title: Visa policy of Australia

text: Among the international visitors in Australia in 2018–19, the maximum number were Chinese nationals. With more than 1.4 million visitors across Australia, China was the biggest source country for international tourists in the Land Down Under in 2018–19.


title: Visa policy of Australia

text: The primary reason for international travelers to come to Australia was for holiday. Around 47% stated their reason as holiday.


title: Visa policy of Australia

text: When in Australia, the international travelers spent an average of 11 days in the country. While travelers spend more time in South Australia [17 days], those who visited Queensland stayed for around 10 days on an average.


title: Visa policy of Australia

text: The record high number of 9.3 million visitors in 2018-19 was around 3.8 million over than the number of international visitors 10 years ago, and 272,300 more as compared to a year previously.2


title: Visa policy of Australia

text: Generally, there has been an increase recorded in the number of international visitors to Australia in the recent decades.


title: Visa policy of Australia

text: Surveys have revealed that a significant number of Indians that traveled to Australia for recreation preferred heading to South Australia.


title: Visa policy of Australia

text: Admission and transit are refused to nationals of , even if not leaving the aircraft and proceeding by the same flight.


title: Visa policy of Australia

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, entry was not allowed for persons who had previously visited China, Iran, Italy or South Korea. A general travel ban, with limited exceptions, on non-citizens and non-residents travelling to Australia and Australians travelling overseas was introduced on 20 March.


title: Instructions per second

text: Instructions per second (IPS) is a measure of a computer's processor speed. For complex instruction set computers (CISCs), different instructions take different amounts of time, so the value measured depends on the instruction mix; even for comparing processors in the same family the IPS measurement can be problematic. Many reported IPS values have represented "peak" execution rates on artificial instruction sequences with few branches and no cache contention, whereas realistic workloads typically lead to significantly lower IPS values. Memory hierarchy also greatly affects processor performance, an issue barely considered in IPS calculations. Because of these problems, synthetic benchmarks such as Dhrystone are now generally used to estimate computer performance in commonly used applications, and raw IPS has fallen into disuse.


title: Instructions per second

text: The term is commonly used in association with a metric prefix (k, M, G, T, P, or E) to form kilo instructions per second (kIPS), million instructions per second (MIPS), and billion instructions per second (GIPS) and so on. Formerly TIPS was used occasionally for "thousand ips".


title: Instructions per second

text: However, the instructions/cycle measurement depends on the instruction sequence, the data and external factors.


title: Instructions per second

text: Before standard benchmarks were available, average speed rating of computers was based on calculations for a mix of instructions with the results given in kilo Instructions Per Second (kIPS). The most famous was the Gibson Mix, produced by Jack Clark Gibson of IBM for scientific applications in 1959.


title: Instructions per second

text: Other ratings, such as the ADP mix which does not include floating point operations, were produced for commercial applications. The thousand instructions per second (kIPS) unit is rarely used today, as most current microprocessors can execute at least a million instructions per second.


title: Instructions per second

text: Gibson divided computer instructions into 12 classes, based on the IBM 704 architecture, adding a 13th class to account for indexing time. Weights were primarily based on analysis of seven scientific programs run on the 704, with a small contribution from some IBM 650 programs. The overall score was then the weighted sum of the average execution speed for instructions in each class.


title: Instructions per second

text: The speed of a given CPU depends on many factors, such as the type of instructions being executed, the execution order and the presence of branch instructions (problematic in CPU pipelines). CPU instruction rates are different from clock frequencies, usually reported in Hz, as each instruction may require several clock cycles to complete or the processor may be capable of executing multiple independent instructions simultaneously. MIPS can be useful when comparing performance between processors made with similar architecture (e.g. Microchip branded microcontrollers), but they are difficult to compare between differing CPU architectures. This led to the term "Meaningless Indicator of Processor Speed," or less commonly, "Meaningless Indices of Performance," being popular amongst technical people by the mid-1980s.


title: Instructions per second

text: For this reason, MIPS has become not a measure of instruction execution speed, but task performance speed compared to a reference. In the late 1970s, minicomputer performance was compared using "VAX MIPS", where computers were measured on a task and their performance rated against the VAX 11/780 that was marketed as a "1 MIPS" machine. (The measure was also known as the "VAX Unit of Performance" or VUP.) This was chosen because the 11/780 was roughly equivalent in performance to an IBM System/370 model 158–3, which was commonly accepted in the computing industry as running at 1 MIPS.


title: Instructions per second

text: Many minicomputer performance claims were based on the Fortran version of the Whetstone benchmark, giving Millions of Whetstone Instructions Per Second (MWIPS). The VAX 11/780 with FPA (1977) runs at 1.02 MWIPS.


title: Instructions per second

text: Effective MIPS speeds are highly dependent on the programming language used. The Whetstone Report has a table showing MWIPS speeds of PCs via early interpreters and compilers up to modern languages. The first PC compiler was for BASIC (1982) when a 4.8 MHz 8088/87 CPU obtained 0.01 MWIPS. Results on a 2.4 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo (1 CPU 2007) vary from 9.7 MWIPS using BASIC Interpreter, 59 MWIPS via BASIC Compiler, 347 MWIPS using 1987 Fortran, 1,534 MWIPS through HTML/Java to 2,403 MWIPS using a modern C/C++ compiler.


title: Instructions per second

text: For the most early 8-bit and 16-bit microprocessors, performance was measured in thousand instructions per second (1000 kIPS = 1 MIPS).


title: Instructions per second

text: "zMIPS" refers to the MIPS measure used internally by IBM to rate its mainframe servers (zSeries, IBM System z9, and IBM System z10).


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: "Big Girls Don't Cry" (also known as "Big Girls Don't Cry (Personal)") is a song by American singer Fergie for her debut studio album, "The Dutchess" (2006). It was written by Fergie and Toby Gad while the production was helmed by will.i.am. The song was released as the fourth single from the album on May 22, 2007. "Big Girls Don't Cry" deviates from the hip hop and urban music of Fergie's previous singles and opts for a more simplistic pop ballad sound that incorporates acoustic elements. It features credits from about thirty instrumentalists, many of which play the violins, violas and celli on the track. Lyrically, the song talks about moving on from the pain of a breakup.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: The critical reception of "Big Girls Don't Cry" was positive, with many praising the maturity and simplicity displayed on the single as well as the message. The song was a commercial success domestically, attaining the top position on the "Billboard" Hot 100. It became her third single to do so and earned her the accolade of being the first female artist with three number-one singles from one album since Christina Aguilera in 2000. "Big Girls Don't Cry" also became Fergie's longest-charting and highest-selling single in the US with 3,833,000 units sold as of August 2012. The song also reached number one in eleven international territories including Australia, where it spent nine weeks at the top position, became the highest-selling song of 2007, and was certified quintuple platinum.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: The accompanying music video for the song was directed by Anthony Mandler and released in May 2007. It depicts Fergie and her love interest, portrayed by actor Milo Ventimiglia, in their turbulent relationship that ultimately ends with Fergie packing up her belongings and driving away in her car. The music video featured Fergie in apparel designed by Candie's and was used by the brand to promote their clothing line.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: "Big Girls Don't Cry" was written by Fergie (credited as Stacy Ferguson) and Toby Gad. The song was recorded at the Metropolis Recording Studio in London, England. will.i.am produced the song as well as playing the bass, supervising in programming the drums and engineering the song.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: In discussing the album with Clover Hope of "Billboard", will.i.am described the production of this song to be his most challenging yet, saying that "I did an Edie Brickell type of production." He was aided by Neil Tucker and Tal Herzberg, who also provided additional editing with the use of Pro Tools technology.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: The song features a large number of instrumentalists on the song. On the basses are Trey Henry and Mike Valerio while Keith Harris plays the drums, keyboard bass and keys. George Pajon Jr. plays the guitar. "Big Girls Don't Cry" features eighteen violinists, four people on the violas, and four people on the celli. The strings were arranged and conducted by Ron Fair, who also produced the additional vocals on the song. They were recorded by Allen Sides at the Signet Sound.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: The song was mixed at Ocean Way Recordings in Hollywood, California, by Jack Joseph Puig and Dean Nelson. A&M Records, in association with will.i.am Music Group and Interscope Records, sent the song to contemporary hit radio on May 22, 2007, in the United States.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: "Big Girls Don't Cry" has a length of 4 minutes and 28 seconds. It incorporates elements from different genres such as acoustic folk and is composed by simple drums, synthesizers, violins, strings, viola, and celli. The song is written in the key of G major and is set in time signature of common time with a moderate pop tempo of 113 beats per minute. Fergie's vocal range spans from the high-tone of C to the lower register of G. The song has a basic sequence of G–Csus2–D5 as its chord progression.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: "Big Girls Don't Cry" received general acclaim. Spence D. of "IGN" writes that the album's aura diminishes as "Big Girls Don't Cry" plays and comments "Listening to this song it begins to dawn on you that by this juncture the album has strategically delivered a song tailor made for each of the varying commercial radio formats."


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: Mike Joseph of "PopMatters" praised the song for permitting her vocal ability to shine. Bill Lamb of "About.com" rated the song four out of five stars, praising the mood, lyrics and vocals as "mellow, still sexy", "intelligent" and "strong". He noted however that there could be a moment in the song where it all catches fire. Lamb further added that the simple, gentle back lets the track unfolds on its own and that the song represents artistic growth on Fergie and will.i.am's part after time off from the Black Eyed Peas. Kelly Smith of "The Maneater" felt differently about the song, finding it disappointing and the lyrics.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: Alex MacGregor of "UKMix.org" compared the single to Gwen Stefani's "4 in the Morning", stating that they both have a timeless, Cyndi Lauper feel to them; he gave a four-star rating to "Big Girls Don't Cry". James Simon of CHARTattack describes the song as having an "emotive acoustic sentimentalism," while Dan Gennoe compared it and "Voodoo Doll" to Pink's style of music, calling them "pure Pink!".


