title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: Three structures sit along the west walls of the Ubosot, all commissioned by Rama IV. Ratchakoramanuson Buddha image hall () is the northernmost, followed by Phra Photithat Phiman () and Ratchaphongsanuson Buddha image hall (). The Ratchakoramanuson and Ratchaphongsanuson are identical. They hold a total of forty-two Buddha images. The Ratchaphongsanuson hall holds thirty-four Buddha images representing the former kings of the Ayutthaya and Thonburi kingdoms—the murals inside accordingly depict the history of the foundation of Ayutthaya—while the Ratchakoramanuson hall holds eight Buddha images of the Rattanakosin Kingdom, with murals depicting the foundation of Bangkok. All of the Buddha images were cast in copper for Rama III. His successor Rama IV had them gilded in gold. In between these halls is the Phra Photithat Phiman, a "butsabok" throne with a crown-shaped spire. Inside is a smaller stupa of gold containing a relic of the Buddha obtained by Rama IV from the north of Thailand.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: Surrounding the Ubosot, all along its four sides are twelve open "sala rai" (), or pavilions, with grey marble bases. These sala were built during the reign of Rama I for the faithful to listen to chants or sermons emanating from within the Ubosot. All twelve pavilions are of the same design and size, with six square columns supporting a roof of blue and orange glazed tiles. The pavilions have been reconstructed and restored several times by different kings throughout the years.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: Opposite the front of the Ubosot is a stone image of Chao Mae Kuan Im (or Guanyin), a Bodhisattva known as Avalokiteśvara in the Mahayana branch of Buddhism. She sits in front of a sandstone column topped by a bronze lotus flower, and is flanked by two stone mythical birds called "Nok Wayupak". Around this group there are two lead oxen facing the gate. These were formerly part of the king's pavilion where he would watch the Royal Ploughing Ceremony, an important agricultural rite performed annually in front of the reigning king. The ox statues were moved into the temple by Rama V. Around this area, incense sticks can be lit and flower offerings made by the public, as these activities are prohibited within the Ubosot itself.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: Behind the Ubosot sits the image of the hermit (or rishi) Jivaka Komarabhacca (). The image was cast in bronze during the reign of Rama III for the temple. In front of the hermit is a large grinding stone. In the past, traditional medical practitioners would make their potions on this stone, imbuing it with the sanctity of the hermit image.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Than Phaithi () is a raised terrace or base that elevates several important structures inside the temple, the three principal ones being Prasat Phra Thep Bidon, the Phra Mondop and the Phra Si Rattana Chedi. The terrace has six sets of steps leading up to it: two on the north, one on the east, two on the south and one on the west. Originally, the terrace contained only the Phra Mondop; in 1855, Rama IV ordered the expansion of the base, upon which the two other structures were later built. The arrangement of these structures in a straight line echoes the classical arrangement of temples in both Sukhothai and Ayutthaya.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Prasat Phra Thep Bidon () is on the eastern end of the Than Phaithi. Originally built to house the Emerald Buddha by Rama IV, construction on the first structure—then called the Phutthaprang Prasat ()—began in 1855, based on the Prasat Thong in the royal palace of Ayutthaya. The King died before its completion in 1882, and his plans to move the Emerald Buddha into it never materialised. In 1903, a fire ravaged the building, necessitating a complete rebuild. The present structure was completed during the reign of Rama VI in the early 20th century. The King decided to change the purpose of the building, and turned it into a memorial to his predecessors. The name was changed to Prasat Phra Thep Bidon, known in English as the Royal Pantheon. Rama VI had full-size, lifelike statues of the first five Chakri kings made and installed in the pantheon. Further statues were added in 1927, 1959 and 2020. Currently, the pantheon contains nine statues. Normally closed to the public, the pantheon is opened annually on 6 April for Chakri Memorial Day, a national holiday in Thailand. The pantheon is laid out in a cruciform plan. It has four entrances, one at the end of each arm, the main entrance being on the east side. The building is in the form known as "prasat", with a tall spire in the middle of the roof, a feature usually reserved for royal residences. The roof is covered in green and orange tiles. The four pediments of the pantheon depict the personal insignia of the first four Chakri kings. This is a break with the traditional depiction of Narayana, which was previously seen on royal temples. The north pediment depicts the personal insignia of Rama I (a Thai numeral one), the southern of Rama II (a Garuda), the west of Rama III (a triple-doored vimana) and the east of Rama IV (a royal crown). The exterior walls of the pantheon are decorated with blue tiles with floral motifs. A royal crown tops each of the doors and windows of the pantheon. The east steps of the Than Phaithi leading up towards the pantheon were redesigned with marble steps; on either side the railings are in the form of two five-headed crowned Phaya Nagas.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Phra Mondop () is situated in the middle of the Than Phaithi. The Phra Mondop is a repository of sacred texts, sometimes referred to as a library ("ho trai"). The present structure was built by Rama I to replace an earlier structure that burnt down. This previous structure was built in the middle of a pool on raised columns to protect the texts from termites; such buildings were a common feature in Thai temples. The new Phra Mondop discarded this feature, instead putting the library on top of a raised base. In 1788 Rama I ordered a complete revision and compilation of the Tripitaka, as the previous royal copies were destroyed in the sack of Ayutthaya in 1767. This revision was made by the monks of Wat Mahathat Yuwaratrangsarit. Once the revision was complete, a set of the texts was deposited inside the Phra Mondop. During the reign of Rama III, the exterior of the Phra Mondop was restored in time for the fiftieth anniversary of the founding of Bangkok in 1832. The Phra Mondop is roughly square in outline and has a "mondop" style roof: a square-based tapering spire. When Rama IV decided to build the two structures on either side of the Phra Mondop, he decided to lower the height of the spire significantly. The Phra Mondop is richly decorated on the exterior walls—twenty square columns with indented corners surround the central hall. The columns are decorated with white, green and red glass. The exterior walls are adorned with the "thepphanom" motif, or devas in prayer, covered with gold leaf and surrounded with green glass. Numerous small, gilded wind-bells with Bodhi leaf sails are hung from the eaves on all sides. Crowns adorn the top of the four doors on the sides of the Phra Mondop. On the four corners of the library are four stone Buddhas obtained by Rama V from Java, Indonesia. These Borobudur-style Buddhas are replicas, with the originals now in the Museum of the Emerald Buddha Temple. The Phra Mondop only has one room; the floor is covered in a mat made of woven silver. In the middle of the room is a highly intricate mother-of-pearl inlay manuscript cabinet containing all 84,000 chapters of the Tripitaka. Four smaller cabinets are placed at the four corners of the room.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Phra Si Rattana Chedi () is on the western end of the Than Phaithi and houses relics of the Buddha from Sri Lanka, which were given to Rama IV. Constructed in 1855, the circular bell-shaped stupa (or "chedi") is built of brick masonry. The stupa was later entirely covered in gold-coloured tiles specially imported from Italy by Rama V. The bell-shaped stupa is made up of several tiers, with large round bases leading up to a bell-shaped middle, interrupted by a square section that is then topped with twenty concentric circular discs of decreasing size topped by a tall spire. The design was based on the stupas of Wat Phra Si Sanphet in Ayutthaya, which in turn took inspiration from the stupas of Sri Lanka. The stupa has four entrances with protruding porticoes. Each portico is crowned with an exact miniature of the stupa and is decorated on three sides with a pediment. The interior of the stupa is a round hall, from the ceiling of which a "chatra" (multi-tiered royal umbrella) is suspended. In the middle of the hall is a smaller stupa of black lacquer; this is the reliquary in which the relics of the Buddha are kept.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: Two golden Phra Suvarnachedi () are situated to the east of the terrace, flanking the steps leading up to the Prasat Phra Thep Bidon. The two "chedi" were built by Rama I to commemorate his parents, the southern "chedi" for his father Thongdi and the northern for this mother Daoreung. The two "chedi" are almost identical. They each have a marble octagonal base wide and topped with a golden, square-based stupa with triple indented corners in height. The top spire is decorated in nine levels of layered lotus bud motifs. The structures are covered in copper sheets painted over with lacquer and gilded in gold leaf. The two "chedi" were moved when the terrace was expanded to accommodate the royal pantheon. Around the base of the "chedi", Rama V had figures of monkeys and "yaksha" ("giants") supporting the "chedi". Each has four monkeys and sixteen giants around the sides. The colour and clothing of these figures identify them with a particular character in the "Ramakien" epic.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Monuments of the royal insignia or Phra Borom Ratcha Sanyalak () are four monuments depicting the nine insignia of the kings of the Chakri dynasty. In 1882, on the centenary of the founding of Bangkok, Rama V ordered the construction of three monuments in the form of a "butsabok" throne to house depictions of the insignia of previous kings. These insignia were based on the kings' personal seals. Later, a fourth was added to accommodate later kings. They surround the Phra Mondop at each corner. Each of the golden "butsabok" thrones are built on raised marble bases, each side with inscriptions describing each king's contribution to the building or repair of the temple itself. On each of the corners are two miniature golden multi-tiered umbrellas: the four on the upper level have seven tiers and those on the bottom level have five tiers. Surrounding the monuments are miniature bronze elephants; these represent the white elephants important in each king's reign. The first monument on the northwest corner depicts the insignia of the first three kings; Rama I (the crown without ear ornaments), Rama II (the Garuda) and Rama III (a triple-doored vimana). The southeast monument houses the insignia of Rama IV (a royal crown), and the southwest monument is the insignia of Rama V (the Phra Kiao or coronet). The fourth monument on the northeast corner depicts the insignia of four kings: Rama VI (a thunderbolt or "vajra"), Rama VII (three arrows), Rama VIII (a Bodhisattva) and Rama IX (the Octagonal Throne and "chakra").


