game design staff, and following the release of "Koudelka" resigned from Sacnoth. This led to a series of sequels continuing Koudelka's storyline being scrapped.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: "Shadow Hearts", which began production following the release of "Koudelka", was directed and written by "Koudelka" art director Matsuzo Machida (originally credited as Matsuzo Itakura). During this period, Sacnoth's parent company SNK was bought out by Aruze (later Universal Interactive), giving Aruze control of the "Shadow Hearts" intellectual property. Machida wanted to create an RPG with "Shadow Hearts" that fell outside the typical settings of other RPGs, using the world of "Koudelka" as a starting point and building upon it with original lore. "Shadow Hearts" was the last game produced by Sacnoth before its rebranding as Nautilus, with its responsibilities split between production of the "Shadow Hearts" series and supporting work on Aruze's arcade machine business.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: In response to feedback from the first game, Machida shifted the tone of "Covenant" to incorporate more humor, making its central theme the pursuit of happiness. "From the New World" was produced on a tight time schedule by the same team as "Covenant". The focus was on refining and building upon the gameplay mechanics of "Covenant" rather than changing anything, with the new setting and characters intended to give series newcomers an easy gateway. While Machida had plans for a true sequel to "Covenant", Nautilus was absorbed into Aruze and rebranded in 2007, ceasing game production operations and eventually being absorbed into Aruze in 2009. Also in 2007, Aruze patented with the Judgement Ring battle system. Many of the "Shadow Hearts" team had by this point moved to feelplus, contributing to the production of several titles including "Lost Odyssey". Speaking in 2021, Universal Interactive confirmed that there were no plans to continue the series or remake any of its entries.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: The characters of "Koudelka" were designed by manga artist Yūji Iwahara, who created over 100 character sketches for the project. For the three "Shadow Hearts" titles, the characters were designed by Miyako Kato. Series protagonist Yuri was designed to both appear and behave unlike the typical RPG protagonist of the time. During her work on "From the New World", several characters went through extensive redesigns. The CGI cutscenes for "Koudelka" and "Shadow Hearts" were created by Digital Media Labs. Kikuta supervised the motion capture of real-time cutscenes for "Koudelka", conducted by Santa Monica-based special-effects company FutureLight. The CGI cutscenes for "Covenant" and "From the New World" were created by external company Avant. Real-time cutscenes for "Covenant" were made more realistic, with motion capture being used for most characters.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: "Koudelka", released overseas by Infogrames, had its voice acting in English across all regions. For "Shadow Hearts", the original dialogue was in Japanese and localized into English by Wordbox, with dubbing by TAJ Productions. "Covenant" was translated into English by ZPang America, with dubbing handled by Intersound Post Production. Both "Shadow Hearts" and "Covenant" were released overseas by Midway Games. "From the New World" was released in North America by Xseed Games, acting as one of its first projects alongside "Wild Arms 4". In Europe, the title was released by Ghostlight. The translation of all three "Shadow Hearts" titles was handled by Jeremy Blaustein, who had previously worked on the "Pokémon" anime series, "Valkyrie Profile" and "Metal Gear Solid". During localization, Yuri's first name was changed from "Urmnaf". Blaustein chose "Yuri" as he wanted a name that sounded Russian to reflect the character's origins. He later remembered "Covenant" as one of his favorite projects.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: The music for the "Shadow Hearts" series was primarily composed by Yoshitaka Hirota, who had earlier worked as a sound designer on "Koudelka". Hirota's work on the series music was influenced by his work as a sound designer, incorporating sound effects alongside a wide range of music genres. Hirota collaborated with several different composers on each soundtrack. For "Shadow Hearts", the collaborators were Masaharu Iwata, Yasunori Mitsuda and Ryo Fukuda. For "Covenant", Mitsuda returned along with series newcomers Kenji Ito and Tomoko Kobayashi. With "From the New World", Fukuda returned and was joined by Tomoko Imoto and Hirotomi Imoto. The music of "Koudelka" was composed by Kikuta, who found the experience of writing it to be the easiest aspect of the game's production. All four games received soundtrack albums released between 1999 and 2005, while Hirota released an arrange album in 2005.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: The Japanese release of "Koudelka" was "moderately successful" according to a Western report. "Shadow Hearts" had estimated sales of approximately 110,000 units, sales referred to by Aruze as low. By contrast, "Covenant" was a commercial success for both Aruze and Midway in its respective release regions. Similarly, "From the New World" was cited as a sales success by its respective Japanese and North American publishers.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: Chris Breault of "Kill Screen", in an article celebrating the first two "Shadow Hearts" titles, noted its blend of many conventional elements while being "loyal in the end only to the principle of staying weird". "Game Informer"s Kimberley Wallace wrote a retrospective article on the series, praising the series as a forgotten classic and citing its combination of dark, emotional and comedic content as the reason for its continued niche appeal. In an article about "Covenant" for "RPGFan", Stephanie Sybydlo cited the series as "cool and atmospheric", praising its blending of history and magic together with its combat system; in the same article Robert Fenner negatively noted the shift towards humor that began with "Covenant" and was fully expressed in "From the New World". Anthony John Agnello of "GamesRadar" praised the series for its "inky, fast-beating heart" that expressed itself best in "Covenant". "Anime News Network"s Todd Ciolek noted that "Shadow Hearts" was Sacnoth's best-recognised product and stood out during the PS2 era against other RPGs. Cameron Teague of "PlayStation Lifestyle" cited the series as a candidate of a possible return on the PlayStation 5, citing its atmosphere and themes.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: Contemporary reception of "Koudelka" was mixed, with many praising its storyline and characters while faulting its gameplay and graphics compared to other titles of the time. "Shadow Hearts" was praised for its narrative and the Judgement Ring mechanic, but many faulted its graphics at inferior to other titles for the time and disliked other elements of its gameplay. "Covenant" was praised as a stronger entry than its predecessor overall, with most praise going to its graphics and gameplay improvements. Multiple websites later ranked "Covenant" as one of the best RPGs, or games in general, from the PS2. "GameTrailers" called "Covenant" "the greatest JRPG that no-one talks about" due to its unconventional tone and battle system. "From the New World" saw a less positive response, with many faulting its change of tone and more complicated gameplay, though it was still seen as a high-quality product.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: "Koudelka" was supported by several medial expansions. A CD drama based on the game, with Japanese actors and excerpts from its score, was released in November 1999 by Scitron Digital Contents. The first of a three-volume manga adaptation, written and illustrated by the game's illustrator Yūji Iwahara, was published in November 1999 by Kadokawa Shoten; the third and final volume was published in September 2000. The manga would have bridged the narrative gap between "Koudelka" and its scrapped sequels. A novelization, "Koudelka - The Mansion's Scream" by Nahoko Korekata, was published by ASCII Media Works in February 2000 as part of its Famitsu Bunko imprint.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: "Shadow Hearts" was supplemented by a single guidebook published by Enterbrain in July 2001. "Covenant" was supplemented with three strategy guides between February and May 2004 by SoftBank Publishing, Kadokawa and MediaWorks respectively; and a guidebook featuring behind-the-scenes material published by SoftBank in June 2004. Also in June, a manga anthology featuring both serious and comedic vignettes surrounding the game's cast was produced by Studio DNA. "From the New World" was supplemented by two strategy guides published in September and October respectively by MediaWorks and Enterbrain, and a behind-the-scenes guidebook published by Softbank in November.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: Several characters from "Shadow Hearts" series cameoed in "Chaos Wars", a 2006 crossover video game developed by Idea Factory and featuring cameos from multiple series including "Gungrave" and "Growlanser". In 2008, Aruze used "Covenant" as a theme for one of its line of slot machines.