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: On May 5, 2007, "Big Girls Don't Cry" entered the "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 41, becoming the week's highest debut, and the Hot Digital Songs chart at number 21. In its sixth week on the chart, it entered the top 10 tier at number eight. The following week it moved up four places to number four. After 12 weeks of fluctuating in the top five, the song reached the summit of the Hot 100 on the week of September 8, 2007, replacing Sean Kingston's "Beautiful Girls".


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: The song became Fergie's third number one single in the United States as a solo artist as well as the fourth top five single from "The Dutchess" album. The song earned her the accolade of being the first female artist to attain three number one US singles from an album since 2000, when Christina Aguilera did so with her third single, "Come On Over Baby (All I Want Is You)", from her eponymous debut album. The song also charted at number one on the Radio Songs chart, the Pop Songs chart and the Adult Contemporary chart. The song was certified platinum on December 6, 2007, by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). Its digital download sales stand at 3,549,000, becoming her first single to surpass sales of three million downloads. "Big Girls Don't Cry" is Fergie's most downloaded song, ahead of "Fergalicious", "Glamorous", "Clumsy", and "London Bridge". In Canada, the song debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number 17 on the issue dated June 2, 2007. "Big Girls Don't Cry" entered the top five in its third week and reached number one in its seventh week on the chart. It logged three consecutive weeks at the summit and a total of 53 weeks on the chart.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: In Australia, "Big Girls Don't Cry" debuted and peaked at number one on the issue dated July 22, 2007. It ended Rihanna's six-week hold at the top position with "Umbrella" and barred the song from entering the position for three weeks. The song logged nine weeks at the top position, from July 22 to September 16, 2007, and continued to chart for 32 weeks. It became her highest-charting single in the country as well as her longest-charting and highest-selling single there, beating out her previous single "Glamorous". The song was Australia's best-selling single of 2007 and has been certified double platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association (ARIA) for sales of 140,000 units.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: On May 28, 2007, the song entered the chart in New Zealand at number 28. The song entered the top three in its fourth week on the chart. "Big Girls Don't Cry" reached number one on the issue dated July 23, 2007, and has been certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand (RIANZ) for sales of 15,000 units. It was the second highest-selling single of the year, only behind Rihanna's "Umbrella".


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: The song also achieved chart success in the European market. "Big Girls Don't Cry" first entered the UK Singles Chart on June 17, 2007, at number 60. It quickly rose into the top 10 region and peaked at number two during its fifth week on the chart. The song reached number three in Switzerland in its 11th week and logged 34 weeks on the chart. In Sweden, the song entered the top 20 of the Singles chart on July 19, 2007, rising from number 54 the previous week.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: On August 23, 2007, the song peaked on the chart at number four and maintained that position for two non-consecutive weeks. It was later certified gold by the International Federation of the Phonographic Industry (Sweden). The song was also certified gold in Norway and reached the top position of the chart on the issue dated September 11, 2007, lasting three consecutive weeks at its peak position.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: The song has been ranked 115th by "Billboard" on its 600 most massive smashes over the chart's six decades.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: The music video was directed by Anthony Mandler and began production on March 30, 2007. The video had a 'First Look' on MTV's "TRL" on May 16, 2007, and peaked at #5 on May 24, 2007. The video topped VH1's Top 40 Videos of 2007 list. Milo Ventimiglia plays Fergie's love interest.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: The video begins with Fergie getting out of her car (a red 1969 Mustang fastback) and going inside a warehouse where she meets her band and practices. Meanwhile, she is seen singing next to her boyfriend, who is sleeping. She starts walking through the house, and is then watching herself and her boyfriend from a different point of view getting out of her car. They enter the house, and her boyfriend gets out a guitar and starts playing, while Fergie is singing. Later on, she sees her boyfriend out the window with several men, one of whom passes him a small package, which is presumably drugs, and it upsets her.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: Fergie then starts singing the chorus while she is taking her clothes off a clothes line and putting them into a suitcase. As the third verse begins, Fergie is walking around a warehouse singing while wearing a tan-gray baby doll dress. At the end of the song, she is seen getting into her car and driving down the road.


title: Big Girls Don't Cry (Fergie song)

text: There are other music videos for this song. The one described above is labeled as the "Personal" version; it is approximately five minutes in length and the song is played once. There is also the so-called "extended" version; it is approximately mine minutes in length and the song is played twice. It begins with Fergie driving to the warehouse, then uses flashbacks which include the plot scenes run in sequence. At the conclusion of this first playing of the song, Fergie has arrived at the warehouse and, with her band, the song is played again, this time with all of the warehouse scenes run in sequence.


title: FlixBus

text: FlixBus (; styled FLiXBUS) is a German brand that offers intercity bus service in Europe, North America, and Brazil. It is owned by the mobility platform Flix SE (until April 2022: FlixMobility GmbH), which also operates Flixtrain, FlixCar, Kâmil Koç and Greyhound Lines. As of June 2021, FlixMobility GmbH was valued at US$3 billion.


title: FlixBus

text: Flixbus operates buses or, in many cases, just handles marketing, pricing, and customer service for a commission, on behalf of bus operators on the list of FlixBus bus partners.


title: FlixBus

text: In 2018, the company had a 90% market share of intercity bus travel in Germany. As of February 2018, 60% of the company's customers were female and 33% were between the ages of 18 and 25.


title: FlixBus

text: FlixBus was founded in 2011 in Munich by Daniel Krauss, Jochen Engert and André Schwämmlein and launched its first three routes in February 2013 in Bavaria, Germany. It was founded to take advantage of Germany opening up its bus market to competition in 2013.


title: FlixBus

text: In January 2015, the company merged with MeinFernbus and adopted its green livery, replacing the previous blue.


title: FlixBus

text: In May 2015, it entered the liberalized French market with "FlixBus France", and in August it launched an Italian subsidiary in Milan.


title: FlixBus

text: In November 2015, FlixBus announced the establishment of a new subsidiary called FlixBus B.V. in the Netherlands, creating the very first national Dutch intercity bus network. At that time, it also had routes to Austria, Switzerland, Belgium, Luxembourg, Sweden and Denmark.


title: FlixBus

text: In January 2016, FlixBus announced it was entering Central and Eastern Europe with a new subsidiary FlixBus CEE, covering Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Romania, Poland, Slovenia and Croatia.


title: FlixBus

text: Effective 1 July 2016, FlixBus acquired Megabus Europe from Stagecoach Group, with Stagecoach remaining as contractor to operate the services.


title: FlixBus

text: On 3 August 2016, FlixBus announced the acquisition of Postbus, a German competitor, from Deutsche Post for an undisclosed sum.


title: FlixBus

text: In September 2016, FlixBus announced plans to expand to Scandinavia. Together with Danish small and medium-sized enterprises, FlixBus announced plans for a network in Denmark.


title: FlixBus

text: On 28 February 2017, FlixBus announced that Danish bus company Abildskou, based in Aarhus, would become its first bus partner in Denmark.


title: FlixBus

text: In May 2017, FlixBus announced it would take over the "Hellö" coach network from Austrian Federal Railways (ÖBB) in August 2017.


title: FlixBus

text: Starting on 24 August 2017, FlixBus cooperated with Czech train company LEO Express to take over the operation of the Locomore rail service between Stuttgart and Berlin (via Hanover and Frankfurt) in Germany.


title: FlixBus

text: On 24 March 2018, FlixMobility acquired the open-access operator Hamburg-Köln-Express, which operated a route between Hamburg and Cologne, and integrated the HKX route into the Flixtrain network alongside the above-mentioned Locomore service.


title: FlixBus

text: In August 2019, FlixBus acquired Turkish bus company "Kâmil Koç" from private equity firm Actera Group.


title: FlixBus

text: In July 2020, FlixBus launched intercity coach service in the United Kingdom, with routes from London to Birmingham, Bristol and Portsmouth (calling at Guildford) and resumed its services from London to mainland Europe. It also launched routes to Ukraine, Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania. In April 2022, FlixMobility GmbH was renamed Flix SE. The umbrella brand FlixMobility was replaced by Flix.


title: FlixBus

text: On 15 May 2018, FlixBus announced its expansion into the United States market, operating from a main hub in Los Angeles. In March 2019, the company launched service in Houston, San Antonio, New Orleans, Baton Rouge, and Biloxi, Mississippi. In May 2019, Eastern Bus, which operates along the Interstate 95 corridor between New York City and Richmond, Virginia, reached a deal with FlixBus to operate the East Coast network for FlixBus. On 21 October 2021, FlixBus acquired Greyhound Lines for US$78 million.


title: FlixBus

text: In April 2022, FlixBus launched its Canadian operations with three routes in Ontario. and in May expanded into British Columbia with routes from Vancouver to Bellingham, Everett and Seattle in Washington State.


title: FlixBus

text: On 1 December 2021, FlixBus launched service in Brazil in partnership with Expresso Adamantina, a Brazilian bus company.


title: FlixBus

text: FlixBus has been accused of forcing its partners to make drivers work excessive hours at low wages; however, official inspections have found that resting, driving, and working hours in the market were much better than some media reports suggested.


title: FlixBus

text: Unlike train services and trucks, buses do not pay any road toll in Germany, criticized as a "hidden subsidy" by some German politicians. "bdo" (an association of German bus companies) responded by saying that buses already pay for infrastructure use in the form of related taxes (ex. mineral oil tax) while billions in subsidies are paid to national rail provider Deutsche Bahn.


