title: Interpreter of Maladies

text: Noelle Brada-Williams notes that Indian-American literature is under-represented and that Lahiri deliberately tries to give a diverse view of Indian Americans so as not to brand the group as a whole. She also argues that "Interpreter of Maladies" is not just a collection of random short stories that have common components, but a "short story cycle" in which the themes and motifs are intentionally connected to produce a cumulative effect on the reader: "...a deeper look reveals the intricate use of pattern and motif to bind the stories together, including recurring themes of the barriers to and opportunities for human communication; community, including marital, extra-marital, and parent-child relationships; and the dichotomy of care and neglect."


title: Interpreter of Maladies

text: Ketu H. Katrak reads "Interpreter of Maladies" as reflecting the trauma of self-transformation through immigration, which can result in a series of broken identities that form "multiple anchorages." Lahiri's stories show the diasporic struggle to keep hold of culture as characters create new lives in foreign cultures. Relationships, language, rituals, and religion all help these characters maintain their culture in new surroundings even as they build a "hybrid realization" as Asian Americans.


title: Interpreter of Maladies

text: Laura Anh Williams observes the stories as highlighting the frequently omitted female diasporic subject. Through the foods they eat, and the ways they prepare and eat them, the women in these stories utilize foodways to construct their own unique racialized subjectivity and to engender agency. Williams notes the ability of food in literature to function autobiographically, and in fact, "Interpreter of Maladies" indeed reflects Lahiri's own family experiences. Lahiri recalls that for her mother, cooking "was her jurisdiction. It was also her secret." For individuals such as Lahiri's' mother, cooking constructs a sense of identity, interrelationship, and home that is simultaneously communal and yet also highly personal.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: New Jersey Institute of Technology (NJIT) is a public research university in Newark, New Jersey with a degree-granting satellite campus in Jersey City. Founded in 1881 with the support of local industrialists and inventors especially Edward Weston, NJIT opened as Newark Technical School in 1885 with 88 students. The school grew into a classic engineering college – Newark College of Engineering – and then with the addition of a School of Architecture in 1973, into a polytechnic university that now hosts five colleges and one school. As of fall 2021 the university enrolls about 11,900 students from 83 countries, 2,500 of whom live on its main campus in Newark's University Heights district.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: NJIT offers 51 undergraduate (Bachelor of Science/Arts) majors and 71 graduate (Masters and PhD) programs. Via its Honors College it also offers professional programs in Healthcare and Law in collaboration with nearby institutions including Rutgers Medical School and Seton Hall Law School. Cross-registration with Rutgers University-Newark which borders its campus is also available. NJIT is classified among "R1: Doctoral Universities – Very high research activity". It operates the Big Bear Solar Observatory, the Owens Valley Radio Observatory (both in California) and a suite of automated observatories across Antarctica, South America and the US.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: As of May 2022 the school's founders, faculty and alumni include a Turing Award winner (2011), a Dannie Heineman Prize for Mathematical Physics winner (2015), 9 members of the National Academy of Engineering, 2 members of the National Inventors Hall of Fame, 1 member of the National Academy of Sciences, an astronaut, a National Medal of Technology and Innovation winner, a Congressional Gold Medal winner, a William Bowie Medal winner, multiple IEEE medalists and 17 members of the National Academy of Inventors including 5 senior members. Over the past 20 years NJIT graduates have won seventeen Goldwaters, six Fulbrights, a Truman, six Borens, seven Gilmans, five DAADs, a Tau Beta Pi graduate Fellowship, a Humanity in Action Fellowship, a RIGSPS scholarship, two Whitakers, and nineteen NSF Graduate Research Fellowships.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: NJIT is a member of the Sea grant and Space grant research consortia. It has participated in the McNair Scholars Program since 1999. With 20 varsity teams, the NCAA Division I "Highlanders" mainly compete in the America East Conference.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The New Jersey Institute of Technology has a history dating back to the 19th century. Originally introduced from Essex County on March 24, 1880, and revised with input from the Newark Board of Trade in 1881, an act of the New Jersey State Legislature essentially drew up a contest to determine which municipality would become home to the state's urgently needed technical school. The challenge was straightforward: the state would stake "at least $3,000 and not more than $5,000" and the municipality that matched the state's investment would earn the right to establish the new school.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The Newark Board of Trade, working jointly with the Newark City Council, launched a campaign to win the new school. Dozens of the city's industrialists, along with other private citizens, eager for a work force resource in their home town, threw their support behind the fund-raiser. By 1884, the collaboration of the public and private sectors produced success. Newark Technical School was ready to open its doors.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The first 88 students, mostly evening students, attended classes in a rented building at 21 West Park Street. Soon the facility became inadequate to house an expanding student body. To meet the needs of the growing school, a second fund-raiser—the institution's first capital campaign—was launched to support the construction of a dedicated building for Newark Technical School. In 1886, under the leadership of the school's dynamic first director, Dr. Charles A. Colton, the cornerstone was laid at the intersection of High Street and Summit Place for the three-story building later to be named Weston Hall, in honor of the institution's early benefactor. A laboratory building, later to be called Colton Hall, was added to the campus in 1911.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Dr. Allan R. Cullimore led the institution from 1920 to 1949, transforming Newark Technical School into Newark College of Engineering (name adopted in 1930). Campbell Hall was erected in 1925, but due to the Depression and World War II, only the former Newark Orphan Asylum, now Eberhardt Hall, was purchased and renovated by the college in the succeeding decades. Cullimore left an unpublished history of the institution dated 1955.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: As of 1946, about 75% of the freshman class had served in the U. S. Armed Forces. Cullimore Hall was built in 1958 and two years later the old Weston Hall was razed and replaced with the current seven-story structure. Doctoral level programs were introduced and six years later, in 1966, an , four-building expansion was completed.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: With the addition of the New Jersey School of Architecture in 1973, the institution had evolved into a technological university, emphasizing a broad range of graduate and undergraduate degrees and dedicated to significant research and public service. President William Hazell, Jr., felt that the name of the school should clearly communicate this dynamic evolution. Alumni were solicited for suggestions to rename the institution, with the winning suggestion coming from Joseph M. Anderson '25.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Anderson's suggestion – New Jersey Institute of Technology – cogently emphasized the increasing scope of educational and research initiatives at a preeminent New Jersey university. The Board of Trustees approved the transition to the new name in September 1974, and Newark College of Engineering officially became New Jersey Institute of Technology on January 1, 1975. Anderson received the personal congratulations of President Hazell. At that time, the Newark College of Engineering name was retained for NJIT's engineering school.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: On May 2, 2003 Robert A. Altenkirch was inaugurated as president. He succeeded Saul K. Fenster, who was named the university's sixth president in 1978. Altenkirch retired in 2011 and on January 9, 2012, NJIT Trustees named Joel Bloom president.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: In 2003 the opening of the new Campus Center on the site of the former Hazell Hall centralized campus social events. Construction of a new Atrium, Bookstore, Information Desk, Dining Hall, computer lab, and new student organization offices continued into 2004. In 2005 a row of automobile chop shops adjacent to campus were demolished. In 2006 construction of a new off-campus residence hall by American Campus Communities commenced in the chop shops' location. The new hall, which opened in 2007, is dubbed the University Centre.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Also in 2005, Eberhardt Hall was fully renovated and re-inaugurated as the Alumni Center and the symbolic front door to the university. Its restored tower was the logo of the former Newark College of Engineering and was designed by Kevin Boyajian and Scott Nelson. A rebranding campaign with the current slogan, "NJIT – New Jersey's Science and Technology University – The Edge in Knowledge", was launched to emphasize NJIT's unique position as New Jersey's preeminent science-and-technology-focused research university.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Recently, the school changed its accredited management school into an AACSB-accredited business school. The business school focuses on utilizing technology to serve business needs. The school benefits from its proximity to New York City; in particular, Wall Street is just twenty-five minutes away. The school also has a strong academic collaboration with the nearby Rutgers business school. In 2008 NJIT began a program with the Heritage Institute of Technology (HIT) in West Bengal, India under which 20 HIT students come to NJIT for summer internships.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: In 2009 the New Jersey School of Architecture was reorganized as the College of Architecture and Design (CoAD). Within the college, the New Jersey School of Architecture continues, and it was joined by the newly established School of Art + Design.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: In June 2010, NJIT officially completed its purchase of the old Central High School building which sits between the NJIT and Rutgers–Newark campuses. With the completion of the purchase, Summit Street, from Warren Street to New Street, was converted into a pedestrian walkway. Subsequently, the Central High School building was extensively renovated, preserved, and updated per the Campus Master Plan, which included tearing down Kupfrian Hall to create more greenery.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Facilities added in 2016-18 include: a 209,000 sq.ft., multi-purpose Wellness and Events Center (WEC) which features a retractable-seating arena that can accommodate 3,500 spectators or 4,000 event participants; a 24,000 sq. ft. Life Sciences and Engineering Center; a 10,000 sq. ft. Makerspace, and a parking garage with spaces for 933 cars.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The university awarded 2,951 degrees in 2017, including 1512 bachelor's, 1281 master's, and 59 PhDs. Enrollment, currently at 11,423, is projected to reach 12,200 by 2020.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The average SAT score (math + verbal only) for enrolling freshmen in the Honors College in fall 2021 is 1496.