title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: The designers wanted to do more than return to the West just for the sake of it or just because fans wanted it, however. Instead, their aspirations went further, with Krakowiak explaining, "just going back to what worked is definitely not our ambition. We want to move forward on the storytelling side and the gameplay side." Indeed, Techland knew another subpar game would kill the franchise, with design expert Xavier Penin, who also contributed to the script, stating, "we were on a mission to save the "Call of Juarez" brand, literally."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: As with both the original "Call of Juarez" and "", the team did a lot of historical research during preproduction. However, as with both of those games, they didn't allow historical actuality to slavishly dictate the entire content of the game. Instead, they found something of a halfway house between the facts as we know them and the myths that have built up around them. According to Krakowiak,


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: Along the same lines, he stated, "we don't think it would be really interesting to focus purely on history. It's like with pirates. We have too many romantic ideas and expectations about them."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: The weaponry in the game was approached in a similar manner, with one eye on historical accuracy and one on myth, achieving "a balance between realism and fun." In some early gameplay tests, the guns behaved exactly as they would have in reality, but according to Krakowiak, "it just wasn't fun. So we have made them more accurate, faster and so on. It's exactly what we did with "Bound in Blood".


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: In terms of the game's narrative, which is self-consciously a mixture of fact and fiction, Joye explains that in the earliest stages of development, the team tried to narrow down what makes this period of history so specific, and "what we came up was the stories, the legends, the mixture between myth and truth. So we really focused on the storytelling and narration."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: The outline of the story was conceived by producer Krzysztof Nosek and writer Rafał W. Orkan, who brought it to Techland's regular writer, Haris Orkin, without characters or specific story elements in place. Wanting the actual narration to be as important as the narrative, they told Orkin that the storyline needed to be structured like "Bastion", whereby things in the game world would change in front of the players' eyes, based upon what was being said in the narration. Orkin loved the idea, as it paralleled how the legends of the West were formed in the first place - myths and exaggeration overtook fact and reality, and so the question of truth versus embellishment became a major part of the story; "we decided our narrator would be unreliable and that the world would change as the story changed. I thought that perfectly mimicked how the history of the West was written in the first place." Orkin was particularly inspired by John Ford's "The Man Who Shot Liberty Valance" (1962) and Arthur Penn's "Little Big Man" (1970), both of which deal with myths overtaking reality in the public consciousness. A quote from "Liberty Valance", "when the legend becomes fact, print the legend", became a central idea in Orkin's script.


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: Silas himself was based partly on Clint Eastwood's character in Sergio Leone's "Dollars Trilogy" and partly on Frank Eaton.


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: The importance of storytelling and the overlap between fact and myth also became important in relation to the game's graphical style. Many of the cutscenes utilise a comic book aesthetic, with separate panels telling a dynamic story. According to Krakowiak, this is to continually reinforce to the player the idea that they are playing through a story being told by someone, who may not be entirely truthful; "the whole thing is a mix of historical truth and the legends built around it, so a comic book style seems to be tailor made for something like this."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: This is also why the designers opted for a cel shaded in-game graphical style; "it's almost realistic. But we apply a slight cel-shaded approach, so the whole thing looks a bit like a 'Wild West Hero' story."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: On March 31, 2018, without any indication as to why, "The Cartel" and "Gunslinger" were removed from Steam, the PlayStation Store, and Xbox Live. On April 12, Ubisoft explained that the reason for the removal was "per the terms of agreement, "Call of Juarez: The Cartel" and "Call of Juarez: Gunslinger" licensing/publishing rights have reverted back to Techland, while others remain active with Ubisoft. This is why a few titles have recently been removed, but it is our understanding that Techland is working to bring those titles back." "Gunslinger" returned to all three platforms on April 30, with Techland stating, "as Techland Publishing moves forward as a leading publisher, we are delighted to welcome "Call of Juarez: Gunslinger" to our publishing division."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: On October 8, 2018, the "Call of Juarez" Facebook page was updated for the first time in over five years, adding a banner with Silas and the tagline "Legends never die." Another new image showed Silas standing over a canyon with the quote, "I haven't been here in many years." On October 9, a Nintendo Switch version of the game was rated by the Entertainment Software Rating Board.


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: On October 17, Techland sent out Wild West-themed postcards to game journalists, complete with coffee stains, era-appropriate iconography, and a picture of Silas playing the game on Switch. The postcard also promised a reveal on October 24. That reveal proved to be the announcement of the port.


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: "Call of Juarez: Gunslinger" received "generally favorable" reviews across all systems, with the PC version holding an aggregate score of 79 out of 100 on Metacritic, based on twenty-three reviews, the PlayStation 3 version holding a score of 75 out of 100, based on sixteen reviews, the Xbox 360 version holding a score of 76 out of 100, based on thirty-six reviews, and the Nintendo Switch version holding a score of 72 out of 100, based on fourteen reviews.


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: "Polygon"s Justin McElroy scored the PC and PlayStation 3 versions 9 out of 10, praising the shooting mechanics, narration, and the inclusion of arcade mode. He concluded, "pure, outlandish Spaghetti Western gunfights have never been more thrilling." "Destructoid"s Jim Sterling scored the PC version 8.5 out of 10 and was surprised by how polished the game was, especially considering how much they despised "The Cartel". Calling it the "best damn game in the series", they wrote, "it packs more entertainment into its humble package than all the other "Juarez" games combined." They praised the writing, humour, art style, voice acting, the use of a metanarrative, and the shooting mechanics. Although they felt it was occasionally repetitive, especially in relation to the limited arsenal available to the player, they concluded, "I wholly recommend it to fans [...] Not only is "Gunslinger" the best "Call of Juarez" game, it's a damn fine and worthy shooter in its own right."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: "PC Gamer"s Richard Cobbett scored the PC version 84 out of 100, lamenting that it was a short budget-game when the quality was good enough to support a full retail-game. He concluded, "it makes the idea of another "Call of Juarez" game at some time in the future surprisingly appealing." "Game Informer"s Dan Ryckert scored the PS3 and Xbox versions 8 out of 10, praising arcade mode, the shooting mechanics, and the narrative. He wrote, "the game certainly doesn't turn any FPS conventions on their ears, but it still presents tense and entertaining shootouts frequently."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: "GameSpot"s Mark Watson scored the Xbox 360 version 8 out 10. Calling it a "remarkable shooter", "a breath of fresh air," and "tight and controlled," he praised the shooting mechanics, level design, humour, duelling ("precise and fun"), and arcade mode ("an absolute blast"). On the other hand, he was somewhat critical of the non-duel boss battles, which he found shallow. He concluded, ""Call of Juarez: Gunslinger" is a whole heap of Western fun and a thoroughly welcome return to form." "Official Xbox Magazine"s Scott Butterworth scored the Xbox version 8 out of 10 praising its "near AAA-caliber execution." He praised the shooting mechanics, although he would have preferred a cover system, and he found the level design suffered from a "lack of subtlety." Nevertheless, he concluded, "there's nothing wrong with doing something simple very, very well, and at this price, we're willing to forgive certain problems."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: "IGN"s Colin Moriarty scored the PS3 version 7.5 out of 10, praising the storytelling, the gunplay, and the voice acting. However, he was very critical of the duelling system ("borderline nonsensical and immersion-breaking"). He concluded, "it has a lot of charm in its short but appropriately wild Old Western campaign, with an excellent storytelling twist and fast-paced arcadey gunplay against wily black-hats." "GamesRadar+"s Lorenzo Veloria scored the PS3 version 3.5 out of 5. He thought the game succeeded in creating a score-based shooter with an interesting environment and narration, but he disliked the boss battles. He also praised the shooting mechanics and the graphics. He concluded, "those who want a solid Western shooter with exhilarating mechanics, you'll want to give this game a try." Writing for the UK's "PlayStation Official Magazine", Emma Davis scored the PlayStation version 7 out of 10, writing, "simple, arcadey fun is on offer if you approach this on its own, rather silly terms."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: "Nintendo Life"s Chris Scullion scored the Switch version 8 out of 10, calling it "one of the better-looking first-person shooters we've seen on the Switch." Finding it to be "a solid port", he praised the adaptation to the Switch's Joy-Con, and concluded, "it's an entertaining adventure, which does clever things with its story structure." "TheSixthAxis"s Thomas Hughes scored it 8 out of 10, praising the use of motion control ("I can not stress enough just how fun this addition is."). He concluded, "the Switch port is an excellent way to experience the series for the first time."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: "TheGamer"s Fox Tanner scored it 3 out of 5. He praised the narrative, but was critical of the controls. He also disliked the implementation of motion control ("it often seems to impair more than aid"). Nevertheless, he found the game to be "arcadey shooting action at its absolute best," and he concluded, "it's more than worth the asking price of twenty dollars." "4Players"s Benjamin Schmädig scored it 59%. He was critical of the graphics and frame rate ("so low that it is physically uncomfortable to play the game at times"), opining that the poor presentation made targeting very difficult. Arguing that it is "one of those games that should not have been published in its current form," he concluded, ""Gunslinger" joins the ranks of games that do not really fit the Switch."


title: Call of Juarez: Gunslinger

text: The game was the third best-selling PSN title in May 2013, coming behind "" and "Terraria". In July, Ubisoft released its first quarterly financial report, in which they revealed that digital downloads were up 27% from the same time period the previous year. They cited the strong sales of "Blood Dragon" and "Gunslinger".


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Elliott Roosevelt (September 23, 1910 – October 27, 1990) was an American aviation official and wartime officer in the United States Army Air Forces, reaching the rank of brigadier general. He was a son of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: As a reconnaissance commander, Roosevelt pioneered new techniques in night photography and meteorological data-gathering, but his claims to a distinguished record on combat missions have been largely discounted.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: After the war ended, he faced an investigation by the United States Congress on charges of corruption, including accusations that he had recommended the purchase of the experimental Hughes XF-11 reconnaissance aircraft ahead of a Lockheed model that was believed to be superior. Ultimately, he was found blameless.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Roosevelt published a book about his attendance at several major Allied war conferences and a controversial exposé of his parents' private life. He also wrote 22 mystery novels. His career also embraced broadcasting, ranching, politics and business. He served as the 24th mayor of Miami Beach, Florida from 1965 to 1967.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Elliott Roosevelt was a son of President Franklin D. Roosevelt (1882–1945) and First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt (1884–1962). He was named after his maternal grandfather, Elliott Roosevelt (1860–1894). His siblings were Anna (1906–1975), James (1907–1991), Franklin Jr. (1914–1988), and John (1916–1981).