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The four decorated "chedi" called the Phra Chedi Songkhrueang () are situated behind the Phra Si Rattana Chedi, two on either side of the western porch. The "chedi" have a square plan with indented corners. The bases are white, and the top part is decorated in gold leaf and coloured glass. Like the two golden "chedi", these were moved to their present position to make way for the expansion of the terrace.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The model of Angkor Wat was borne out of an idea of Rama IV of moving one of the Khmer temples to Bangkok. However this proved unfeasible, so he ordered that a detailed scale model of Angkor Wat be made instead. The ancient Khmer temple complex had recently been rediscovered in Cambodia—then under Siamese suzerainty—in 1860. This highly detailed model was installed to the north of the Phra Mondop.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: Seven pairs of mythological figures decorate the terrace, made of bronze and gilded with gold leaf. These are half-animal half-human celestial beings which, according to tradition, inhabited the mythical Himavanta forest. They are the "Theppaksi", human male upper body with feathered arms, bird lower body, human feet and holding a sword; "Thepnorasi", human male upper body, lion lower body and holding a flower; "Singhaphanon", monkey upper body, lion lower body and holding a sceptre; "Apsarasingha" ("Apsonsi"), human female upper body and lion lower body; "Asuarapaksi", giant upper body and bird lower body; "Kinnon" ("kinnara"), human male upper body and bird lower body; and the "Asurawayuphak", giant upper body, bird lower body and holding a mace.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The southern porch was the former entrance gate to the Phra Mondop; it was probably moved to its present position when the terrace was expanded. The pediment displays the insignia of Rama III, a triple-doored vimana. The doors are made of carved wood depicting two warriors holding a spear and gilded in gold leaf.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The western porch was constructed by Rama IV as an entrance to the expanded terrace. The porch was decorated in coloured ceramics in floral and geometrical designs. In the form of a "prasat", the porch's roof has a central spire rising from in the middle.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: Panom Mak () are eighteen decorative sculptures representing flowers and banana leaves offerings on a tray. They are based on traditional flower arrangements offered to Buddha statues by devotees as an act of making merit. These sculptures are distributed along the eastern and western edges of the terrace. Made of plaster and covered in ceramic tiles of various colours, they were added to the terrace by Rama V.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Phra Sawet Kudakhan Wihan Yot () or the Wihan Yot extends northwards from the terrace. The building, a vihara, serves as a Buddha image hall, and was first built by Rama III to house many important Buddha images. The building has a cruciform plan and is topped in the middle of the roof with a tall spire in the form of a crown. The spire is decorated with coloured porcelain in floral designs. The top of the window arches display the royal cypher of Rama V under a crown; this indicates that vihara was restored by the King. Bronze figures of "Tantima" birds—birds with a human torso and Garuda head—guard the entrances on the west and east sides. The doors of the vihara feature mother-of-pearl inlay and were taken from Wat Pa Mok in Ang Thong Province.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Ho Phra Khanthararat () shares its base with the Phra Mondop Yot Prang (). Built on the orders of Rama IV, both are situated on the southeastern side of the Ubosot. A Buddha shrine, the small structure was built to house the Phra Khanthararat image. The Buddha image is associated with the Royal Ploughing Ceremony. The image was originally cast in bronze by Rama I. Later, Rama IV had it gilded in gold and a large diamond embedded in its forehead. The Ho Phra Khanthararat is decorated on the exterior with green, blue and yellow tiles. The entrance is from the north with a door portico extending out from the front of the hall. Behind the portico, the rectangular hall is topped with a "prang" spire, and the four pediments below it are decorated with floral designs. The carved doors and windows of the shrine depict sheaves of rice, fish and shrimp to represent the fecundity of the nation.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Phra Mondop Yot Prang sits on a taller platform behind the Ho Phra Khanthararat. The octagonal base is topped with a "mondop" pavilion and spire. Inside the pavilion is a small golden stupa. The stupa was obtained by Rama IV when he was still a monk and contained important Buddhist relics. Miniature stone sculptures of Chinese guardian lions surround the walls of both shrines.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Bell Tower, or Ho Rakhang (), is located to the south of the complex. The first tower was built by Rama I to house a single bell. Rama IV ordered it to be completely rebuilt. This reconstruction was completed just in time for the centenary of Bangkok in 1882. The tower has an octagonal base, with four doors and protruding porticoes on each side. Inside there are steps leading up to the bell. The bell is hung underneath a "mondop"-style spire. The entire structure is covered in coloured porcelain in floral and geometrical designs. The bell is only rung at the investiture of the supreme patriarch.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Ho Phra Nak () is a royal mausoleum on the northwestern side of the temple. It was previously a Buddha image hall and was built by Rama I to house the sacred "Phra Nak" Buddha image from Ayutthaya, which was made of gold and copper. Even though the image was eventually moved to the Wihan Yot, the name remained. The hall is rectangular, with an entrance hall on the east side. The roof is covered in green and orange tiles. Inside, the hall is divided into seven rooms. Ashes and remains of members of the royal family are kept here. Formerly, only the ashes of female royalty was kept here, as was the tradition at Ayutthaya. Later, however, the ashes of many senior male members were also kept here as well. Notably, it contains the ashes of all the viceroys of the Chakri dynasty and their princely descendants. These ashes are kept in hundreds of individual gold urns.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The Ho Phra Monthiantham () is a scripture hall on the north-eastern side of the temple. Its construction was paid for by the viceroy Maha Sura Singhanat, brother of Rama I. The hall is rectangular, surrounded on all sides with columns supporting a four-level roof. The entrance door is on the west side. The roof is covered in yellow and orange tiles. The pediment of the hall depicts the god Indra astride Airavata, the three-headed elephant. The inside of the hall is decorated with wood carvings of Hanuman, the symbol of the viceroy. The hall contains two mother-of-pearl inlay bookcases containing the Tripitaka. Today, the hall is also used for Buddhist sermons on Buddhist holy days. Formerly, the hall was used as a classroom for novice monks learning religious texts and as an exam room for monks.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The row of eight "prang", formally known as Phra Atsda Maha Chedi (), was built by Rama I and later covered in delicate coloured porcelain by Rama III. These "prang" are typical of the Rattanakosin period, being taller and thinner than those of Ayutthaya. Each spire has an octagonal base with brick foundations, with the decorations made of plaster. Each has four doorways with figures of golden standing devas on each side, above them are a band of supporting "yaksha" or giants. The "prang" stood mostly outside the complex, along the eastern length of the temple wall. In the reign of King Rama IV, the temple wall was enlarged and two of the "prang" were enclosed inside the temple.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: Each of the "prang" represents a different aspect of Buddhism. The "prang" are arranged from north to south and are differentiated by their colours: the Phra Sammasamphuttha Mahachedi in white is dedicated to the Gautama Buddha. The Phra Satthampariyat Wara Mahachedi in blue is dedicated to the Dharma (Buddhist scriptures). The Phra Ariyasong Sawok Mahachedi in pink is dedicated to the Bhikkhus (male Buddhist monastics). The Phra Ariya Sawok Phiksunee Sangha Mahachedi in green is dedicated to the Bhikkhunīs (female Buddhist monastics). The Phra Patchek Phothisamphuttha Mahachedi in purple is dedicated to the Pratyekabuddha (those who have attained Enlightenment but did not preach). The Phra Borom Chakrawadiraja Mahachedi in pale blue is dedicated to the Chakravarti (the universal ruler). The Phra Photisat Krisda Mahachedi in red is dedicated to the Bodhisattvas (the Buddha is his past lives). The Phra Sri Ayametaya Mahachedi in yellow is dedicated to the Maitreya (the future Buddha).


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The gallery or Phra Rabiang () is a covered corridor, walled on one side, that surrounds the entire temple like a cloister. Murals on the gallery walls depict the entire arc of the "Ramakien" epic, which is based on the Indian "Ramayana". This version was translated and recomposed in Thai poetic form under the supervision of Rama I himself around 1797. The story is divided into five long episodes. The murals were commissioned by Rama I to tell his version of the epic. In fact, the main decorative theme throughout the temple is the "Ramakien" story. The concept of righteous kingship within the epic has long been recognised within Southeast Asia and has been appropriated by many kings to equate their countries with the legendary city of Ayodhya and the titular hero Rama. The murals were erased and completely repainted by the orders of Rama III. Ever since then they have been frequently restored. The murals along the walls are divided into 178 scenes with abbreviated synopses of the scenes below. The first scene depicted is to the right of Gate No. 7, the Wihan Yot Gate.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: The temple wall has seven gates, two on the east side, one on the south, three on the west and one on the north. The first gate on the east is Gate No.1, the front Koei Sadet Gate, which is directly opposite the Prasat Phra Thep Bidon. This important gate was built by Rama IV. The gate is the only one topped with a crown-shaped spire. Outside the gate, there is a small resting pavilion and an elephant mounting platform. Gate No. 2, the Na Wua Gate, stands opposite the entrance of the Ubosot. On the south side is Gate No. 3, the Si Rattana Satsada Gate; this gate connects the temple to the Middle court of the Grand Palace, and visitors exit the temple from this gate. On the west side there are three gates, the southernmost being Gate No. 4, the Hermit Gate, named after the hermit statue directly opposite. This gate is the main entrance for visitors into the temple. Gate No. 5 is the rear Koei Sadet Gate, which is the middle gate on the western side, on the outside there is also a resting pavilion and an elephant mounting platform. This gate is usually shut as it is the gate the king uses when he enters the temple to perform ceremonies. Gate No. 6, the Sanam Chai Gate, is named for the small field outside the gate in the outer court of the Grand Palace. On the northern side is Gate No. 7, the Wihan Yot Gate; this gate stands opposite its namesake. It is the only gate without guardian giants.


title: Wat Phra Kaew

text: Statues of twelve "yaksha" (or giants) guard six of the temple's gates along three sides of the wall (all sides except the north). The giants are characters from the "Ramakien" epic, each distinguished by their skin colour and crowns. Each giant is about tall, all clenching a mace or gada in front of them. Starting with the left giant in front of Gate No.1, the front Koei Sadet Gate, and going clockwise around the temple wall, Suriyaphop is red with a bamboo shoot crown, Intarachit is green with a similar crown, Mangkonkan is green with a Naga crown, Wirunhok is dark blue with a similar crown, Thotsakhirithon is dark red with an elephant's trunk instead of a nose and a bamboo shoot crown, Thotsakhiriwan is green with a similar nose and crown, Chakkrawat is white with a smaller head on the top of his crown of feathers, Atsakanmala is purple with a similar extra head but a normal crown, Thotsakan is green with two tiers of smaller heads on top of his crown, Sahatsadecha is white with multiple heads, Maiyarap is light purple with a cockerel's tail crown and Wirunchambang is dark blue with a similar crown.


title: 3rd U.S. Infantry Regiment (The Old Guard)

text: The 3rd United States Infantry Regiment is a regiment of the United States Army. It currently has three active battalions, and is readily identified by its nickname, The Old Guard, as well as Escort to the President. The regimental motto is "Noli Me Tangere" (from Latin: – "Touch Me Not"). The regiment is a major unit of the Military District of Washington (MDW).