title: FlixBus

text: Following the acquisition of Postbus in 2016, FlixBus gained control of roughly 80% of the German long-distance bus market, a move criticised by various media outlets as a "de facto" monopoly and harmful to competition. It was also suggested that FlixBus' control of the market could lead to higher prices and less service to smaller destinations.


title: FlixBus

text: On 25 June 2018, the Belgian Government announced that it was running a pilot project with FlixBus and Eurostar for which it is collecting all passenger data for FlixBuses and Eurostars crossing the Belgian border. The move was criticised as diverting resources from public transport.


title: FlixBus

text: In July 2020, the company's Swedish affiliate, FlixBuss AB, was criticized for not enforcing health protocols established by the Public Health Agency of Sweden during the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: FlixBus

text: On May 14, 2020, the Disability Rights Legal Center (DRLC) filed a federal nationwide class action lawsuit in a California U.S. District Court against FlixBus Inc., TourCoach Charter & Tours, and USA Coach Services, on behalf of Francisco Serrano and all passengers who use a wheelchair, scooter, or other mobility aid. The lawsuit, brought under the Americans with Disabilities Act and California’s Unruh Civil Rights Act, seeks damages and an injunction to ensure that FlixBus passengers with disabilities are able to use the nationwide service without hassle, humiliation, extra time, or cost.


title: FlixBus

text: In 2022, a Maryland woman filed a complaint against FlixBus for last-minute cancellations resulting in additional costs incurred to complete her journey. She is currently recruiting passengers with similar complaints with FlixBus to form a class action lawsuit.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: Major events in Kōkaku's life included an ongoing famine that affected Japan early into his rule. The response he gave during the time was welcomed by the people, and helped to undermine the shōgun's authority. The Kansei Reforms came afterwards as a way for the shōgun to cure a range of perceived problems which had developed in the mid-18th century but was met with partial success.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: A member of a cadet branch of the Imperial Family, Kōkaku is the founder of the dynastic imperial branch which currently sits on the throne. Kōkaku had one spouse during his lifetime, and six concubines who gave birth to 16 children. Only one son, Prince Ayahito, survived into adulthood and eventually became the next Emperor. Genealogically, Kōkaku is the lineal ancestor of all the succeeding Emperors up to the current Emperor, Naruhito.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: Before Kōkaku's accession to the Chrysanthemum Throne, his personal name ("imina") was . He was the sixth son of Imperial Prince Kan'in Sukehito (閑院宮典仁, 1733–1794) the second Prince Kan'in of the Kan'in-no-miya imperial collateral branch. As a younger son of a cadet branch, the Kan'in house, it was originally expected that Morohito would go into the priesthood at the Shugoin Temple. The situation changed in 1779 in the form of a problem as Emperor Go-Momozono was dying without an heir to the throne. In order to avoid a dynastic interregnum, the now-retired Empress Go-Sakuramachi and the Emperor's chief adviser encouraged Go-Momozono to hastily adopt Prince Morohito. The adopted prince was the Emperor's second cousin once removed in the biological male line. Go-Momozono died on 16 December 1779, and a year later Morohito acceded to the throne at age eight.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: During his reign, Kōkaku attempted to re-assert some of the Imperial authority over the Shōgun (or bakufu). He undertook this by first implementing a relief program during the Great Tenmei famine, which not only highlighted the ineffectiveness of the bakufu in looking after its subjects, but also focused the subjects' attention back to the Imperial household. He also took an active interest in foreign affairs; keeping himself informed about the border dispute with Russia to the north, as well as keeping himself abreast of knowledge regarding foreign currency, both Chinese and European. The new era name of "Tenmei" ("Dawn") was created to mark the enthronement of new Emperor. The previous era ended and the new one commenced in "An'ei" 11, on the 2nd day of the 4th month. In his first year of reign, Kōkaku was instrumental in reviving old ceremonies involving the old Imperial Court, as well as those performed at the Iwashimizu and Kamono shrines.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: An analysis of silver currency in China and Japan ""Sin sen sen pou (Sin tchuan phou)"" was presented to the Emperor in 1782 by Kutsuki Masatsuna (1750–1802), also known as Kutsuki Oki-no kami Minamoto-no Masatsuna, hereditary "daimyōs" of Oki and Ōmi with holdings in Tanba and Fukuchiyama. Masatsuna published "Seiyō senpu" ("Notes on Western Coinage") five years later, with plates showing European and colonial currency. Countrywide currency reforms later came after the Meiji Restoration when a new system was adopted around the Japanese yen. In 1786, former Empress Go-Sakuramachi engaged Go-Momozono's only child (Princess Yoshiko) to the new Emperor. Yoshiko formally became Empress consort to Emperor Kōkaku at age 15.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: The Emperor and his court were forced to flee from a fire that consumed the city of Kyoto in 1788, the Imperial Palace was destroyed as a result. No other re-construction was permitted until a new palace was completed. The Dutch "VOC" "Opperhoofd" in Dejima noted in his official record book that "people are considering it to be a great and extraordinary heavenly portent." The new era name of Kansei (meaning "Tolerant Government" or "Broad-minded Government") was created in 1789 to mark a number of calamities including the devastating fire at the Imperial Palace. The previous era ended and a new one commenced in Tenmei 9, on the 25th day of the 1st month. During the same year, the Emperor came into dispute with the Tokugawa shogunate about his intention to give the title of Abdicated Emperor ("Daijō Tennō", 太上天皇) to his father, Prince Sukehito. This dispute was later called the ""Songo" incident" (the "respectful title incident"), and was resolved when the Bakufu gave his father the honorary title of "Retired Emperor".


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: Two more eras would follow during Kōkaku's reign, on 5 February 1801 a new era name (Kyōwa) was created because of the belief that the 58th year of every cycle of the Chinese zodiac brings great changes. Three years later the new era name of Bunka (meaning "Culture" or "Civilization") was created to mark the start of a new 60-year cycle of the Heavenly Stem and Earthly Branch system of the Chinese calendar which was on New Year's Day. During this year, Daigaku-no-kami Hayashi Jussai (1768–1841) explained the shogunate foreign policy to Emperor Kōkaku in Kyoto. The rest of Kōkaku's reign was quiet aside from two 6.6m earthquakes which struck Honshū in the years 1810 and 1812. The effects on the population from these earthquakes (if any) is unknown.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: The were a series of reactionary policy changes and edicts which were intended to cure a range of perceived problems which had developed in mid-18th-century Tokugawa Japan. Kansei refers to the "nengō" (or Japanese era name) that spanned the years from 1789 through 1801 (after ""Tenmei"" and before ""Kyōwa""); with the reforms occurring during the Kansei period but between the years 1787–1793. In the end, the shogunate's interventions were only partly successful. Intervening factors like famine, floods and other disasters exacerbated some of the conditions which the "shōgun" intended to ameliorate.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: Matsudaira Sadanobu (1759–1829) was named the "shōgun"s chief councilor ("rōjū") in the summer of 1787; and early in the next year, he became the regent for the 11th "shōgun", Tokugawa Ienari. As the chief administrative decision-maker in the bakufu hierarchy, he was in a position to effect radical change; and his initial actions represented an aggressive break with the recent past. Sadanobu's efforts were focused on strengthening the government by reversing many of the policies and practices which had become commonplace under the regime of the previous "shōgun", Tokugawa Ieharu. Sadanobu increased the bakufu's rice reserves and required daimyos to do the same. He reduced expenditures in cities, set aside reserves for future famines, and encouraged peasants in cities to go back to the countryside. He tried to institute policies that promoted morality and frugality, such as prohibiting extravagant activities in the countryside and curbing unlicensed prostitution in the cities. Sadanobu also cancelled some debts owed by daimyos to the merchants.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: These reform policies could be interpreted as a reactionary response to the excesses of his rōjū predecessor, Tanuma Okitsugu (1719–1788). The result was that the Tanuma-initiated, liberalizing reforms within the "bakufu" and the relaxation of "sakoku" (Japan's "closed-door" policy of strict control of foreign merchants) were reversed or blocked. Education policy was changed through the Kansei Edict (寛政異学の禁 "kansei igaku no kin") of 1790 which enforced teaching of the Neo-Confucianism of Zhu Xi as the official Confucian philosophy of Japan. The decree banned certain publications and enjoined strict observance of Neo-Confucian doctrine, especially with regard to the curriculum of the official Hayashi school.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: This reform movement was related to three others during the Edo period: the Kyōhō reforms (1722–1730), the Tenpō reforms (1841–1843) and the Keiō reforms (1864–1867).


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: In 1817, Kōkaku abdicated in favor of his son, Emperor Ninkō. In the two centuries before Kōkaku's reign most Emperors died young or were forced to abdicate. Kōkaku was the first Japanese monarch to remain on the throne past the age of 40 since the abdication of Emperor Ōgimachi in 1586. Until the abdication of Emperor Akihito in 2019, he was the last Emperor to rule as a Jōkō (上皇), an Emperor who abdicated in favor of a successor. Kōkaku travelled in procession to Sento Imperial Palace, a palace of an abdicated Emperor. The Sento Palace at that time was called Sakura Machi Palace. It had been built by the Tokugawa shogunate for former-Emperor Go-Mizunoo.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: After Kōkaku's death in 1840, he was enshrined in the Imperial mausoleum, , which is at Sennyū-ji in Higashiyama-ku, Kyoto. Also enshrined in "Tsuki no wa no misasagi", at Sennyū-ji are this Emperor's immediate Imperial predecessors since Emperor Go-Mizunoo – Meishō, Go-Kōmyō, Go-Sai, Reigen, Higashiyama, Nakamikado, Sakuramachi, Momozono, Go-Sakuramachi and Go-Momozono. This mausoleum complex also includes "misasagi" for Kōkaku's immediate successors – Ninkō and Kōmei. Empress Dowager Yoshikō is also entombed at this Imperial mausoleum complex.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: The following years of Kōkaku's reign are more specifically identified by more than one era name or "nengō".