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Roosevelt attended the Hun School of Princeton and went to Groton School, as did his brothers. He refused to attend Harvard College. Instead, he worked a series of briefly held jobs, beginning with advertising and settling in broadcasting in the 1930s, including a management position in the Hearst radio chain.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Roosevelt had always been interested in flight, and in 1933 he briefly served as general manager of Gilpin Airlines of Glendale, California, a small airline owned by Rep. Isabella Greenway (D-AZ), a close friend of the family. Later that year he became aviation editor for the William Randolph Hearst newspapers. After controversial involvement in the Air Mail Scandal and a secret attempt to sell bombers in civilian disguise to the USSR, he was hired as vice president of the Aeronautical Chamber of Commerce (see Aerospace Industries Association), a post he held until 1935. That year, he moved to Fort Worth, Texas and became involved in broadcasting and farming.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Roosevelt received a captain's commission in the United States Army Air Corps on 23 September 1940, his 30th birthday. His appointment in the middle of the 1940 election campaign caused a furious political row, although General Henry H. Arnold, the Chief of the Air Corps, asserted that there was no pressure or nepotism involved. After brief service at Wright Field, Ohio, he took an intelligence course and served with the 21st Reconnaissance Squadron at the new U.S. facility in Gander, Newfoundland.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: In the summer of 1941, Roosevelt searched for and located air base sites in Labrador, Baffin Island, and Greenland and reported on conditions in Iceland and along the rest of the embryonic North Atlantic ferry route. During this time, he coordinated closely with FDR, Prime Minister Winston Churchill, and General Arnold. Elliott Roosevelt was the first to interest Churchill in American bases in Africa (including Bathurst in the Gambia), a step for which his father was not yet ready. He served as a procurement specialist, navigator, and intelligence and reconnaissance officer and rose to brigadier general by January 1945. Despite having poor eyesight and being classified 4-F (unfit), he also became a pilot and reportedly flew 89 combat missions by the time of his inactivation from the United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) in August 1945.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: While Roosevelt operated from Gander in August 1941, FDR detached him and brother Franklin Jr. to attend the Argentia (Atlantic Charter) summit between Churchill and FDR, which was nearby. In January 1943, Roosevelt accompanied FDR as a military attaché to the Casablanca meeting and the subsequent Cairo and Tehran Conferences in November–December 1943. At a dinner during the Tehran Conference, Joseph Stalin proposed to round up and shoot some 50,000 German officers and technicians after the war in order to permanently incapacitate Germany. Roosevelt spoke in favor of the proposal which earned him Stalin's cheers and the vocal and lasting hostility of Churchill who said "I would rather be taken out into the garden here and now and be shot myself".


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Following a navigator/bombardier course in the fall of 1941 and a brief stint on antisubmarine patrol duty with the 6th Reconnaissance Squadron at Muroc AAB, Roosevelt received a top-secret assignment to carry out clandestine reconnaissance flights over the Sahara Desert, with emphasis on French West Africa, with which the United States was not at war. Having been successful with this (Project Rusty), he was given command of the new 3d Reconnaissance Group at Colorado Springs. From Gibraltar and then Oran, Algeria, he led this unit in Operation Torch, the invasion of Northwest Africa in early November 1942. Roosevelt (with a pilot) flew the first U.S. reconnaissance missions over the theater in a borrowed RAF de Havilland Mosquito. This led to a long campaign for the U.S. adoption of this British aircraft, as Roosevelt held the American counterparts (modified Boeing B-17Cs and early Lockheed P-38s) to be inadequate and unlikely to survive in contested airspace.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: From Maison Blanche, Algeria, and after the fall of Tunis, La Marsa near ancient Carthage, Roosevelt pioneered new tactics, including night aerial photography and obtained before and after imagery of Rome during that city's first heavy bombing on 19 July 1943.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: After his detachment to investigate reconnaissance issues in the United States (see the Hughes scandal section below), Roosevelt received command of the 8th Air Force's reconnaissance wing in England: the 8th Provisional RW, later renamed the 325th Reconnaissance Wing. During this period, Roosevelt worked on the shuttle-bombing project with the USSR, and participated in the May 1944 mission to the USSR which inspected the new American bases at Poltava, Mirgorod, and Piryatin. His units also supported the D-Day invasion of Normandy and the bombing campaign against V-weapon sites.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Following threats of resignation and pressure from "very high topside," in January 1945 General Arnold ordered General Carl Spaatz in England to appoint Roosevelt a rated pilot, and the president submitted his son's name to the Senate for promotion to brigadier general. By standard rules, Roosevelt was eligible for the rank, but not for the pilot's wings. Roosevelt continued in that rank in Europe until his father's death on April 12, 1945. After VE-Day, the Air Forces could no longer find a "suitable vacancy" for him, and he was on leave and had staff duties in the United States. By coincidence, his last day of service was VJ-Day.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Roosevelt stated that he flew 89 combat missions and 470 combat hours prior to being called back for his father's funeral in April 1945 (he did not return to active theaters). His decorations included the Distinguished Flying Cross. He also received the Order of the British Empire, the Croix de Guerre and Legion d'Honneur, the Moroccan Order of Ouissam Alaouite, and the U.S. Legion of Merit. He ended the war holding the Air Medal with reportedly eleven clusters. As a chase pilot for the Operation Aphrodite flights in 1944, Roosevelt said he witnessed the death of Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. over Blythburgh, England (there is no evidence in Aphrodite files that Roosevelt participated in this project, nor did he fly as chase pilot and witness the death of Joseph P. Kennedy).


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: After the war, Roosevelt no longer played a significant role in aviation, although he maintained a private pilot's license and owned a small aircraft. He briefly served as president of short-lived Empire Airlines of New York (1946), citing his influence with the Civil Aeronautics Board (CAB), which, however, did not result in route awards. Reported attempts to assist Howard Hughes's TWA in obtaining air routes to the USSR also did not succeed.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: In August 1943, Colonel Roosevelt was asked by Chief of the Army Air Forces, General Henry H. Arnold, to investigate several reconnaissance aircraft under development to select a successor to the Lockheed P-38 (F-4 and F-5 in the recon version), but the reason for Arnold's choice of Roosevelt was not made public. Roosevelt assembled a group of five air officers, including veteran RAF reconnaissance pilot Wing Commander D.W. Steventon. Upon their arrival in Los Angeles, Roosevelt and his group were met by eight limousines arranged by John W. Meyer, a publicist and former nightclub owner who was employed by Hughes Aircraft. On his first day in town, Roosevelt was taken by Meyer to the Hollywood film studio of Warner Bros. and introduced to Faye Emerson, an actress with whom Roosevelt was linked romantically (the two would eventually marry). Over the next three days, Roosevelt and his group were seen with Meyer in Hollywood nightclubs and at parties in luxurious mansions in the company of aspiring actresses paid $100–400 per night by Meyer, the higher figure equivalent to $ in current value.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: On August 11, Howard Hughes showed the group his Culver City aircraft factory, then personally flew them to see the private-venture Hughes D-2, an experimental twin-engine wooden aircraft then being test-flown at a Hughes facility at Harper Dry Lake in the Mojave Desert. The aircraft had already been turned down ten months earlier by Chief of Army Air Forces Material Division Oliver P. Echols, for being inadequate to military service; it was considered unlikely to become successful for numerous reasons, wooden construction and Hughes's limited facilities among them. Roosevelt and his committee, however, fervently recommended the D-2. When Roosevelt returned to the East Coast of the United States, Meyer hosted another round of parties and nightclub outings in Manhattan and arranged for Faye Emerson to accompany Roosevelt. Among many favors, Meyer gave Emerson $132 worth of nylon stockings, a rare treat during wartime rationing.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: On August 20, Roosevelt sent a report to General Arnold recommending immediate purchase of the D-2. On September 1, Arnold ordered Echols to contract with Hughes for an all-metal reconnaissance aircraft "against my better judgment and the advice of my staff." During these two weeks, Arnold, Elliott Roosevelt, and FDR conferred frequently at the White House, and it is documented that Elliott Roosevelt complained to his father about Arnold's reluctance to order the F-11.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Major General Charles E. Bradshaw wrote to Arnold to suggest that the Lockheed XP-58 Chain Lightning was much farther along in development and could outperform the D-2 in every important aspect, but was unsuccessful in halting the Hughes contract. Implicating Roosevelt and United States Secretary of Commerce Jesse H. Jones, Assistant Secretary of War Robert A. Lovett noted to Major General Bennett E. Meyers that "Hughes has got powerful friends here in Washington" and that, if the background of the contract were uncovered, "there's going to be an awful smell." Nonetheless, Hughes was given $43 million (worth $ in dollars) to build 100 all-metal aircraft to be designated the Hughes XF-11.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: In 1947, Roosevelt telephoned Hughes to warn him that a United States Senate subcommittee (the "Brewster Committee", formerly the "Truman Committee") intended to call them both to account for financial irregularities regarding the XF-11 as well as for Hughes' H-4 Hercules, popularly known as the "Spruce Goose". As part of the ongoing "Investigation of the National Defense Program", on August 4, 1947, the subcommittee called Roosevelt and Meyer to testify about the Hollywood and Manhattan parties and women that Meyer had arranged and paid for. Meyer's extensive financial records during such parties showed him paying $200 for "presents for four girls" and $50 for "girls at hotel (late)". At one point, Roosevelt asked Meyer: "[A]ny of those girls who were paid, were they procured for my entertainment?" Meyer responded: "I don't like the word 'procured,' because a girl who attends a party and is given a present is not necessarily 'procured'." The committee found that Meyer had spent at least $1,000 in picking up Roosevelt's hotel bills as well as his nightclub and party checks, and Faye Emerson's bets at Agua Caliente Racetrack, and that Meyer had arranged for weekends in Palm Springs, California and Washington, D.C. for Roosevelt and Emerson, who eventually married in December 1944 after Roosevelt divorced his second wife in March 1944. The wedding at the Grand Canyon was also paid for by Meyer.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: All told, Meyer reported to the committee that he had spent $5,083.79 ($ in dollars) on entertainment for Roosevelt. In his own defense, Roosevelt testified that he never heard of the XF-11 until General Arnold let him know about it, and that several of the parties appeared to have taken place on days when he was out of the country on active duty. Roosevelt said: "If it is true that for the price of entertainment I made recommendations which would have in any way endangered the lives of the men under me...that fact should be made known to the public."