title: Shadow Hearts

text: In 2022, Machida, Kato, and Hirota later co-launched a Kickstarter campaign for a spiritual successor titled "Penny Blood", featuring similar mechanics to the "Shadow Hearts" series. The campaign launched on August 29 as part of a project to fund both "Penny Blood" and "Armed Fantasia", a spiritual successor to the "Wild Arms"; the two games had a combined minimum goal of $750,000.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: The Joe Schmo Show is a reality television hoax show created by Paul Wernick and Rhett Reese. The series was broadcast in the U.S. on the cable network Spike. The show's premise is that a target person or people are led to believe that they are contestants on a reality television show; in reality, all of the other participants in the purported show – including the host – are actors, and their actions and the outcome of the purported show are all scripted in an attempt to elicit comedic reactions from the targets. The show's first season, The Joe Schmo Show, aired in 2003, and its second season, Joe Schmo 2, aired in 2004. The first season's hoax was conducted as a typical reality competition show while the second hoax was a "Bachelor"-like dating series.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: On December 10, 2012, Spike announced it was bringing "The Joe Schmo Show" back for a third season, which premiered on January 8, 2013.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: The only constant presence in all three "Joe Schmo" seasons has been voice actor Ralph Garman, who has served as the "emcee" for all three editions (playing a smarmier caricature of himself in the first, a pompous British man in the second, and a bounty hunter in the third).


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: The target of season one was Mt. Lebanon, Pennsylvania native Matt Kennedy Gould. The other "contestants" are archetypes of common reality TV show participants.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: Two actors made brief appearances in supporting roles: Ryan Raddatz played Molly's boyfriend, William (who feigned shock at seeing her in a bikini), and Steve Ireland played David Decker, a "network executive" who negotiated with Gould to finish the "Meal Not Quite Fit for a King" challenge.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: For the hoax, the producers named the faux-reality show "Lap of Luxury", with a $100,000 top prize "awarded" to the "winner." Perhaps in an attempt to keep things as close to actual reality shows as possible, at the end of every episode an eviction ceremony was conducted where each contestant voted to evict someone, and the person with the most votes was eliminated. After the written finish was executed, the actor in question would take a plate with their face painted on it and give it to Garman, who would then state a rhyming couplet that went "Ashes to ashes, dust to dust, (name), you're dead to us" then throw the plate into the fireplace, breaking it. In the final episode the three remaining "players" (in this case Gould, "Brian", and "Hutch") faced a final vote from the evicted "houseguests" (similar to the final Tribal Council on "Survivor") with the one getting the most votes "winning".


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: The show experienced an unexpected shift during an early episode. Earl ("the Veteran") had bonded with Gould. When Earl was "voted" off the show, Gould began to weep and question his possible monetary gain at the cost of competing against his new friends. Both the other "contestants" and the show's executives allegedly questioned the future of the show. While Gould was kept in the dark until the very end, the tone of the show was apparently altered (according to the voiceover of the early episodes). While the original premise had been to make situations funny at Gould's expense, it became clear that the audience would sympathize too strongly with his earnestness; later games and contests were rigged to ensure he would win.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: Gould's sensitivity came to the forefront in a later episode featuring a sumo wrestling contest. Gould knocked down Kristen Wiig, playing "Dr. Pat", causing a real-life head injury that forced her to be taken to the hospital. Gould eventually won the contest but was disturbed by the incident. The next day, when Wiig returned to the show, still in character, Gould gave her the all-expense-paid spa vacation he had won earlier.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: The producers added a twist in the series when Hutch was eliminated due to breaking the rules. After said elimination he returned and (as noted above) made the final, where he was declared the "winner" just before the hoax was revealed.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: In the show's October 28, 2003 finale, which aired to over 3.4 million viewers (the all-time record for a non-wrestling show on TNN/Spike up to that time), Gould learned the truth and received the $100,000 prize for which he was "competing," along with the two vacations and a new plasma TV. He later recorded commentary that was included in "Mo' Joe Schmo," a rebroadcast of the series. "The Joe Schmo Show" was released on DVD with additional and uncensored footage in 2004.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: Gould's plaintive cry, "What is going on?," delivered upon his discovery that the show was a fraud, became a popular catchphrase. Spike TV has since used the phrase at the end of the network's other original productions, some of them involving Gould himself.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: Some cast members have gone on to bigger success, including Kristen Wiig, who landed a regular spot on "Saturday Night Live" in 2005, and also went on to co-write and star in the 2011 film "Bridesmaids"; Lance Krall, creator, writer and lead of VH1's "Free Radio"; Ralph Garman, a voice actor on "Family Guy" and co-host of "Hollywood Babble-On"; and David Hornsby, who is a writer, supervising producer, and performer on "It's Always Sunny in Philadelphia".


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: Creator/producers Rhett Reese and Paul Wernick went on to a number of projects, including the films "Zombieland" and "Deadpool".


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: In 2004, Spike TV aired a second season of "The Joe Schmo Show", called Joe Schmo 2 and tagged, "The Schmo must go on." Rather than duplicate the premise of the first season, producers satirized reality dating shows such as "The Bachelor" and "The Bachelorette" with a fake show called "Last Chance for Love". This time the premise was to fool two people, a man and a woman. The male role was filled by Tim Walsh, while Ingrid Wiese was chosen to be the female "schmo". The series premiered on June 15, 2004.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: Ralph Garman returned to host the second season as Derek Newcastle, dying his hair blond and wearing a fake beard, glasses, blue contact lenses, and false teeth plus spoke with a British accent so he would not be recognized by the new contestants.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: The original "Joe Schmo," Matt Kennedy Gould, taped a cameo appearance during an episode of "Joe Schmo 2" as a pizza delivery man, but the segment was cut when the network decided to shorten the episode; it did appear on the DVD. "Joe Schmo 2" was released on DVD with additional and uncensored footage in 2009.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: The series took an unexpected twist within minutes of its beginning when Wiese became suspicious of some of her fellow contestants (especially when one, who had only been hired for the first episode and was not aware of the nature of the program, told Wiese that her agent had arranged for her to appear on the show). Throughout the next few episodes, Wiese began noticing additional plot holes and moments that seemed scripted. Things reached a head when the character of "Cammy", who was supposed to be telling Ingrid a secret, paused her story in order to allow the cameraman to change batteries. Wiese began openly questioning the contest, eventually stating during an interview segment that she didn't believe it was real.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: Since Walsh had not suspected anything was awry, the producers continued to conduct the show as it was while at the same time trying to figure out what to do with Wiese. It was finally decided that the producers would reveal to Wiese that she had correctly deduced that the entire thing was a hoax during an activity where Walsh was not present. Wiese was then made an offer: as long as she agreed to stay on the show, in effect becoming a cast member herself, and to not reveal the hoax to Walsh, she would receive the same $100,000 prize that Walsh would be given at the end of the series had he himself not figured the hoax out. Wiese agreed. In her place as the female "schmo", Upper St. Clair, Pennsylvania native Amanda Naughton was added to the cast. Naughton was a contestant that previously wasn't chosen to appear on the show.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: As with the first season, the cast members (including Wiese, once she was let on to the hoax) portrayed characters based on archetypes common to many dating game and reality shows.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: Two other actors (Timothy Brennan and Robin McDonald) had supporting roles in two separate episodes. In one episode, Brennan played Piper's over-protective father, Frank, while McDonald played Piper's loving mother, Betty. The next episode featured Brennan as Austin's fun-loving father, Dallas, and McDonald as Austin's strict mother, Lois. Each "Schmo" met the pair in only one of their two sets of roles.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: After revealing the hoax to her and inviting her to join the other actors, producers also gave Wiese storylines of her own including one in which her character was accused of faking a death in the family (a reference to a on the then-recent "") in a bid to win Austin's affections. At one point she was eliminated from the show, but was later allowed to return. Tim Walsh was also evicted at one point, but this was part of the ongoing storyline, and he also rejoined the contest soon after.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: The show's major ongoing plot involved the character of Bryce, who began stalking Piper, the Bachelorette, even after he was evicted twice from the show.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: The series ultimately resolved itself at a "promise ceremony", attended by all the previous contestants on the show, where Piper and Austin, who it was revealed were in fact an estranged couple, were given the choice of either promising themselves to Amanda and Tim (the last two contestants), or marrying each other. Realizing their love had not died after all, Piper and Austin agreed to marry, but the ceremony was interrupted by the manic Bryce, who proclaimed his love for Piper, and then revealed the true nature of the program. After a tense moment (the producers were prepared for the usually easy-going but sometimes irritable Tim to react badly to the revelation), Tim broke the tension by exclaiming, "Jackpot!" The moment served as a humorous callback, as Walsh had used this exclamation several times throughout the course of the season.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: All three "Schmos" (Walsh, Naughton, and Wiese) received the same amount ($100,000) that Gould earned in season one, plus vacation packages they won playing contests during the show. It was also stated that a Third World child would be adopted in Walsh's name (the first episode had "Ernie" adopting a Third World child on behalf of Piper).