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: Yoshiko was the only child of former Emperor Go-Momozono. She formally became Empress consort ("chūgū") to Emperor Kōkaku at age 15 after she was engaged to the new Emperor by former empress Go-Sakuramachi. The couple had two sons but both died before reaching adulthood. Yoshiko eventually functioned as an official mother to the heir who would become Emperor Ninkō. In 1816, Emperor Ninkō granted Empress Yoshiko the title of Empress Dowager after Emperor Kōkaku abdicated. She later became a Buddhist nun after her husband died, and changed her name to in 1841.


title: Emperor Kōkaku

text: Emperor Kōkaku fathered a total of 16 children (8 sons and 8 daughters) but only one of them survived into adulthood. The sole surviving child (Prince Ayahito) later became Emperor Ninkō when Kōkaku abdicated the throne.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general of New Zealand () is the viceregal representative of the monarch of New Zealand, currently King Charles III. As the King is concurrently the monarch of 14 other Commonwealth realms and lives in the United Kingdom, he, on the advice of his New Zealand prime minister, appoints a governor-general to carry out his constitutional and ceremonial duties within the Realm of New Zealand.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The current office traces its origins to when the administration of New Zealand was placed under the Colony of New South Wales in 1839 and its governor was given jurisdiction over New Zealand. New Zealand would become its own colony the next year with its own governor. The modern title and functions of the "governor-general" came into being in 1917, and the office is currently mandated by Letters Patent issued in 1983, constituting "the Governor-General and Commander-in-Chief of the Realm of New Zealand". Constitutional functions of the governor-general include presiding over the Executive Council, appointing ministers and judges, granting royal assent to legislation, and summoning and dissolving parliament. These functions are generally exercised only according to the advice of an elected government. The governor-general also has an important ceremonial role: hosting events at Government House in Wellington, and travelling throughout New Zealand to open conferences, attend services and commemorations and generally provide encouragement to individuals and groups who are contributing to their communities. When travelling abroad, the governor-general is seen as the representative of New Zealand; for this reason, the governor-general is viewed by some as the "de facto" head of state.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general (titled "governor" before 1917) initially represented the British monarch and the British government. Therefore, many past officeholders were from the United Kingdom, including a succession of minor aristocrats from the 1890s onwards. In a gradual process, especially with the adoption of the Statute of Westminster in 1947, the governor-general has become the independent, personal representative of the New Zealand monarch. In 1972, Sir Denis Blundell became the first New Zealand resident to be appointed to the office.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Governors-general are typically appointed for a five-year term of office, subject to a possible short extension, though they formally serve "at the monarch's pleasure". The incumbent governor-general is Dame Cindy Kiro, since 21 October 2021. Administrative support for the governor-general is provided by the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The monarch of New Zealand appoints the governor-general on the sole recommendation of the prime minister of New Zealand, by commission issued under the Seal of New Zealand, known as the "Terms of Appointment".


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Constitutional convention adopted in 1930, following the Imperial Conference held that year, allowed for the appointment of the governor-general to be made upon the advice of the New Zealand Government, though that right was not exercised directly by a New Zealand prime minister until 1967, with the appointment of the first New Zealand-born governor-general, Sir Arthur Porritt on the advice of Keith Holyoake. The next governor-general, Sir Denis Blundell, was the first New Zealand born and resident governor-general. Today, the Terms of Appointment are counter-signed by the prime minister, to signify that the prime minister is responsible for advising the sovereign on the appointment.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The prime minister's advice has sometimes been the result of a decision by Cabinet; there is no requirement for this, and there have been a number of instances where the governor-general was appointed with no consultation of Cabinet. Since 1980, the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet prepares a short list of candidates for the office. By convention, the leader of the Opposition is consulted on the appointment, this has not always been the case.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: On only one occasion has the prime minister's choice of appointee aroused public anger or complaint, and that controversy was short-lived. In 1977, Sir Keith Holyoake, a former National Party prime minister and a serving minister of state, was controversially appointed as governor-general. The Leader of the Opposition, Bill Rowling, complained he had not been consulted by Prime Minister Robert Muldoon on the appointment of Holyoake, and openly suggested that he would have recommended Sir Edmund Hillary instead. (Rowling's remark was in turn criticised by the Government, as Hillary had backed the opposition Labour Party in 1975 as part of the "Citizens for Rowling" campaign.) It was suggested by many commentators that it would be inappropriate to entrust the office to a former party leader or anyone who is closely allied with a political party; despite his background, Holyoake could not be said to have discharged his duties in a partisan way, and he stayed in office for only three years. Since Holyoake's appointment, the prime minister is now meant to consult with the leader of the opposition during the nomination process, to avoid partisan controversy, and informally seek approval for the appointment from the Monarch. The decision is then kept confidential until both the New Zealand Government and Buckingham Palace announce the appointment simultaneously.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Beginning with the appointment of Sir David Beattie in 1980, lawyers and judges have predominated as governors-general. Following the introduction of MMP in 1996, it has been determined that an understanding of constitutional law is an important prerequisite for candidacy to the office. The first governor-general to preside over a MMP general election was Sir Michael Hardie-Boys, a retired high court judge. Hardie-Boys was appointed in 1995 on the advice of then prime minister Jim Bolger, following notification of all leaders of parties then represented in parliament, to ensure broad cross-party support. Following Hardie-Boys' appointment other party leaders are only notified very shortly before the announcement is made, if at all.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: There has been on-and-off speculation that a member of the royal family might take up the position. In 2004, National MP Richard Worth, an avowed monarchist, asked the prime minister, Helen Clark, whether she had considered nominating the Queen's son, Prince Edward, Earl of Wessex, to be the next governor-general.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The commission of appointment is publicly read in the presence of the chief justice and the members of the Executive Council before the governor-general enters office. The chief justice or other High Court judge then administers the Oath (or Affirmation) of Allegiance, and the Oath (or Affirmation) of Office to the governor-general.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: From time to time, there have been proposals to elect the governor-general. When first drafted by then Governor George Grey, the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852 contained a provision for the governor to be elected by New Zealand's parliament. This provision was removed from the final enactment, probably because the Colonial Office wanted to keep a check on New Zealand's colonial government. In 1887, Sir George Grey, by then also a former premier, moved the Election of Governor Bill to make the office of governor an elective position. The Bill was narrowly defeated 46–48, being opposed by the government of Harry Atkinson. In 1889, Grey tried again with another bill, which if passed would have allowed for a "British subject" to be elected to the office of governor "precisely as an ordinary parliamentary election in each district."


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In 2006, political commentator Colin James suggested that the governor-general could be elected (or, more correctly, nominated to the Queen) by a 60 percent majority of votes in parliament. James argued that the New Zealand public should be given the ability to choose the Queen's representative and that the current system is undemocratic and not transparent. Such a system is not unique: the governors-general of Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands are nominated in such a way. Constitutional law specialist Professor Noel Cox, who is a former chair of Monarchy New Zealand, criticised the proposal, claiming that "[g]iving the Governor-General a new and separate source of democratic legitimacy could result in a separation between Ministers and Governors-General. (...) the Governors-General would have their own independent popular mandate, and become potential political rivals of the Ministers".


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In February 2008, the New Zealand Republic proposed electing the governor-general as an interim step to a republic, arguing "Electing the Governor-General allows for easier transition to a republic because the populace is used to electing someone as a ceremonial de facto head of state." With the introduction of the Governor-General Act 2010, Green MP Keith Locke suggested parliament recommend the next governor-general's appointment to the Queen, with a recommendation endorsed by three-quarters of parliament. In its submission to the select committee considering the Bill, the Republican Movement suggested parliament appoint the next governor-general with a three-quarters majority plus a majority of party leaders in parliament, with a similar dismissal process and a fixed five-year term. National MP Nikki Kaye queried whether several one-member parties in parliament could veto the decision, which could give them too much power if an appointment was based on one vote per leader. The Republican Movement responded that the method would ensure appointments were made that most MPs and parties found acceptable.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general holds office at His Majesty's pleasure, under clause II of the Letters Patent 1983. It is the norm that an appointed individual holds office for a minimum of five years but this tenure may also be extended. The Terms of Appointment of the governor-general defines their expected term in office. For instance, Dame Silvia Cartwright would have been in office for five years on 4 April 2006, but her term as governor-general was extended by four months as Prime Minister Helen Clark deemed that "the selection and appointment process [of a new governor-general] [should] not coincide with the pre-election period".