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: After FDR's death in 1945, Roosevelt and his family moved to Top Cottage to be near his mother, who considered him her favorite child. She gave him financial assistance throughout her life. In 1947, Eleanor bought from the FDR estate Val-Kill farms, the home she lived in after FDR's death, and deeded the property to Elliott Roosevelt. After he moved to Miami Beach and Havana with his fourth wife in 1952, his brother John bought the Hyde Park tract. Later, the property became Eleanor Roosevelt National Historic Site.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Roosevelt pursued many different careers during his life, including owning a pre-war radio station network (Texas State Network) in Texas and living as a rancher. He again moved to Florida and was elected mayor of Miami Beach (1965), being unseated two years later. After a business career marked by ties to organized crime, he was investigated by the Senate ("Jackson Committee") in 1973.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: In 1973 during the Senate Permanent Subcommittee on Investigations hearings on corruption, Roosevelt was accused of involvement in an assassination plot on the Bahamanian Prime Minister. In 1968, he and an "alleged mobster front man," Michael J. McLaney, offered Louis Mastriana (equivalent to $ in ) to assassinate Prime Minister Lynden Pindling. Mastriana was paid (equivalent to $ in ) up front, most of which came from Elliott Roosevelt (as proved by a signature on a check for the money). The assassination plot was conceived after Prime Minister Pindling's failure to issue a gambling license to an associate of Meyer Lansky, (whom Michael J. McLaney worked for until his conviction in 1971). It was uncovered by Mastriana; he taped all of his conversation with Elliott Roosevelt, allegedly using equipment from the U.S. Postal Service. Roosevelt maintained that this was a lie until his death.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Roosevelt emigrated to Portugal in 1972, but left for England after the revolution in 1974. He moved back to the United States, living in Bellevue, Washington; Indian Wells, California; and Scottsdale, Arizona. As Roosevelt approached his eightieth year, his final ambition was to "outlive James." However, Roosevelt died at age 80 of heart and liver failure. Brother James died 10 months later in August 1991.


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Elliott authored numerous books, including a mystery series in which his mother, Eleanor Roosevelt, is the detective, as Murieron and the First Lady (1984).


title: Elliott Roosevelt (general)

text: Roosevelt described his experiences with his father during five important war conferences in his best-selling book "As He Saw It". He also edited "FDR: His Personal Letters", published after the war in four volumes. With James Brough, Roosevelt wrote a highly personal book about his parents called "The Roosevelts of Hyde Park: An Untold Story", in which he revealed details about the sexual lives of his parents, including his father's relationships with mistress Lucy Mercer and secretary Marguerite ("Missy") LeHand as well as graphic details surrounding the 1921 paralytic illness that crippled his father. Published in 1973, the biography also contains valuable insights into FDR's run for vice-president, his rise to the governorship of New York, and his capture of the presidency in 1932, particularly with the help of Louis McHenry Howe. A sequel to "An Untold Story" with James Brough, published in 1975 and titled "A Rendezvous With Destiny", carried the Roosevelt saga to the end of World War II. "Mother R.: Eleanor Roosevelt's Untold Story", also with Brough, was published in 1977; "The Conservators", a political book, in 1982. "Eleanor Roosevelt, with Love: A Centenary Remembrance", came out in 1984.


title: Phorcys

text: In Greek mythology, Phorcys or Phorcus (; ) is a primordial sea god, generally cited (first in Hesiod) as the son of Pontus and Gaia (Earth). Classical scholar Karl Kerenyi conflated Phorcys with the similar sea gods Nereus and Proteus. His wife was Ceto, and he is most notable in myth for fathering by Ceto a host of monstrous children. In extant Hellenistic-Roman mosaics, Phorcys was depicted as a fish-tailed merman with crab-claw forelegs and red, spiky skin.


title: Phorcys

text: According to Hesiod's "Theogony", Phorcys is the son of Pontus and Gaia, and the brother of Nereus, Thaumus, Ceto, and Eurybia. In a genealogy from Plato's dialogue "Timaeus", Phorcys, Cronus and Rhea are the eldest offspring of Oceanus and Tethys.


title: Phorcys

text: Hesiod's "Theogony" lists the children of Phorcys and Ceto as the Graeae (naming only two: Pemphredo, and Enyo), the Gorgons (Stheno, Euryale and Medusa), probably Echidna (though the text is unclear on this point) and Ceto's "youngest, the awful snake who guards the apples all of gold in the secret places of the dark earth at its great bounds", also called the Drakon Hesperios ("Hesperian Dragon", or dragon of the Hesperides) or Ladon. These children tend to be consistent across sources, though Ladon is often cited as a child of Echidna by Typhon and therefore Phorcys and Ceto's grandson.


title: Phorcys

text: According to Apollodorus, Scylla was the daughter of Crataeis, with the father being either Trienus (Triton?) or Phorcus (a variant of Phorkys). Apollonius of Rhodes has Scylla as the daughter of Phorcys and a conflated Crataeis-Hecate. According to a fragment of Sophocles, Phorcys is the father of the Sirens.


title: Phorcys

text: The scholiast on Apollonius of Rhodes cites Phorcys and Ceto as the parents of the Hesperides, but this assertion is not repeated in other ancient sources.


title: Phorcys

text: Homer refers to Thoosa, the mother of Polyphemus, as a daughter of Phorcys, with no mother specified.


title: (Get Your Kicks on) Route 66

text: "(Get Your Kicks on) Route 66" is a popular rhythm and blues song, composed in 1946 by American songwriter Bobby Troup. The lyrics relate a westward roadtrip on U.S. Route 66, a highway which traversed the western two-thirds of the U.S. from Chicago, Illinois, to Los Angeles, California. The song became a standard, with several renditions appearing on the record charts.


title: (Get Your Kicks on) Route 66

text: Bobby Troup got the idea for the song on a cross-country drive from Pennsylvania to California. Troup wanted to try his hand as a Hollywood songwriter, so he and his wife, Cynthia, packed up their 1941 Buick and headed west. The trip began on US 40 and continued along US 66 to the California coast. Troup initially considered writing a tune about US 40, but Cynthia suggested the title "Get Your Kicks on Route 66".


title: (Get Your Kicks on) Route 66

text: The song was composed on the ten-day journey and completed by referring to maps when the couple arrived in Los Angeles. The lyrics mention several cities and towns encountered along the way; Cynthia later commented: "What I can't really believe is that he doesn't have Albuquerque in the song."


title: (Get Your Kicks on) Route 66

text: Nat King Cole, with the King Cole Trio, first recorded the song in 1946 at Radio Recorders in Los Angeles. Capitol Records released it as a single, which reached number three on "Billboard" magazine's Race Records chart and number eleven on its broader singles chart. Cole later re-recorded the tune for the album "After Midnight" (1956) and "The Nat King Cole Story" (1961).


title: Greg Penner

text: Gregory Boyd Penner (born December 18, 1969) is an American businessman and venture capitalist. Penner is a co-owner and CEO of the Denver Broncos. Penner was named the chairman of Walmart in June 2015. He is the son-in-law of S. Robson Walton and the grandson-in-law of Sam Walton, the founder of Walmart.


title: Greg Penner

text: Penner is the son of Clifford and Joyce Penner, sex therapists based in Pasadena, California. They have published sex-advice books from a Christian perspective.


title: Greg Penner

text: He earned a degree from Georgetown University, where he majored in international economics, and an MBA from the Stanford Graduate School of Business in 1997.


title: Greg Penner

text: Prior to being named Walmart chairman, Penner held a variety of roles at Walmart. He started as a store employee and eventually became the CFO of Walmart Japan. He was appointed to the Walmart board of directors in 2008 and was named vice-chairman in 2014.


title: Greg Penner

text: Penner is the founder of Madrone Capital Partners, an investment firm located in Menlo Park, California. He is on the board of directors of Baidu, eHarmony, Hyatt Hotels, Teach for America, and co-chair of Charter School Growth Fund.


title: Greg Penner

text: On August 9, 2022, the NFL owners approved the purchase of the Denver Broncos by the Walton-Penner group (consisting of Penner, his wife Carrie, S. Robson Walton, Condoleezza Rice, Mellody Hobson, Sir Lewis Hamilton). The next day, the Broncos announced that Penner would also be taking over as the team's new CEO after Joe Ellis stepped down from the position. In his role, Penner has primary responsibility for the day-to-day operations of the Broncos. He oversees both football and business operations for the franchise in collaboration with the Walton-Penner Family Ownership Group.


title: Greg Penner

text: Penner is married to Carrie Walton Penner, the daughter of S. Robson Walton. Penner met his wife while they were undergraduates at Georgetown University. They have four children and live in Atherton, California.


title: Nick Brimble

text: Nicholas Brimble (born 22 July 1944) is an English actor whose long career has spanned theatre, television, film, and voice work.


title: Nick Brimble

text: Brimble was born in Bristol. His father was a schoolteacher who was also a keen amateur actor, an activity in which Nick was involved on occasions as a child. For several summers his father also managed a French/Czech high-wire act, the White Devils, and in July 1961 organised their blindfolded high-wire crossing of Cheddar Gorge. When the act toured Britain, the Brimble family travelled with them. At the end of the 1961 season's tour of Britain, Brimble travelled through France with the White Devils, helping as they set up and performed in towns as they went, and returning for the start of the autumn school term.