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: During the finale, Naughton recognized Natasha Leggero, one of the actresses who had been eliminated prior to Naughton's arrival, because she had seen her perform as a stand-up comic. The discovery did not derail the illusion because Naughton did not know the false identity that Leggero had created for the show, having been brought into the program after Leggero's character (Rita) had been eliminated from the program, but it did rattle Herzog who became visibly anxious and took a moment before recovering and proceeding with his lines.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: Much of the final episode detailed the immediate aftermath of the revelation to Amanda and Tim. During the episode, Valerie Azlynn, who had portrayed "Bachelorette" Piper, tearfully expressed remorse at the hoax. Both Amanda and Tim took the revelation of the hoax in relatively good (if somewhat stunned) spirit. As of January 2013, Amanda had found romance and was going by her married name of Amanda Mason, having given birth to her first child four months previously. She stated that "her experience on the show made her feel dumb for only 30 seconds." Tim Walsh had found a wife and had two children. He had become an owner of a bar, which he later sold, then began overseeing operations at a bar, Town Hall, in Washington D.C.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: In January 2012, Spike TV announced it had picked up a new ten-episode series titled "Full Bounty", described as "a reality competition series featuring 12 aspiring bounty hunters who risk life and limb to chase down actual fugitives".


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: In August 2012, it was revealed that this announcement was in fact cover for a new season of "The Joe Schmo Show" titled "The Joe Schmo Show: The Full Bounty", which filmed in July 2012 and aired beginning on January 8, 2013. Ordered for ten episodes, with J. Holland Moore, a writer on the previous seasons, taking over as head writer and executive producer. The format featured a single contestant who believes he's in a competition to become a bounty hunter, with $100,000 at stake in a parody of bounty hunter shows such as "Dog The Bounty Hunter". The previous series host, Ralph Garman, returned this time in disguise as Jake Montrose, a seasoned bounty hunter who judged the contestant's performances. As with previous versions of the program, the other 11 contestants are actors. Included among them for the first time is a recognizable celebrity: Lorenzo Lamas, star of 1990s bounty hunter series "Renegade", playing a parody of himself. An early preview for the show's return digitally blurred the new "Schmo's" face and altered his voice, so as not to reveal his identity. The name of the Schmo was later revealed to be Chase Rogan, a 28-year-old native of Pennsylvania, who is a married sports fanatic and business owner. For the third time out of three seasons of the program, a chosen Joe Schmo hails from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The series premiered at 10 P.M. eastern time with two episodes. In the first episode, as he is introduced to his fellow contestants, Rogan does not actually recognize Lamas.


title: The Joe Schmo Show

text: "The Joe Schmo Show" was produced for TV2 in New Zealand by Touchdown Television as "Living The Dream" in 2004. The same year, France released " (Fame and fortune: The great deception)". In 2006, the show arrived in Spain with the name of "" ("The Candid Show") on the Spanish TV channel La Sexta by Globomedia (Promofilm).


title: Fred Ehrsam

text: Frederick "Fred" Ernest Ehrsam III, is an American business executive and investor who is the co-founder and managing partner of cryptocurrency investment firm Paradigm. He is also the co-founder of cryptocurrency exchange Coinbase.


title: Fred Ehrsam

text: Ehrsam was born on May 10, 1988 in Boston, growing up in Concord, Massachusetts. He played video games professionally in high school, and was an avid World of Warcraft player, which introduced him to the concept of in-game digital currencies.


title: Fred Ehrsam

text: In 2010, Ehrsam graduated with distinction from Duke University, earning a B.S. in computer science with a minor in economics. At Duke, he was a member of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon fraternity.


title: Fred Ehrsam

text: After graduating from Duke, Ehrsam became a foreign exchange trader at investment bank Goldman Sachs in New York. He learned about Bitcoin from a Georgetown University professor's paper, and began trading in his free time.


title: Fred Ehrsam

text: In 2012, Ehrsam and Brian Armstrong co-founded Coinbase in an apartment in San Francisco, as a way for cryptocurrency enthusiasts to trade bitcoins and other digital currencies. The two met on the Bitcoin subreddit forum. Ehrsam served as Coinbase's first President. Ehrsam reportedly reached out to his alma mater Duke to invest in Coinbase's 2015 Series C. He increased Duke's initial investment a hundredfold. In January 2017, he announced he was leaving the company, but would remain on its board. He also reportedly still owned 8.9% of Coinbase stock as of April 2021, and was assigned to the company's audit committee before its April 2021 public offering.


title: Fred Ehrsam

text: Ehrsam was featured as one of the main protagonists in the 2020 novel "Kings of Crypto: One Startup's Quest to Take Cryptocurrency Out of Silicon Valley and Onto Wall Street".


title: Fred Ehrsam

text: In 2018, Ehrsam co-founded cryptocurrency investment firm Paradigm with former Sequoia Capital investor Matt Huang. They founded the company to invest in cryptocurrencies and the companies that focus on that market, and became the firm's managing partners. As of October 2020, the company had made 28 investments in cryptocurrency related companies.


title: Fred Ehrsam

text: On November 15th, 2021, Paradigm closed the largest-ever cryptocurrency venture capital fund at the time. The fund raised a total of $2.5 billion to invest in nascent cryptocurrency and Web3 projects.


title: Crosses (band)

text: Crosses (usually stylized as †††) is the musical side project of Deftones singer Chino Moreno and Far guitarist Shaun Lopez, based in Los Angeles, California, and formed in 2011.