text: The 3rd is the oldest regiment still active in the Regular Army, having been first organized as the First American Regiment in 1784. It has been the official ceremonial unit of the U.S. Army since 1948.


text: The regiment's mission is to conduct memorial affairs to honor fallen comrades and ceremonies and special events to represent the U.S. Army, communicating its story to United States citizens and the world.


text: Although The Old Guard primarily functions in a ceremonial role, it is an infantry unit and thus required to meet standards for certification in its combat role. The unit also trains for its support role to civil authorities in a wide range of scenarios and for deployments in support of overseas contingency operations. On order, it conducts defense in support of civil authorities in the National Capital Region and deploys elements in support of overseas contingency operations.


text: Memorial affairs missions include standard and full honors funerals in Arlington National Cemetery and dignified transfers at Dover Air Force Base. Old Guard soldiers also perform all dignified transfers of fallen soldiers returning to the United States.


text: The Old Guard's ceremonial task list includes full honor arrivals for visiting dignitaries, wreath ceremonies at the Tomb of the Unknowns, and full honor reviews in support of senior army leaders and retiring soldiers. Special events include the Twilight Tattoo, a weekly performance in the adjacent Washington area on Wednesday evenings from May to July, and the Spirit of America, a historical pageant presented at three national venues in September.


text: The Old Guard is the only unit in the U.S. Armed Forces authorized, by a 1922 decree of the War Department, to march with fixed bayonets in all parades. This was granted in honor of the 1847 bayonet charge by the regiment during the Battle of Cerro Gordo in the war with Mexico.


text: In addition to the marching platoons, there are also elements of The Old Guard that serve special roles unique both to the regiment as well as the U.S. Army. Among these include the sentinels of the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, maintaining a twenty-four-hour watch over one of the nation's most sacred sites; the Continental Color Guard, which presents the nation's colors at special events across the Capitol Region; the Presidential Salute Battery, which renders honors to senior dignitaries at arrival and wreath ceremonies, reviews, and full honors funerals; and the US Army Caisson Platoon, which provides horses and riders to pull the caisson (the wagon that bears a casket) in military and state funerals.


text: The Caisson Platoon also provides the riderless horses used in full honors funerals and supports wounded warriors participating in the Therapeutic Riding Program. Other elements of The Old Guard include the Commander-in-Chief's Guard (Company A), replicating the personal guard of General George Washington; wearing Colonial blue uniforms, powdered wigs, and cocked hats; and bearing Brown Bess muskets and halberds at ceremonies and special events; the US Army Drill Team, which demonstrates its skill and precision around the nation, and Old Guard Fife and Drum Corps, which plays traditional arrangements of marching music, dating back to the time of the Continental Army. The Old Guard Fife and Drum Corps marches in Colonial style red coated uniforms—to be "better seen through the smoke of battle"; the uniforms also include cocked hats and white powdered wigs. The drum major of the Fife and Drum Corps traditionally bears an espontoon (a historic pike-like weapon) in his right hand to direct and command his unit. As such, he is the only soldier in all the U.S. Armed Forces authorized to bear a spontoon and to salute with the left hand (although U.S. Navy personnel are allowed to salute with the left hand under certain conditions). Rounding out The Old Guard are the 289th Military Police Company, the 947th Military Working Dog Detachment, the 529th Regimental Support Company, two battalion headquarters companies, and the regimental headquarters company.


text: Escort Platoon is a term referring to a platoon of soldiers in the U.S. Army's 3d Infantry Regiment whose primary ceremonial mission is to march in ceremonies or military funerals. Generally, line infantry companies delegate the escort role to their 1st platoon. This platoon is generally composed of the tallest soldiers assigned to the unit.


text: The regiment's Presidential Escort Platoon, Honor Guard Company, is based at Fort Myer. The platoon serves at presidential funerals, inaugurations, Pentagon retirements, state dinners and state visits at the White House, and during presidential speeches in the Rose Garden, among other duties.


text: Stationed at Fort Lewis, Washington, the 2nd Battalion, 3d US Infantry Regiment, serves as one of three infantry battalions of the 1st Stryker Brigade Combat Team of the 7th Infantry Division. After a 31-year hiatus from service, the 2nd Battalion was reactivated on 15 March 2001 as part of the U.S. Army's first Stryker brigade (inactive) combat team. It served as part of the first deployment of a Stryker brigade combat team in 2003. It then served a 15-month deployment in 2006–2007. It deployed to Iraq again in 2009 and Afghanistan in 2011. From 1966 to 1970, the 2nd Battalion was part of the 199th Light Infantry Brigade and 23d Infantry Division in Vietnam. The 2nd Battalion has the following units:


text: From 1966 to 1974, the 4th Battalion was part of the 11th and 198th Infantry Brigades and 23d Infantry Division in Vietnam. The 4th Battalion was reactivated at Fort Myer in 2008.


text: The Old Guard traces its history to the First American Regiment organized in 1784 under command of Lieutenant Colonel Josiah Harmar, a veteran of the American Revolution. The 1st Infantry saw its first combat in an unsuccessful campaign against the Miami tribe near modern-day Fort Wayne, Indiana in 1790. This was followed by devastating losses at St. Clair's Defeat in 1791.


text: In 1792 the United States Army was reorganized into the Legion of the United States, with the 1st Infantry forming the nucleus of the 1st Sub-Legion. (Sub-Legions were the remote ancestors of today's Brigade Combat Teams, with organic Infantry, Cavalry and Artillery units.) On 20 August 1794, along with the most of the Legion's units under the command of Major General Anthony Wayne, the 1st Sub-Legion was engaged at the decisive victory of the Legion over the Miamis at the Battle of Fallen Timbers.


text: In 1795 the Legion was reorganized along more traditional lines and reverted to being called the United States Army. In the reorganization the 1st Sub-Legion was redesignated as the 1st Infantry Regiment.


text: As of 1805, six of the regiment's ten companies were in St. Louis, Missouri, with the other four located at Fort Massac, Fort Dearborn, Fort Adams, Mississippi and Fort Wayne in Detroit.


text: During the War of 1812 the 1st Infantry served in Upper Canada and saw action at the battles of Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. These actions give the regiment campaign credit for the War of 1812.


text: After the end of the War of 1812 in early 1815, the Army had a total of 44 Infantry regiments which were consolidated into only eight regiments. Rather than preserving the existing designations of the Army's oldest units, it was decided instead to consolidate units based on their geographic proximity rather than seniority. On May 17, 1815, the 1st Infantry was consolidated with five other regiments to form the 3rd Infantry. This is why the 3rd Infantry is the oldest Infantry unit in the active United States Army rather than the 1st Infantry.


text: As of 30 November 1819, the regiment was located on the northwestern frontier at Fort Howard in Green Bay, Wisconsin. As of 9 November 1822, the regiment had 6 companies in Green Bay, two in Sarnac and two in Chicago.


text: The annual report of the Army from 1826 showed that the regiment had been re-located to Jefferson Barracks, Missouri.


text: As of November 1837, the regiment's headquarters and six companies were at Fort Jesup in Louisiana with the other four companies at Fort Towson in Oklahoma.


text: During the Mexican War, the regiment fought in most of the major battles of the war including Palo Alto, Monterey, the invasion and Siege of Vera Cruz, Cerro Gordo, Churubusco and Chapultepec which led to the capture and occupation of Mexico City.


text: After serving in New Mexico, the regiment was spread out to various posts on the Gulf of Mexico from Florida to Texas.


text: The 3rd Infantry saw extensive service during the United States Civil War and was credited with 12 campaigns. Detachments from the regiment were serving at Fort Pickens in Florida and in Saluria on the Gulf Coast of Texas when the war began in April 1861. Three companies of the 3rd Infantry surrendered on 25 April. Five of the regiment's 10 companies were engaged at the Battle of Bull Run on 20 July 1861.


text: The regiment spent most of the war assigned to the Army of the Potomac and served mostly in Virginia. From May 1862 to March 1864, it served with 1st Brigade, 2nd Division of the 5th Corps. In March 1864, it was reassigned to the 4th Brigade, 1st Division of the 5th Corps. It participated in the Siege of Yorktown (part of the Peninsular Campaign), the Battle of Malvern Hill, the Second Battle of Bull Run, the Battle of Antietam, the Battle of Fredericksburg, the Battle of Chancellorsville, the Battle of Gettysburg, the Battle of Cold Harbor and the Battle of Appomattox.


text: After the Civil War, the 3d Infantry served in Kansas, Colorado and the Indian Territory (later the state of Oklahoma) from 1866 to 1874. It then served in Louisiana and Mississippi from 1874 to 1877, and Montana, Minnesota and South Dakota from 1877 to 1898.


text: During the Spanish–American War, the regiment served in Cuba from 14 June – 25 August 1898, where it participated in the Santiago Campaign and fought at the Battle of San Juan Hill.


text: After returning from Cuba, the 3d Infantry was stationed at Fort Snelling in Minnesota. On 5 October 1898, a force of about 80 men—including soldiers of the 3d Infantry, U.S. Marshals and Indian Police—fought in the Battle of Sugar Point against 17 members of the local Pillager Band of Chippewa Indians near the Leech Lake Reservation. The United States forces lost 6 soldiers and one Indian Police officer killed and another 14 wounded. There were no casualties among the Chippewa. Hospital Steward (later Major) Oscar Burkard received the Medal of Honor for rescuing casualties during the battle. The Battle of Sugar Point was the last battle fought between the United States Army and Native Americans.


text: The 3d Infantry also served in the Philippines during the Philippine Insurrection from 3 February 1899, to 15 April 1902. It then returned to the United States where it was stationed in Kentucky, Ohio and Illinois. It was then sent to Alaska where it served from 1 July 1904, to 6 August 1906, when it was sent to Washington state until it was sent back to the Philippines about 1909.


text: As of August 1914 the regiment's headquarters, along with the 2nd and 3d Battalions, were located at Madison Barracks, New York. The 1st Battalion was located at Fort Ontario, New York.


text: In 1916, the 3d Infantry, then commanded by Colonel Julius Penn, was sent to the Texas-Mexico Border during the Pancho Villa Expedition and guarded against a possible invasion. One of the regiment's officers at this time was 2nd Lieutenant James Van Fleet, who graduated West Point in 1915 and would rise to four-star general during the Korean War.