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The minimum SAT score (math + verbal only) for enrolling freshmen in the accelerated BS/MD program – run in combination with New Jersey Medical School (Rutgers) – is 1450.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The male-to-female student ratio (2021) is about 2.57 to 1. The student-to-faculty (FTE) ratio (2021) is 17.1 to 1.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Comprising five colleges and one school, the university is organized into 21 departments, three of which, Biological Sciences, History, and Theater Arts are federated with Rutgers-Newark whose campus abuts NJIT's.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: With a student population that is 13.5% international, 26.3% black or Hispanic, and 19.8% Asian, NJIT is among the most ethnically diverse national universities in the country.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: It has multiple study abroad options along with extensive co-op, internship, and service opportunities.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Newark College of Engineering, which was established in 1919, is one of the oldest and largest professional engineering schools in the United States. It offers 13 undergraduate degree programs, 16 master's and 10 doctoral degree programs. Undergraduate enrollment is more than 2,500, and more than 1,100 are enrolled in graduate study. The 150-member faculty includes engineers and scholars who are widely recognized in their fields. An estimated one in four professional engineers in the State of New Jersey are NCE alumni. The NCE has more 40,000 living alumni.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The College of Science and Liberal Arts was formed in 1982. It was originally known as the Third College having been preceded by Newark College of Engineering and the New Jersey School of Architecture. In 1986 its name was changed to the College of Science and Liberal Arts as a result of a more sharply defined mission and direction. Growing steadily ever since, CSLA has spawned two of NJIT's colleges: the Albert Dorman Honors College, which evolved out of the Honors Program that was founded in CSLA in 1985, and the College of Computing Sciences, which developed out of CSLA's Computer and Information Science Department.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The College of Architecture and Design houses the School of Architecture (SoA) and the School of Art and Design. The college offers undergraduate degrees in architecture, digital design, industrial design, and interior design as well as graduate degrees in architecture, infrastructure planning, and urban systems. HCAD is the only college at NJIT to have its own designated library. The library contains materials related to the majors offered in HCAD in the form of periodicals, reference materials, rare books, visual materials (i.e. architectural drawings, prints, postcards, maps, etc.), digital databases, and a materials library.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The Computer Science department, part of the Ying Wu College of Computing Sciences, is the largest at NJIT, comprising more than one fifth of the student population. It is also the largest computer science department among all research universities in the New York metropolitan area.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The department offers a full range of degree programs in computer science (BA/BS, MS and PhD), in addition to emerging interdisciplinary programs: Telecommunication (MS), Bioinformatics (BS/MS), and Computing and Business (BS/MS). The Bioinformatics degree is also available in a pre-med option.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: In December 2019, the school opened a satellite site in Jersey City that focuses on financial technology training for those working in the financial industry on Wall Street and in Jersey City.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The Martin Tuchman School of Management was established in 1988 and was accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business in 1997. It offers programs in finance, accounting, marketing, management information systems, international business, technological entrepreneurship, and corporate communications in conjunction with Rutgers University.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Degrees available include a Bachelor of Science program (four years, 124 credits), a Master of Science in management program (30 credits), and two Master of Business Administration (MBA) programs: One regular (48 credits; two years for full-time students, three or four years for part-time students) and the other an accelerated 18-month Executive MBA program for managers and professionals. MTSM also offers a Ph.D. degree in Business Data Science. Research areas include fintech, innovation management, and the advancement of technologies in the business domain including deep learning and distributed ledgers.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: MTSM hosts entrepreneurship programs for the regional community, including the NSF I-Corps, the New Venture Assistance Program, and the Greater Newark–Jersey City Regional Business Model Competition.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: NJIT's R&D expenditures were $142 million in 2017 and $162 million in 2018. Areas of focus include applied mathematics, materials science, biomedical engineering, cybersecurity, and solar-terrestrial physics – of which the Center for Solar-Terrestrial Research is a world leader. A key agent in regional economic development, NJIT hosts VentureLink, formally the Enterprise Development Center (EDC), an on-campus business incubator that houses over 90 start-ups, and the New Jersey Innovation Institute (NJII) which offers R&D services to business.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The university has performed research in nanotechnology, solar-terrestrial physics, polymer science, and the development of a smart gun technology. The university research centers include the National Center for Transportation and Industrial Productivity and SmartCampus. The university hosts the Metro New York FIRST Robotics office. The university also hosts the Center for Solar-Terrestrial Research which owns and operates the Big Bear Solar Observatory, the world's largest solar observatory, located in Big Bear Lake, California, and operates the Owens Valley Solar Array, near Bishop, California.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: In the past, NJIT was home to the Computerized Conferencing and Communications Center (CCCC), a research center that specialized in computer-mediated communication. The systems that resulted from this research are the Electronic Information Exchange System, as well as the continuations: The Electronic Information Exchange System 2 (EIES2), and the Tailorable Electronic Information Exchange System (TEIES). One of the foremost developments of EIES was that of the "Virtual Classroom", a term coined by Dr. Starr Roxanne Hiltz. This was the first e-learning platform in the world, and was unique in that it evolved onto an existing communications system, rather than having a system created specifically for it. Their missions completed, the CCCC and EIES were terminated in the mid-90s.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The university currently operates a Class-10 cleanroom and a Class-1000 cleanroom on campus for academic and research purposes including counter-bioterrorism research.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The university also maintains an advanced 67-node supercomputer cluster in its Mathematics Department for research purposes.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: NJIT conducts cybersecurity research in a number of areas including cross-domain information sharing, data security and privacy, data mining for malware detection, geospatial information security, secure social networks, and secure cloud computing. The university is designated a National Center of Academic Excellence (CAE) in Cyber Defense Education through the 2020 academic year by the National Security Agency and Department of Homeland Security.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: NJIT's Main Library, The Robert W. Van Houten Library, is located in the Central Avenue Building, a facility for quiet and group study, researching, and browsing print and online sources. Since 1997 the Van Houten Information Commons has housed 120 computer workstations.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: The Barbara and Leonard Littman Library for Architecture and Design is located in Weston Hall. It houses a core collection that includes print and electronic books, journals, maps, drawings, models, e-images, materials samples, and over 70,000 slides.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Included among NJIT's information resources are the university's historical archive including items developed and manufactured by Edward Weston, a scientist, prolific inventor, and a founding member of the board of trustees of the university. Dr. Weston's collection of artifacts and rare books is housed in the Van Houten Library and is available to scholars interested in the history of science and technology.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: About 80% of NJIT students commute to campus. The Residence Life (on-campus) community currently includes a little over 2,500 students.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: There are six residence halls on the NJIT campus. Redwood Hall, constructed in 1978, was the first, followed by Cypress, Oak, and Laurel (constructed in 1997 and extended in 1999). Cypress and Redwood are primarily used for freshman students, while Laurel and Oak house upperclassmen. The fifth, Warren Street Village, which opened in the fall of 2013, provides housing for Dorman Honors College students and several Greek houses which together provide space for about 600 students. The Warren Street Village also houses the Albert Dorman Honors College itself. A sixth dorm hall, Maple Hall, which accommodates 500 students opened in the Fall of 2022.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: A new almost-on-campus resident hall known as University Centre (run by American Campus Communities) was completed in 2007. Located near NJIT's Guttenberg Information Technologies Center (GITC) building, it houses students from NJIT, Rutgers–Newark, Rutgers Medical School and Seton Hall University. Many students from local institutions find housing in nearby neighborhoods and towns including Harrison, Kearny, Fairmount and East Orange.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: "The Vector" is an independent weekly student newspaper published by the students of NJIT, originally established in 1924. It has both on-line and print versions. The tabloid print edition has an estimated circulation of 3,000 from on-campus distribution and a readership of approximately 9,000.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: "The Vector" won the Honor Rating of First Class from the Associated Collegiate Press in 1989–1990. The Vector is a current member of the Associated Collegiate Press. "The Vector" won two awards in the New Jersey Press Foundation's 2019-2020 awards, scoring a second place win for Arts & Entertainment writing and third place for General Excellence.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: NJIT sponsors 20 varsity sports teams including 19 NCAA-Division I teams and 1 ACHA Division 2 team. It also sponsors 6 club-level sports. Its teams are called the Highlanders. The school colors are red and white with blue accent. NJIT's teams compete at the NCAA Division I level primarily as members of the America East Conference (AEC). Several teams have affiliations outside of AEC as follows: Woman's and Men's tennis compete in the Southland Conference (SLC), Men's fencing team is a member of the Mid-Atlantic Collegiate Fencing Association (MACFA). As of 2016, the women's fencing team is independent. Men's volleyball competes in the Eastern Intercollegiate Volleyball Association (EIVA).