title: Crosses (band)

text: Having recorded together previously, Deftones singer Chino Moreno began recording with childhood friend and neighbor Shaun Lopez, also of the band Far, as well as Chuck Doom. Moreno described the project as "minimal and soothing and it's sort of like the stuff I like listening to when I'm not screaming my head off." With a tentative title of Crosses as the name of the project, they began recording for over four hours a day, completing nearly 16 songs with plans to self-release a series of EPs.


title: Crosses (band)

text: Recorded at Airport Studios in Los Angeles, California, their debut EP was released for free on August 2, 2011, with a higher quality version made available for purchase on their website. Duff McKagan, of Velvet Revolver and Loaded, contributed additional bass to the song "This Is a Trick" while Chris Robyn of Far performed live drums on the EP. Dino Campanella of the rock band Dredg has also worked as a live drummer for the band.


title: Crosses (band)

text: Crosses contributed a previously unreleased song titled "The Years" to the "", the soundtrack to the game of the same name. It was also featured in the game's Joker trailer.


title: Crosses (band)

text: Crosses released a vinyl single, including the tracks "Option" and "Telepathy" from their first two EPs, for Record Store Day 2012. The band also released an official remix of the Rob Zombie song, "Dragula", appearing on Zombie's 2012 album "Mondo Sex Head".


title: Crosses (band)

text: A postulated third Crosses EP was not released, and Moreno put Crosses temporarily on hold while he concluded work with Deftones (the album "Koi No Yokan", issued in November 2012) and another side project, Palms, with ex-members of Isis (releasing their debut album, "Palms", in June 2013).


title: Crosses (band)

text: In October 2013, Crosses announced that a full-length album was set to be released on November 26, 2013 through Sumerian, and also posted the new track "The Epilogue" online for streaming. The release date for the band's eponymous debut was later pushed back to February 11, 2014, and the new track "Bitches Brew" was posted online for streaming along with the announcement. On November 26, the date Crosses were originally scheduled to release their debut album, the band instead released a music video for "Bitches Brew" directed by Raul Gonzo. The album contains remastered versions of all songs from the previous two EPs as well as five new tracks (essentially, what would have been "EP 3"). The track order intermingles new tracks and songs from both EPs.


title: Crosses (band)

text: On April 19, 2014, for Record Store Day, Crosses reissued the first two EPS as well as "EP 3", all on colored 10-inch vinyl.


title: Crosses (band)

text: In 2014, Crosses appeared as part of the Australian music festival Soundwave, followed by a US spring tour.


title: Crosses (band)

text: On December 24, 2020, Crosses released a cover of Cause and Effect's "The Beginning of the End", marking the first release from the band since 2014. Exactly one year later on December 24, 2021, Crosses released a cover of Q Lazzarus's song "Goodbye Horses". With the release of "Goodbye Horses" came the announcement that Crosses had signed a world-wide record deal with Warner Records with new music arriving in early 2022.


title: Crosses (band)

text: On March 18, 2022, Crosses released a double single called "Initiation/Protection", followed in October by "Day One/Vivien". After the launch of the "Vivien" music video, the duo announced the EP "Permanent.Radiant" that was released on December 9, 2022.


title: Crosses (band)

text: The musical style of Crosses is often referred to as electronic, electronic rock, dark wave or dark pop, dream pop or witch house. However, Carson O'Shoney of "Consequence of Sound" and Daniel Brockman of "The Boston Phoenix" note that Crosses only shares a resemblance to witch house in aesthetics and imagery, and not the group's actual music. O'Shoney said that Crosses' witch house influence is "noticeable just by looking at the tracklist—every song has at least one † in it. The name of the band is †††. The name of the EP is †. Everything about the EP points to witch house—until you listen to the actual music." The group's decision to use this imagery stems from Chino Moreno's interest in the art and mystique around religion. Moreno however also said, "I didn't want people to think we are a religious band, a satanic band or that we are a witch-house band. It's difficult using a religious symbol, but at the same time, I think in an artistic way, it can totally go somewhere else and I think we are kind of walking that line."


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Donald Woods Winnicott (7 April 1896 – 25 January 1971) was an English paediatrician and psychoanalyst who was especially influential in the field of object relations theory and developmental psychology. He was a leading member of the British Independent Group of the British Psychoanalytical Society, President of the British Psychoanalytical Society twice (1956–1959 and 1965–1968), and a close associate of Marion Milner.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott is best known for his ideas on the true self and false self, the "good enough" parent, and borrowed from his second wife, Clare Winnicott, arguably his chief professional collaborator, the notion of the transitional object. He wrote several books, including "Playing and Reality", and over 200 papers.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott was born on 7 April 1896 in Plymouth, Devon, to Sir John Frederick Winnicott and Elizabeth Martha, daughter of chemist and druggist William Woods, of Plymouth. Sir John Winnicott was a partner in the family firm, in business as hardware merchants and manufacturers, and was knighted in 1924 having served twice as mayor of Plymouth; he was also a magistrate and alderman. The Winnicott family were staunch, civic-minded Methodists.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: The family was prosperous and ostensibly happy, but behind the veneer, Winnicott saw himself as oppressed by his mother, who tended toward depression, as well as by his two sisters and his nanny. He would eventually speak of 'his own early childhood experience of trying to make "my living" by keeping his mother alive'. His father's influence was that of an enterprising freethinker who encouraged his son's creativity. Winnicott described himself as a disturbed adolescent, reacting against his own self-restraining "goodness" acquired from trying to assuage the dark moods of his mother. These seeds of self-awareness became the basis of his interest in working with troubled young people.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: He first thought of studying medicine while at The Leys School, a boarding school in Cambridge, after fracturing his clavicle and recording in his diary that he wished he could treat himself. He began pre-clinical studies in biology, physiology and anatomy at Jesus College, Cambridge in 1914 but, with the onset of World War I, his studies were interrupted when he was made a medical trainee at the temporary hospital in Cambridge. In 1917, he joined the Royal Navy as a medical officer on the destroyer HMS Lucifer.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Having graduated from Cambridge with a third-class degree, he began studies in clinical medicine at St Bartholomew's Hospital Medical College in London. During this time, he learned from his mentor the art of listening carefully when taking medical histories from patients, a skill that he would later identify as foundational to his practice as a psychoanalyst.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott completed his medical studies in 1920, and in 1923, the same year as his marriage to the artist Alice Buxton Winnicott (born Taylor). She was a potter and they married on 7 July 1923 in St Mary's Church, Frensham. Alice had "severe psychological difficulties" and Winnicott arranged for her, and his own therapy, to address the difficulties this condition created. He obtained a post as physician at the Paddington Green Children's Hospital in London, where he was to work as a paediatrician and child psychoanalyst for 40 years. In 1923 he began a ten-year psychoanalysis with James Strachey, and in 1927 he began training as an analytic candidate. Strachey discussed Winnicott's case with his wife Alix Strachey, apparently reporting that Winnicott's sex life was affected by his anxieties. Winnicott's second analysis, beginning in 1936, was with Joan Riviere.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott rose to prominence as a psychoanalyst just as the followers of Anna Freud were in conflict with those of Melanie Klein for the right to be called Sigmund Freud's "true intellectual heirs". Out of the Controversial discussions during World War II, a compromise was reached with three more-or-less amicable groups within the psychoanalytic movement: the "Freudians", the "Kleinians", and the "Middle Group" of the British Psychoanalytical Society (the latter being called the "Independent Group"), to which Winnicott belonged, along with Ronald Fairbairn, Michael Balint, Masud Khan, John Bowlby, Marion Milner, and Margaret Little.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: During the Second World War, Winnicott served as consultant paediatrician to the children's evacuation programme. During the war, he met and worked with Clare Britton, a psychiatric social worker who became his colleague in treating children displaced from their homes by wartime evacuation. Winnicott was lecturing after the war and Janet Quigley and Isa Benzie of the BBC asked him to give over sixty talks on the radio between 1943 and 1966. His first series of talks in 1943 was titled "Happy Children." As a result of the success of these talks, Quigley offered him total control over the content of his talks but this soon became more consultative as Quigley advised him on the correct pitch.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: After the war, he also saw patients in his private practice. Among contemporaries influenced by Winnicott was R. D. Laing, who wrote to Winnicott in 1958 acknowledging his help.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott divorced his first wife in 1949 and married Clare Britton (1906–1984) in 1951. A keen observer of children as a social worker and a psychoanalyst in her own right, she had an important influence on the development of his theories and likely acted as midwife to his prolific publications after they met.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Except for one book published in 1931 ("Clinical Notes on Disorders of Childhood"), all of Winnicott's books were published after 1944, including "The Ordinary Devoted Mother and Her Baby" (1949), "The Child and the Family" (1957), "Playing and Reality" (1971), and "Holding and Interpretation: Fragment of an Analysis" (1986).