text: During World War I, the headquarters of the 3rd Infantry, along with the 3rd Battalion, was posted at Camp Eagle Pass in Texas. The 1st Battalion was located at Del Rio, Texas and the 2nd Battalion was at Fort Sam Houston. Throughout the war the regiment was assigned to patrolling the Mexican Border and did not see action.


text: During World War I, recent West Point graduate Captain Matthew Ridgway was assigned to the 3d Infantry. Ridgway would go on to have a highly distinguished 38-year career including assignments as commander of the 82nd Airborne Division, XVIII Airborne Corps, 8th United States Army, United Nations Command Korea, Supreme Allied Commander Europe and Chief of Staff of the United States Army.


text: Following the establishment of the United States Border Patrol, the 3d Infantry was relocated to Camp Sherman in Ohio on 14 October 1920. The regiment marched 941 miles from Camp Sherman to Fort Snelling, Minnesota, arriving on 17 November 1921. Upon arrival the 2nd and 3rd Battalions were inactivated on 18 November 1921, and the 1st Battalion assumed garrison duties. The regiment was re-organized as a combat regiment when the 2nd and 3rd Battalions were re-activated on 8 June 1922.


text: On 24 March 1923, the regiment was assigned to the 7th Division. On 15 August 1927 the regiment was reassigned to the 6th Division.


text: On 1 October 1933, the regiment reverted to being assigned to the 7th Division. On 22 April 1939 the regiment conducted a review for Crown Prince Frederick and Princess Ingrid of Denmark.


text: During World War II, the 3d Infantry served most of the war as a separate regiment and was not assigned to a combat division until 50 days before the German surrender.


text: On 16 October 1939, it was relieved from assignment to the 7th Division and assigned to the 6th Division at Fort Jackson, South Carolina. In November 1940, the 1st Battalion was relocated to Fort Crook, Nebraska. The regiment was relieved from assignment to the 6th Division on 10 May 1941. The 3d Battalion departed from New York on 20 January 1941 and was sent to St. Johns, Newfoundland before moving to Fort Pepperrell in the Newfoundland Base Command in November 1941.


text: The 1st Battalion was inactivated 1 June 1941 at Fort Leonard Wood, Missouri, with its soldiers being assigned to the 63rd Infantry and was re-activated 14 February 1942 in Newfoundland. The remainder of the regiment was sent to Camp Ripley, Minnesota, on 13 September 1941 and returned to Fort Snelling on 26 September.


text: When the United States declared war on Japan in December 1941, the regiment was stationed at Fort Snelling. The 2nd Battalion was inactivated 1 September 1942 at Fort Snelling.


text: The regiment arrived in Boston on 17 September 1943 and moved to Camp Butner, North Carolina, on 22 September 1943 where it was attached to the XII Corps. The 2nd Battalion was re-activated on 22 October 1943 at Camp Butner. The regiment was moved to Fort Benning, Georgia, on 8 March 1944, where it provided cadre for the Infantry School.


text: Late in the war, the regiment staged at Camp Myles Standish, near Taunton, Massachusetts, on 27 February 1945, and departed from Boston bound for France on 8 March 1945.


text: The regiment arrived in Le Havre, France on 18 March 1945, and was attached to the reconstituted 106th Infantry Division with the mission of containing the isolated German garrison at St. Nazaire. The regiment moved with the 106th Division into Germany on 26 April 1945 — twelve days before the surrender of Germany — and processed prisoners of war. The regiment was then assigned to duty in the occupation of Germany and was located at Babenhausen. The 3d Infantry was inactivated on 20 November 1946 in Berlin.


text: The 3d Infantry was credited with the American Theater streamer for its defense of Newfoundland. It was also credited with the European Theater Northern France Campaign streamer, even though the Northern France Campaign technically ended on 14 September 1944. However theater commanders were authorized to award Campaign Participation Credit to select campaigns even after the technical end of that campaign, the Northern France Campaign being one of those, since the 3rd Infantry Regiment assisted with the mission of containing the German Garrison at St.Nazaire.


text: The 3d Infantry Regiment (less the 2nd Battalion) was re-activated on 6 April 1948 at Fort Myer, Virginia. The 2nd Battalion was concurrently re-activated at Fort Lesley J. McNair, Washington, D.C. This was when the unit assumed the role it is best known for today as the official ceremonial unit of the United States Army. The regiment's reactivation was shortly before the state funeral of General of the Armies John J. Pershing held on 19 July 1948 in which soldiers of the 3d Infantry played a prominent role. This was the beginning of the 3d Infantry's current mission of performing ceremonial duties in the Washington, D.C. area.


text: The Old Guard gained national attention for the support it provided to the state funeral of President John F. Kennedy in November 1963. Aside from the Kennedy funeral, the Old Guard has also supported state funerals for the Unknown Soldiers of World War II, Korea and Vietnam as well as presidents Herbert Hoover, Dwight D. Eisenhower, Lyndon B. Johnson, Ronald Reagan and Gerald R. Ford. Other persons who have received state funerals the Old Guard has supported included General John J. Pershing, General Douglas MacArthur, Vice President Hubert Humphrey and Medal of Honor recipient Senator Daniel Inouye.


text: Aside from supporting military and state funerals, the 3d Infantry also assumed the responsibility for providing the guard detail at the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier in Arlington National Cemetery and for providing honor guards at the White House for high ranking dignitaries.


text: The 3d Battalion of the 3d Infantry, from 1963 until its inactivation in 1994, was one of the three light infantry battalions that made up the Army Reserve's 205th Infantry Brigade (Light) (Separate), which in turn was the round-out brigade for the Regular Army's 6th Infantry Division (Light), based at Fort Richardson and Fort Wainwright, Alaska. The 205th Infantry Brigade was headquartered at Fort Snelling, Minnesota, until its inactivation. It was inactivated on 25 August 1994. The 3d Battalion was scheduled to activate at Fort Carson as part of the 5th IBCT/4th Infantry Division. The activation was cancelled when the army froze at 45 brigades.


text: The 5th Battalion was activated on 24 November 1967 and assigned to the 6th Infantry Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. It was relieved from assignment to the 6th Infantry Division on 24 July 1968, and inactivated on 21 July 1969 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky.


text: The 6th Battalion was activated on 24 November 1967 and assigned to the 6th Infantry Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. It was relieved from assignment to the 6th Infantry Division on 24 July 1968, and inactivated on 1 February 1969 at Fort Campbell, Kentucky.


text: The 7th Battalion was activated on 24 November 1967 and assigned to the 6th Infantry Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky. It was relieved from assignment to the 6th Infantry Division on 24 July 1968, and inactivated on 25 July, concurrent with the inactivation of the 6th Infantry Division at Fort Campbell, Kentucky.


text: On 1 June 1966, the 2nd Battalion was activated at Fort Benning, Georgia and assigned to the 199th Light Infantry Brigade (199th LIB). The 199th LIB deployed to South Vietnam in December 1966 operating throughout III Corps.


text: On 3 July 1969 while Company D, 2nd Battalion was patrolling in Long Khanh Province during Operation Toan Thang III it was ambushed by the People's Army of Vietnam 33rd Regiment losing nine killed including Corporal Michael Fleming Folland who smothered an enemy hand grenade with his body, he was later posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.


text: The 199th LIB returned to the United States in 1970 and the 2nd Battalion was inactivated on 15 October 1970 at Fort Benning.


text: The 4th Battalion of The Old Guard was officially activated at Schofield Barracks, Hawaii, on 1 July 1966, and commanded by LTC Harold J. Meyer. The battalion consisted initially of Headquarters and Headquarters Company and A Company, containing one officer/five enlisted men and twenty one enlisted men respectively. By 31 December 1966, the battalion strength had increased to 37 officers, two warrant officers and 492 enlisted men.


text: When the battalion was reactivated, it utilized facilities formerly occupied by elements of the 25th infantry Division. During the period of 1 July 1966 through 10 September 1966, the battalion conducted preparation for Basic Unit Training since most of the Old Guard's lower enlisted personnel had never served with a regular unit. The non-commissioned officers, on the other hand, were greatly experienced with many recent returns from Vietnam.


text: During its preparation for service in South Vietnam, the 4th Battalion was assigned to the 11th Infantry Brigade. On 15 August 1967, the 11th Infantry Brigade adopted the "light Infantry" concept. By selecting one rifle platoon and personnel from the weapons platoon from each line company, an additional line company, delta, was introduced to the battalion. Further by removing the 4.2" mortar and reconnaissance platoons and the ground surveillance section from the former headquarters company, a combat support company, Echo, was created with these two changes to the battalion, the revised strength authorization totaled 44 officers, 1 warrant officer and 886 enlisted men.


text: On 7 July 1967, the battalion conducted a farewell review for its departing commander, Lieutenant Colonel Meyer and simultaneously Major C. Hartsfield assumed interim command of the battalion. On 20 July, the battalion welcomed Lieutenant Colonel Alvin E. Adkins as its new commander. Adkins had previously served in World War II, the Korean and Vietnam Wars.


text: On 25 December, personnel of the advance party, including LTC Adkins, the company commanders and additional key staff members departed by aircraft for South Vietnam. Shortly thereafter at 23:30 on 5 December the main body left Honolulu pier 40 on the . After 14 days at sea, the main body arrived at Qui Nhon harbor and proceeded by vehicle convoy north along Highway 1 to Đức Phổ Base Camp and a base of operations known as Carentan. In-country training and combat operations commenced immediately, throughout the remainder of 1967 the battalion conducted search and destroy missions outside Carentan and to the west of Đức Phổ.


text: On 16 March, Company B was landed by helicopters near Mỹ Khê, Quảng Ngãi Province and proceeded to kill between 60 and 155 civilians in the My Lai Massacre.


text: On 12 November 2003, the 2nd Battalion deployed to Iraq with the 3d Brigade (Stryker), 2nd Infantry Division to begin a tour of duty in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom. This was the first deployment of an element of The Old Guard since the Vietnam War. Operating first in the dangerous Sunni Triangle area under command of the 4th Infantry Division, the soldiers of the 2nd Battalion, 3rd Infantry relieved troops of the 101st Airborne Division in January 2004 in northern Iraq. The 2nd Battalion began redeployment back to the United States in October 2004.