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: On 6 December 2014 NJIT's basketball team, unranked and independent at the time, made headlines in national sports reports when they defeated the nationally ranked (#17) Michigan Wolverines.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: In recent years NJIT has extensively added to and upgraded its sports and recreation facilities. In 2017 it opened the Wellness and Events Center (referred to as "the WEC," pronounced "weck"), a major facility that includes a 3500-seat Basketball/Volleyball arena which can be converted into an event space capable of accommodating 4,000 attendees. In 2019 a new Soccer/Lacrosse field was opened. The WEC replaced the Estelle & Zoom Fleisher Athletic Center.


title: New Jersey Institute of Technology

text: Since its founding in 1881, NJIT has issued degrees to more than 77,000 graduates. NJIT alumni have gone on to pursue distinguished careers in many sectors.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: George Herbert Mead (February 27, 1863 – April 26, 1931) was an American philosopher, sociologist, and psychologist, primarily affiliated with the University of Chicago, where he was one of several distinguished pragmatists. He is regarded as one of the founders of symbolic interactionism and of what has come to be referred to as the Chicago sociological tradition.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: George Herbert Mead was born February 27, 1863, in South Hadley, Massachusetts. He was raised in a Protestant, middle-class family comprising his father, Hiram Mead, his mother, Elizabeth Storrs Mead (née Billings), and his sister Alice. His father was a former Congregationalist pastor from a lineage of farmers and clergymen and who later held the chair in Sacred Rhetoric and Pastoral Theology at Oberlin College's theological seminary. Elizabeth taught for two years at Oberlin College and subsequently, from 1890 to 1900, serving as president of Mount Holyoke College in South Hadley, Massachusetts.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: In 1879, George Mead enrolled at the Oberlin Academy at Oberlin College and then the college itself, graduating in 1883 with a Bachelor of Arts. After graduation, Mead taught grade school for about four months. For the following three years, he worked as a surveyor for the Wisconsin Central Railroad Company.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: In autumn 1887, Mead enrolled at Harvard University, where his main interests were philosophy and psychology. At Harvard, Mead studied with Josiah Royce, a major influence upon his thought, and William James, whose children he tutored. In 1888, Mead left Harvard after receiving only a B.A. and moved to Leipzig, Germany to study with psychologist Wilhelm Wundt, from whom he learned the concept of "the gesture," a concept central to his later work.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: In 1891, Mead married Helen Kingsbury Castle (1860–1929), the sister of Henry Northrup Castle (1862–1895), a friend he met at Oberlin.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Despite never finishing his dissertation, Mead was able to obtain a post at the University of Michigan in 1891. There, Mead met Charles H. Cooley and John Dewey, both of whom would influence him greatly. In 1894, Mead moved, along with Dewey, to the University of Chicago, where he taught until his death. Dewey's influence led Mead into educational theory, but his thinking soon diverged from that of Dewey, and developed into his famous psychological theories of mind, self and society.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: No detached philosopher, he was active in Chicago's social and political affairs; among his many activities include his work for the City Club of Chicago. Mead believed that science could be used to deal with social problems and played a key role in conducting research at the settlement house in Chicago. He also worked as treasurer for Chicago's Hull House.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Much of Mead's work focused on the development of the self and the objectivity of the world within the social realm: he insisted that "the individual mind can exist only in relation to other minds with shared meanings." The two most important roots of Mead's work, and of symbolic interactionism in general, are the philosophy of "pragmatism" and "social" "behaviorism".


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Social behaviorism (as opposed to psychological behaviorism) refers to Mead's concern of the stimuli of gestures and social objects with rich meanings, rather than bare physical objects which psychological behaviourists considered stimuli.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Pragmatism is a wide-ranging philosophical position from which several aspects of Mead's influences can be identified into four main tenets:


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Thus, to Mead and symbolic interactionists, consciousness is not separated from action and interaction, but is an integral part of both. Symbolic interactionism as a pragmatic philosophy was an antecedent to the philosophy of "transactionalism". Mead's theories in part, based on pragmatism and behaviorism, were transmitted to many graduate students at the University of Chicago who then went on to establish symbolic interactionism.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Mead was a very important figure in 20th-century social philosophy. One of his most influential ideas was the emergence of mind and self from the communication process between organisms, discussed in "Mind, Self and Society" (1934)"," also known as "social behaviorism". This concept of how the mind and self emerge from the social process of communication by signs founded the symbolic interactionist school of sociology.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Rooted intellectually in Hegelian dialectics and process philosophy, Mead, like John Dewey, developed a more materialist process philosophy that was based upon human action and specifically communicative action. Human activity is, in a pragmatic sense, the criterion of truth, and through human activity meaning is made. Joint activity, including communicative activity, is the means through which our sense of self is constituted. The essence of Mead's social behaviorism is that mind is not a substance located in some transcendent realm, nor is it merely a series of events that takes place within the human physiological structure. This approach opposed the traditional view of the mind as separate from the body. The emergence of mind is contingent upon interaction between the human organism and its social environment; it is through participation in the social act of communication that individuals realize their potential for significantly symbolic behavior, that is, thought. Mind, in Mead's terms, is the individualized focus of the communication process. It is linguistic behavior on the part of the individual. There is, then, no "mind or thought without language;" and language (the content of mind) "is only a development and product of social interaction." Thus, mind is not reducible to the neurophysiology of the organic individual, but is emergent in "the dynamic, ongoing social process" that constitutes human experience.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: For Mead, mind arises out of the social act of communication. Mead's concept of the social act is relevant, not only to his theory of mind, but to all facets of his social philosophy. His theory of "mind, self, and society" is, in effect, a philosophy of the act from the standpoint of a social process involving the interaction of many individuals, just as his theory of knowledge and value is a philosophy of the act from the standpoint of the experiencing individual in interaction with an environment. Action is very important to his social theory and, according to Mead, actions also occur within a communicative process.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: The initial phase of an act constitutes a gesture. A "gesture" is a preparatory movement that enables other individuals to become aware of the intentions of the given organism. The rudimentary situation is a conversation of gestures, in which a gesture on the part of the first individual evokes a preparatory movement on the part of the second, and the gesture of the second organism in turn calls out a response in the first person. On this level no communication occurs. Neither organism is aware of the effect of its own gestures upon the other; the gestures are nonsignificant. For communication to take place, each organism must have knowledge of how the other individual will respond to his own ongoing act. Here the gestures are significant symbols. A "significant symbol" is a kind of gesture that only humans can make. Gestures become significant symbols when they arouse in the individual who is making them the same kind of response they are supposed to elicit from those to whom the gestures are addressed. Only when we have significant symbols can we truly have communication. Mead grounded human perception in an ""action-nexus"". We perceive the world in terms of the "means of living." To perceive food, is to perceive eating. To perceive a house, is to perceive shelter. That is to say, perception is in terms of action. Mead's theory of perception is similar to that of J. J. Gibson.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Mead argued in tune with Durkheim that the individual is a product of an ongoing, pre-existing society, or more specifically, social interaction that is a consequence of a sui generis society. The "self" arises when the individual becomes an object to themselves. Mead argued that we are objects first to other people, and secondarily we become objects to ourselves by taking the perspective of other people. Language enables us to talk about ourselves in the same way as we talk about other people, and thus through language we become other to ourselves. In joint activity, which Mead called "social acts", humans learn to see themselves from the standpoint of their co-actors. A central mechanism within the social act, which enables perspective taking, is position exchange. People within a social act often alternate social positions (e.g., giving/receiving, asking/helping, winning/losing, hiding/seeking, talking/listening). In children's games there is repeated position exchange, for example in hide-and-seek, and Mead argued that this is one of the main ways that perspective taking develops.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: However, for Mead, unlike Dewey and J. J. Gibson, the key is not simply human action, but rather social action. In humans the "manipulatory phase of the act" is socially mediated, that is to say, in acting towards objects humans simultaneously take the perspectives of others towards that object. This is what Mead means by "the social act" as opposed to simply "the act" (the latter being a Deweyan concept). Non-human animals also manipulate objects, but that is a non-social manipulation, they do not take the perspective of other organisms toward the object. Humans on the other hand, take the perspective of other actors towards objects, and this is what enables complex human society and subtle social coordination. In the social act of economic exchange, for example, both buyer and seller must take each other's perspectives towards the object being exchanged. The seller must recognize the value for the buyer, while the buyer must recognize the desirability of money for the seller. Only with this mutual perspective taking can the economic exchange occur. (Mead was influenced on this point by Adam Smith.)


title: George Herbert Mead

text: A final piece of Mead's social theory is the mind as the individual importation of the social process. Mead states that "the self is a social process," meaning that there are series of actions that go on in the mind to help formulate one's complete self. As previously discussed, Mead presented the self and the mind in terms of a social process. As "gestures" are taken in by the individual organism, the individual organism also takes in the collective attitudes of others, in the form of gestures, and reacts accordingly with other organized attitudes. This process is characterized by Mead as the "I" and the "Me". The 'Me' is the social self and the 'I' is the response to the 'Me'. In other words, the 'I' is the response of an individual to the attitudes of others, while the 'Me' is the organized set of attitudes of others which an individual assumes.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Mead develops William James' distinction between the 'I' and the 'Me'. The 'Me' is the accumulated understanding of "the generalized other" i.e. how one thinks one's group perceives oneself etc. The 'I' is the individual's impulses. The 'I' is "self as subject"; the 'Me' is "self as object". The 'I' is the knower, the 'Me' is the known. The mind, or stream of thought, is the self-reflective movements of the interaction between the "I" and the 'Me'. There is neither "I" nor 'Me' in the conversation of gestures; the whole act is not yet carried out, but the preparation takes place in this field of gesture. These dynamics go beyond selfhood in a narrow sense, and form the basis of a theory of human cognition. For Mead the thinking process is the internalized dialogue between the 'I' and the 'Me'. Mead rooted the self's "perception and meaning" deeply and sociologically in "a common praxis of subjects," found specifically in social encounters.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Understood as a combination of the 'I' and the 'Me', Mead's self proves to be noticeably entwined within a sociological existence. For Mead, existence in community comes before individual consciousness. First one must participate in the different social positions within society and only subsequently can one use that experience to take the perspective of others and thus become "'conscious"'.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Mead was a major American philosopher by virtue of being, along with John Dewey, Charles Peirce and William James, one of the founders of pragmatism. He also made significant contributions to the philosophies of nature, science, and history, to philosophical anthropology, and to process philosophy. Dewey and Alfred North Whitehead considered Mead a thinker of the first rank. He is a classic example of a social theorist whose work does not fit easily within conventional disciplinary boundaries.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: As far as his work on the philosophy of science, Mead sought to find the psychological origin of science in the efforts of individuals to attain power over their environment. The notion of a physical object arises out of manipulatory experience. There is a social relation to inanimate objects, for the organism takes the role of things that it manipulates directly, or that it manipulates indirectly in perception. For example, in taking (introjecting or imitating) the resistant role of a solid object, an individual obtains cognition of what is "inside" nonliving things. Historically, the concept of the physical object arose from an animistic conception of the universe.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Contact experience includes experiences of position, balance, and support, and these are used by the organism when it creates its conceptions of the physical world. Our scientific concepts of space, time, and mass are abstracted from manipulatory experience. Such concepts as that of the electron are also derived from manipulation. In developing a science we construct hypothetical objects in order to assist ourselves in controlling nature. The conception of the present as a distinct unit of experience, rather than as a process of becoming and disappearing, is a scientific fiction devised to facilitate exact measurement. In the scientific worldview immediate experience is replaced by theoretical constructs. The ultimate in experience, however, is the manipulation and contact at the completion of an act.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Mead theorized that human beings begin their understanding of the social world through "play" and "game". "Play" comes first in the child's development. The child takes different roles he/she observes in "adult" society, and plays them out to gain an understanding of the different social roles. For instance, he first plays the role of policeman and then the role of thief while playing "Cops and Robbers," and plays the role of doctor and patient when playing "Doctor." As a result of such play, the child learns to become both subject and object and begins to become able to build a self. However, it is a limited self because the child can only take the role of distinct and separate others, they still lack a more general and organized sense of themselves.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: In the next stage, the "game" stage, it is required that a person develop a full sense of self. Whereas in the play stage the child takes on the role of distinct others, in the game stage the child must take the role of everyone else involved in the game. Furthermore, these roles must have a definite relationship to one another. To illustrate the game stage, Mead gives his famous example of a baseball game:


title: George Herbert Mead

text: But in a game where a number of individuals are involved, then the child taking one role must be ready to take the role of everyone else. If he gets in a ball nine he must have the responses of each position involved in his own position. He must know what everyone else is going to do in order to carry out his own play. He has to take all of these roles. They do not all have to be present in consciousness at the same time, but at some moments he has to have three or four individuals present in his own attitude, such as the one who is going to throw the ball, the one who is going to catch it and so on. These responses must be, in some degree, present in his own make-up. In the game, then, there is a set of responses of such others so organized that the attitude of one calls out the appropriate attitudes of the other.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: In the game stage, organization begins and definite personalities start to emerge. Children begin to become able to function in organized groups and most importantly, to determine what they will do within a specific group. Mead calls this the child's first encounter with "the generalized other," which is one of the main concepts Mead proposes for understanding the emergence of the (social) self in human beings. "The generalized other" can be thought of as understanding the given activity and the actors' place within the activity from the perspective of all the others engaged in the activity. Through understanding "the generalized other" the individual understands what kind of behavior is expected, appropriate and so on, in different social settings.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: Some may find that social acts (e.g. games and routine forms of social interaction) enable perspective taking through 'position exchange'. Assuming that games and routine social acts have differentiated social positions, and that these positions create our cognitive perspectives, then it might be that by moving between roles in a game (e.g. between hiding and seeking or buying and selling) we come to learn about the perspective of the other. This new interpretation of Mead's account of taking the perspective of the other has experimental support. Other recent publications argue that Mead's account of the development of perspective-taking is not only relevant with respect to human ontogeny but also to the evolution of human sociality.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: In a career spanning more than 40 years, Mead wrote almost constantly and published numerous articles and book reviews in both philosophy and psychology. However, he did not publish any books. Following his death, several of his students put together and edited four volumes from records of Mead's social psychology course at the University of Chicago, his lecture notes (Mead's Carus Lectures, 1930, edited by Charles W. Morris), and his numerous unpublished papers.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: In his lifetime, Mead published around 100 scholarly articles, reviews, and incidental pieces. Given their diverse nature, access to these writings is difficult. The first editorial efforts to change this situation date from the 1960s. In 1964, Andrew J. Reck collected twenty-five of Mead's published articles in "Selected Writings: George Herbert Mead". Four years later, John W. Petras published "George Herbert Mead: Essays on his Social Psychology", a collection of fifteen articles that included previously unpublished manuscripts.


title: George Herbert Mead

text: More recently, Mary Jo Deegan (2001) published "Essays in Social Psychology", a book project originally abandoned by Mead in the early 1910s. In 2010, Filipe Carreira da Silva edited the "G.H. Mead. A Reader", a comprehensive collection including thirty of Mead's most important articles, ten of which previously unpublished. Likewise, the Mead Project at Brock University in Toronto intends to publish all of Mead's 80-odd remaining unpublished manuscripts.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: Johnson Family Vacation is a 2004 American road comedy film directed by Christopher Erskin. It stars Cedric the Entertainer, Vanessa Williams, Bow Wow, Gabby Soleil, Shannon Elizabeth, Solange Knowles, and Steve Harvey. The story revolves around the Johnson family going on a road trip to attend a family reunion in Missouri and the numerous hijinks they occur along the way. The film is director Erskin's first and only feature film directorial project to date. It also marks the feature film debut of Jason Momoa. A sequel, titled "Johnson Family Celeberation", is in development.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: Nate Johnson, and his son, DJ, arrive at an auto body shop in Los Angeles to pick up his Lincoln Navigator, and much to Nate's chagrin, there has been a mix up, and his truck has gone from needing a simple 8-track to being pimped out with hydraulics and spinning rims. He is told that it will take 3 days to remove all the bells and whistles off of his truck. However, Nate has to take his truck as is because he and his family are due in Missouri for a family reunion.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: Once Nate and DJ arrive home, Nate gets a phone call from his mother, Glorietta, who disapproves of his marriage to his wife, Dorothy, and the phone call is taken over by Nate's older brother, Mack, who always tries to one up Nate by appealing to their mother's material needs. When it is time for Nate and DJ to leave, it is revealed that Nate is separated from his wife, Dorothy, and she lives in a different house down the street, as well as their two daughters, Nikki and Destiny. Nate also has an estranged relationship with their daughter.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: While Nate and DJ wait for the girls to come out, Nikki is locked in her room chatting on her cellphone, while her little sister, Destiny is trying to get in so she can get her stuff for her invisible dog, Sir Barks-a Lot. Nikki and Dorothy disagree about Nikki's cell phone usage and outfit choices, and Dorothy goes outside to meet Nate and DJ. When Nate sees that Dorothy is bringing her schoolwork on the road trip with her, his disapproval of Dorothy's studying is shown. Destiny's birthday is the day after they leave, and after Nate tells Destiny what he will do for her birthday, a man named Stan Turner shows up calling for Dorothy. He pulls up in a drop top car playing classical music, and he tells Dorothy that he reserved a table for them and brought her freshly picked flowers. Nate steps in, explains that he is Dorothy's husband, and threatens and scares Stan off. The family gets in the car, and they start off on their road trip. Nate reaches an Indian casino, where he thought it was an Indian reservation and also teach her daughter Nikki about the Indians. Nikki flirts with the Indian tour guide, which Nate doesn't like. Nate embarrasses her and she tells him off. As a consequence, Nate punishes her and takes away her cell phone.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: The road trip seems to be going smoothly until they reach a long stretch of highway where a semi truck is trying to run them off the road. The truck slams into the back of the family's SUV and all of their suitcases tumble out. Nate is able to spin his vehicle out of the truck's way, and everyone, including Nate, is visibly shaken up. Night time comes, and they stop at a hotel, where Dorothy pretends she is interested in rekindling her and Nate's estranged romance, but really she just wanted to get out of the truck and relax.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: Once they leave the hotel and resume their trip, they run into a hitchhiker, Chrishelle, and when Dorothy shakes her head at Nate, he quotes to her “what would Jesus do” to justify him stopping for the attractive young woman. When Chrishelle gets into the truck, she steals cereal from Destiny, and drops a reefer pipe in the back seat. The family stops at Bun World for lunch, and Destiny's birthday celebration, and when Nate asks Chrishelle to bless the food, she begins to roll her eyes and hiss strange phrases, which frightens the family. They all refuse to sit near her once they get back in the car. That evening, they all go to a hotel to rest, and Nate is woken up by a small alligator in his and Dorothy's bed. As he and DJ fight the alligator, Chrishelle comes in, and it is revealed that the alligator, named Twinkie, is hers. They quickly ditch Chrishelle and get back on the road.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: While in the car, all the girls are sleeping, and DJ begs his father to pull over because he has to relieve himself due to drinking so many sodas. He eventually relieves himself in a to-go soda cup, and when Nate gets thirsty, he goes for the cup, but smells it, tosses it out of the window, and accidentally hitting a cop on a motorcycle. When DJ alerts Nate to what he's done, Nate turns around, not paying attention to the road, and accidentally drives through a construction site, hitting a cement truck, causing wet cement to pour all over the grill and hood of his SUV. The cop arrests all of them, due to Nate littering, and because the cop finds one of Chrishelle's missing reefer pipes in the back seat. While they are locked up, Dorothy assists the officer in writing off his taxes, and in exchange for Dorothy's help, the officer lets the family go.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: Back on the road, Nate runs out of gas, and he goes to find a phone to call his Uncle Earl. Earl eventually shows up, and after he flirts with Dorothy, he starts working on the SUV, using hair straighteners and other inappropriate tools to fix the problem, although Dorothy tells him they just need gas. Earl hauls the truck onto the back of his, and he carries the family the rest of the way to the family reunion. Once they show up to the reunion, Nate greets his brother, then his mother, who openly criticizes his and Dorothy's marriage, and after reconsidering telling Gloriana the truth about their marriage, Dorothy tells her she and Nate will renew their wedding vows and passionately kisses Nate in front of his mother. Mack and Nate gather with their relatives to pray for the food, but it turns into a competition, and their relatives walk away and begin eating without them. As the day goes on, the two families compete for the “Family of the Year” trophy, which Mack has never lost, and the ultimate showdown comes from the families doing separate musical performances on stage. Nate and his family go around stealing items from relatives for their on-stage outfits, and their performance, which includes groovy dance moves and slick rapping from DJ, wins them the trophy. Mack breaks down, and Nate gives him the trophy, saying that his family was the only trophy he needed. As the family celebrates, the same semi truck that ran Nate off the highway shows up, barreling through the park, tearing decorations down and almost hitting Nate's relatives. The driver turns out to be Stan, still stewing over the fact that Dorothy isn't as interested in him as he assumed, and he reveals in front of their whole family that Nate and Dorothy live in separate houses. Nate confesses that he hasn't been a very supportive husband, and after apologizing to Dorothy, Glorietta tells Nate it's about time Nate realized what a good wife he had. Stan still won't let up, and after Nate threatens to fight Stan, Glorietta says no, then turns around and punches Stan herself. Nate and his family leave, with Nate telling everyone that his wife has some studying to do.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: Nate, Dorothy, and the kids show up at Uncle Earl's auto shop, and when Uncle Earl reveals their truck, it looks as good as new. Earl isn't a very professional mechanic, and he says he used fluoride toothpaste and a wire coat hanger to make sure Nate's truck was in good shape for driving. Nate and his family get into their truck, and once he and Dorothy share a reconciling kiss, they head home with no issues. They get to Dorothy's house, and when Nate hits the lock button on the car remote, the truck completely falls apart in the driveway. This gets Nate upset because Uncle Earl did not fix it right, but Dorothy tells him not to worry about it because they have other things to do, hinting that they are going to rekindle their romance. Nate smiles and runs into the house after Dorothy.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: "Johnson Family Vacation" was heavily panned by critics. It received a approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on reviews, with an average score of . The critical consensus says: "The poorly crafted "Johnson Family Vacation" squanders its talented cast in a bland family road comedy that draws unfavorable comparisons to Chevy Chase's Vacation movies." The film has a 29 out of 100 rating on Metacritic based on 24 critics, indicating "generally unfavorable reviews". The critics gave it a "C−" rating at Yahoo! Movies.