title: Nick Brimble

text: He attended Bristol Grammar School. In his first year he played Miranda in a school production of "The Tempest". Brimble's parents gave him a season ticket to the Bristol Old Vic, where he saw every play from the age of 11 until he went to university at 18.


title: Nick Brimble

text: He studied Philosophy and English Literature at the University of Sussex from 1962 to 1966. He left with an MA and went on to teach English and Drama at the University of Baghdad. Brimble's stay in Iraq only lasted one year, owing to the political unrest there; he left at the outbreak of the Six-Day War in 1967, driving back to the UK overland in a battered Mini car purchased from British tourists he had met in Baghdad. The following year he taught at a south London comprehensive school, before deciding to try his luck as an actor.


title: Nick Brimble

text: In 1968 Brimble became Youth Theatre Organiser at the Marlowe Theatre in Canterbury. He administered the TIE (Theatre in Education) company, which toured plays to schools in Kent. He also acted in the plays as well as driving the van and doing whatever else was necessary. At the same time he appeared in small parts for the main Marlowe Theatre Company. In 1970 Brimble and other members of the TIE company formed Actors' Circus, an independent company. The first production was "Waiting for Godot" at the University of Kent's Gulbenkian Theatre, in which he played Vladimir.


title: Nick Brimble

text: Later that year, Actors' Circus performed at London's Little Theatre Club. Brimble then went on to work at Hull Arts Centre in "Richard III" with Bob Hoskins, the London Theatre Group in "Macbeth" with Steven Berkoff, the Palace Theatre, Watford, as well as playing a small part as a villager in the 1971 Hammer film "Lust for a Vampire".


title: Nick Brimble

text: From 1971 to 1973 Brimble worked at the Northcott Theatre repertory company in Exeter. He appeared in "The Caucasian Chalk Circle", "Julius Caesar", "The Tempest", "Loot", "Guys and Dolls", and many other plays. He played Jesus in "The Cornish Passion Play".


title: Nick Brimble

text: In 1973 Brimble's television work began with Thomas Hardy's "Wessex Tales", playing the part of Willowes in "Barbara of the House of Grebe", with Ben Kingsley and Joanna McCallum. He had a semi-regular part in "The Sweeney" as well as appearing in guest roles in many television productions such as "Softly Softly", "Z-Cars", "The Professionals", "", "Blake's 7", "Danger UXB", and "Dempsey and Makepeace".


title: Nick Brimble

text: Brimble's film work during this time included "Silver Dream Racer", "Sweeney!", "Who Dares Wins" and "Sheena".


title: Nick Brimble

text: In 1990, Roger Corman cast him as the Monster in "Frankenstein Unbound" with Raul Julia, Bridget Fonda and John Hurt. The following year he played Little John in the film, "".


title: Nick Brimble

text: Since then, he has continued to work consistently on British television and in international films, as well as radio drama and voice work.


title: Nick Brimble

text: Other television appearances include "The Professionals", "To Play the King", "Skallagrigg", "Doc Martin", "Lock Stock", "Ivanhoe", "The Bill", "Emmerdale", "The Coroner", "Grantchester" and many others.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: The Temple of Zeus at Olympia was an ancient Greek temple in Olympia, Greece, dedicated to the god Zeus. The temple, built in the second quarter of the fifth century BC, was the very model of the fully developed classical Greek temple of the Doric order.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: The Temple of Zeus was built on an already ancient religious site at Olympia. The Altis, an enclosure with a sacred grove, open-air altars and the tumulus of Pelops, was first formed during the tenth and ninth centuries BC, Greece's "Dark Age", when the followers of Zeus had joined with the followers of Hera.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: The temple was of peripteral form with a frontal pronaos (porch), mirrored by a similar arrangement at the back of the building, the opisthodomos. The building sat on a crepidoma (platform) of three unequal steps, the exterior columns were positioned in a sixbythirteen arrangement, two rows of seven columns divided the cella (inner chamber) into three aisles. An echo of the temple's original appearance can be seen in the Second Temple of Hera at Paestum, which closely followed its form.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: Pausanias visited the site in the second century AD and states that the temple's height up to the pediment was , its breadth was , and its length . It was approached by a ramp on the east side.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: Because the main structure was of a local limestone that was unattractive and of poor quality, it was coated with a thin layer of stucco to give the appearance of marble so as to match the sculptural decoration. It was roofed with tiles of Pentelic marble, cut thin enough to be translucent, so that on a summer's day, "light comparable to a conventional 20-watt bulb would have shone through each of the 1,000 tiles."


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: From the edge of the roof projected 102 waterspouts or gargoyles in the shape of lion heads, of which 39 are extant. Incongruities in the styles of the spouts provide evidence that the roof was repaired during the Roman period.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: The sculptural decoration in imported Parian marble featured carved metopes and triglyph friezes, topped by pediments filled with sculptures in the Severe style, now attributed to the "Olympia Master" and his studio.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: The Eastern pediment depicts the chariot race between Pelops and Oenomaus, while the Western pediment features a Centauromachy with Theseus and the Lapiths. The god Apollo is featured on the western pediment pointing towards the human side in the Centauromachy, indicating his favor, and towards the northern side of the temple. Pausanias reports in his "Description of Greece" (5.10.8) that the Eastern pedimental sculpture was created by Paeonius and the Western sculpture was carved by Alcamenes. The metopes from the temple depict the twelve labours of Heracles.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: The temple housed the renowned statue of Zeus, which was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. The Chryselephantine (gold and ivory) statue was approximately high, and was made by the sculptor Phidias in his workshop on the site at Olympia. The statue's completion took approximately 13 years (470–457 BC) and was one of Classical Greece's most revered artistic works.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: The installation of the colossal statue coincided with substantial modification of the cella. The internal columns and their stylobates were dismantled and repositioned, which likely necessitated retiling the roof. The original floor, paved with large blocks of shell stone, was covered with water-resistant lime, which may have helped protect the statue's ivory against humidity.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: The Roman general Mummius dedicated twenty-one gilded shields after he sacked Corinth in 146 BC; they were fixed at the metopes of the eastern front side and the eastern half of the south side.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: In AD 426, Theodosius II ordered the destruction of the sanctuary during the persecution of pagans in the late Roman Empire.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: Archaeologists have long postulated that the already ruined Temple was destroyed by the earthquakes of AD 522 and 551, known to have caused widespread damage in the Peloponnese, although a 2014 paper hypothesizes that the columns may have been "intentionally pulled down by ropes during the early Byzantine period". Flooding of the Kladeos river (Foundoulis et al., 2008), or by tsunami (Vott et al., 2011), led to abandonment of the area in the 6th century. Eventually the site was covered by alluvial deposits of up to 8 meters deep.


title: Temple of Zeus, Olympia

text: The site of the ancient sanctuary of Olympia, long forgotten under landslips and flood siltation, was identified in 1766 by the English antiquarian Richard Chandler. In May 1829, the French team of archaeologists of the "Scientific Expedition of Morea" (under the direction of Léon-Jean-Joseph Dubois and Abel Blouet) identified with certainty and partially excavated the Temple of Zeus for the first time, taking several fragments of the metopes to the Musée du Louvre (with the authorization of the Governor of Greece, Ioannis Kapodistrias). Systematic excavation began in 1875, under the direction of the German Archaeological Institute, and has continued, with some interruptions, to the present time.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Saint-Nazaire (; ; Gallo: "Saint-Nazère/Saint-Nazaer") is a commune in the Loire-Atlantique department in western France, in traditional Brittany.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The town has a major harbour on the right bank of the Loire estuary, near the Atlantic Ocean. The town is at the south of the second-largest swamp in France, called "la Brière". Given its location, Saint-Nazaire has a long tradition of fishing and shipbuilding. The Chantiers de l'Atlantique, one of the largest shipyards in the world, constructed notable ocean liners such as , , and the cruise ship , the largest passenger ship in the world until 2022.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Saint-Nazaire was a small village until the Industrial Revolution but became a large town in the second half of the 19th century, thanks to the construction of railways and the growth of the seaport. Saint-Nazaire progressively replaced upstream Nantes as the main haven on the Loire estuary.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: As a major submarine base for the Kriegsmarine, Saint-Nazaire was subject to a successful British raid in 1942 and was heavily bombed by the Allies until 1945. Being one of the Atlantic pockets, Saint-Nazaire was one of the last territories in Europe to be liberated from German occupation, on 11 May 1945. The town was one of the most damaged in France during World War II.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Archaeologists believe that Saint-Nazaire is built upon the remnants of Corbilo, an Armorican Gaulish city populated by the Namnetes tribe, which (according to the Greek navigator Pytheas) was the second-largest Gaulish city, after Massilia (now Marseille). Archeology suggests that the area has been inhabited since at least the Neolithic period, as evidenced by the presence of monuments like the tumulus of Dissignac, the dolmen located in the centre of the present-day city, and ancient bronzes found in the vicinity.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: According to the 15th-century chronicler Alain Bouchart, Brutus of Troy, the mythical ancestor of the Bretons, travelled to Saint-Nazaire to set foot upon the new homeland of his people. Historical accounts note that at the end of the Roman Empire, some Britons colonized the Loire estuary and later the peninsula containing Guérande. The farthest extent of the Breton language in the Loire region is Donges, to the east of Saint-Nazaire.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: According to the late-6th-century writer Gregory of Tours, the Roman Church sheltered the remains of the martyr Nazarius in a local basilica. According to legend, the Breton chief Waroch II sent an emissary to seize these relics. The plot was foiled when the emissary fractured his skull upon the lintel of the church door. Waroch, interpreting this as a miracle, was deterred and the village thenceforth took the name of Sanctus Nazarius de Sinuario.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: After this point, the history of Saint-Nazaire, like much of Europe during the Dark Ages, is not well documented. Battles occurred, such as in 1380 when Jehan d'Ust defended the city in the name of John V, Duke of Brittany (known in France as Jean IV) against the Castilian fleet during the Hundred Years' War. After this time, Saint-Nazaire became the seat of a parish extending from Penhoët to Pornichet, part of the Viscountcy of Saint-Nazaire.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Like the whole of Brittany, Saint-Nazaire formed part of the Duchy of Brittany until 1532, when it was annexed by France. In 1756, a fort was built on the order of the governor of Brittany to protect the town, which by then had 600 inhabitants. Until the French Revolution, Saint-Nazaire belonged to the province of Brittany.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: At the beginning of the 19th century, the port only consisted of one simple harbour. As the town was so far inland, its main economy was not based on commercial fishing but on its strategic location as the lowest possible navigation point for large ships and on supplying pilots for navigation further up the Loire. In 1800, the parish of Saint-Nazaire had 3,216 inhabitants.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The modern Saint-Nazaire was created by the administration of Napoleon III. The population of 3,216 in 1800 shows its battered history, with a mainly local (Brière), of Lower Brittany (of Morbihan in the Finistère-south), and minor representation from most other areas of France. From this point forward the population of Saint-Nazaire experienced exponential growth, which was reflected in its nickname of "Little Breton California", or "Liverpool of the West".