text: Another historic event occurred on 15 December 2003, when Bravo Company of the 1st Battalion deployed from Fort Myer, Virginia, for duty in the U.S. Central Command area of operations. This was the first deployment of an element of The Old Guard's 1st Battalion since World War II. Bravo Company, also called Task Force Bravo and Team Battlehard, arrived in the US Central Command area of operations to take up duty in Djibouti on the Horn of Africa on 17 December 2003. The soldiers of The Old Guard served in support of Combined Joint Task Force-Horn of Africa (CJTF-HOA) and Operation Enduring Freedom. Based at Camp Lemonnier, their missions in the region included force protection to civil affairs and engineer personnel, engaging in joint operations with other U.S. and regional military forces and constant training to stay prepared. Team Battlehard redeployed back to Fort Myer in July 2004.


text: In 2007, 1st Battalion's Delta Company was deployed to Camp Lemonnier, Djibouti as part of CJTF-HOA, supporting humanitarian missions and local military training in the region.


text: Charlie Company, 1st Battalion deployed to Camp Taji, Iraq, in 2009 to execute its theater internment support mission.


text: In December 2011, 2nd Battalion deployed to Kandahar Province in Afghanistan, where they were responsible for providing base security for U.S. Army Special Forces and U.S. Navy SEALs who were engaged in village stability operations.


text: The Old Guard's current duties include, but are not limited to, providing funeral details at Arlington National Cemetery, guarding the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, providing honor guards for visiting dignitaries, supporting official ceremonies and providing a quick reaction force for the Washington, D.C. metropolitan area.


text: One of the more active company grade officers was Captain James McCrae who, as Major General, commanded the 78th Division in the St. Mihiel and Meuse-Argonne offensive in World War I.


text: "Gardens of Stone" is a 1987 American drama film directed by Francis Ford Coppola, based on the novel of the same title by Nicholas Proffitt. It stars James Caan, Anjelica Huston, James Earl Jones and D. B. Sweeney. The movie, set in 1968 and 1969, attempts to examine the meaning of the Vietnam War entirely through the eyes of the members of "The Old Guard", the stateside-based elite Army unit whose duties include Presidential escorts and military funerals at Arlington.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: James Walter McCord Jr. (January 26, 1924 – June 15, 2017) was an American CIA officer, later head of security for President Richard Nixon's 1972 reelection campaign. He was involved as an electronics expert in the burglaries which precipitated the Watergate scandal.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: McCord was born in Waurika, Oklahoma. He served as a bombardier with the rank of second lieutenant in the Army Air Forces during World War II. He briefly attended Baylor University before receiving a B.B.A. from the University of Texas at Austin in 1949. In 1965, he received an M.S. in international affairs from George Washington University. After beginning his career at the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), McCord worked for the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), ultimately ascending to the GS-15 directorship of the Agency's Office of Security.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: For a period of time, he was in charge of physical security at the Agency's Langley headquarters. According to Russ Baker, then-Director of Central Intelligence Allen Dulles once introduced McCord to an Air Force colonel as "the best man we have".


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: In 1961, under his direction, a counter-intelligence program was launched against the Fair Play for Cuba Committee. He also held the rank of lieutenant colonel in the United States Air Force Reserve.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: Shortly after resigning from the CIA, McCord was interviewed and then hired by Jack Caulfield in January 1972 "for strict, solely defensive security work at the Republican National Committee (RNC) and the Committee to Re-Elect the President (CRP)." Some of the money from this contract came from the RNC, which was led by Bob Dole who was called "Nixon's Doberman pinscher" and a Republican Party fixer, and was used during the Watergate scandal. He and four other accomplices were arrested during the second break-in to the Democratic National Committee's headquarters at the Watergate complex on June 17, 1972. The arrests led to the Watergate scandal and Nixon's resignation.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: McCord asserted that the White House knew of and approved the break ins, and proceeded to cover up the incident. Because of McCord's statements, the Watergate investigators pursued many more leads.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: McCord was one of the first men convicted in the Watergate criminal trial; on eight counts of conspiracy, burglary and wiretapping. On March 21, 1973, three days before sentencing, McCord, after speaking to a probation officer and thus surmising that he might be facing a lengthy prison sentence, submitted a letter to the judge in the case, John Sirica, in which he claimed that he and the other defendants had committed perjury in their trial and that there was pressure from higher up for them to have done so. On March 23, the day of the sentencing, Sirica sentenced the other defendants provisionally, citing a statute that allowed for maximum sentences of several decades as a means to "research" more information needed for the final sentencing. This was a means to pressure the defendants into revealing more information about the burglary. McCord's sentencing was postponed until June and then postponed again. Finally, in November 1973, McCord was sentenced to from one to five years and began serving his sentence in March 1975, but was released after only four months because of his cooperation in the Watergate investigation.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: After serving four months in prison, McCord continued with McCord Associates, which was his own security firm located in Rockville, retiring later to Pennsylvania.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: McCord died at the age of 93 from pancreatic cancer on June 15, 2017, at his home in Douglassville, Pennsylvania. His death was not reported in local and national news outlets until 2019.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: McCord was portrayed in "All the President's Men", the 1976 film retelling the events of the Watergate scandal, by Richard Herd.


title: James W. McCord Jr.

text: McCord was portrayed in "Gaslit", the 2022 television adaptation of the podcast "Slow Burn" by Chris Bauer.


title: Tobramycin

text: Tobramycin is an aminoglycoside antibiotic derived from "Streptomyces tenebrarius" that is used to treat various types of bacterial infections, particularly Gram-negative infections. It is especially effective against species of "Pseudomonas".


title: Tobramycin

text: It was patented in 1965, and approved for medical use in 1974. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Tobramycin

text: Like all aminoglycosides, tobramycin does not pass the gastro-intestinal tract, so for systemic use it can only be given intravenously or by injection into a muscle. Eye drops and ointments (tobramycin only, Tobrex, or combined with dexamethasone, sold as Tobradex) and nebulised formulations both have low systemic absorption. The formulation for injection is branded Nebcin. The nebulised formulation (brand name Tobi) is indicated in the treatment of exacerbations of chronic infection with "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" in people diagnosed with cystic fibrosis.


title: Tobramycin

text: Tobrex eye drops are a 0.3% tobramycin sterile ophthalmic solution produced by Alcon Pharmaceuticals. Benzalkonium chloride 0.01% is added as a preservative. It is available by prescription only in Bulgaria, Hungary, the United States, and Canada. In certain countries, it is available over the counter, It is also available in Egypt as Tobrin eye drops produced by EIPICo, Tobrex, Tobradex and Tobrin are indicated in the treatment of superficial infections of the eye, such as bacterial conjunctivitis.


title: Tobramycin

text: Tobramycin, in its injectable form, is also indicated for various severe or life-threatening infections caused by susceptible strains: sepsis, meningitis, lower respiratory tract infections, intra-abdominal infections, skin infections, bone infections, and skin structure infections, complicated and recurrent urinary tract infections.


title: Tobramycin

text: Tobramycin has a narrow spectrum of activity and is active against Gram-positive "Staphylococcus aureus" and various Gram-negative bacteria. Clinically, tobramycin is frequently used to eliminate "Pseudomonas aeruginosa" in cystic fibrosis patients. The following represents the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) susceptibility data for a few strains of "Pseudomonas aeruginosa":


title: Tobramycin

text: Tobramycin is contraindicated in people with hypersensitivity against aminoglycoside antibiotics. The Infusion is also contraindicated in people with myasthenia gravis.


title: Tobramycin

text: Like other aminoglycosides, a major side effect for tobramycin is ototoxicity or a loss of equilibrioception, or both in genetically susceptible individuals. Other side effects include nephrotoxicity, neuromuscular toxicity, and hypersensitivity reactions. Nephrotoxicity can be particularly worrisome when multiple doses accumulate over the course of a treatment or when the kidney concentrates urine by increasing tubular reabsorption during sleep. Adequate hydration may help prevent excess nephrotoxicity and subsequent loss of renal function. For these reasons parenteral tobramycin needs to be carefully dosed by body weight, and its serum concentration monitored. Tobramycin is thus said to be a drug with a narrow therapeutic index.


title: Tobramycin

text: Methoxyflurane, when used as an inhalational anesthetic, can aggravate the nephrotoxic effects of injected tobramycin. Likewise, combining injected tobramycin with other nephrotoxic or ototoxic drugs can lead to more adverse effects; examples include amphotericin B, ciclosporin, cisplatin, vancomycin, and the diuretic furosemide. Other diuretics can also increase the risk for side effects because they raise tobramycin concentrations in the body fluids.


title: Tobramycin

text: Combining tobramycin with betalactam antibiotics can be desirable because of their synergistic effects. However, when they are given through the same drip, as well as in people with reduced kidney function, they can react with each other to form antibiotically inactive amides.


title: Tobramycin

text: Tobramycin works by binding to a site on the bacterial 30S and 50S ribosome, preventing formation of the 70S complex. As a result, mRNA cannot be translated into protein, and cell death ensues. Tobramycin also binds to RNA-aptamers, artificially created molecules to bind to certain targets. However, there seems to be no indication that Tobramycin binds to natural RNAs or other nucleic acids.


title: Tobramycin

text: The effect of tobramycin can be inhibited by metabolites of the Krebs (TCA) cycle, such as glyoxylate. These metabolites protect against tobramycin lethality by diverting carbon flux away from the TCA cycle, collapsing cellular respiration, and thereby inhibiting Tobramycin uptake and thus lethality.


title: Tobramycin

text: Tobramycin is not absorbed in the gut. When given as infusion, it is distributed in the extracellular fluid. It can accumulate in the kidney's tubular cells and in the lymph of the inner ear. Only low concentrations reach the central nervous system and breast milk. Tobramycin passes the placenta: in the fetus, 20% of the mother's concentrations have been measured.


title: Tobramycin

text: The substance is neither bound to plasma proteins, nor is it metabolized. It is excreted in unchanged form via the kidneys with a biological half-life of about 2 to 3 hours. Elimination from deep compartments such as the renal cortex follows after 8 to 12 hours. In newborns the half-life is 4.6 hours on average; in those with a low birth weight it is as long as 8.7 hours on average. People with reduced kidney function also have a longer half-life for tobramycin, while in those with severe burns it can be shorter.


title: Nira Park

text: Park founded award-winning UK film and television production company Big Talk in 1995. She left the company in July 2018 to launch a new production company, Complete Fiction Pictures, with Edgar Wright, Joe Cornish and Rachael Prior.