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: Keith Phipps of "The A.V. Club" criticized the film for being "stitched together with regional stereotypes and gags lifted from other movies". "The Austin Chronicle"s Marjorie Baumgarten found the humor "half-baked – all setups with few satisfactory payoffs" and the filmmakers' talents lacking in making new and creative comedy set pieces, concluding that ""Johnson Family Vacation" is as arduous to watch as your neighbor's poorly focused vacation slides." Roger Ebert felt that Cedric's talents were watered down by the film's "paint-by-numbers" script and Erskin's direction having "style without zing", calling it "a routine cross-country comedy that feels exactly like a series of adventures recycled out of every other cross-country comedy." Andy Patrizio of "IGN" commended Cedric's comedic chemistry alongside Harvey and Williams but felt he didn't work with Shannon's miscast role and the film overall getting bogged down by "a few cases of bathroom humor," concluding that, "[W]hile in the spirit of "Vacation", it's not quite on its level. But that shouldn't stop anyone from checking it out on a slow night. I wouldn't make it a top priority rental, but don't dismiss it, either. "


title: Johnson Family Vacation

text: On October 18, 2019, "The Hollywood Reporter" announced that a sequel entitled "Johnson Family Celebration" is in production. Cedric the Entertainer will return to star and produce; DeVon Franklin will co-produce while Michael Elliot ("Like Mike", "Brown Sugar", "Just Wright") will write the screenplay.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: Stephen Frand Cohen (November 25, 1938September 18, 2020) was an American scholar of Russian studies. His academic work concentrated on modern Russian history since the Bolshevik Revolution and Russia's relationship with the United States.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: Cohen was a contributing editor to "The Nation" magazine, published and partially owned by his wife Katrina vanden Heuvel. Cohen was a founding director of the 2015 reestablished "American Committee for East–West Accord".


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: Cohen was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, and later grew up in Owensboro, Kentucky, the son of Ruth (Frand) and Marvin Cohen, who owned a jewelry store and a golf course in Hollywood, Florida. His grandfather emigrated to the United States from Lithuania (then part of the Russian Empire). Cohen graduated from the Pine Crest School in Florida. He attended Indiana University Bloomington, where he earned a B.S. in economics and public policy in 1960 and an M.A. in government and Russian studies in 1962.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: While on an undergraduate study abroad program in England, he took a four-week trip to the Soviet Union, where he became interested in its history and politics.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: After completing his Ph.D. in government and Russian studies at Columbia University in 1968, he became a professor of politics at Princeton University later that year and remained on its faculty until 1998, when he became Professor of Politics, Emeritus. He then taught at New York University until his retirement in 2011, when he became Professor Emeritus of Russian and Slavic Studies.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In his first book, "Bukharin and the Bolshevik Revolution," a biography of Nikolai Bukharin, a leading Bolshevik official and editor of "Pravda", the official newspaper of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, Cohen argued that Communism in the Soviet Union could have easily taken a different direction, not leading to Joseph Stalin's dictatorship and purges. Cohen wrote that it was completely possible for Bukharin to have succeeded Lenin and that the Soviet Union under Bukharin would have had greater openness, economic flexibility, and democracy. The book was widely praised, with economic historian Alec Nove describing it as "the best book on the USSR to be published for many years". Richard Lowenthal in a 1985 review of Cohen's "Rethinking the Soviet Experience: Politics and History since 1917" said that many scholars of history consider "such an "iffy" assumption as illegitimate".


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In his book "War with Russia?" (2019), Cohen wrote that at "least one U.S.–Soviet summit seems to have been sabotaged. The third Eisenhower–Khrushchev meeting, scheduled for Paris in 1960, was aborted when the Soviets shot down a US U-2 spy plane sent by what he refers to as the US deep state. During the Cold War, Cohen was critical of both Western hawks and also the Soviet government, which banned him from visiting the country from 1982 to 1985. Cohen said in early 1985 that the reasons had not been revealed to him.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: Cohen gave his support to "perestroika", the reforms initiated by Mikhail Gorbachev and, with his wife, Katrina vanden Heuvel, co-authored "Voices of Glasnost: Interviews With Gorbachev’s Reformers" (1989). In a March 1991 op-ed for "The New York Times", he wrote that Gorbachev's government "has undertaken the most ambitious changes in modern history. Their goal is to 'dismantle' the state controls Stalin imposed and to achieve an 'emancipation of society' through privatization, democratization, and federalization of the 15 republics." He said that "perestroika" was then in crisis, and stated: "Russia has come closer to democracy than ever before. Though democratization remains exceedingly fragile, how can this be dismissed as a failure?"


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: Cohen wrote that the US continued the Cold War after the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. He said that President Bill Clinton backtracked on the promise of his predecessor not to extend NATO eastward and the flawed interpretation of an "American victory" and a "Russian defeat", which he believed in 2006 led US leaders to believe that Russia would submit completely to US foreign policy.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: Cohen was a friend of former Soviet President Mikhail Gorbachev, who invited him to attend the 1989 May Day parade in Red Square, and advised former U.S. President George H. W. Bush in the late 1980s. Cohen helped Nikolai Bukharin's widow, Anna Larina, to rehabilitate her name during the Soviet era.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: According to Eugene Huskey, William R. Kenan chair at Stetson University, in the 1970s Cohen viewed the Soviet Union as "simply inefficient and corrupt" rather than a totalitarian state.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In an article for "The Nation", published in the March 3, 2014 issue, Cohen wrote that "media malpractice" had resulted in the "relentless demonization of Putin" who was not an "autocrat". He wrote that the American media's coverage of Russia was "less objective, less balanced, more conformist and scarcely less ideological" than it had been during the Cold War. In a follow up interview with "Newsweek" magazine, Cohen said Putin was the "best potential partner we had anywhere in the world to pursue our national security". In a CNN interview around March 2014, he said Putin was not "anti-American".


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In a May 2014 "Nation" column coauthored with his wife, Cohen wrote that President Barack Obama had unilaterally declared a new Cold War against Russia and that those inside the Beltway were complicit in it by their silence. Julia Ioffe in "The New Republic" saw this as Cohen disagreeing with a consensus that did not exist. Cohen's views on US-Russian relations were criticized by Ioffe and others as being pro-Putin. Writing in "The American Conservative", James W. Carden, a former advisor to the U.S.-Russia Bilateral Presidential Commission and soon-to-be executive editor for the American Committee for East-West Accord, described Ioffe's article as a "scurrilous — and frankly hysterical — ad hominem attack on his work and character". Carden agreed with Cohen's view that the US had failed to conduct a public debate prior to making a major shift in policy toward Russia to try to "isolate" and make it a "pariah state".