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: A vacancy will occur on the resignation, death, incapacity or absence from New Zealand territory of the governor-general. In the absence of a governor-general the chief justice (currently Helen Winkelmann) becomes the administrator of the Government and performs the functions of the office of governor-general. The administrator is required to take an oath similar to the governor-general. If there is no chief justice available then the next most senior judge of the New Zealand judiciary who is able so to act is appointed as administrator.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Prior to the granting of responsible government in 1856, the colonial secretary acted as administrator when a governor was absent.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The prime minister may advise the Monarch to dismiss (recall) the governor-general. As no New Zealand governor-general has ever been dismissed on the advice of the prime minister, it is unclear how quickly the Monarch would act on such advice. Some constitutional lawyers dispute whether the Monarch would implement such advice at all, while others argue that the Monarch would delay its implementation. Others argue that the Monarch would be obliged to follow the prime minister's advice (so long as the prime minister has the confidence of the House of Representatives), and further that the Monarch would be bound to implement the prime minister's advice immediately if so advised.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Critics (such as supporters of a New Zealand republic) have described the ability of the prime minister to advise the Monarch to recall the governor-general as a flaw in New Zealand's constitutional makeup that gives the governor-general and the prime minister the ability to dismiss one another. They argue that this flaw is exacerbated by the reluctance of the monarch or their representatives to become politically involved.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Three 19th-century New Zealand governors were recalled from office: William Hobson (who died before he was officially recalled), Robert FitzRoy, and Sir George Grey. All three governed before the institution of responsible government in New Zealand; they were dismissed on the advice of the British (Imperial) government.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general's functions can be informally divided into three areas: constitutional, ceremonial and community. By constitutional convention, the governor-general is "above party politics" and not involved in the day to day decision making of government.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The Constitution Act 1986 provides that "the Governor-General appointed by the Sovereign is the Sovereign's representative in New Zealand". The governor-general is delegated the sovereign's Royal Prerogative (royal powers), including the reserve powers, on behalf of the sovereign. All of the executive authority of the New Zealand monarch (except for the appointment of the governor-general) is delegated to the governor-general by the sovereign under the Letters Patent 1983:


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general is a nominal chief executive, acting within the constraints of constitutional convention and precedent. Although the governor-general's powers are in theory extensive, they are in practice very limited; most political power is exercised by the New Zealand Parliament (which is composed of the Governor-General-in-Parliament and the House of Representatives), through the prime minister and Cabinet. The governor-general does use a number of remaining powers, but almost always on the formal advice of the prime minister and other ministers. Ministers are, in turn, accountable to the democratically elected House of Representatives, and through it, to the people. (The governor-general may refuse to follow ministerial advice only in the event that the prime minister loses the confidence of the House of Representatives.) Even in the appointment of a prime minister, the governor-general rarely exercises any discretion; in accordance with constitutional conventions, the governor-general must appoint the individual most likely to maintain the support of the House of Representatives: this is usually the leader of the largest party among those forming the government.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general appoints and dismisses Cabinet ministers and other ministers, but exercises such a function only on the prime minister's advice. Thus, in practice, the prime minister, and not the governor-general, exercises complete control over the composition of the Cabinet. The governor-general may, in theory, unilaterally dismiss a prime minister, but convention and precedent bar such an action.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general presides over, but is not a member of, the Executive Council of New Zealand. The Executive Council (which comprises all ministers) exists and meets to give legal effect to decisions made by the Cabinet. The primary function of the Executive Council is to collectively and formally advise the governor-general to issue Orders in Council (to make, for example, regulations or appointments), which operate under the authority of "the Governor-General in Council".


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general also has custody of the Seal of New Zealand for all official instruments of "Her Majesty's Government in New Zealand".


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general summons and dissolves the New Zealand Parliament, acting in the absence of the sovereign. Each parliamentary session begins with the governor-general's summons. The new parliamentary session is marked by the opening of parliament, during which the governor-general delivers the 'Speech from the Throne' in the Legislative Council Chamber, outlining the Government's legislative agenda. Dissolution ends a parliamentary term (which lasts a maximum of three years), and is followed by a general election for all seats in the House of Representatives. These powers are almost always exercised on the advice of the prime minister, who also determines the date of an election. The governor-general may theoretically refuse a dissolution, but the circumstances under which such an action would be warranted are unclear. It might be justified if a minority government had served only briefly and another party or coalition seemed likely to have better success in holding the confidence of the House.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Before a bill can become law, the Royal Assent is required. The governor-general acts on the monarch's behalf; in theory, and may grant the Royal Assent (making the bill law), or withhold the Royal Assent (vetoing the bill). By modern constitutional convention the Royal Assent is invariably granted, and bills are never disallowed. A law comes into effect from the date the governor-general signs the bill.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general acts with the advice of the prime minister, "unless" the prime minister has lost the confidence of the House of Representatives. These are the so-called 'reserve powers'. These powers include the ability to:


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The exercise of the above powers is a matter of continuing debate. Many constitutional commentators believe that the governor-general (or the sovereign) does not have the power to refuse Royal Assent to legislation — former law professor and Prime Minister Sir Geoffrey Palmer and Professor Matthew Palmer argue that any refusal of Royal Assent would cause a constitutional crisis. Some constitutional lawyers, such as Professor Philip Joseph, believe the governor-general does retain the power to refuse Royal Assent to bills in exceptional circumstances, such as the abolition of democracy.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: As with other Commonwealth realms, the governor-general's exercise of the Royal Prerogative under the reserve powers is non-justiciable; that is, they cannot be challenged by judicial review, unlike the actions of other members of the executive (such as the Prime Minister in "Fitzgerald v Muldoon").


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general also exercises the royal prerogative of mercy, an ancient right of convicted persons to seek a review of their case where they allege an injustice may have occurred. The prerogative of mercy can be exercised where a person claims to have been wrongly convicted or wrongly sentenced.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general acts on the advice of the minister of justice. The governor-general has power to grant a pardon, to refer a person's case back to the court under section 406 of the Crimes Act 1961, and to reduce a person's sentence. If a person's case is referred back to the court, the court will consider the case in a similar way to hearing an appeal. The court then provides advice to the governor-general as to how to act. In 2000, David Bain was granted such an appeal to the Court of Appeal, which in turn was appealed to the Privy Council.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: With most constitutional functions lent to Cabinet, the governor-general is particularly invested in a representative and ceremonial role. The extent and nature of that role has depended on the expectations of the time, the individual in office at the time, the wishes of the incumbent government, and the individual's reputation in the wider community. The governor-general will host the Monarch or their family, as well as foreign royalty and heads of state, and will represent New Zealand abroad on state visits to other nations. At least once during their term, the governor-general visits the other nations within the Realm of New Zealand: Niue, the Cook Islands and Tokelau, and the Ross Dependency. Also as part of international relations, the governor-general issues the credentials (called letter of credence) of New Zealand ambassadors and consuls, as authorised by the Letters Patent.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Increasingly, the governor-general is personally accorded the same respect and privileges of a head of state. This is particularity true when the governor-general visits other nations or receives heads of states. ("See ".) Prior to the Lomé Convention in 1975, the Queen, rather than the governor-general, would sign treaties on behalf of New Zealand. Following the signing of the convention, it was decided that the governor-general could sign such instruments.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Under the Defence Act 1990 and letters patent the governor-general is also the titular commander-in-chief of the Defence Force. The position technically involves issuing commands for New Zealand troops, though the governor-general only acts on the advice of the minister of defence and other ministers. In practice, the commander-in-chief is a ceremonial role in which the governor-general will see troops off to and return from active duty and visit military bases in New Zealand and abroad to take part in military ceremonies.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general provides leadership in the community. Governors-general are always the patrons of many charitable, service, sporting and cultural organisations. The sponsorship or patronage of the governor-general signals that an organisation is worthy of wide support. This follows the tradition of royal patronage established by British monarchs; the practice of issuing royal warrant of appointment has been discontinued in New Zealand. Some governors and their spouses founded or supported new charities; in the early 1900s, Lord Plunket and his wife, Lady Victoria, presided over the creation of Truby King's Plunket Society. Until the later 20th century, many governors and governors-general were grand masters of the Freemasons, and they included visits to lodges as a part of their tours of the country. The governor-general has also had a long association with the Order of St John, traditionally serving as prior in New Zealand.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Many of the governor-general's community functions have a ceremonial dimension, such as attendance at the official openings of buildings, addresses to open conferences, or launching special events and appeals. The governor-general attends state banquets and receptions, making and hosting state visits, meeting ceremonial groups, and awarding medals and decorations. As well as attending public events, the governor-general hosts many community functions at Government House, Wellington, such as a garden reception to mark Waitangi Day. According to the official website of the governor-general, in a typical year over 15,000 people will attend such events.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Starting from New Year's Day 2009, the governor-general issues a New Year's Message to bring to attention issues New Zealanders might consider as they look to the future.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The New Zealand Government pays for the costs associated with the governor-general. Monarchy New Zealand states "[t]his figure is about one dollar per person per year", about $4.3 million per annum. An analysis by New Zealand Republic of the 2010 budget shows the office of governor-general costs New Zealand taxpayers about $7.6 million in ongoing costs and $11 million for Government House upgrades, a total of $18.6 million. These figures are disputed by Monarchy New Zealand, who claim New Zealand Republic "arbitrarily inflated the cost of the Governor-General".