title: Nira Park

text: Park is best known for her collaborations with Edgar Wright, having produced all of his work over the past two decades; their partnership began with the award-winning television series "Spaced". This also marked the beginning of their long-standing collaborations with Simon Pegg and Nick Frost, which continued with the cult comedy "Shaun of the Dead" for which Park received a BAFTA Outstanding Debut Award nomination. The film was the first instalment of Wright’s iconic "Three Flavours Cornetto" trilogy, all starring Pegg and Frost. Park went on to produce Wright’s "Scott Pilgrim vs. the World" and "Baby Driver".


title: Nira Park

text: Park has also worked closely with Joe Cornish over the years, their relationship beginning with the SXSW Audience Award-winning and BAFTA Outstanding Debut-nominated feature "Attack the Block" and most recently his action adventure movie "The Kid Who Would Be King". In addition to her work with Wright and Cornish, Nira has produced: Greg Mottola’s "Paul", written by and starring Pegg and Frost; Ben Wheatley’s Cannes-premiered black-comedy "Sightseers"; Jeremy Lovering’s critically acclaimed psychological horror "In Fear", which premiered at Sundance; "Cuban Fury", starring Nick Frost, Chris O’Dowd and Rashida Jones; "Man Up", starring Simon Pegg alongside Lake Bell; and Sacha Baron Cohen’s action comedy "Grimsby".


title: Nira Park

text: For television, she has produced three series of the double BAFTA award-winning sitcom "Black Books", "Free Agents", and was an executive producer on "Friday Night Dinner" and the BAFTA award-winning "Him and Her".


title: Nira Park

text: In 2020, Park produced Ben Wheatley's "Rebecca", starring Lily James, Armie Hammer and Kristin Scott Thomas for Working Title Films and Netflix. In 2021, she produced Edgar Wright's "The Sparks Brothers", a feature documentary about the band Sparks, with Complete Fiction and their "Baby Driver" partner MRC. She also produced Edgar Wright's 2021 film "Last Night in Soho" with Complete Fiction and Working Title for Focus Features and Film4.


title: Trading company

text: Trading companies are businesses working with different kinds of products which are sold for consumer, business, or government purposes. Trading companies buy a specialized range of products, maintain a stock or a shop, and deliver products to customers.


title: Trading company

text: Different kinds of practical conditions make for many kinds of business. Usually two kinds of businesses are defined in trading.


title: Trading company

text: Importers or wholesalers maintain a stock and deliver products to shops or large end customers. They work in a large geographical area, while their customers, the shops, work in smaller areas and often in just a small neighborhood.


title: Trading company

text: Today "trading company" mainly refers to global B2B traders, highly specialized in one goods category and with a strong logistic organization. Changes in practical conditions such as faster distribution, computing and modern marketing have led to changes in their business models.


title: Trading company

text: The "Winding-up and Restructuring Act", an act of the Parliament of Canada, uses the following definition:


title: Trading company

text: "trading company" means any company, except a railway or telegraph company, carrying on business similar to that carried on by apothecaries, auctioneers, bankers, brokers, brickmakers, builders, carpenters, carriers, cattle or sheep salesmen, coach proprietors, dyers, fullers, keepers of inns, taverns, hotels, saloons or coffee houses, lime burners, livery stable keepers, market gardeners, millers, miners, packers, printers, quarrymen, sharebrokers, ship-owners, shipwrights, stockbrokers, stock-jobbers, victuallers, warehousemen, wharfingers, persons using the trade of merchandise by way of bargaining, exchange, bartering, commission, consignment or otherwise, in gross or by retail, or by persons who, either for themselves, or as agents or factors for others, seek their living by buying and selling or buying and letting for hire goods or commodities, or by the manufacture, workmanship or the conversion of goods or commodities or trees;


title: Trading company

text: Japan has a special class of "general trading companies" (), large and highly diversified businesses that trade in a wide range of goods and services.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: Casa Pia Atlético Clube is a Portuguese multi-sports founded in 1920 and based in Lisbon, Portugal, best-known for its football team, that competes in the Primeira Liga. The club is named after Casa Pia, a Portuguese children's charity, and many of its athletes come from that institution. Its football stadium is "Estádio Pina Manique", named in honor of Pina Manique, the founder of Casa Pia children's charity. Casa Pia AC was one of the most versatile Portuguese clubs, having played 25 sports, with the curiosity of having been the only one who practiced Baseball regularly, beating the strong team of the American Colony on 4 July 1923 at Campo das Laranjeiras by 25-24.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: On 18 December 1921, when Portugal made their international debut against Spain in Madrid, Casa Pia FC provided the squad with four players in a 1–3 loss, including Cândido de Oliveira, who was the team captain. Casa Pia promoted from Serie E of Terceira Divisão to Centre Group of Portuguese Second Division in 2009–10 season as champions. They were promoted again to LigaPro in 2019. The team will play for the first time in 83 years in the Primeira Liga in the 2022–23 season.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: Although Casa Pia A.C. was officially founded on 3 July 1920, at the initiative of Cândido de Oliveira, Ricardo Ornelas and David Ferreira (among others), the club's history dates back to 1893, when the Real Casa Pia de Lisboa football team was formed, the first team to defeat the so-called "invincible" team Carcavelos Club in 1898 in a historic victory that forever cemented the practice of football in Portugal.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: On 3 October 1920, just a few months after its foundation, Casa Pia FC won its first-ever piece of silverware after beating Benfica 2-1, thus winning the "Bronze Herculano Santos". The team was captained by Cândido de Oliveira, and the game was refereed by Cosme Damião.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: In its debut season, Casa Pia FC won the Lisbon Regional Championship and the Lisbon Cup without registering a single defeat. And to these titles, Casa Pia added the triumph in the confrontation with the , FC Porto, in the then-called "Taça 27 de Julho". This game was the final rehearsal for the start of the Portuguese Championship, the forerunner of the Taça de Portugal, which began in the following year.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: At 17 months of age, Casa Pia had already participated in three tournaments abroad: Paris, San Sebastián, and Seville. The "Casapianos" was the first Portuguese team to play in Paris, playing at the Pershing Stadium in the city's Tournament at Christmas 1920, together with the Cercle Athlétic de Paris, , (from Switzerland) and FC Espanya de Barcelona, who headed the


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: rankings in the championships of their countries. In the opening game, Cercle de Paris beat Casa Pia 2–1, with the Casapian goal scored by Cândido de Oliveira. The trip to Seville took place on 16 October 1921, on the occasion of the inauguration of the Campo de Sports on Avenida de la Reina Victoria, facing Sevilla FC, who was wearing its current emblem on their chests for the first time, and despite the injury suffered by Spencer, who was forced to leave the pitch for much of the match, Sevilla FC achieved a clear victory over the "Casapianos", prevailing by three goals to nil, goals scored by León, Kinké and Escobar.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: The team's best player was Cândido de Oliveira, one of the founders of the club and the captain, who had grown up in Casa Pia since he was delivered there at the age of nine as an orphan, and who had previously played for Real Casa Pia de Lisboa, founded at the end of the 19th century. Oliveira was the main architect of the team's rise to football power in Lisbon, competing head-to-head against the likes of Benfica and Sporting CP, and largely thanks to his quality, the immediate impact of Casa Pia continued to be felt in the following seasons. In the first four years they competed, the 'Gansos' won the Lisbon Championship three times.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: The reputation grew and, on 13 December 1925, the club was invited to face Benfica on the occasion of the inauguration of Estádio das Amoreiras, which was considered at the time the best stadium in the Iberian Peninsula. The Casapians faced Benfica in the 4 categories in front of 15 thousand people, and although it is defeated in the "Quartas" by 8–1, in "Terceiras" by 11–0, in "Segundas" by 4–2, they won in "Primeiras" by 3–1. Casa Pia FC was also the first team on the continent to travel to the Azores doing it so for free after being invited by Fayal S.C. to play 3 games there in favor of the victims of the 1922 earthquake in that archipelago.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: In 1938–39, Casa Pia FC played in the inaugural editions of the National Championship and Taça de Portugal, which still today are the most important football competitions in Portugal. However, its participation in the National Championship in the 1938–39 season was the only one in which the club played in the First Division. Their field, Campo do Restelo, was expropriated in 1939–40 by the Estado Novo for the exhibition of the Portuguese World. Without its own field until 29 August 1954, when the Pina Manique Stadium in Benfica was inaugurated, far from Belém and Casa Pia, the club wandered from one field to another, achieving a brilliant record in National Championships.


title: Casa Pia A.C.

text: In the 2020–21 season, Casa Pia registered its 71st participation in National Championships, starting in the 1938–39 season.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street is a major road in the City of Westminster in the West End of London, running from Tottenham Court Road to Marble Arch via Oxford Circus. It is Europe's busiest shopping street, with around half a million daily visitors, and as of 2012 had approximately 300 shops. It is designated as part of the A40, a major road between London and Fishguard, though it is not signed as such, and traffic is regularly restricted to buses and taxis.


title: Oxford Street

text: The road was originally part of the Via Trinobantina, a Roman road between Essex and Hampshire via London. It was known as Tyburn Road through the Middle Ages when it was notorious for public hangings of prisoners at Tyburn Gallows. It became known as Oxford Road and then Oxford Street in the 18th century, and began to change from residential to commercial and retail use by the late 19th century, attracting street traders, confidence tricksters and prostitution. The first department stores in the UK opened in the early 20th century, including Selfridges, John Lewis & Partners and HMV. Unlike nearby shopping streets such as Bond Street, it has retained an element of downmarket trading alongside more prestigious retail stores. The street suffered heavy bombing during World War II, and several longstanding stores including John Lewis & Partners were completely destroyed and rebuilt from scratch.


title: Oxford Street

text: Despite competition from other shopping centres such as Westfield Stratford City and the Brent Cross Shopping Centre, Oxford Street remains in high demand as a retail location, with several chains having their flagship stores on the street, and has a number of listed buildings. The annual switching on of Christmas lights by a celebrity has been a popular event since 1959. As a popular retail area and main thoroughfare for London buses and taxis, Oxford Street has suffered from traffic congestion, pedestrian congestion, a poor safety record and pollution. Various traffic management schemes have been implemented by Transport for London (TfL), including a ban on private vehicles during daytime hours on weekdays and Saturdays, and improved pedestrian crossings.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street runs for approximately and is entirely within the City of Westminster. The road begins at St Giles Circus as a westward continuation of New Oxford Street, meeting Charing Cross Road, Tottenham Court Road (next to Tottenham Court Road station). It runs past Rathbone Place, Wardour Street and Great Portland Street to Oxford Circus, where it meets Regent Street. From there it continues past New Bond Street, Bond Street station and Vere Street, ending at Marble Arch. The route continues as Bayswater Road and Holland Park Avenue towards Shepherd's Bush.