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott died on 25 January 1971, following the last of a series of heart attacks and was cremated in London. Clare Winnicott oversaw the posthumous publication of several of his works.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott's paediatric work with children and their mothers led to the development of his influential concept concerning the "holding environment". Winnicott claimed that "the foundations of health are laid down by the ordinary mother in her ordinary loving care of her own baby", central to which was the mother's attentive holding of her child.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott considered that the "mother's technique of holding, of bathing, of feeding, everything she did for the baby, added up to the child's first idea of the mother", as well as fostering the ability to experience the body as the place wherein one securely lives. Extrapolating the concept of holding from mother to family and the outside world, Winnicott saw as key to healthy development "the continuation of reliable holding in terms of the ever-widening circle of family and school and social life".


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott was influential in viewing the work of the psychotherapist as offering a substitute holding environment based on the mother/infant bond. Winnicott wrote: “A correct and well-timed interpretation in an analytic treatment gives a sense of being held physically that is more real...than if a real holding or nursing had taken place. Understanding goes deeper”.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: His theoretical writings emphasised empathy, imagination, and, in the words of philosopher Martha Nussbaum, who has been a proponent of his work, "the highly particular transactions that constitute love between two imperfect people."


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Connected to the concept of holding is what Winnicott called the anti-social tendency, something which he argued "may be found in a normal individual, or in one that is neurotic or psychotic". The delinquent child, Winnicott thought, was looking for a sense of secure holding lacking in their family of origin from society at large. He considered antisocial behaviour as a cry for help, fuelled by a sense of loss of integrity, when the familial holding environment was inadequate or ruptured.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: One of the elements that Winnicott considered could be lost in childhood was what he called the sense of being for him, a primary element, of which a sense of doing is only a derivative. The capacity for being the ability to feel genuinely alive inside, which Winnicott saw as essential to the maintenance of a true self was fostered in his view by the practice of childhood play.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: In contrast to the emphasis in orthodox psychoanalysis upon generating insight into unconscious processes, Winnicott considered that playing was the key to emotional and psychological well-being. It is likely that he first came upon this notion from his collaboration in wartime with the psychiatric social worker, Clare Britton, (later a psychoanalyst and his second wife) who in 1945 published an article on the importance of play for children. By "playing", he meant not only the ways that children of all ages play, but also the way adults "play" through making art, or engaging in sports, hobbies, humour, meaningful conversation, et cetera. At any age, he saw play as crucial to the development of authentic selfhood, because when people play they feel real, spontaneous and alive, and keenly interested in what they're doing. He thought that insight in psychoanalysis was helpful when it came to the patient as a playful experience of creative, genuine discovery; dangerous when patients were pressured to comply with their analyst's authoritative interpretations, thus potentially merely reinforcing a patient's false self. Winnicott believed that it was only in playing that people are entirely their true selves, so it followed that for psychoanalysis to be effective, it needed to serve as a mode of playing.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Two of the techniques whereby Winnicott used play in his work with children were the squiggle game and the spatula game. The first involved Winnicott drawing a shape for the child to play with and extend (or vice versa) a practice extended by his followers into that of using partial interpretations as a 'squiggle' for a patient to make use of.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: The second, more famous instance involved Winnicott placing a spatula (tongue depressor) within the child's reach for him to play with. Winnicott considered that "if he is just an ordinary baby he will notice the attractive object...and he will reach for it...[then] in the course of a little while he will discover what he wants to do with it". From the child's initial hesitation in making use of the spatula, Winnicott derived his idea of the necessary 'period of hesitation' in childhood (or analysis), which makes possible a true connection to the toy, interpretation or object presented for transference.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Many of Winnicott's writings show his efforts to understand what helps people to be able to play, and on the other hand what blocks some people from playing. Babies can be playful when they're cared for by people who respond to them warmly and playfully, like a mother who smiles and says, "Peek-a-boo!" when she sees her baby playfully peeking out from behind his hands. If the mother never responded playfully, sooner or later the baby would stop trying to elicit play from her. Indeed, Winnicott came to consider that "Playing takes place in the potential space between the baby and the mother-figure...[T]he initiation of playing is associated with the life experience of the baby who has come to trust the mother figure". "Potential space" was Winnicott's term for a sense of an inviting and safe interpersonal field in which one can be spontaneously playful while at the same time connected to others (again a concept that has been extrapolated to the practice of analysis).


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Playing can also be seen in the use of a transitional object, Winnicott's term for an object, such as a teddy bear, that has a quality for a small child of being both real and made-up at the same time. Winnicott pointed out that no one demands that a toddler explain whether his Binky is a "real bear" or a creation of the child's own imagination, and went on to argue that it's very important that the child is allowed to experience the Binky as being in an undefined, "transitional" status between the child's imagination and the real world outside the child. For Winnicott, one of the most important and precarious stages of development was in the first three years of life, when an infant grows into a child with an increasingly separate sense of self in relation to a larger world of other people. In health, the child learns to bring his or her spontaneous, real self into play with others; in a false self disorder, the child has found it unsafe or impossible to do so, and instead feels compelled to hide the true self from other people, and pretend to be whatever they want instead. Playing with a transitional object can be an important early bridge between self and other, which helps a child develop the capacity to be genuine in relationships, and creative.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Playing for Winnicott ultimately extended all the way up from earliest childhood experience to what he called "the abstractions of politics and economics and philosophy and culture...this 'third area', that of cultural experience which is a derivative of play".