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: In 1802, a road was built to develop the port, which extended by 1835 to a breakwater with a navigational lighthouse at its end. The development included new basins for ships to unload to barges that carried goods further up the river. This development moved the town into the area of the city which is now called the district of "Little Morocco". This development made the town the base for the passenger steamships of the Nantes–Saint-Nazaire line, as well as making the town the alternative port for ships which could not access Nantes.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: In 1856, the first wet dock was dug in "Halluard City", making it possible for ships to moor and turn. This led to the construction of the town's first railway connection. In 1857, the Chemin de Fer de Paris à Orléans (railroad company of Orléans) connected Saint-Nazaire to Nantes. In 1862, the first transatlantic telegraph lines were installed from France to South America, coming ashore at Saint-Nazaire. 1862 also saw the construction of major shipbuilding facilities, including those of Chantier Scott, which launched the first French metal-hulled ships. In 1868, Saint-Nazaire became a sub-prefecture of the town of Savenay. A second dock basin was created at Penhoët in 1881, to allow the handling of larger ships, but a lock gate built to access it cut the town in two, thus creating Old Saint-Nazaire and an artificial island called "Little Morocco".


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: In early 1870, Nantes-born Pierre Waldeck-Rousseau joined the bar in Saint-Nazaire. In September he became, in spite of his youth, secretary to the municipal commission temporarily appointed to carry on the town's business. He organized the National Defense at Saint-Nazaire, and marched out with his contingent, though they saw no active service due to lack of ammunition (their private store having been commandeered by the state). In 1873, he moved to the bar of Rennes, following the establishment of the Third Republic in 1871.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: On 30 March 1894, a strike occurred at the forging mills of Trignac in opposition to a reduction of the work force. What had seemed a small dispute escalated after a shooting in Fourmies, resulting in the town getting its national nickname of "Red City". Socialists flocked to the town in defense of the striking workers, joining in the declaration of the "Fusillade de Fourmies".


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: In 1900, the commune of Pornichet was created by separating from the larger commune of Saint-Nazaire.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: During World War I, the city became an important debarkment port of Allied troops, particularly in the latter stages for the United States Army. When they entered the war in 1917, they developed the town and port infrastructure, by adding additional drinking water storage ponds for the town's water treatment plants, and a refrigeration terminal to the docks for shipment and storage of meat and dairy products to supply their troops.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: However, the presence of legal brothels ("Maisons Tolérée") resulted in a diplomatic incident. As a result of strict reformist public health concerns at home, the American Expeditionary Force placed the "Maisons Tolérée" off limits, resulting in a dispute between the town's brothel owners backed by the mayor, versus the US Army forces. With the dispute escalating, Prime Minister Georges Clemenceau sent a memo to General John Pershing offering a compromise: American medical authorities would control designated brothels operated solely for American soldiers. Pershing passed the proposal to Raymond Fosdick, who on giving it to Secretary of War Newton D. Baker promptly responded: "For God's sake, Raymond, don't show this to the president or he'll stop the war." Only after the signing of the Armistice in November 1918, when the United States Army could no longer plead military necessity as grounds for curtailing leave, did venereal disease rates among United States Army troops rise quickly.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The post-war period brought about a period of economic depression for the shipbuilders, who consequently diversified into building seaplanes from 1922. In 1926 the district of Paimbœuf was merged with the district of Saint-Nazaire, thus reinforcing the influence of the city on the south bank of the Loire River.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Although having built , between 1913 and 1921, and between 1925 and 1926, as a result of the 1930s Great Depression the French government commissioned a series of state programs to aid national economic activity. The state-owned shipping company Compagnie Générale Transatlantique commissioned the ship builders of Saint-Nazaire to construct a new large passenger ship, which as a result between 1928 and 1934 created the Albert Caquot–engineered the Louis Joubert dry dock – at , the largest of its kind in the world at the time – necessary to be able to accommodate the construction of . In 1932, the Saint-Nazaire casino went bankrupt and was resold to the town of Nantes: the site was redeveloped in 1935 as the first home of the current Saint-Louis school.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: As a result of the national general strike of June 1936, to ensure completion of the nationally prestigious project SS "Normandie", the government nationalised the various private shipyards into one state-owned entity, the 1861-founded Chantiers de l'Atlantique.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: After the invasion of Poland by Nazi Germany's Wehrmacht army at the start of World War II, the combined forces of the French Army and the British Expeditionary Force failed to hold the oncoming onslaught. As part of Operation Aerial, Saint-Nazaire, like Dunkirk, became an evacuation point to England for the British, with those embarking including the writer John Renshaw Starr.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: On 17 June 1940 an estimated 9,000 British Army soldiers were embarked aboard the Clyde-built cruise liner, later converted to troopship, , which was attacked and sunk by German Junkers Ju 88 bombers, mainly from Kampfgeschwader 30, taking with her around 4,000 victims. This is the worst disaster in British maritime history and the worst loss of life for British forces in the whole of World War II. Winston Churchill banned all news coverage of the disaster on learning of it and it remains largely forgotten by history. A "Lancastria" memorial is located near the U-boat pens in Saint-Nazaire.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The ball turret gunner of an American B-17F bomber fell onto the glass roof of the train station, even though his parachute had been destroyed by German flak while still in his plane. The US airman, called Alan Magee, survived the fall. A German military surgeon was able to save his nearly severed arm. The airman credits his survival to a prayer to "the Almighty" as he recovered consciousness during his fall.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Following the surrender of France to German forces later in June 1940, the port immediately became a base of operations for the "Kriegsmarine" and was as such the target of Allied operations. A heavily fortified U-boat Saint-Nazaire submarine base was built by Organisation Todt shortly after occupation, with a concrete ceiling capable of withstanding almost any bomb in use at the time.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The base still stands today as its extremely sturdy construction makes demolition uneconomical. The base is now used by cafes, a bar and on the roof is an exhibition about Saint-Nazaire.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The huge Joubert drydock built for SS "Normandie" was the only port on the Atlantic capable of servicing the German battleships and . This made the port strategically important to both the Axis Powers and the Allies during World War II. After Operation Rheinübung on 18–27 May 1941, which resulted in the sinking of and the sinking of "Bismarck", the need for the Allies to take the Joubert dry dock out of operation was increased. The "Bismarck" and the "Tirpitz" were to have ended their raid at Saint-Nazaire. On 28 March 1942, a force of 611 British Commandos and the Royal Navy launched the St Nazaire Raid against the shipyards of Saint-Nazaire, codenamed Operation Chariot. An obsolete American-built destroyer was used as a ram-ship loaded with explosives. It and the Commandos succeeded in destroying the gates and machinery of the Joubert drydock, preventing its further use by the Germans during the war. Of the 600+ navy and commando personnel, 220 returned, half were wounded. Five Victoria Crosses and 69 other decorations were awarded. The Joubert dry dock was not brought back into operation until 1948.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The U-boat threat to supply convoys across the Atlantic made Saint-Nazaire a constant target of Allied air forces, in the face of determined Luftwaffe fighter opposition to raids by United States Army Air Forces Eighth Air Force bombers. On 3 January 1943 Colonel Curtis LeMay led 85 Boeing B-17 Flying Fortresses of the 1st Bombardment Wing against the U-boat pens at Saint-Nazaire, on the Eighth Air Force's sixth raid against the facility. LeMay also introduced the combat box defensive formation, echeloning three-plane elements within a squadron, and squadrons within a group, to concentrate defensive firepower against fighter opposition. Only 76 aircraft found and hit the target, and during the mission seven bombers were shot down and 47 damaged.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: As a result of the raid, on 14 January 1943 under directive (S.46239/?? A.C.A.S. Ops), the Allies implemented incendiary bomb tactics against U-boat pens, under the Area bombing directive. To minimize civilian casualties during air attacks, the Allies devised a plan to force an evacuation of the town. For three days in 1943, British Royal Air Force and American aircraft dropped scores of leaflets warning the population of a planned fire-bombing raid. At the end of the third day, the raid came and burned the entire city to the ground. Casualties were light as most of the civilians had heeded the warning and fled to the safety of the countryside but after that point, except for the self-contained U-boat base, Saint-Nazaire remained abandoned until the end of the war.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: After D-day and the liberation of most of France in 1944, German troops in Saint-Nazaire's submarine base refused to surrender, and they holed up (as did their counterparts in the La Rochelle and Lorient bases). Since the Germans could no longer conduct major submarine operations from the bases without a supply line, the SHAEF commander, U.S. General Dwight D. Eisenhower decided to simply bypass these ports, and the Allied armies focused their resources on the invasion of Germany. Saint-Nazaire and the other two German "pockets" remained under German control until after the last day of the war in Europe, 8 May 1945.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The submarine base was used by the French Navy from 1945 to 1948. It then came under the control of various chemical companies and shipbuilders. , the French diesel submarine "Espadon" is moored within the U-boat pens. Tours of the submarine are available to the public.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: After the construction of in 1961, the last Compagnie Générale Transatlantique liner and the subsequent closure of the Suez Canal, Chantiers de l'Atlantique began building large oil tankers, including , , and . A new dry dock (Basin C) was planned for the construction of tankers over 1,000,000 tonnes but this fell through with the reopening of the Suez Canal. was constructed at Chantiers de l'Atlantique in 2003.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The town of Saint-Nazaire is located on the north bank of the Loire estuary (its territory includes the tip of Chémoulin which marks the end of the estuary), 50 km west of Nantes. It is near the marshes of Brière, an important regional natural park with many animal and plant species, the second largest wetland in France after the Camargue.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: According to INSEE, Saint-Nazaire is the commune-center of an urban unit (commonly: agglomeration) which counted 186,760 inhabitants in 2018, gathering 17 communes of the Loire estuary. This unit is the urban center of the urban area of Saint-Nazaire (24 communes), which had 213,675 inhabitants in 2018 and extending over Brière and almost all of the Guérande peninsula. The eastern part of the town is on the alluvial terrain between the Brière and the Loire estuary. The western part, more extensive, corresponds to the extension of the hillside of Guérande: the relief is hilly and of higher altitude, where one finds a granite and metamorphic base. Geologically, Saint-Nazaire is located in the Armorican massif.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: In close proximity to the Atlantic Ocean, the climate of Saint-Nazaire is, as with the rest of the Loire-Atlantique, of temperate oceanic type. This climate is very much influenced by the Loire estuary. The winters are mild (Min 3 °C / Max 10 °C ), and summer is mild too (Min 12 °C / Max 24 °C ). Snowfall is rare, but rain is frequent (113 days a year with precipitation) but not very intense, the annual rainfall being 743.3 mm. Precipitation is however relatively variable from one year to the next. The sunshine is 1,826 hours a year, but there are only 53 days of strong sunshine.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Saint-Nazaire receives mainly southwestern sector winds related to the Atlantic depressions and northeastern sector winds when the weather is more stable. The annual average wind of 4.5 m / s and there are 60 days per year of strong wind.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The primary schools of Saint-Nazaire (Carnot, Jean-Jaurès, Lamartine, Jules Ferry, Ferdinand Bush, Boncourt, etc.) educate nearly 8,000 pupils in 30 school complexes. The junior schools have nearly 7,000 pupils in 12 colleges: public colleges Albert Vinçon; Pierre Norange; Manon Roland; Jean de Neyman; Jean Moulin, accommodate around 1,350 pupils each. Private colleges include: Saint-Louis (1,000 pupils, boarding school; historically a college for boys), Sainte-Therese (historically a college for girls).