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: Cohen participated in a Munk Debate in Toronto, Ontario, Canada in April 2015, on the proposal "Be it resolved the West should engage not isolate Russia." With Vladimir Posner, he argued in favor of engagement, while Anne Applebaum and Garry Kasparov argued against. Cohen's side lost the debate, with 52% of the audience voting against the motion.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In a July 2015 interview, Cohen said:Even Henry Kissinger—I think it was in March 2014 in "The Washington Post"—wrote this line: 'The demonization of Putin is not a policy. It's an alibi for not having a policy.' And then I wrote in reply to that: That's right, but it’s much worse than that, because it's also that the demonization of Putin is an obstacle to thinking rationally, having a rational discourse or debate about American national security. And it’s not just this catastrophe in Ukraine and the new Cold War; it's from there to Syria to Afghanistan, to the proliferation of nuclear weapons, to fighting global terrorism. The demonization of Putin excludes a partner in the Kremlin that the U.S. needs, no matter who sits there.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In an interview with Tucker Carlson on May 17, 2017, Cohen said: "You and I have to ask a subversive question: are there really three branches of government, or is there a fourth branch of government — these intel services?" He stated that a military alliance that President Obama had tried to establish with Putin against terrorism was "sabotaged by the Department of Defense and its allies in the intelligence services". Each of Trump's efforts to "cooperate with Russia" was "thwarted [by] a new leak of a story".


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: According to Taras Kuzio, Cohen denies that there is a cult of Stalin in Russia. Kuzio also characterises Cohen as a "fan... of populist nationalist Trump".


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In 2014, Cohen said that the crisis in Ukraine came about as a result of US actions, started by Bill Clinton and completed by George W. Bush, to expand NATO's sphere of influence up to the borders of Russia. Cohen said the enlargement of NATO breached a promise not to do so that he said the US made to Gorbachev when Germany was reunited. In relation to Russia's annexation of Crimea, he said that "any Russian leader who has legitimacy at home would have had to do some version of what Putin is now doing. They'd push back". In early March 2014, Cohen said he did not know whether Russia had invaded Crimea and that, if the Russian troops that were present in Crimea had come from the naval base at Sevastopol, they had a right to be there.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In a June 30, 2014 article in "The Nation", Cohen said the US was complicit in creating the crisis in Ukraine due to its support for the overthrow of President Viktor Yanukovych. He criticized the US political-media establishment for being silent about "Kiev's atrocities" in the Donbass region which is heavily populated by Russian-speaking Ukrainians and ethnic Russians. He said there was considerable pressure from within Russian society for Putin to intervene militarily to protect Donbass and that Putin had exercised "remarkable restraint".


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In 2014, Cohen disputed evidence that Russia shot down Malaysia Airlines Flight 17, an event that killed all 298 passengers and crew. He said the Ukrainian government had possession of Russian Buk surface-to-air missiles, and suggested the country "was playing with its new toys and made a big mistake." Extensive analysis proved that the Buk missile launcher used to shoot down MH17 belonged to the Russian Army's 53rd Anti-Aircraft Missile Brigade and was in the hands of a pro-Russia separatist militia at the time of the shootdown.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In a 2014 article in "The Nation", Cohen wrote that "the US-picked prime minister, Arseniy Yatsenyuk, referred to resisters in the Southeast as 'subhumans'." Historian Timothy Snyder disagreed with Cohen's statement, writing that Yatsenyuk, in a message of condolence to families of killed Ukrainian soldiers, described the attackers as "inhuman". Snyder suggested that the origin of Cohen's statement was Russian media mistranslation of "neliudy" ("inhuman") as "nedocheloveki" ("subhuman").


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In a 2015 interview, Cohen stated that "this notion that this is all Putin’s aggression, or Russia’s aggression, is, if not 100-percent false, let us say, for the sake of being balanced and ecumenical, it's 50-percent false. And if Washington would admit that its narrative is 50-percent false, which means Russia's narrative is 50-percent correct, that's where negotiations begin and succeed."


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In 2017, Cohen said the events of 2014 in Ukraine had initiated a civil war in a country in which "one part tilts toward Russia and one part tilts toward the West".


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In 2020, Taras Kuzio criticized Cohen's approach to Ukraine in his 2019 book "War with Russia?". Kuzio notes that Cohen doesn't believe Ukraine is a "real entity" because "eastern Ukraine has a ‘shared civilization’ with Russia", and perpetuates a "mythical stereotype of Ukraine" as composed of two distinct peoples, and therefore the 2014 conflict as a civil war. Kuzio says that Cohen wrongly claims that "pro-Yanukovych" parties were banned in post-2014 Ukraine. Cohen says that Ukrainian volunteer battalions were dominated by extreme right ideologies and western Ukrainians but Kuzio cites research finding they were largely filled by Russian speakers and national minorities.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: His views on Ukraine were criticized and described as pro-Putin and pro-Kremlin. Cohen rejected such labels and has accused the US mainstream media of politicizing coverage about the Kremlin. According to "ThinkProgress", Cohen's writings for "The Nation" helped lead to "[s]taffers at "The Nation" [...] openly revolting against the magazine's pro-Russian tilt."


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: In 2015, a proposed deal with the Association for Slavic, East European, and Eurasian Studies (ASEEES) for a fellowship that would bear Cohen's name caused controversy and was initially revoked after objections from some ASEEES members. Following a special meeting in May 2015, the board of ASEEES explained that it voted in favor of accepting "the Cohen–Tucker Fellowship as named, should the gift be re-offered" and the establishment of the Cohen–Tucker fellowship programme was announced shortly afterwards.


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: Also in 2015, Cohen with Gilbert Doctorow and others reestablished the American Committee for East–West Accord, which describes itself as a pro détente advocacy group. From 2015, Cohen was a member of the board of directors of the revived ACEWA. He appeared regularly on RT (formerly known as Russia Today).


title: Stephen F. Cohen

text: Cohen had a son and a daughter from his first marriage in 1962 to opera singer Lynn Blair, whom he later divorced. In 1988, Cohen married political journalist and magazine publisher Katrina vanden Heuvel, daughter of Jean Stein and William vanden Heuvel; the couple had a daughter.


title: Grand Hotel (TV series)

text: Grand Hotel is an American mystery drama television series developed by Brian Tanen, based on the Spanish TV series "Gran Hotel" created by Ramón Campos and Gema R. Neira. The series premiered on June 17, 2019, on ABC, and stars Demián Bichir, Roselyn Sanchez, Denyse Tontz, Bryan Craig, Wendy Raquel Robinson, Lincoln Younes, Anne Winters, Feliz Ramirez, and Justina Adorno. "Grand Hotel" is executive produced by Ramón Campos, Teresa Fernández-Valdés, Bob Daily, Bill D'Elia, Eva Longoria Bastón, Ben Spector, and Tanen. Longoria Bastón also appears on the series in a recurring role. "Grand Hotel" was canceled in October 2019 after one season.


title: Grand Hotel (TV series)

text: Set at the Riviera Grand Hotel, the last family-owned hotel in Miami Beach, "Grand Hotel" follows owner Santiago Mendoza, his glamorous second wife, Gigi, and their adult children, as well as the Riviera's staff.


title: Grand Hotel (TV series)

text: On November 21, 2017, it was announced that ABC was developing an American adaptation of the Spanish TV series "Gran Hotel". The pilot script for "Grand Hotel" was set to be written by Brian Tanen who was also set as an executive producer alongside Eva Longoria, Ben Spector, Oliver Bachert, and Christian Gockel. Production companies involved with the pilot include ABC Studios and UnbeliEVAble Entertainment. On February 2, 2018, it was announced that ABC had given the production a pilot order. On February 23, 2018, it was reported that Ken Olin would direct the pilot episode.