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott wrote that "a word like self...knows more than we do.". He meant that, while philosophical and psychoanalytic ideas about the self could be very complex and arcane, with a great deal of specialised jargon, there was a pragmatic usefulness to the ordinary word "self" with its range of traditional meanings. For example, where other psychoanalysts used the Freudian terminology of ego and id to describe different functions of a person's psychology, Winnicott at times used "self" to refer to both. For Winnicott, the self is a very important part of mental and emotional well-being which plays a vital role in creativity. He thought that people were born without a clearly developed self and had to "search" for an authentic sense of self as they grew. "For Winnicott, the sense of feeling real, feeling in touch with others and with one's own body and its processes was essential for living a life."


title: Donald Winnicott

text: "Only the true self can be creative and only the true self can feel real." For Winnicott, the "True Self" is a sense of being alive and real in one's mind and body, having feelings that are spontaneous and unforced. This experience of aliveness is what allows people to be genuinely close to others, and to be creative.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott thought that the "True Self" begins to develop in infancy, in the relationship between the baby and its primary caregiver (Winnicott typically refers to this person as "the mother"). One of the ways the mother helps the baby develop an authentic self is by responding in a welcoming and reassuring way to the baby's spontaneous feelings, expressions, and initiatives. In this way the baby develops a confidence that nothing bad happens when she expresses what she feels, so her feelings don't seem dangerous or problematic to her, and she doesn't have to put undue attention into controlling or avoiding them. She also gains a sense that she is real, that she exists and her feelings and actions have meaning.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott thought that one of the developmental hurdles for an infant to get past is the risk of being traumatised by having to be too aware too soon of how small and helpless she really is. A baby who is too aware of real-world dangers will be too anxious to learn optimally. A good-enough parent is well enough attuned and responsive to protect the baby with an illusion of omnipotence, or being all-powerful. For example, a well-cared-for baby usually doesn't feel hungry for very long before being fed. Winnicott thought the parents' quick response of feeding the baby gives the baby a sense that whenever she's hungry, food appears as if by magic, as if the baby herself makes food appear just by being hungry. To feel this powerful, Winnicott thought, allowed a baby to feel confident, calm and curious, and able to learn without having to invest a lot of energy into defences.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: In Winnicott's writing, the "False Self" is a defence, a kind of mask of behaviour that complies with others' expectations. Winnicott thought that in health, a False Self was what allowed one to present a "polite and mannered attitude" in public.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: But he saw more serious emotional problems in patients who seemed unable to feel spontaneous, alive or real to themselves anywhere, in any part of their lives, yet managed to put on a successful "show of being real". Such patients suffered inwardly from a sense of being empty, dead or "phoney".


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott thought that this more extreme kind of False Self began to develop in infancy, as a defence against an environment that felt unsafe or overwhelming because of a lack of reasonably attuned caregiving. He thought that parents did not need to be perfectly attuned, but just "ordinarily devoted" or "good enough" to protect the baby from often experiencing overwhelming extremes of discomfort and distress, emotional or physical. But babies who lack this kind of external protection, Winnicott thought, had to do their best with their own crude defences.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: One of the main defences Winnicott thought a baby could resort to was what he called "compliance", or behaviour motivated by a desire to please others rather than spontaneously express one's own feelings and ideas. For example, if a baby's caregiver was severely depressed, the baby would anxiously sense a lack of responsiveness, would not be able to enjoy an illusion of omnipotence, and might instead focus his energies and attentions on finding ways to get a positive response from the distracted and unhappy caregiver by being a "good baby". The "False Self" is a defence of constantly seeking to anticipate others' demands and complying with them, as a way of protecting the "True Self" from a world that is felt to be unsafe.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott thought that the "False Self" developed through a process of introjection, (a concept developed early on by Freud) in or internalising one's experience of others. Instead of basing his personality on his own unforced feelings, thoughts, and initiatives, the person with a "False Self" disorder would essentially be imitating and internalising other people's behaviour a mode in which he could outwardly come to seem "just like" his mother, father, brother, nurse, or whoever had dominated his world, but inwardly he would feel bored, empty, dead, or "phoney". Winnicott saw this as an unconscious process: not only others but also the person himself would mistake his "False Self" for his real personality. But even with the appearance of success, and of social gains, he would feel unreal and lack the sense of really being alive or happy.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: The division of the True and False self roughly develops from Freud's (1923) notion of the Superego which compels the Ego to modify and inhibit libidinal Id impulses, possibly leading to excessive repression but certainly altering the way the environment is perceived and responded to. However it is not a close equation as the Id, Ego and Superego are complex and dynamic inter-related systems that do not fit well into such a dichotomy. The theory more closely resembles Carl Rogers’ simplified notions of the Real and Ideal self. According to Winnicott, in every person the extent of division between True and False Self can be placed on a continuum between the healthy and the pathological. The True Self, which in health gives the person a sense of being alive, real, and creative, will always be in part or in whole hidden; the False Self is a compliant adaptation to the environment, but in health it does not dominate the person's internal life or block him from feeling spontaneous feelings, even if he chooses not to express them. The healthy "False Self" feels that it is still being true to the "True Self". It can be compliant to expectations but without feeling that it has betrayed its "True Self".


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott's assessment of the other great pioneer of psychoanalysis, Carl Jung, appeared when he published an extensive review of Jung's partially autobiographical work, "Memories, Dreams, Reflections". In it Winnicott focuses on the first three chapters of the work that: He discusses Jung's evident early experiences of psychotic illness from around the age of four, from within his own theoretical framework. He goes on to comment on the relationship between Freud and Jung. He also discusses the Jungian ‘unconscious’ and Jung's concept of the ‘self’.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott's theoretical elusiveness has been linked to his efforts to modify Kleinian views. Yet whereas from a Kleinian standpoint, his repudiation of the concepts of envy and the death drive were a resistant retreat from the harsh realities she had found in infant life, he has also been accused of being too close to Klein, of sharing in her regressive shift of focus away from the Oedipus complex to the pre-oedipal.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: The psychoanalyst, Jan Abram, a former director of the "Squiggle Foundation", intended to promote Winnicott's work, who therefore may be said to be partisan, has proposed a coherent interpretation for the omission of Winnicott's theories from many mainstream psychoanalytic trainings. His view of the environment and use of accessible everyday language, addressing the parent community, as opposed to just the Kleinian psychoanalytic community, may account in part for the distancing and making him somewhat "niche".


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Winnicott has also been accused of identifying himself in his theoretical stance with an idealised mother, in the tradition of mother (Madonna) and child. Related is his downplaying of the importance of the erotic in his work, as well as the Wordsworthian Romanticism of his cult of childhood play (exaggerated still further in some of his followers).


title: Donald Winnicott

text: His theories of the true/false self may have been over-influenced by his own childhood experience of caring for a depressed mother, which resulted in the development of a prematurely mature self which he was only subsequently able to undo.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Nevertheless, Winnicott remains one of the few twentieth-century analysts who, in stature, breadth, minuteness of observations, and theoretical fertility can legitimately be compared to Sigmund Freud.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: He has been a major influence for the American psychoanalyst Thomas Ogden, and the Italian psychoanalysts Giuseppe Civitarese and Antonino Ferro, all of which have cited Winnicott's interest in play as being central to their work. He has also strongly influenced the work of Adam Phillips.


title: Donald Winnicott

text: Along with Jacques Derrida, Winnicott is a fundamental resource for philosopher Bernard Stiegler's "What Makes Life Worth Living: On Pharmacology" (2010).