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: , the annual salary is NZ$354,000, which is subject to income tax from 2010. Until the end of Sir Anand Satyanand's term, the salary of governor-general was regulated by the Civil List Act 1979. From the start of Sir Jerry Mateperae's term, the Governor-General Act 2010 applies.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general's main residence is Government House, Wellington, and there is a small secondary northern residence, Government House, Auckland. Government House in Wellington closed in October 2008 for a major $44 million conservation and rebuilding project and was reopened in March 2011. In November 2012, Prince Charles opened a visitor centre at Government House in Wellington to mark the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The viceregal household aids the governor-general in the execution of the royal constitutional and ceremonial duties and is managed by an official secretary to the governor-general. All of the governor-general's staff are public servants within the Department of the Prime Minister and Cabinet.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Since the 1960s the New Zealand Government has supplied Government House with an official state car to transport the governor-general on official business. It is also used to transport other state officials, as well as visiting dignitaries, including royalty. The governor-general's official vehicle displays a representation of St Edward's Crown instead of standard number plates. The current official car is a BMW 7 Series. It replaced a Jaguar XJ8, which was purchased in 2003 for about NZ$160,000. The Jaguar was auctioned off in August 2011.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general's flag may be flown from a vehicle in which the governor-general is travelling, or from a building in which the governor-general is present or is residing. The flag in its present form was adopted in 2008 and is a blue field with the shield of the New Zealand coat of arms surmounted by a crown in the centre. It takes precedence over the national flag. The national flag is generally employed when the governor-general undertakes a state visit abroad. The national flag is also flown at half-mast upon the death of an incumbent or former governor-general.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The design of the flag, with the shield and crown in the centre, mirrors the collar badge of the New Zealand Order of Merit which can only be worn by the sovereign and the governor-general.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: A viceregal salute, composed of the first six bars of "God Save the King", is used to greet the governor-general upon arrival at, and mark their departure from most official events.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In the New Zealand order of precedence, the governor-general outranks all individuals except the sovereign. The governor-general and their spouse are styled "His/Her Excellency" during the term in office, and the governor-general is entitled to the style "The Right Honourable" for life upon assuming the office. From 2006, former living governors-general were entitled to use the style "the Honourable", if they did not already hold the title or the higher appointment of Privy Counsellor.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The incumbent governor-general uses the titles of Chancellor and Principal Knight or Dame Grand Companion of the New Zealand Order of Merit and Principal Companion of the Queen's Service Order. The governor-general is titled "Sir" or "Dame".


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The governor-general is entitled to a special court uniform that is worn on ceremonial occasions, consisting of a dark navy wool double-breasted coatee with silver oak leaf and fern embroidery on the collar and cuffs trimmed with silver buttons embossed with the Royal Arms; bullion-edged epaulettes on the shoulders; dark navy trousers with a wide band of silver oak-leaf braid down the outside seam; silver sword belt with ceremonial sword; bicorne cocked hat with plume of ostrich feathers; black patent leather Wellington boots with spurs, etc. There is also a tropical version made of white tropical wool cut in a typical military fashion worn with a plumed helmet.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: This dress has fallen into disuse since the 1980s. Initially this was due to Sir Paul Reeves, as a cleric, choosing not to wear a military uniform. Although not specifically colonial, the traditional dress was abandoned as overt reminders of a colonial legacy. Usually the governor-general will now wear a black lounge jacket with morning dress trousers for men or formal day dress for ladies (or military uniform if they are already entitled to it) for ceremonial occasions and normal day dress at other times. The undress form of the uniform is still worn on rare occasions, such as when the governor-general visits military bases.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: From 1832 James Busby was assigned the post of official British resident in New Zealand. He played a role in drafting the Treaty of Waitangi, which established British colonial rule over New Zealand. Captain William Hobson was first appointed Lieutenant-Governor of New Zealand by letters patent on 24 November 1840 (having previously been the British Consul to New Zealand), when New Zealand was part of the colony of New South Wales. While Hobson is usually considered the first Governor of New Zealand, Sir George Gipps was the first governor over New Zealand, albeit only in his capacity as Governor of New South Wales, until New Zealand was established as a separate colony on 3 May 1841. Hobson continued in office until his death on 10 September 1842. In Hobson's place the Colonial Office appointed Captain Robert FitzRoy. FitzRoy struggled to keep order between Māori and settlers keen to buy their land, with very limited financial and military resources at his disposal. Outbreak of the first armed conflicts of the New Zealand Wars and FitzRoy's siding with Māori claims against the New Zealand Company and its settlers over land deals lead to his recall by the Colonial Office in 1845.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: FitzRoy's replacement, Sir George Grey, is considered by some historians, such as Michael King, to be the most important and influential Governor of New Zealand. Grey was the last Governor of New Zealand to act without reference to parliament. During his first term (1845–1852), Grey petitioned the British Parliament to largely suspend the complex New Zealand Constitution Act 1846 (Grey briefly took the title "Governor-in-Chief" under the act but this was eventually reverted to Governor), drafting his own constitution bill, which became the New Zealand Constitution Act 1852. Grey's first term ended before responsible government was implemented, although he established the first provinces under the 1846 Constitution Act, appointing a Lieutenant-Governor for each of the provinces: George Dean Pitt for the New Ulster Province and Robert Wynyard for the New Munster Province. The office of Lieutenant-Governor was superseded by elected Superintendents with the implementation of the 1852 Constitution Act, in 1853.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: The task of overseeing the transition to a responsible government was left to Robert Wynyard, as the Administrator of the Government, who opened the 1st New Zealand Parliament on 24 May 1854. Wynyard was quickly confronted by the demands from members of parliament for the ability to select ministers from among their number—rather than the governor deciding. The parliament passed a resolution to that effect on 2 June. Wynyard and the Executive Council of New Zealand refused to allow this, stating that the Colonial Office made no mention of responsible government in its dispatches. Wynyard then offered to add some elected members of parliament to the Executive Council, which he did—a compromise that worked for a few weeks, until on 1 August 1854, parliament again demanded complete power to appoint ministers. Wynyard refused and prorogued parliament for two weeks. Then on 31 August, he appointed more elected members to the Executive Council, but when Parliament met again on 8 August 1855, it moved a motion of no confidence in the members. Fortunately for Wynyard the next Governor, Sir Thomas Gore Browne, arrived on 6 September 1855. Gore Browne's tenure saw the introduction of responsible government, which constrained the powers of the governor, who now had to work with a Premier and their ministers. In the following years, Gore Browne and Premier Edward Stafford clashed over whether the governor (and hence the imperial government) had control over Māori affairs, a key issue at the time with the ongoing New Zealand Wars. Stafford began the practice of Cabinet meeting independently of the Executive Council, further reducing the influence of the governor. Sir George Grey returned to New Zealand in 1861 for a second term. Grey struggled to meet the competing demands of the colonial and British governments. The New Zealand Wars had brought many thousands of British troops to New Zealand, and fearing further fighting Grey, with the support of Edward Stafford, evaded Colonial Office instructions to finalise their return to Britain. In the end, the Colonial Office recalled Grey in February 1868.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: After Grey, successive governors of New Zealand were derived from the British aristocracy and played a much less active role in government. In only a few instances did the governor refuse the advice of the premier. Ironically this happened mainly during the tenure of Sir George Grey as Premier of New Zealand from 1877 to 1879. One famous instance of the use of the governor's powers came during the term of Sir Arthur Gordon. Gordon had left New Zealand on 13 September 1881 for a visit to the Pacific Islands. In his absence, Premier John Hall advised Chief Justice James Prendergast, acting as the Administrator of the Government (Prendergast was well known for his negative opinions about Māori from his decision in the case "Wi Parata v the Bishop of Wellington"), to order the invasion of the Māori pacifist Te Whiti o Rongomai's village at Parihaka, something the Governor had indicated he was opposed to.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In 1907 Sir Joseph Ward's Liberal government passed a resolution to create New Zealand as the Dominion of New Zealand. This led to new letters patent being issued in 1917, which greatly curtailed the powers of the governor. To reflect these changes, the office was renamed governor-general (equivalent to governors-general of other dominions), with the Earl of Liverpool, the serving governor, becoming the first to be titled governor-general.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In 1926, following the King-Byng affair in Canada, an Imperial Conference approved the Balfour Declaration, which defined a British Commonwealth as a freely associated grouping known as the Commonwealth of Nations. The Declaration was ratified by the Parliament of the United Kingdom with the Statute of Westminster in 1931. The effect of the declaration was to elevate the governor-general from a representative of the British government to a regal position with all the theoretical constitutional powers of the sovereign. New Zealand did not ratify the Statute of Westminster until after the Second World War with the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1947 being passed on 25 November 1947.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Despite adopting the statute later than most other Commonwealth realms, the functions of the governor-general in representing the British government were gradually reduced prior to the statute passing. For example, beginning in 1939, the High Commissioner of the United Kingdom to New Zealand replaced the governor-general as the foremost diplomatic representative of the British government in New Zealand.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In 1945, New Zealand Prime Minister Peter Fraser suggested that Sir Bernard Freyberg, the British-born commander of New Zealand's armed forces, be appointed governor-general. Until 1967, the precedent was that governors-general were nominated by the Foreign and Commonwealth Office (the successor of the Colonial Office) in consultation with the New Zealand prime minister, who then recommended appointments to the sovereign.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: During the 1960s, the Foreign Office made strong overtures that the appointment of the governor-general should be made by the New Zealand prime minister and the monarch. A Gallup poll for the "Auckland Star" newspaper found 43 percent of respondents preferred Britons for the role, while 41 percent favoured New Zealanders and 6 percent candidates from other Commonwealth countries.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In 1967 the first New Zealand-born governor-general, Sir Arthur Porritt (later Lord Porritt), was appointed to the office, on the advice of the New Zealand Prime Minister, Keith Holyoake. Porritt's appointment was followed by Sir Denis Blundell in 1972, who was the first fully New Zealand-resident governor-general. The appointment of New Zealand citizens and residents lead to concerns that the constitutional convention that governors-general remain "above party politics" might be compromised, especially with the appointment of former prime minister Sir Keith Holyoake to the role in 1977. Despite this appointment, Holyoake was said to have acted in an impartial way, especially following the very close 1981 general election.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In 1983, letters patent were issued once again, further reducing the powers of the office. The new letters patent were counter-signed by the New Zealand Prime Minister, symbolising the "patriation" of the office. The governor-general now presided over the "Realm of New Zealand" instead of the "Dominion of New Zealand".