title: Oxford Street

text: The road is within the London Congestion Charging Zone. It is part of the A40, most of which is a trunk road running from London to Fishguard (via Oxford, Cheltenham, Brecon and Haverfordwest). Like many roads in Central London that are no longer through routes, it is not signposted with that number. Numerous bus routes run along Oxford Street, including the 55, 73, 94, 98, 159, 390 and Night Buses N8, N55, N73, N98 and N207.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street follows the route of a Roman road, the Via Trinobantina, which linked Calleva Atrebatum (near Silchester, Hampshire) with Camulodunum (now Colchester) via London and became one of the major routes in and out of the city.


title: Oxford Street

text: Between the 12th century and 1782, it was variously known as Tyburn Road (after the River Tyburn that crossed it north to south), Uxbridge Road (the name still used for the road between Shepherd's Bush and Uxbridge), Worcester Road and Oxford Road. At the western end, the road met the Tyburn gallows next to Marble Arch. On Ralph Aggas' "Plan of London", published in the 16th century, the road is described partly as "The Waye to Uxbridge" followed by "Oxford Road", showing rural farmland at the present junction of Oxford Street and Rathbone Place. By 1678 it was known as the "King's Highway", and the "Road To Oxford" by 1682.


title: Oxford Street

text: Though a major coaching route, there were several obstacles along it, including the bridge over the Tyburn. A turnpike trust was established in the 1730s to improve upkeep of the road. It became notorious as the route taken by prisoners on their final journey from Newgate Prison to the gallows at Tyburn. Spectators jeered as the prisoners were carted along the road, and could buy rope used in the executions from the hangman in taverns. By about 1729, the road had become known as Oxford Street.


title: Oxford Street

text: Development began in the 18th century after many surrounding fields were purchased by the Earl of Oxford. In 1739, a local gardener, Thomas Huddle, built property on the north side. John Rocque's Map of London, published in 1746, shows urban buildings as far as North Audley Street, but only intermittent rural property beyond. Buildings were erected on the corner of Oxford Street and Davies Street in the 1750s. Further development occurred between 1763 and 1793. The Pantheon, a place for public entertainment, opened at No. 173 in 1772.


title: Oxford Street

text: The street became popular for entertainment including bear-baiters, theatres and public houses. However, it was not attractive to the middle and upper classes due to the nearby Tyburn gallows and the notorious St Giles rookery, or slum. The gallows were removed in 1783, and by the end of the century, Oxford Street was built up from St Giles Circus to Park Lane, containing a mix of residential houses and entertainment. The site of the Princess's Theatre that opened in 1840 is now occupied by Oxford Walk shopping area.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Circus was designed as part of the development of Regent Street by the architect John Nash in 1810. The four quadrants of the circus were designed by Sir Henry Tanner and constructed between 1913 and 1928.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street changed in character from residential to retail towards the end of the 19th century. Drapers, cobblers and furniture stores opened shops on the street, and some expanded into the first department stores. Street vendors sold tourist souvenirs during this time. A plan in Tallis's "London Street Views", published in the late 1830s, remarks that almost all the street, save for the far western end, was primarily retail. John Lewis started in 1864 in small shop at No. 132, while Selfridges opened on 15 March 1909 at No. 400. Most of the southern side west of Davies Street was completely rebuilt between 1865 and 1890, allowing a more uniform freehold ownership. By the 1930s the street was almost entirely retail, a state that still obtains today. However, unlike nearby streets such as Bond Street and Park Lane, there remained a seedy element including street traders and prostitutes.


title: Oxford Street

text: During the Second World War, Oxford Street was bombed several times. Overnight and in the early hours of 17 to 18 September 1940, 268 Heinkel He 111 and Dornier Do 17 bombers targeted the West End, particularly Oxford Street. Many buildings were damaged, either from direct hits or subsequent fires, including four department stores: John Lewis, Selfridges, Bourne & Hollingsworth and Peter Robinson. George Orwell wrote in his diary for 24 September that Oxford Street was "completely empty of traffic, and only a few pedestrians", and saw "innumerable fragments of broken glass". John Lewis caught fire again on 25 September and was reduced to a shell. It remained a bomb site for the remainder of the war and beyond, finally being demolished and rebuilt between 1958 and 1960. Peter Robinson partially reopened on 22 September, though the main storefront remained boarded up. The basement was converted into studios for the BBC Eastern Service. Orwell made several broadcasts here from 1941 to 1943.


title: Oxford Street

text: Selfridges was bombed again on 17 April 1941, suffering further damage, including the destruction of the Palm Court Restaurant. The basement was converted to a communications base, with a dedicated line run along Oxford Street to Whitehall allowing British Prime Minister Winston Churchill to make secure and direct telephone calls to the US President Franklin D. Roosevelt. The store was damaged again on 6 December 1944 after a V2 rocket exploded on nearby Duke Street, causing its Christmas tree displays to collapse into the street outside. Damage was repaired, and the shop reopened the following day.


title: Oxford Street

text: In September 1973 a shopping-bag bomb was detonated by the Irish Republican Army (IRA) at the offices of the Prudential Assurance Company, injuring six people. A second bomb was detonated by the IRA next to Selfridges in December 1974, injuring three people and causing £1.5 million worth of damage. Oxford Street was again targeted by the IRA in August 1975; an undiscovered bomb that had been booby trapped exploded without any injuries. On 26 October 1981 Kenneth Howorth, an explosives officer with the Metropolitan Police, was killed while defusing a bomb planted by the IRA in the basement toilet of a Wimpy Bar on Oxford Street. The IRA also detonated a bomb at the John Lewis department store in December 1992, along with another in nearby Cavendish Square, injuring four people.


title: Oxford Street

text: The human billboard Stanley Green began selling on Oxford Street in 1968, advertising his belief in the link of proteins to sexual libido and the dangers therein. He regularly patrolled the street with a placard headlined "less passion from less protein", and advertised his pamphlet "Eight Passion Proteins with Care" until his death in 1993. His placards are now housed in the British Museum.


title: Oxford Street

text: Centre Point, just beyond the eastern end of Oxford Street next to Tottenham Court Road station, was designed by property developer Harry Hyams and opened in 1966. It failed to find a suitable tenant and remained empty for many years before being occupied by squatters who used it as a centre of protest against the lack of suitable accommodation in central London. In 2015, building work began to convert it into residential flats, with development expected to finish in 2017.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street is home to a number of major department stores and flagship retail outlets, containing over 300 shops as of 2012. It is the most frequently visited shopping street in Inner London, attracting over half a million daily visitors in 2014, and is one of the most popular destinations in London for tourists, with an annual estimated turnover of over £1 billion. It forms part of a shopping district in the West End of London, along with other streets including Covent Garden, Bond Street and Piccadilly.


title: Oxford Street

text: The New West End Company, formerly the Oxford Street Association, oversees stores and trade along the street; its objective is to make the place safe and desirable for shoppers. The group has been critical of overcrowding and the quality of shops and has clamped down on abusive traders, who were then refused licences.


title: Oxford Street

text: Several British retail chains regard their Oxford Street branch as the flagship store. Marshall & Snelgrove opened in 1870; in 1919 it merged with Debenhams, which had opened in nearby Wigmore Street in 1778. The company was owned by Burton between 1985 and 1998. The London flagship store of House of Fraser began as D. H. Evans in 1879, and moved to its current premises in 1935. It was the first department store in the UK with escalators serving every floor. Selfridges, Oxford Street, the second-largest department store in the UK and the flagship of the Selfridges chain, has been in Oxford Street since 1909.


title: Oxford Street

text: Marks & Spencer has two stores on Oxford Street. The first, Marks & Spencer Marble Arch, is at the junction with Orchard Street. A second branch is between Regent Street and Tottenham Court Road, on the former site of the Pantheon.


title: Oxford Street

text: The music retailer HMV was opened at No. 363 Oxford Street in 1921 by Sir Edward Elgar. The Beatles made their first recording in London in 1962, when they cut a 78 rpm demo disc in the store. A larger store at No. 150 was opened in 1986 by Bob Geldof, and was the largest music shop in the world, at . As well as music and video retail, the premises supported live gigs in the store. Because of financial difficulties, the store closed in 2014, with all retail moving to No. 363.


title: Oxford Street

text: The 100 Club, in the basement of No. 100, has been run as a live music venue since 24 October 1942. It was thought to be safe from bombing threats because of its underground location, and played host to jazz musicians, including Glenn Miller. It was renamed the London Jazz Club in 1948, and subsequently the Humphrey Lyttelton Club after he took over the lease in the 1950s. Louis Armstrong played at the venue during this time. It became a key venue for the trad jazz revival, hosting gigs by Chris Barber and Acker Bilk. It was renamed the 100 Club in 1964 after Roger Horton bought a stake, adding an alcohol licence for the first time. The venue hosted gigs by several British rock bands, including the Who, the Kinks and the Animals. It was an important venue for punk rock in the UK and hosted the first British punk festival on 21 September 1976, featuring the Sex Pistols, the Damned and the Buzzcocks.


title: Oxford Street

text: The Tottenham is a Grade II*listed pub at No. 6 Oxford Street, near Tottenham Court Road. It was built in the mid-19th century and is the last remaining pub in the street, which once had 20.


title: Oxford Street

text: The London College of Fashion has an Oxford Street campus on John Prince's Street near Oxford Circus. The college is part of the University of the Arts London, formerly the London Institute.


title: Oxford Street

text: The cosmetics retailer Lush opened a store in 2015. Measuring and containing three floors, it is the company's largest retail premises.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street is served by major bus routes and by four tube stations of the London Underground. From Marble Arch eastwards, the stations are:


title: Oxford Street

text: The four stations serve an average of 100 million passengers every year, with Oxford Circus being the busiest.


title: Oxford Street

text: Crossrail, a major project involving an east–west rail route across London, will have two stations serving Oxford Street, at Bond Street and Tottenham Court Road. Each station will be "double-ended", with exits through the existing tube station and also some distance away: to the east of Bond Street, in Hanover Square near Oxford Circus; to the west of Tottenham Court Road, in Dean Street.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street has been ranked as the most important retail location in Britain and the busiest shopping street in Europe. The pavements are congested because of shoppers and tourists, many of whom arrive at a tube station, and the roadway is regularly blocked by buses.