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: William Stewart Halsted, M.D. (September 23, 1852 – September 7, 1922) was an American surgeon who emphasized strict aseptic technique during surgical procedures, was an early champion of newly discovered anesthetics, and introduced several new operations, including the radical mastectomy for breast cancer. Along with William Osler (Professor of Medicine), Howard Atwood Kelly (Professor of Gynecology) and William H. Welch (Professor of Pathology), Halsted was one of the "Big Four" founding professors at the Johns Hopkins Hospital. His operating room at Johns Hopkins Hospital is in Ward G, and was described as a small room where medical discoveries and miracles took place. According to an intern who once worked in Halsted's operating room, Halsted had unique techniques, operated on the patients with great confidence and often had perfect results which astonished the interns.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Throughout his professional life, he was addicted to cocaine and later also to morphine, which were not illegal during his time. As revealed by Osler's diary, Halsted developed a high level of drug tolerance for morphine. He was "never able to reduce the amount to less than three grains daily" (approximately 200 mg). Halsted's addictions resulted from experiments on the use of cocaine as an anesthetic agent that he performed on himself.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: William S. Halsted was born on September 23, 1852, in New York City. His mother was Mary Louisa Haines and his father William Mills Halsted, Jr. He was the oldest of four children. His father was a businessman with Halsted, Haines and Company which was an organization that supplied dry goods. William Halsted, Jr. was very involved in the community. William S. Halsted's family was of English heritage and was very wealthy with two homes in the state of New York. One of their homes was on Fifth Avenue in New York City and the other was an estate in Westchester County, New York. Though raised a Presbyterian, Halsted was an agnostic by adulthood. Halsted was educated at home by tutors until 1862, when he was sent to boarding school in Monson, Massachusetts at age ten. He didn't like his new school and even ran away at one point. He was later enrolled at Phillips Academy in Andover, Massachusetts, where he graduated in 1869. Halsted entered Yale College after a year of studying at home. At Yale, Halsted was captain of the football team, played baseball and rowed on the crew team, but his academic achievements were below average. One of his social setbacks was in his senior year when he wasn't accepted into the prestigious Skull and Bones secret society. At the end of his senior year at Yale, a newfound interest in medicine seemed to arise. Halsted attended medical lectures at Yale Medical School and studied books on the subjects of anatomy and physiology.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Upon graduation from Yale in 1874, Halsted entered Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. Historians are not certain why Halsted attended medical school. Some believe he was inspired by his father's involvement with medical organizations. Others think he couldn't imagine himself in the family business. Once he entered medical school, he left his early academic difficulties behind him. Physicians central to his emergence as a medical scholar include Henry B Sands, a well-known surgeon, who was Halsted's tutor during this time. Halsted served as assistant to Professor of Physiology John Call Dalton, another influence. During medical school, Halsted worked in a pharmacy in his free time. After two years of medical school, Halsted started to burn out. He complained about his memory not working correctly among other things so during the summer of his second year he went to Block Island in Rhode Island. Here, he studied while participating in activities like fishing and sailing. He then took a competitive exam to apply for an internship at Bellevue Hospital in New York even though this program was only open to students with medical degrees. Halsted did very well on the exam and was awarded the internship for House Surgeon at Bellevue where he remained for a year.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Halsted spent most of his internship in the medical wards but also helped with some surgical operations. The conditions in the hospital were very unsanitary; bleeding patients was a common practice during this time, and surgical tools weren't as well cared for as they are modernly. Interns ran around the hospital with buckets full of pus from the patients. During the internship, Halsted was introduced to the use of antiseptic through physicians using Joseph Lister's technique created in 1867. This sparked an interest in Halsted, and he helped with the issue of infections at Bellevue during the rest of the internship. He ended his academic career in the top ten of his medical school class. He then participated in a competition that placed him at the top of his class. He graduated in 1877 with a Doctor of Medicine degree.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: After graduation, Halsted joined the New York Hospital as house physician in April 1878, where he introduced the hospital chart which tracks the patient's temperature, pulse and respiration. It was at New York Hospital that Halsted met the pathologist William H. Welch, who would become his closest friend. He left New York Hospital in October 1878.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Halsted had exhausted all of the medical training opportunities the United States had to offer in his position, for there was no program to train recent medical school graduates for a career in medicine at this time. Halsted then went to Europe to study under the tutelage of several prominent surgeons and scientists, including Edoardo Bassini, Ernst von Bergmann, Theodor Billroth, Heinrich Braun, Hans Chiari, Friedrich von Esmarch, Albert von Kölliker, Jan Mikulicz-Radecki, Max Schede, Adolph Stöhr, Richard von Volkmann, Anton Wölfler, Emil Zuckerkandl. He became especially close to Anton Woelfler among others which gave him unlimited access to resources. The relationships Halsted forged with these future leaders in their fields would last a lifetime. During this time in Europe, cancer was just starting to be studied more widely, making the timing of his arrival ideal. This experience inspired him with multiple new medical ideas and practices that he would contribute to in the United States.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Halsted returned to New York in 1880 and for the next six years led an extraordinarily vigorous and energetic life. Like when Halsted visited Europe, it was an opportune time for Halsted's involvement because surgery was on the brink of various important discoveries. He operated at multiple hospitals including the Chambers Street Hospital, College of Physicians and Surgeons where he was Assistant Demonstrator in Anatomy, Charity Hospital, Bellevue Hospital and Roosevelt Hospital (currently Mount Sinai West) where he was a visiting physician at all three, and Emigrant Hospital where he was Surgeon-in-Chief. At Bellevue Hospital, he convinced the hospital to erect a tent that was used as his surgical area where he could practice the idea of antiseptic surgery. This project cost $10,000 at the time. Halsted also started teaching, but he greatly strayed from classical teaching methods. He reformed the classroom by creating a more hands-on experience coupled with theory for his students who were generally at the top of their classes. He was an extremely popular, inspiring and charismatic teacher due to this. In 1882 he performed one of the first gallbladder operations in the United States, a cholecystotomy performed on his mother on the kitchen table at 2 am in which he removed seven gallstones. His mother completely recovered. Halsted also performed one of the first emergency blood transfusions in the United States. He had been called to see his sister after she had given birth. He found her moribund from blood loss, and in a bold move withdrew his own blood, transfused his blood into his sister, and then operated on her to save her life. Because of these operations, Halsted became known for being bold, and his reputation as a surgeon was gradually increasing.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: In 1884, Halsted read a report by the Austrian ophthalmologist Karl Koller, describing the anesthetic power of cocaine when instilled on the surface of the eye. Halsted, his students, and fellow physicians experimented on each other, and demonstrated that cocaine could produce safe and effective local anesthesia when applied topically and when injected. Halsted would also inject himself with the drug to test it before using it on his patients during surgeries. In the process, Halsted and some of his other colleagues became addicted to the drug. Halsted and Dr. Richard Hall were the only colleagues who became addicted that would survive their cocaine problems. Halsted maintained an active career while dealing with his addiction for five years. However, there were some clues to his condition during this time. Halsted published an article in 1885 in the "New York Medical Journal", and it was incoherent. This showcased what state Halsted was in with his addiction to cocaine. His close friend Harvey Firestone recognized the gravity of the situation, and arranged for Halsted to be abducted and put aboard a steamer headed for Europe. In the two weeks it took to complete the voyage, Halsted underwent an early, crude form of detoxification. Upon his return to the United States he became addicted again, and voluntarily admitted himself to Butler Sanatorium in Providence, Rhode Island, where they attempted to cure his cocaine addiction with morphine. He was there for seven months. Even though he remained dependent upon morphine for the remainder of his life, he continued his career as a pioneering surgeon; many of his innovations remain standard operating room procedures. However, his addiction to cocaine ended his medical career in New York City.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Following his discharge from Butler in 1886, Halsted moved to Baltimore, Maryland, to join his friend William Welch in organizing and launching the new Johns Hopkins Hospital. Halsted began working in Welch's experimental laboratory, and he presented a paper at Harvard Medical School. Soon thereafter, he was readmitted to Butler Hospital and remained there for nine months. He returned to Baltimore thereafter. When Johns Hopkins University Hospital opened in May 1889, he became Head of the Outpatient Department, acting Surgeon to the hospital, and Associate Professor of Surgery after being recommended by Welch when the first choice for the position fell through. These lesser positions alluded to the fact that the administration was still worried about Halsted's past cocaine addiction. In 1890, he was appointed Surgeon-in-Chief of the hospital. In 1892, Halsted joined Welch, William Osler, and Howard Kelly in founding the Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, and was appointed its first Professor of Surgery. Compared to his teaching in New York, Halsted's teaching was declining. He would pay attention to specific students and ignore the rest. But, he would also give certain residents that worked under him unprecedented learning experiences because of the amount of responsibility he awarded them. During these years at Johns Hopkins, he is credited with multiple achievements in the surgical world.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Halsted was credited with starting the first formal surgical residency training program in the United States at Johns Hopkins. He based this mainly on the ideas that he obtained in Europe, especially those of the Germans, Austrians, and Swiss. This was the foundation for the residency training programs in place today. The program began with an internship of undefined length (individuals advanced once Halsted believed they were ready for the next level of training), followed by six years as an assistant resident, and then two years as house surgeon. This program was also developed to create role models and teachers for the next generation of surgeons. Halsted trained many of the prominent academic surgeons of the time, including Harvey Williams Cushing and Walter Dandy, founders of the surgical subspecialty of neurosurgery; and Hugh H. Young, a founder of the specialty of urology. His methods of training surgeons spread, first to the rest of Baltimore and then throughout the United States. Many prominent figures in medical surgery were affected and influenced by his new system of training, and it has had a profound impact on American medicine.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Halsted held the belief that cancers spread through the bloodstream, which led him to think that sufficient local removal of the tumor would cure the cancer. This belief led him to perform the first radical mastectomy for breast cancer in the U.S. at Roosevelt Hospital in New York in 1882; an operation first performed in France a century earlier by Bernard Peyrilhe (1735-1804). Halsted had observed a German surgeon perform increasingly aggressive surgeries to remove cancerous tumors from the breast, but the patients still relapsed even with this more aggressive surgery. An English surgeon, Charles Moore, believed that even more breast tissue should be removed and doctors who were trying to save women from disfigurement were doing them a disservice. Halsted took this to the next level, eventually resorting to removing the pectoralis major, lymph nodes near the collar bone, and lymph nodes near the armpit. Some surgeons in Europe even removed ribs from women with breast cancer. This caused great disfigurement of the women operated on. Halsted presented his findings at the American Surgical Association conference in New Orleans in 1898, concluding that the procedure significantly decreased the percentage of local reoccurrence. He also presented more findings in 1907, showing the same results. Although, the radical mastectomy throughout the years has come under fire. It is now known that survival from breast cancer is more closely related to how much the cancer has spread before surgery than how much is removed during surgery.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Halsted created multiple techniques for surgery so damage to tissues and blood supply would be minimized. Some of these new advances included different types of forceps, sutures, and ligatures.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Besides working on breast cancer, Halsted also contributed to the surgical treatment for other diseases including vascular aneurysm, inguinal hernia, and a certain kind of primary carcinoma of the ampulla of Vater. In addition, he helped develop anesthesia, an integral part of modern surgery. As one of the first proponents of hemostasis and investigators of wound healing, Halsted pioneered Halsted's principles, modern surgical principles of control of bleeding, accurate anatomical dissection, complete sterility, exact approximation of tissue in wound closures without excessive tightness, and gentle handling of tissues.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Halsted was also involved in the introduction of rubber gloves into the operating room for surgery in 1889.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: The main reason for the introduction of rubber gloves was to protect the hands of scrub nurse Caroline Hampton. She suffered from contact dermatitis and painful eczema as a result of the antiseptics used, so Halsted arranged for Goodyear Rubber Company to make "bespoke" rubber gloves for her. Caroline Hampton would later give up her job as a nurse to become Halsted's wife. Although, the use of gloves wasn't originally championed for sanitary reasons, such gloves drastically increased the cleanliness of operations, as was later demonstrated by Joseph Colt Bloodgood.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: Other achievements included advances in thyroid, biliary tract, hernia, intestinal and arterial aneurysm surgery.