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The high schools educate 6,000 pupils into 11 colleges, with the technical school Aristide Briand having some 3,500 pupils, one of the largest colleges of France; an experimental college, public lycée managed jointly by the teachers and the pupils; the private college of Saint-Louis mainstream education; the hotel private college Sainte-Anne; the private of mainstream education and technological college Our-Lady-in Espérance. The Cité Scolaire of Saint-Nazaire is one of largest of France, with nearly 4,000 high-school pupils.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The University of Saint-Nazaire is a college of the University of Nantes, the second largest university in France with approximately 35,000 students, including nearly 5,000 on the university campus of Saint-Nazaire.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The Route nationale N165/N161 (E60 route) connects Saint-Nazaire to Nantes and Rennes via the Pont de Saint-Nazaire, which crosses the Loire. Paris is then accessed via the A10/A11 in Nantes. Valves, Lorient, Quimper and Brest are accessed via the N165.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: A project to review a second crossing of the Loire between Nantes and Saint Nazaire is being considered, planned to be constructed and operational by 2025.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Saint-Nazaire railway station is served by both the TGV and regional trains and buses of the TER Pays de la Loire. TGV (high speed train) connection to Paris, Lyon, Marseille, Lille, and Strasbourg, with trains to Paris via the LGV Atlantique taking just over 2 hours. TER Pays de la Loire provides links to Nantes, Angers, Le Mans, La Roche sur Yon, and other regional cities and towns.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Saint-Nazaire airport is located south-east of Saint-Nazaire, in the "commune" of Montoir-de-Bretagne. It has an annual capacity of approximately 150,000 passengers, and is the operational and maintenance base for Eagle Aviation France.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: International travel is via Nantes Atlantique Airport, the biggest airport in western France, linking with several French and European cities as well as Montreal in Canada (seasonally) and some cities in North Africa. A new airport was planned that was to be situated to the north-west of Nantes in the "commune" of Notre-Dame-des-Landes. Called Aéroport du Grand Ouest, it was officially cancelled in 2018.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: The economy of the city is founded on the activity of the port, including export of manufactured goods but also on the services, being given sizeable size of the city. Commercial fishing has almost completely disappeared in spite of the existence of a small fleet of fisheries and fishing vessels.


title: Saint-Nazaire

text: Saint-Nazaire suffered heavily from the downsizing of shipbuilding activity in western Europe in the 1960s and 1970s, after the completion of the national passenger liner, SS "France". For a long time in the 1980s, Saint-Nazaire remained an economically depressed area with unemployment rates above 20%. Today, the local economy is more diversified and its situation is more in line with that of France as a whole. The major industries are:


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The Royal Ontario Museum (ROM) is a museum of art, world culture and natural history in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. It is one of the largest museums in North America and the largest in Canada. It attracts more than one million visitors every year, making the ROM the most-visited museum in Canada. The museum is north of Queen's Park, in the University of Toronto district, with its main entrance on Bloor Street West. Museum subway station is named after the ROM and, since a 2008 renovation, is decorated to resemble the institution's collection at the platform level.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Established on April 16, 1912, and opened on March 19, 1914, the museum has maintained close relations with the University of Toronto throughout its history, often sharing expertise and resources. The museum was under the direct control and management of the University of Toronto until 1968, when it became an independent Crown agency of the Government of Ontario. Today, the museum is Canada's largest field-research institution, with research and conservation activities around the world.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: With more than 6,000,000 items and 40 galleries, the museum's diverse collections of world culture and natural history contribute to its international reputation. The museum contains a collection of dinosaurs, minerals and meteorites; Canadian, and European historical artifacts; as well as African, Near Eastern, and East Asian art. It houses the world's largest collection of fossils from the Burgess Shale with more than 150,000 specimens. The museum also contains an extensive collection of design and fine art, including clothing, interior, and product design, especially Art Deco.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The Royal Ontario Museum was formally established on April 16, 1912, and was jointly governed by the Government of Ontario and the University of Toronto. Its first assets were transferred from the university and the Ontario Department of Education, coming from its predecessor, the Museum of Natural History and Fine Arts at the Toronto Normal School. On 19 March 1914, the Duke of Connaught, also the governor general of Canada, officially opened the Royal Ontario Museum to the public. The museum's location at the edge of Toronto's built-up area, far from the city's central business district, was selected mainly for its proximity to the University of Toronto. The original building was constructed on the western edge of the property along the university's Philosopher's Walk, with its main entrance facing out onto Bloor Street housing five separate museums of the following fields: Archaeology, Palaeontology, Mineralogy, Zoology, and Geology. It cost to construct. This was the first phase of a two-part construction plan that intended to expand the museum towards Queen's Park Crescent, ultimately creating an H-shaped structure.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The first expansion to the Royal Ontario Museum publicly opened on October 12, 1933. The -million renovation saw the construction of the east wing fronting onto Queen's Park and required the demolition of Argyle House, a Victorian mansion at 100 Queen's Park. As this occurred during the Great Depression, an effort was made to use primarily local building materials and to make use of workers capable of manually excavating the building's foundations. Teams of workers alternated weeks of service due to the physically draining nature of the job.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: In 1947, the ROM was dissolved as a body corporate, with all assets transferred to the University of Toronto. The museum remained a part of the university until 1968, when the museum and the McLaughlin Planetarium were separated from the university to form a new corporation.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: On 26 October 1968, the ROM opened the McLaughlin Planetarium on the south end of the property after receiving a million donation from Colonel Samuel McLaughlin. In December 1995, the ROM closed the McLaughlin Planetarium as a result of budgetary cutbacks imposed by the Government of Ontario. The space temporarily reopened from 1998 to 2002, after being leased to Children's Own Museum. In 2009, the ROM sold the building to the University of Toronto for and ensured that it would continue to be used for institutional and academic purposes.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The second major addition to the museum was the Queen Elizabeth II Terrace Galleries on the north side of the building and a curatorial centre built on the south, which started in 1978 and was completed in 1984. The new construction meant that a former outdoor "Chinese Garden" to the north of the building facing Bloor, along with an adjoining indoor restaurant, had to be dismantled. Opened in 1984 by Queen Elizabeth II, the million expansion took the form of layered terraces, each rising layer stepping back from Bloor Street. The design of this expansion won a Governor-General's Award in Architecture.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: In 1989, activists complained about its "Into the Heart of Africa" exhibit, which featured stereotypes of Africans, forcing curator Jeanne Cannizzo to resign.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Beginning in 2002, the museum underwent a major renovation and expansion project dubbed as "Renaissance ROM." The Ontario and Canadian governments, both supporters of this venture, contributed $60 million towards the project, and Michael Lee-Chin donated $30 million. The campaign aimed not only to raise annual visitor attendance from 750,000 to between 1.4 and 1.6 million, but also to generate additional funding opportunities to support the museum's research, conservation, galleries and educational public programs. The centrepiece of the project was a deconstructivist crystalline-form structure called the Michael Lee-Chin Crystal. The structure was created by architect Daniel Libeskind, whose design was selected from among 50 finalists in an international competition. The design of the Crystal required the Terrace Galleries to be torn down (the curatorial centre to the south remains). Existing galleries and buildings were also upgraded, along with the installation of multiple new exhibits over a period of months. The first phase of the Renaissance ROM project, the "Ten Renovated Galleries in the Historic Buildings", opened to the public on 26 December 2005. The architectural opening for the Michael Lee-Chin Crystal, however, took place less than 18 months later, on 2 June 2007. The final cost of the project was about million.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The original building was listed by the City of Toronto on the Municipal Heritage Register on 20 June 1973, designated under Part IV of the "Ontario Heritage Act" in 2003, with a Heritage Easement on the buildings.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Designed by Toronto architects Frank Darling and John A. Pearson, the architectural style of the original building (now the western wing) is a synthesis of Italianate and Neo-Romanesque. The structure is heavily massed and punctuated by rounded and segmented arched windows with heavy surrounds and hood mouldings. Other features include applied decorative eave brackets, quoins and cornices.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The eastern wing facing Queen's Park was designed by Alfred H. Chapman and James Oxley. Opened in 1933, it included the museum's elaborate art deco, Byzantine-inspired rotunda and a new main entrance. The linking wing and rear (west) façade of the Queen's Park wing were originally done in the same yellow brick as the 1914 building, with minor Italianate detailing. However, the Queen's Park façade of the expansion broke away from the heavy Italianate style of the original structure. It was built in a neo-Byzantine style with rusticated stone, triple windows contained within recessed arches and different-coloured stones arranged in a variety of patterns. This development from the Roman-inspired Italianate to a Byzantine-influenced style reflected the historical development of Byzantine architecture from Roman architecture. Common among neo-Byzantine buildings in North America, the façade also contains elements of Gothic Revival in its relief carvings, gargoyles and statues. The ornate ceiling of the rotunda is covered predominantly in gold back painted glass mosaic tiles, with coloured mosaic geometric patterns and images of real and mythical animals.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Writing in the "Journal of the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada" in 1933, A. S. Mathers said of the expansion:


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The original building and the 1933 expansion have been listed since 1973 as heritage buildings of Toronto. In 2005, a major renovation of the heritage wings saw the galleries made larger, windows uncovered, and the original early 20th-century architecture made more prominent. The exteriors of the heritage buildings were cleaned and restored. The restoration of the 1914 and 1933 buildings was the largest heritage project undertaken in Canada. The renovation also included the newly restored Rotunda with reproductions of the original oak doors, a restored axial view from the Rotunda west through to windows onto Philosophers' Walk and ten renovated galleries comprising a total of .


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: In the master plan designed by Darling and Pearson in 1909, the ROM took a form similar to that of J. N. L. Durand's ideal model of the museum. It was envisioned as a square plan with corridors running through the centre of the composition, converging in the middle with a domed rotunda. Overall, it referenced the upper-class palaces of the 17th and 18th centuries and aimed at having a strong sense of monumentality. All the architectural elements—the deep cornice, decorative top, eave brackets—add to this strength that the ROM possessed, as it was purely a structure with the function of collecting, but not of exhibiting.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: During the mid-2010s, the eastern entrance was used as a café. Since late 2017, the eastern entrance is undergoing renovation to become an alternate entrance, complete with the addition of ramps to the eastern entrance.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Designed by Toronto architect Gene Kinoshita, with Mathers & Haldenby, the curatorial centre forms the southern section of the museum. Completed in 1984, it was built during the same expansion as the former Queen Elizabeth II Terrace Galleries, which stood on the north side of the museum before the terrace galleries were replaced with the Michael Lee-Chin Crystal. The architecture is a simple modernist style of poured concrete, glass, and pre-cast concrete and aggregate panels. The curatorial centre houses the museum's administrative and curatorial services and provides storage for artifacts that are not on exhibit. In 2006, the curatorial centre was renamed to Louise Hawley Stone Curatorial Centre in honour of the late Louise Hawley Stone, who devoted herself to the ROM throughout her life, having donated a number of artifacts and various collections to the museum. In her will, she transferred C$49.7 million to the Louise Hawley Stone Charitable Trust, created to help with the upkeep of the building and to the acquisition of new artifacts.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Replacing the Queen Elizabeth II Terrace Galleries was the controversial Michael Lee-Chin "Crystal," a multimillion-dollar expansion to the museum designed by Daniel Libeskind, including a new sliding door entrance on Bloor Street, first opened in 2007. The Deconstructivist crystalline form is clad in 25 percent glass and 75 percent aluminum, sitting on top of a steel frame. "The Crystal"'s canted walls do not touch the sides of the existing heritage buildings but are used to close the envelope between the new form and existing walls. These walls act as a pathway for pedestrians to travel safely across "The Crystal."


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The building's design is similar to some of Libeskind's other works, notably the Jewish Museum in Berlin, the London Metropolitan University Graduate Centre and the Fredric C. Hamilton Building at the Denver Art Museum. The steel framework was manufactured and assembled by Walters Inc. of Hamilton, Ontario. The extruded anodized aluminum cladding was fabricated by Josef Gartner in Germany, the only company in the world that can produce the material. The company also provided the titanium cladding for Frank Gehry's Guggenheim Museum in Bilbao, Spain.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: On 1 June 2007, the governor-general of Canada, Michaëlle Jean, attended the architectural opening of the "Michael Lee-Chin Crystal." This caused controversy because public opinion had been divided concerning the merits of its angular design. On its opening, "Globe and Mail" architecture critic Lisa Rochon complained that "the new ROM rages at the world," was oppressive, angsty and hellish, while others—perhaps championed by her "Toronto Star" counterpart, Christopher Hume—hailed it as a monument. Some critics have gone as far as ranking it as one of the ten ugliest buildings in the world. The project also experienced budget and construction time over-runs, and drew comparisons to the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao for using so-called "starchitecture" to attract tourism.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The main lobby is a three-storey high atrium, named the Hyacinth Gloria Chen Crystal Court. The lobby is overlooked by balconies and flanked by the J. P. Driscoll Family Stair of Wonders and the Spirit House, an interstitial space formed by the intersection of the east and west crystals.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Installation of the permanent galleries of the Lee-Chin Crystal began mid-June 2007, after a ten-day period when all the empty gallery spaces were open to the public. Within "The Crystal," there is a gift shop, C5 restaurant lounge (closed until further notice), a cafeteria, seven additional galleries and Canada's largest temporary exhibition hall. The galleries added to the Crystal gave different aspects to the ROM: fascinating visuals, architectural artifacts and environment, art, correspondence between object and space and stories within the visuals. The C5 restaurant Lounge is designed by IV Design Associated Inc.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: In October 2007, the Lee-Chin Crystal was reported to have suffered from significant water leakage, causing concerns for the building's resilience to weather, especially in the face of the new structure's proximate first winter. Although a two-layer cladding system was incorporated into the design of the Crystal to prevent the formation of dangerous snow loads on the structure, past architectural creations of Daniel Libeskind (including the Denver Art Museum) have also suffered from weather-related complications.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Collections at the ROM not displayed at the ROM itself or in other museums are stored at the McLaughlin Planetarium and various unclassified and offsite locations around the Greater Toronto Area.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Originally, there were five major galleries at the ROM, one each for the fields of archaeology, geology, mineralogy, paleontology and zoology. In general, the museum pieces were labelled and arranged in a static fashion that had changed little since Edwardian times. For example, the insects' exhibit that lasted up until the 1970s housed a variety of specimens from different parts of the world in long rows of glass cases. Insects of the same genus were pinned to the inside of the cabinet, with only the species name and location found as a description.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: By the 1960s, more interpretive displays were ushered in, among the first being the original dinosaur gallery, established in the mid-1960s. Dinosaur fossils were now staged in dynamic poses against backdrop paintings and models of contemporaneous landscapes and vegetation. The displays became more descriptive and interpretive sometimes, as with the extinction of the woolly mammoth, offering several different leading theories on the issue for the visitor to ponder. This trend continued and up until the present day, the galleries became less staid and more dynamic or descriptive and interpretive. This trend arguably came to a culmination in the 1980s with the opening of The Bat Cave, where a sound system, strobe lights and gentle puffs of air attempts to recreate the experience of walking through a cave as a colony of bats fly out.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The original galleries were simply named after their subject material, but in more recent years, individual galleries have been named in honour of sponsors who have donated significant funds or collections to the institution. There are now two main categories of galleries present in the ROM: the Natural History Galleries and the World Culture Galleries.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Samuel Hall Currelly Gallery" is an exhibition space on Level 1, connecting the east wing of the museum with its western half. The gallery serves as the building's main lobby past the museum's admission area. As opposed to most galleries at the Royal Ontario Museum, the "Samuel Hall Currelly Gallery" is not dedicated to a single subject. Instead, the gallery exhibits an assortment of items from the museum's collection.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Patricia Harris Gallery of Costumes and Textiles" holds about 200 artifacts from the ROM's textile and costume collections. These pieces, which range from the 1st century BC to the present day, are rotated frequently due to their fragility. Throughout time, textiles and fashion have been used to establish identity and allow inferences to be drawn about a culture's social customs, economy and survival. The gallery is devoted to showcasing transformations in textile design, manufacturing, and cultural relevance throughout the ages. Weaving, needlework, printed archeological textiles and silks are all located in this space.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "CIBC Discovery Gallery" was designed to be a children's learning zone. It houses three main areas: In the Earth, Around the World and Close to Home. The space is inspired by the ROM's collections and enables children to participate in interactive activities involving touchable artifacts and specimens, costumes, digging for dinosaur bones and examining fossils and meteorites. There is also a special area for pre-schoolers.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Patrick and Barbara Keenan Family Gallery of Hands-On Biodiversity" introduces visitors to the complicated relationships, which occur among all living things in a fun and interactive space. People of all ages can explore touchable specimens and interactive displays while gallery facilitators help visitors discover the living world around them. Mossy frogs, a touchable shark jaw, snakeskin, and a replica fox's den are some of the objects that connect young visitors to the diversity and interdependence of plants and animals.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The Roloff Beny Gallery of the Institute for Contemporary Culture (ICC) hosts the Royal Ontario Museum's contemporary art exhibitions. This high-ceilinged multimedia gallery of approximately serves as the ICC's main exhibition space, typically featuring exhibits that tie in contemporary culture and events, with the museum's natural and world collection. The gallery has featured exhibitions on fashion photography, street art, modern Chinese urban design and architecture, and contemporary Japanese art. In 2018, it exhibited "Here We Are: Black Canadian Contemporary Art", featuring Black Canadian artists such as Sandra Brewster, Michèle Pearson Clarke, Sylvia D. Hamilton, Bushra Junaid, Charmaine Lurch, and Esmaa Mohamoud.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The Natural History galleries are all gathered on the second floor of the museum. The gallery contains collections and samples of various animals such as bats, birds, and dinosaur bones and skeletons.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: "The Life in Crisis: Schad Gallery of Biodiversity," designed by Reich+Petch and opened in late 2009, features endangered species, including specimens of a polar bear, a giant panda, a white rhinoceros, a Burmese python, Canadian coral, a leatherback sea turtle, a coelacanth, a "Rafflesia" flower and many other rare species. Included among these specimens is Bull, a southern white rhinoceros that became a famous conservation success story for his species. There are also recently extinct species displayed, including specimens of a passenger pigeon and a great auk, as well as skeletons of a dodo and a moa with a specimen of a moa egg, an elephant bird egg, and many other recently extinct species. The gallery presents the need to protect the natural environment and the need to educate the public about the main causes of extinction—overhunting, habitat destruction, and climate change. In September 2009, the gallery received an Award of Excellence by the Association of Registered Interior Designers of Ontario. In addition to showcasing the museum's natural collection, the Schad Gallery also aims to promote the conservation of Earth's biodiversity.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Life in Crisis" gallery is organized into three zones exploring the central themes: Life is Diverse, Life is interconnected, and Life is at Risk. "Interestingly, biodiversity is a relatively new term popularized in 1985 as a contraction of biological diversity," said Anthony Reich, Principal at Reich+Petch. "It's a big subject that's become more relevant to everybody. The challenge was how to tell this big story in a space. We decided to design a dynamic, immersive experience with three core themes that hopefully will make a lasting impression on visitors."