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Following the 1984 constitutional crisis, the 1852 Constitution Act was replaced by the Constitution Act 1986 and the governor-general's powers further limited. For example, section 16 of the 1986 act significantly narrowed section 56 of the 1852 act so that the governor-general has much less discretion to refuse Royal Assent to bills of parliament.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: With the patriation of the office came an expectation that the officeholders would be representative of New Zealanders generally; since then a more diverse group of governors-general have been appointed. Former Anglican Archbishop of New Zealand Sir Paul Reeves (1985–90) was the first Māori Governor-General. Dame Catherine Tizard (1990–96) was the first woman to be appointed to the office. Sir Anand Satyanand (2006–11) was the first Governor-General of Indian and Pasifika descent, and the first Roman Catholic to hold the office.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Increasingly, the governor-general is regarded as a "de facto" head of state. Political commentator Colin James has expressed this view, along with historian Gavin McLean and former Prime Minister Helen Clark.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Beginning in the late 20th century, the governor-general has been performing more and more of the functions of a head of state, such as travelling overseas, representing all New Zealanders at major international events and generally promoting New Zealand interests abroad. The first time such a visit occurred was in 1989 for the state funeral of the late Japanese Emperor Hirohito. New Zealand governors-general could not make state visits until 1992, when the King of Spain invited Dame Catherine Tizard on a State Visit for the Seville Expo '92. Buckingham Palace (the monarch's advisers) advised that the Queen cannot travel abroad in her capacity as Queen of New Zealand. As a compromise, the Palace agreed that governors-general could accept invitations for state visits, but that it must be made clear that the governor-general is the sovereign's representative. At the 2007 commemorations of the Battle of Passchendaele, Governor-General Anand Satyanand represented New Zealand on behalf of the Queen, while the Queen herself represented the United Kingdom.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Reform of the office is usually only mentioned in the context of a New Zealand republic. Helen Clark, when defending Dame Silvia Cartwright following a political controversy over prison sentences, stated "[o]ne of the challenges for us is we clearly are no longer a dominion of Britain where the Governor-General is exactly like the Queen. I think we need to consider how the role of Governor-General might evolve further. As you know, my view is that one day there will be a president fulfilling the kind of role the Governor-General does." Others, such as Professor Noel Cox have argued that the governor-general's role needs to be updated, rather than reforming the office.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: Some constitutional academics expressed concern that the process of electoral reform could result in the governor-general having greater political influence due to the reserve powers of government formation. In 1993, then Governor-General Dame Catherine Tizard caused controversy by suggesting that under the proposed mixed-member proportional (MMP) electoral system the governor-general may have to use their reserve powers more often (because under MMP, election results most probably do not produce an outright majority, and therefore the governor-general would be obliged to identify a minority parliamentary leader to form a government). Following the adoption of MMP at a referendum later in 1993, Prime Minister Jim Bolger suggested at the opening of parliament in 1994 that one reason New Zealand might move to a republic was that the governor-general would have more influence under the new electoral system. In a 1996 address, Governor-General Sir Michael Hardie Boys clarified how he would use his powers in the case of an unclear electoral result; he maintained that politicians must decide who would govern, and only after a public announcement of their decision would he appoint a prime minister.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In December 2009 a review of the Civil List Act 1979 by the Law Commission recommended that part 1 of the act be repealed, and replaced with a new Governor-General Bill to reflect the nature of the modern office of governor-general. The most significant change would be that the governor-general was no longer exempt from paying income tax on their salary. The changes proposed in the report would take effect for the appointment and term of the next governor-general. The Bill was introduced into the House of Representatives on 28 June 2010 and was granted Royal Assent on 22 November 2010.


title: Governor-General of New Zealand

text: In 2020 a poll by Curia, commissioned by New Zealand Republic, found 32 percent of New Zealanders thought the governor-general was the head of state, and only 18 percent could name the Queen as New Zealand's head of state (25 percent answered that it was the prime minister).


title: John Buford

text: John Buford, Jr. (March 4, 1826 – December 16, 1863) was a United States Army cavalry officer. He fought for the Union as a brigadier general during the American Civil War. Buford is best known for having played a major role in the first day of the Battle of Gettysburg on July 1, 1863, by identifying, taking, and holding the "high ground" while in command of a division.


title: John Buford

text: Buford graduated from West Point in 1848. He remained loyal to the United States when the Civil War broke out, despite having been born in the divided border state of Kentucky. During the war he fought against the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia as part of the Army of the Potomac. His first command was a cavalry brigade under Major General John Pope, and he distinguished himself at Second Bull Run in August 1862, where he was wounded, and also saw action at Antietam in September and Stoneman's Raid in spring 1863.


title: John Buford

text: Buford's cavalry division played a crucial role in the Gettysburg Campaign that summer. Arriving at the small town of Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, on June 30, before the Confederate troops, Buford set up defensive positions. On the morning of July 1, Buford's division was attacked by a Confederate division under the command of Major General Henry Heth. His men held just long enough for Union reinforcements to arrive. After a massive three-day battle, the Union troops emerged victorious. Later, Buford rendered valuable service to the Army, both in the pursuit of Robert E. Lee after the Battle of Gettysburg, and in the Bristoe Campaign that autumn, but his health started to fail, possibly from typhoid. Just before his death at age 37, he received a personal message from President Abraham Lincoln, promoting him to major general of volunteers in recognition of his tactical skill and leadership displayed on the first day of Gettysburg.


title: John Buford

text: Buford was born in Woodford County, Kentucky, but was raised in Rock Island, Illinois, from the age of eight. John, his father, was a prominent Democratic politician in Illinois and a political opponent of Abraham Lincoln. Buford was of English descent. His family had a long military tradition. John Jr.'s grandfather, Simeon Buford, served in the cavalry during the American Revolutionary War under Henry "Lighthorse" Lee, the father of Robert E. Lee. His great-uncle, Colonel Abraham Buford (of the Waxhaw Massacre), also served in a Virginia regiment. His half-brother, Napoleon Bonaparte Buford, would become a major general in the Union Army, while his cousin, Abraham Buford, would become a cavalry brigadier general in the Confederate States Army.


title: John Buford

text: After attending Knox College in Galesburg, Illinois, for one year, Buford was accepted into the Class of 1848 at the United States Military Academy (West Point). Upperclassmen during Buford's time at West Point included Fitz-John Porter (Class of 1845), George B. McClellan (1846), Thomas J. Jackson (1846), George Pickett (1846), and two future commanders and friends, George Stoneman (1846) and Ambrose Burnside (1847). The Class of 1847 also included A.P. Hill and Henry Heth, two men Buford would face at Gettysburg on the morning of July 1, 1863.


title: John Buford

text: Buford graduated 16th of 38 cadets and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 1st U.S. Dragoons, transferring the next year to the 2nd U.S. Dragoons. He served in Texas and against the Sioux, served on peacekeeping duty in Bleeding Kansas, and in the Utah War in 1858. He was stationed at Fort Crittenden, Utah, from 1859 to 1861. He studied the works of General John Watts de Peyster, who urged that the skirmish line become the new line of battle.


title: John Buford

text: Throughout 1860, Buford and his fellow soldiers had lived with talk of secession and the possibility of civil war until the Pony Express brought word that Fort Sumter had been fired upon in April 1861, confirming secession as fact. As was the case with many West Pointers, Buford had to choose between North and South. Based on his background, Buford had ample reason to join the Confederacy. He was a native Kentuckian, the son of a slave-owning father, and the husband of a woman whose relatives would fight for the South, as would a number of his own. On the other hand, Buford had been educated in the North and come to maturity within the Army. His two most influential professional role models, Colonels William S. Harney and Philip St. George Cooke, were Southerners who elected to remain with the Union and the U.S. Army. He loved his profession and his time on the frontier had snapped the ties that drew other Southerners home.


title: John Buford

text: John Gibbon, a North Carolinian facing the same dilemma, recalled in a post-war memoir the evening that John Buford committed himself to the Union:


title: John Buford

text: In November 1861, Buford was appointed Assistant Inspector General with the rank of major, and, in July 1862, after having served for several months in the defense of Washington, was raised to the rank of brigadier general of volunteers. In 1862, he was given his first position, under Major General John Pope, as commander of the II Corps Cavalry Brigade of the Union Army of Virginia, which fought with distinction at the Second Battle of Bull Run. Buford personally led a charge late in the battle, but was wounded in the knee by a spent bullet. The injury was painful, but not serious, although some Union newspapers reported that he had been killed. He returned to active service, and served as chief of cavalry to Major Generals George B. McClellan and Ambrose E. Burnside in the Army of the Potomac. Unfortunately, this assignment was nothing more than a staff position, and he chafed for a field command. In McClellan's Maryland Campaign, Buford was in the battles of South Mountain and Antietam, replacing Brigadier General George Stoneman on McClellan's staff. Under Major General Joseph Hooker in 1863, however, Buford was given the Reserve Brigade of regular cavalry in the 1st Division, Cavalry Corps of the Army of the Potomac.


title: John Buford

text: After the Battle of Chancellorsville, Major General Alfred Pleasonton was given command of the Cavalry Corps, although Hooker later agreed that Buford would have been the better choice. Buford first led his new division at the Battle of Brandy Station, which was virtually an all-cavalry engagement, and then again at the Battle of Upperville.