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: H.L. Mencken considered Halsted the greatest physician of the whole Johns Hopkins group, and Mencken's praise of his achievements when he reviewed Dr. MacCallum's 1930 biography is a memorable tribute. "His contributions to surgery were numerous and various. He introduced the use of local anesthetics, he was the first to put on rubber gloves, and he devised many new and ingenious operations. But his chief service was rather more general, and hard to describe. It was to bring in a new and better way of regarding the patient. Antisepsis and asepsis, coming in when he was young, had turned the attention of surgeons to external and often extraneous things. Fighting germs, they tended to forget the concrete sick man on the table. Dr. Halsted changed all that. He showed that manhandled tissues, though they could not yell, could yet suffer and die. He studied the natural recuperative powers of the body, and showed how they could be made to help the patient. He stood against reckless slashing, and taught that a surgeon must walk very warily. Dr. William Mayo, one of the cofounders of the Mayo Clinic, once commented that Dr. Halsted took so long to perform procedures that the patients usually healed before he had a chance to close the incision. Though, like most men of his craft, he had no religion, he yet revived and reinforced the ancient saying of Ambroise Paré: 'God cured him; I assisted.' Above all, he was a superb teacher, though he never formally taught. The young men who went out from his operating room were magnificently trained, and are among the great ornaments of American surgery today."


title: William Stewart Halsted

text: In 1890, Halsted married Caroline Hampton, the niece of Wade Hampton III, a former general in the Confederate States Army and also a former Governor of South Carolina. They purchased the High Hampton mountain retreat in North Carolina from Caroline's three aunts. There, Halsted raised dahlias and pursued his hobby of astronomy; he and his wife had no children. He died on September 7, 1922, 16 days short of his 70th birthday, from bronchopneumonia as a complication of surgery for gallstones and cholangitis.


title: Summer Heights High

text: Summer Heights High is an Australian mockumentary television sitcom written by and starring Chris Lilley. Set in the fictional Summer Heights High School in an outer suburb of Sydney (based on Summer Hill), it is revolves around high school experiences from the viewpoints of three individuals: "Director of Performing Arts" Mr G; private-school exchange student Ja'mie King; and disobedient, vulgar Tongan-Australian student Jonah Takalua. The series lampoons Australian high-school life and many aspects of the human condition and is filmed as a documentary with non-actors playing supporting characters. As he did in a previous series, "", Lilley plays multiple characters, including the aforementioned Mr G, Ja'mie and Jonah. The series premiered on 5 September 2007 at 9:30 pm on ABC TV and ended on 24 October 2007, only lasting eight episodes.


title: Summer Heights High

text: "Summer Heights High" was a massive ratings success for the Australian Broadcasting Corporation, and was met with mostly positive critical reaction. In 2008, the series won a Logie Award for Most Popular Light Entertainment/Comedy Program. On 26 March 2008, it was announced that the show had been sold for international distribution to BBC Three in the United Kingdom, HBO in the United States, and The Comedy Network in Canada. Following the success of "Summer Heights High", Lilley has developed two spin-off shows: "" (2013) and "Jonah from Tonga" (2014).