title: Oxford Street

text: There is heavy competition between foot and bus traffic on Oxford Street, which is the main east–west bus corridor through Central London. Around 175,000 people get on or off a bus on Oxford Street every day, along with 43,000 further through passengers. Taxis are popular, particularly along the stretch between Oxford Circus and Selfridges. Between 2009 and 2012, there were 71 accidents involving traffic and pedestrians. In 2016, a report suggested buses generally did not travel faster than , compared to a typical pedestrian speed of .


title: Oxford Street

text: There have been several proposals to reduce congestion on Oxford Street. Horse-drawn vehicles were banned in 1931, and traffic signals were installed the same year. To prevent congestion of buses, most of Oxford Street is designated a bus lane during peak hours and private vehicles are banned. This is only open to buses, taxis and two-wheeled vehicles between 7:00am and 7:00pm on all days except Sundays. The ban was introduced experimentally in June 1972 and was considered a success, with an estimated increase of £250,000 in retail sales. However, the area is popular with unregulated rickshaws, which are a major cause of congestion in the area. Their slow speed, coupled with the narrowness of the street (buses are unable to pass them, causing long traffic queues), only adds to the traffic woes. In 2009, a new diagonal crossing opened at Oxford Circus, allowing pedestrians to cross from one corner of Oxford Street to the opposite without needing to cross twice or use an underpass. This doubles the pedestrian capacity at the junction.


title: Oxford Street

text: From 2005 to 2012, Oxford Street was closed to motor traffic on VIP Day, (Very Important Pedestrians), a Saturday before Christmas. The scheme was popular and boosted sales by over £17m in 2012 but in 2013, the New West End Company announced that the scheme would not go ahead as it wanted to do "something new". In 2014, Liberal Democrat members of the London Assembly proposed the street be pedestrianised by 2020.


title: Oxford Street

text: In 2006, the New West End Company and the Mayor of London, Ken Livingstone, proposed to pedestrianise the street with a tram service running end to end. The next Mayor, Boris Johnson, elected in 2008, announced that the scheme was not cost-effective, was too disruptive and would not go ahead. In response to a request from Johnson, Transport for London (TfL) reduced bus flow by 10% in both 2009 and 2010. The New West End Company called for a 33% reduction in bus movements.


title: Oxford Street

text: In 2014, TfL suggested that pedestrianisation may not be a suitable long-term measure due to Crossrail reducing the demand for bus services on the street and proposed banning all traffic except buses and cycles during peak shopping times. Optimisation of traffic signals, including pedestrian countdown signals, was also proposed. TfL is concerned that long-term traffic problems may affect trade in the area, which competes with shopping centres such as Westfield London, Westfield Stratford City and the Brent Cross Shopping Centre. In 2015, while campaigning for election as London Mayor, Labour's Sadiq Khan favoured pedestrianisation, which was supported by other parties. After winning the election, he pledged the street would be completely pedestrianised by 2020. In 2017, the project was brought forward to be completed by the end of the following year. The plan has been disapproved by local residents, Westminster City Council and the Fitzrovia Business Association.


title: Oxford Street

text: In 2014, a report by a scientist at King's College London showed that Oxford Street had the world's highest concentration of nitrogen dioxide pollution, at 135 micrograms per cubic metre of air (μg/m). The figure was an average that included night-time, when traffic was much lower. At peak times during the day, levels up to 463 μg/m were recorded – over 11 times the permitted EU maximum of 40 μg/m. Because of diesel-powered traffic (buses and taxis), annual average nitrogen dioxide concentrations are around 180 μg/m. This is 4.5 times the EU target of 40 μg/m (Council Directive 1999/30/EC).


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street has suffered from high crime rates. In 2005, an internal Metropolitan Police report named it as the most dangerous street in Central London. In 2012, an analysis of crime statistics revealed that Oxford Street was the shopping destination most surrounded by crime in the UK. During 2011, there were 656 vehicle crimes, 915 robberies, 2,597 violent crimes and 5,039 reported instances of anti-social behaviour.


title: Oxford Street

text: In 2014, the United Arab Emirates issued a travel advisory, warning Emirati citizens to avoid Oxford Street and other areas of Central London such as Bond Street and Piccadilly due to "pickpocketing, fraud and theft". The advent of closed-circuit television has reduced the area's attraction to scam artists and illegal street traders.


title: Oxford Street

text: In 2021, police seized 17,500 items including fake designer goods, unsafe toys and incorrectly-labelled nicotine products as part of Operation Jade. 4,000 items were removed from an unregistered food trader, including two bags with a quantity of Tetrahydrocannabinol over the legal limit. Trading Standards also took 11,000 goods and 2,500 souvenirs from unlicensed businesses and street traders.


title: Oxford Street

text: Every Christmas, Oxford Street is decorated with festive lights. The tradition of Christmas lights began in 1959, five years after neighbouring Regent Street. There were no light displays in 1976 or 1977 because of economic recession, but the lights returned in 1978 when Oxford Street organised a laser display, and have continued every year since.


title: Oxford Street

text: Current practice involves a celebrity turning the lights on in mid- to late-November, and the lights remain until 6 January (Twelfth Night). The festivities were postponed in 1963 because of the assassination of John F. Kennedy and in 1989 to fit with Kylie Minogue's touring commitments. In 2015, the lights were switched on earlier, on Sunday 1 November, resulting in an unusual closure of the street to all traffic. In 2020, the lights honoured volunteers who had helped London residents through the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street has several Grade II listed buildings. In addition, the façades to Oxford Circus tube station are also listed.


title: Oxford Street

text: Oxford Street is mentioned in several Charles Dickens novels. In "A Tale of Two Cities", as Oxford Road, it is described as having "very few buildings", though it was heavily built up by the late 18th century. It is also mentioned in "Sketches by Boz" and "Bleak House".


title: Oxford Street

text: "Oxford Street" is one of the London poet Letitia Elizabeth Landon's "Scenes in London". In this poem the busy bustle of commercial life is interrupted by and contrasted with the procession of a military funeral.


title: Oxford Street

text: The street is a square on the British "Monopoly" game board, part of the green set (together with Regent Street and Bond Street). The streets were grouped together as they are all primarily retail areas. In 1991, music manager and entrepreneur Malcolm McLaren produced "The Ghosts of Oxford Street", a musical documentary about life and history in the local area.


title: Customary international law

text: Customary international law is an aspect of international law involving the principle of custom. Along with general principles of law and treaties, custom is considered by the International Court of Justice, jurists, the United Nations, and its member states to be among the primary sources of international law.


title: Customary international law

text: Many governments accept in principle the existence of customary international law, although there are differing opinions as to what rules are contained in it.


title: Customary international law

text: In 1950, the International Law Commission listed the following sources as forms of evidence of customary international law: treaties, decisions of national and international courts, national legislation, opinions of national legal advisors, diplomatic correspondence, and practice of international organizations. In 2018, the Commission adopted Conclusions on Identification of Customary International Law with commentaries. The United Nations General Assembly welcomed the Conclusions and encouraged their widest possible dissemination.


title: Customary international law

text: The International Court of Justice Statute defines customary international law in Article 38(1)(b) as "a general practice accepted as law". This is generally determined through two factors: the general practice of states and what states have accepted as law (opinio juris sive necessitatis). This means that many states need to engage in the practice (in particular, great powers) and that states engage in the practice out of a sense of legal obligation (rather than custom or habit).


title: Customary international law

text: There are several kinds of customary international laws recognized by states. Some customary international laws rise to the level of "jus cogens" through acceptance by the international community as non-derogable rights, while other customary international law may simply be followed by a small group of states. States are typically bound by customary international law regardless of whether the states have codified these laws domestically or through treaties.


title: Customary international law

text: A peremptory norm (also called "jus cogens", Latin for "compelling law") is a fundamental principle of international law which is accepted by the international community of states as a norm from which no derogation is ever permitted (non-derogable). These norms are rooted in natural law principles, and any laws conflicting with it should be considered null and void. Examples include various international crimes; a state violates customary international law if it permits or engages in slavery, torture, genocide, war of aggression, or crimes against humanity.


title: Customary international law

text: "Jus cogens" and customary international law are not interchangeable. All "jus cogens" are customary international law through their adoption by states, but not all customary international laws rise to the level of peremptory norms. States can deviate from customary international law by enacting treaties and conflicting laws, but "jus cogens" are non-derogable.


title: Customary international law

text: Some international customary laws have been codified through treaties and domestic laws, while others are recognized only as customary law.


title: Customary international law

text: The laws of war, also known as "jus in bello", were long a matter of customary law before they were codified in the Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, Geneva Conventions, and other treaties. However, these conventions do not purport to govern all legal matters that may arise during war. Instead, Article 1(2) of Additional Protocol I dictates that customary international law governs legal matters concerning armed conflict not covered by other agreements.


title: Customary international law

text: Generally, sovereign nations must consent in order to be bound by a particular treaty or legal norm. However, international customary laws are norms that have become pervasive enough internationally that countries need not consent in order to be bound. In these cases, all that is needed is that the state has not objected to the law. However, states that object to customary international law may not be bound by them unless these laws are deemed to be "jus cogens". However, in a dispute with any nation that has not affirmed the "silence implies consent" principle, any invocation of the "silence implies consent" principle involves an appeal to custom, such that if that nation does not espouse the broader premise of acknowledging the existence of customary international law, such an appeal will depend on circular reasoning ("customary international law is binding because silence implies consent, and silence implies consent because the fact that silence implies consent is one aspect of customary international law").


title: Customary international law

text: It is commonly said that the international community is 'anarchical', in that there is no layer of higher government with absolute power to treat states like citizens. This is in a way unsurprising, since most states could (if pressed) rely solely on themselves for survival. States are thus in a position, unlike individual humans, to refuse the benefits and reciprocal responsibilities of participating in a community under law.


title: Customary international law

text: In recognition of this reality, it has long been a tenet of international law that a state must expressly consent to a rule (by, for example, signing a treaty) before it can be legally bound by the rule. Customary international law not only upsets this idea of consent, it does it by stealth.


title: Customary international law

text: The Statute of the International Court of Justice acknowledges the existence of customary international law in Article 38(1)(b), incorporated into the United Nations Charter by Article 92: "The Court, whose function is to decide in accordance with international law such as disputes that are submitted to it, shall apply ... international custom, as evidence of a general practice accepted as law."