title: John Buford

text: In the Gettysburg Campaign, Buford, who had been promoted to command of the 1st Division, is credited with selecting the field of battle at Gettysburg. On June 30, Buford's command rode into the small town of Gettysburg. Very soon, Buford realized that he was facing a superior force of rebels to his front and set about creating a defense against the Confederate advance. He was acutely aware of the tactical importance of holding the high ground south of Gettysburg, and so he did, beginning one of the most important battles in American military history. His skillful defensive troop dispositions, coupled with the bravery and tenacity of his dismounted men, allowed the I Corps, under Major General John F. Reynolds, time to come up in support and thus maintain a Union foothold in tactically important positions. Despite Lee's barrage attack of 140 cannons and a final infantry attack on the third day of the battle, the Union army won a strategic victory. The importance of Buford's leadership and tactical foresight on July 1 cannot be overstated in its contribution to this victory. Afterward, Buford's troopers were sent by Pleasonton to Emmitsburg, Maryland, to resupply and refit, an ill-advised decision that uncovered the Union left flank.


title: John Buford

text: In the Retreat from Gettysburg, Buford pursued the Confederates to Warrenton, Virginia, and was afterward engaged in many operations in central Virginia, rendering particularly valuable service in covering Major General George Meade's retrograde movement in the October 1863 Bristoe Campaign.


title: John Buford

text: By mid-December, it was obvious that Buford was sick, possibly from contracting typhoid, and he took respite at the Washington home of his good friend, General George Stoneman. On December 16, Stoneman initiated the proposal that Buford be promoted to major general, and President Abraham Lincoln assented, writing as follows: "I am informed that General Buford will not survive the day. It suggests itself to me that he will be made Major General for distinguished and meritorious service at the Battle of Gettysburg." Informed of the promotion, Buford inquired doubtfully, "Does he mean it?" When assured the promotion was genuine, he replied simply, "It is too late, now I wish I could live."


title: John Buford

text: In the last hours, Buford was attended by his aide, Captain Myles Keogh, and by Edward, his black servant. Also present were Lieutenant Colonel A. J. Alexander and General Stoneman. His wife Pattie was traveling from Rock Island, Illinois, but would not arrive in time. Near the end, he became delirious and began admonishing Edward, but then, in a moment of clarity, called for the man and apologized: "Edward, I hear that I have been scolding you. I did not know what I was doing. You have been a faithful servant, Edward."


title: John Buford

text: John Buford died at 2 p.m., December 16, 1863, while Myles Keogh held him in his arms. His final reported words were "Put guards on all the roads, and don't let the men run to the rear."


title: John Buford

text: On December 20, memorial services were held at the New York Avenue Presbyterian Church, a church on the corner of H. Street and New York Avenue in Washington, D.C. President Lincoln was among the mourners. Buford's wife was unable to attend due to illness. The pallbearers included Generals Casey, Heintzelman, Sickles, Schofield, Hancock, Doubleday, and Warren. General Stoneman commanded the escort in a procession that included "Grey Eagle," Buford's old white horse that he rode at Gettysburg.


title: John Buford

text: After the service, two of Buford's staff, Captains Keogh and Wadsworth, escorted his body to West Point, where it was buried alongside fellow Gettysburg hero Lieutenant Alonzo Cushing, who had died defending the "high ground" (Cemetery Ridge) that Buford had chosen. In 1865, a 25-foot obelisk style monument was erected over his grave, financed by members of his old division. The officers of his staff published a resolution that set forth the esteem in which he was held by those in his command:


title: John Buford

text: In 1866, a military fort established on the Missouri-Yellowstone confluence in what is now North Dakota, was named Fort Buford after the general. The community of Buford, Wyoming, was renamed in the general's honor. It was sold at auction for $900,000 on April 5, 2012 to an unnamed Vietnamese by its owner, who had served in the U.S. military in 1968–1969.


title: John Buford

text: In 1895, a bronze statue of Buford designed by artist James E. Kelly was dedicated on the Gettysburg Battlefield.


title: John Buford

text: The M8 Armored Gun System, an American light tank canceled in 1996, is sometimes referred to as the "Buford" in his honor.


title: John Buford

text: Buford was portrayed by Sam Elliott in the 1993 film "Gettysburg", based on Michael Shaara's novel "The Killer Angels".


title: John Buford

text: Buford is a character in the alternate history novel "", written by Newt Gingrich and William Forstchen.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: Doña Manuela Sáenz de Vergara y Aizpuru (27 December 1797 – 23 November 1856) was an Ecuadorian revolutionary heroine of South America who supported the revolutionary cause by gathering information, distributing leaflets and protesting for women's rights. Manuela received the Order of the Sun (""Caballeresa del Sol"" or 'Dame of the Sun'), honoring her services in the revolution.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: Sáenz married a wealthy English doctor in 1817 and became a socialite in Lima, Peru. This provided the setting for involvement in political and military affairs, and she became active in support of revolutionary efforts. Leaving her husband in 1822, she soon began an eight-year collaboration and intimate relationship with Simón Bolívar that lasted until his death in 1830. After she prevented an 1828 assassination attempt against him and facilitated his escape, Bolívar began to call her ""Libertadora del libertador"" ("liberator of the liberator"). Manuela's role in the revolution after her death was generally overlooked until the late twentieth century, but now she is recognized as a feminist symbol of the 19th century wars of independence.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: Manuela was born in Quito, the illegitimate child of Maria Joaquina Aizpuru from Ecuador and the married Spanish nobleman Simón Sáenz de Vergara y Yedra (or Sáenz y Verega). Her mother was abandoned by her modest family as a result of the pregnancy and her father paid for young "Manuelita" to go to school at the Convent of Santa Catalina where she learned to read and write. While there, she encountered a microcosm of the Spanish colonial caste system, with white nuns ruling over a large group of "mestiza" and native servants and maids. She kept in contact with the upper class nuns of Santa Catalina for much of the rest of her life, and they provided counsel to her. She was forced to leave the convent at the age of seventeen, allegedly because she was discovered to have been seduced by army officer Fausto D'Elhuyar, the son of Fausto Elhuyar and nephew of Juan José Elhuyar, who were the co-discoverers of tungsten.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: For several years, Manuela lived with her father, who in 1817 arranged for her marriage to a wealthy English doctor, James Thorne, who was twice her age. The couple moved to Lima, Peru, in 1819 where she lived as an aristocrat and held social gatherings in her home where guests included political leaders and military officers. These guests shared military secrets about the ongoing revolution with her, and, in 1819, when Simón Bolívar took part in the successful liberation of New Granada, Manuela Sáenz was radicalized and an active member in the conspiracy against the viceroy of Perú, José de la Serna e Hinojosa during 1820.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: As part of this conspiracy, Manuela, her friend Rosa Campuzano, and other women who were pro-Independence attempted to recruit colonial troops from the royalist defense arsenal in Lima, guarded by the vital Numancia regiment. The conspiracy was a success, with much of the regiment, including Manuela's half brother, defecting to the anti-Spanish army of José de San Martín.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: Saenz was described as a heroine and known for her patriotism. This patriotism was noticed in her sympathies for the creole uprising against the Spanish control in South America.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: Jose De San Martin after proclaiming Peru’s independence in 1821 awarded Manuela Saenz with the highest distinction in Peru, which was the title of signet ring of the Order of the Sun of Peru. In her early periods she would hold secret gatherings, where she would pass information as a spy. Manuela Saenz participated in the negotiations with the Numancia battalion.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: In 1822, Sáenz left her husband and traveled to Quito, where at a ball she met Simón Bolívar, eventually becoming romantically involved. She exchanged love letters with him and visited him while he moved from one country to another. Bolivar referred to her as "la amable loca", the dear madwoman.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: Manuela supported the revolutionary cause by gathering information, distributing leaflets, and protesting for women's rights. As one of the most prominent female figures of the wars for independence, Manuela received the Order of the Sun (""Caballeresa del Sol"" or 'Dame of the Sun'), honoring her services in the revolution. In public she often wore a colonel's uniform, accompanied by her two black servants Jonatás and Nathán, also attired in soldier uniforms. During the first months of 1825 and from February to September 1826, she lived with Bolívar near Lima, but as the war continued, Bolívar was forced to leave.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: During the anti-Bolivarian conspiracy led by Colombian Colonel José Bustamente, Manuela was a key member of the Pro-Bolivarian forces. On January 25, 1827, significant portions of the Colombian Army's Third Division mutinied in Lima, arresting senior officers and seizing key locations in the city, demanding better food and pay as General Santa Cruz and the conspirators suspended the Bolivarian Constitution. Manuela had remained behind in Lima, trusted by Bolivar to look after his affairs, and moved to stop the mutiny. Presenting in full uniform, she addressed troops of the Third Division and begged them to remain loyal to Bolivar. Afterwards, she began bribing sergeants and corporals in the hopes of outbidding the conspirators, to some success. This continued until she was captured by the new Peruvian government on February 7, and imprisoned her in a convent. She protested her treatment under both Bolivarian laws and new Peruvian laws, and this agitation would eventually see her released from prison in March, and forced into exile in April. As a result of this agitation, she was now beginning to be known as the Libertadora, a public legend to match Bolivar in the minds of some. Manuela now followed Bolivar to Bogotá.


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: On 25 September 1828, mutinous officers attempted to assassinate Bolívar. Woken by the sound of fighting, Bolivar intended to investigate, but Sáenz, who was sharing his bed, persuaded him to leave by a window while she confronted the intruders. She then convinced them that Bolivar was somewhere in the building and proceeded to lead them to various rooms, affecting to lose her way and even stopping to attend one of the wounded. Eventually the would-be assassins lost patience and beat her before departing. Her actions led Bolivar later to call her ""Libertadora del Libertador"".


title: Manuela Sáenz

text: After the assassination attempt, Manuela proved to be a key part of identifying the loyalties and reliabilities of army officers, attempting to help Bolivar maintain control of the disintegrating Gran Colombia.