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Tallgrass Prairies and Savannas" is a part of the gallery that features one of the most endangered and diverse habitats in Ontario. The display features examples of the regions and the efforts by the Ontario Ministry of Northern Development, Mines, Natural Resources and Forestry to maintain and restore the tallgrass prairies and savannas.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Gallery of Birds" has on display many bird specimens from past centuries. The Gallery of Birds is dominated by the broad "Birds in flight" display where stuffed birds are enclosed in a glass display for visitors to experience. Dioramas allow visitors to learn about the many bird species and how environmental and habitual changes have put bird species in danger of extinction. Pull-out drawers let visitors examine eggs, feathers, footprints and nests more closely. The gallery included exhibits of other extinct species such as the passenger pigeon. These exhibits were later moved to the Schad Gallery.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The Royal Ontario Museum purchased a beached blue whale off the coast of Newfoundland at Trout River and displayed its skeleton and heart as a ROM-original travelling exhibit until 4 September 2017.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The Bat Cave is an immersive experience for visitors that presents over 20 bats and 800 models in a recreated habitat, with accompanying educational panels and video. Originally opened in 1988, the bat cave reopened on 27 February 2010 after extensive renovations. The exhibit most notably includes a recreation of St. Clair Cave located in Saint Catherine Parish of central Jamaica. The original cave was formed by an underground river that flowed below ground through the limestone and was three kilometres long. This cave was then recreated in the museum based on ROM fieldwork conducted in Jamaica in 1984. A large amount of bat research has been conducted with support from the ROM. In 2011, the ROM hosted a "bat workshop" connected with the 41st Annual North American Symposium on Bat Research.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Teck Suite of Galleries: Earth's Treasures" features almost 3,000 specimens of minerals, gems, meteorites and rocks ranging from 4.5 billion years ago to the present. These items were found in many different locations including the Earth, Moon and beyond, and represent the world's dynamic geological environment. Notable specimens at the "Teck Suite of Galleries" include fragments of the Tagish Lake meteorite. The Light of the Desert, the world's largest faceted cerussite, is another notable piece displayed in the gallery.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: Galleries that are a part of the "Teck Suite of Galleries" include the "Barrick Gold Corporation Gallery," the "Canadian Mining Hall of Fame Gallery," the "Gallery of Gems and Gold" and the "Vale Gallery of Minerals."


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Reed Gallery of the Age of Mammals" explores the rise of mammals through the Cenozoic Era that followed the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. There are over 400 specimens from North America and South America in addition to 30 fossil skeletons of extinct mammals. The gallery's entrance begins with mammals that arose shortly after the extinction of the non-avian dinosaurs. A highlight of this gallery is the sabre-toothed nimravid "Dinictis".


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "James and Louise Temerty Galleries of the Age of Dinosaurs" and "Gallery of the Age of Mammals" feature many examples of complete non-avian dinosaur skeletons, as well as those of early birds, reptiles, mammals and marine animals ranging from the Jurassic to Cretaceous periods. The highlight of the exhibit is Gordo, one of the most complete examples of the "Barosaurus" in North America and the largest dinosaur on display in Canada, avian or non-avian.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Willner Madge Gallery, Dawn of Life" opened in 2021 in the former "Peter F. Bronfman Hall", and focuses on the evolution of life in the Paleozoic from billions of years ago up to the Late Triassic. It highlights many fossil sites and collections from Canada, such as the Burgess Shale in British Columbia and Mistaken Point. The gallery is divided into six sections: "A Very Long Beginning" (Precambrian), "The Origin of Animals" (Cambrian Explosion), "The Bustling Seas" (Ordovician, Silurian, and Devonian), "The Green Earth" (Devonian and Carboniferous), "Before the Great Dying" (Permian) and "Dawn of a New Era" (Triassic). Notable specimens include the Burgess Shale, orthocones and sea scorpions and other fossils from Ontario and the holotype of "Dimetrodon borealis".


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The ROM also has "Zuul crurivastator" in its non-avian dinosaur collection, which is one of the most complete examples of an ankylosaurid specimen ever found.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The World Culture galleries display a wide variety of objects from around the world. These range from Stone Age implements from China and Africa to 20th-century art and design. In July 2011, the museum added to this collection when a number of new permanent galleries were unveiled. Both the Government of Canada and the Royal Ontario Museum committed $2.75 million toward the project. The galleries are located on the first, third and fourth levels of the museum.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Shreyas and Mina Ajmera Gallery of Africa, the Americas and Asia-Pacific" features a collection of 1,400 artifacts that reflect the artistic and cultural traditions of the indigenous peoples from four different geographical areas: Africa, the American continents, the Asia-Pacific region and Oceania. On display are objects such as ceremonial masks, ceramics, and a shrunken head.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Sir Christopher Ondaatje South Asian Gallery" holds a diverse collection of objects such as decorative art, armour and sculptures that represents the culture of Indian subcontinent. The gallery has approximately 350 objects that represent over 5,000 years of history. Due to the wide range of history and cultures on display, the gallery is split into numerous different sections—the "Material Remains," "Imagining the Buddha," "Visualizing Divinity," "Passage to Enlightenment," "Courtly Culture," "Cultural Exchange" and "Home and the World." In this gallery, visitors can find the ("Untitled") Blue Lady sculpture by Mumbai-based artist Navjot Altaf.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Eaton Gallery of Rome" is home to a millennium of ancient Roman culture. It has the largest collection of classical antiquities in Canada, displaying more than 500 objects that range from marble or painted portraits of historical figures to Roman jewellery. The gallery also features the Bratty Exhibit of Etruria that sheds some light on the Etruscans, a neighbouring civilization.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Joey and Toby Tanenbaum Gallery of Rome and the Near East" depicts the lifestyle and culture of societies under Roman rule and their influence in the Near East. The same space holds the "Joey and Toby Tanenbaum Gallery of Byzantium", covering the history of the Byzantine Empire from 330 to 1453 AD, during which crucial changes took place in early eastern Christianity. There are over 230 artifacts that relate to the dedication of Constantinople, the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Medieval Crusades and the conquest by the Ottoman Turks—items such as jewellery, glasswork and coins help to illustrate the vast history of modern-day Istanbul.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "A. G. Leventis Foundation Gallery of Ancient Cyprus" houses roughly 300 artifacts, focusing on the art created in Cyprus between 2200 and 30 BC. The gallery is divided into five sections: "Cyprus and Commerce," "Ancient Cypriot Pottery Types," "Sculptures," "Ancient Cyprus at a Glance" and "Art & Society: Interpretations." The collection includes a reconstructed open-air sanctuary and a rare bronze relief statue of a man carrying a large copper ingot.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Gallery of Africa: Egypt" focuses on the life (and the afterlife) of Ancient Egyptians. It includes a wide range of artifacts, ranging from agricultural implements, jewellery, cosmetics, funerary furnishings and more. The exhibit includes a number of mummy cases, including the fine gilded and painted coffin and mummy of Djedmaatesankh, who was a female musician at the temple of Amun-Re in Thebes; and the mummy of Antjau, who is thought to have been a wealthy landowner. Other items featured in the gallery include the "Book of the Dead of Amen-em-hat," a long scroll from circa 320 BC and the "Bust of Cleopatra" from circa 47 BC to 30 BC. The Statue of Sekhmet can also be viewed at the gallery. Depicting Sekhmet, one of ancient Egypt's oldest deities, the item dates back to circa 1390–1325 BC.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Galleries of Africa: Nubia" feature a collection of objects that explore the once-flourishing civilization of Nubia in modern-day Sudan. The Nubians were the first urban literate society in Africa south of the Sahara and were Egypt's main rival.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Gallery of the Bronze Age Aegean" features over 100 objects that include examples from the Cycladic, Minoan, Mycenaean and Geometric periods of Ancient Greece. The collection ranges in age from 3200 BC to 700 BC and contains a variety of objects that include a marble head of a female figure and a glass necklace.


title: Royal Ontario Museum

text: The "Gallery of Greece" has a collection of 1,500 artifacts that span the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic periods. The collection consists of items such as sculptures of deities, armour and a coin collection.