title: Grand Hotel (TV series)

text: On May 11, 2018, it was announced that ABC had given the production a series order. Additionally, it was reported that Ramón Campos and Teresa Fernández-Valdés, producers of the original Spanish series, were joining the series as executive producers. A few days later, it was announced that the series would premiere in the spring of 2019 as a mid-season replacement. On December 12, 2018, it was announced that the series would be held back from mid-season and instead debut during the summer season with a premiere date of June 17, 2019. It was scheduled to air weekly on Mondays during the 10 PM time slot.


title: Grand Hotel (TV series)

text: In February 2018, it was announced that Roselyn Sanchez and Chris Warren had joined the pilot's main cast. In March 2018, it was reported that Demián Bichir, Wendy Raquel Robinson, Shalim Ortiz, Denyse Tontz, Anne Winters, Bryan Craig, Lincoln Younes, Feliz Ramirez, and Justina Adorno had been cast in the pilot's additional main roles. In September 2018, it was announced that Eva Longoria had been cast in a guest starring role and that Jencarlos Canela would appear in a recurring capacity. On November 15, 2018, it was reported that John Marshall Jones, Richard Burgi, and Adrian Pasdar had been cast in recurring roles. In December 2018, it was announced that Katey Sagal, Freddie Stroma, and Ken Kirby had joined the cast in a recurring capacity. Arielle Kebbel appeared in the series as Sky.


title: Grand Hotel (TV series)

text: Principal photography for the pilot took place over the course of three weeks in March 2018 at the Fontainebleau Hotel in Miami Beach, Florida. After the pilot was filmed in Miami Beach and ABC picked up a full order of episodes, the cast and crew headed to Los Angeles, California, where a mini-replica of the Fontainebleau was constructed. The exterior shots shown throughout the season are still the real Fontainebleau.


title: Grand Hotel (TV series)

text: On May 15, 2018, the first official trailer for the series was released. On December 20, 2018, a "first look" still image from the series was released.


title: Grand Hotel (TV series)

text: On review aggregation Rotten Tomatoes, the series holds an approval rating of 74% with an average rating of 7.01/10, based on 19 reviews. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Grand Hotel" is a vivacious summer soap, gathering a glamorous ensemble of Latinx talent and letting them bounce off each other in delightfully sordid turns of betrayal." On Metacritic, it has a weighted average score of 60 out of 100, based on 9 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Expiration date

text: An expiration date or expiry date is a previously determined date after which something should no longer be used, either by operation of law or by exceeding the anticipated shelf life for perishable goods. Expiration dates are applied to selected food products and to some other manufactured products like infant car seats where the age of the product may impact its safe use.


title: Expiration date

text: The term "Use by" is often applied to products such as milk and meat that are more likely to spoil and can become dangerous to those eating them. Such products should not be consumed past the date shown.


title: Expiration date

text: The term "Best before" is often applied to products that may deteriorate slightly in quality, but are unlikely to become dangerous as a result, such as dried foods. Such products can be eaten after their "Best before" date at the discretion of the consumer.


title: Expiration date

text: Storage and handling conditions will affect whether and when an item will spoil, so there is inherent variability in dating.


title: Expiration date

text: Arbitrary expiration dates are also commonly applied by companies to product coupons, promotional offers and credit cards. In these contexts, the expiration date is chosen for business reasons or to provide some security function rather than any product safety concern.


title: Expiration date

text: Generally, foods that have a "use by" date written on the packaging should not be eaten after the specified date. This term is generally applied to foods that may go bad due to physical instability, chemical spoilage, bacterial spoilage, pathogenic spoilage, or other factors that can make the food injurious to health. Milk, meat, fish and eggs are all subject to spoilage. Such foods should be thrown away if past their "use by" date or if showing signs of deterioration such as changes in smell or color. Fruits, vegetables, breads and other baked goods can also spoil, but may be less likely to become dangerous. It is important to follow storage and preparation instructions carefully for perishable foods. Some product may require refrigeration. Others may need to be cooked to particular temperatures.


title: Expiration date

text: Bathroom products and toiletries usually state a time in months from the date the product is opened, by which they should be used. This is often indicated by a graphic of an open tub, with the number of months written inside (e.g., "12M" means use the product within 12 months of opening). Similarly, some food products say "eat within X days of opening".


title: Expiration date

text: "Best before" or "best by" dates appear on a wide range of frozen, dried, tinned and other foods. These dates are advisory and refer to the quality of the product, in contrast with "use by" dates, which may indicate that the product may no longer be safe to consume after the specified date. Food kept after the "best before" date will not necessarily be harmful, but may begin to lose its optimum flavour and texture.


title: Expiration date

text: Eggs can be a special case, since they may contain salmonella which multiplies over time; they should therefore be eaten before the "best before" date. In Britain, this is 21 days from when they were laid. In the USA, this is a maximum of 45 days after the eggs are packed. Quality of the eggs will degrade over time, due to a variety of factors. As a result, some prefer to use fresher eggs for eating and eggs a few days old for cooking.


title: Expiration date

text: Sometimes the packaging process involves using pre-printed labels, making it impractical to write the "best before" date in a clearly visible location. In this case, wording like "best before see bottom" or "best before see lid" might be printed on the label and the date marked in a different location as indicated.


title: Expiration date

text: "Open dating" is the use of a date stamped on the package of a food product to help determine how long to display the product for sale. This benefits the consumer by ensuring that the product is of best quality when sold. An open date does not supersede a use-by date, if shown, which should still be followed.


title: Expiration date

text: As of 2020, the European Food Safety Authority outlined a risk‐based approach for food business operators (FBO) to use in deciding the type of date marking to be used on different types of products, (i.e. ‘best before’ date or ‘use by’ date), determining a desirable shelf‐life (i.e. time) and identifying relevant content to be put on food labels to ensure food safety.


title: Expiration date

text: Great Britain has established legislation for Food Information Regulations. Best practices include the labeling of foods with either a ‘best before’ or a ‘use by’ date so that consumers can help to ensure the safety of their food and lessen the amount of consumer food waste.


title: Expiration date

text: An expiration date on food differs from a best-before date. According to the Canadian Food Inspection Agency "Expiration dates are required only on certain foods that have strict compositional and nutritional specifications which might not be met after the expiration date."


title: Expiration date

text: The concern is that after the expiration date has passed, the food may not have the same nutrient content as specified on the packaging and for the listed regulated products, the nutritional content is quite important. The CFIA recommends that food should be discarded and should not be bought, sold or eaten beyond the stated expiration date. This contrasts with a best before date which is an indication of how long properly stored prepackaged food is expected to retain its "freshness, taste, nutritional value, or any other qualities claimed by the manufacturer." Passing a best before date is not necessarily a reason to discard the food. "Sell by" and "manufactured on" dates are related concepts that may guide the consumer.


title: Expiration date

text: Non-food items may also carry an expiration date. For example, in Canada, all children are required to be secured in an infant car seat while in a motor vehicle that is in motion. Users are required by law to follow manufacturer's directions. There is no specific law that requires an expiration date, but all Transport Canada approved car seats sold in Canada carry a manufacturer applied expiration date that ranges between 6 and 9 years from date of manufacture. The rationale is that car seats are subjected to heat, cold, sun exposure, abuse by the children, and long term storage between children, all of which can degrade the structure and function of the car seat and fail in a crash. Further, beyond the expiration date the manufacturer will no longer be monitoring the safety of the seat through testing. Transport Canada advises to destroy an expired car seat and dispose of it at a landfill or recycling facility, and never to give an expired seat to someone else or to charity.


title: Expiration date

text: The Food and Drug Administration in the United States notes that "[a] principle of U.S. food law is that foods in U.S. commerce must be wholesome and fit for consumption". However, with the exception of infant formula, the United States government does not require or specify uniform terminology for use on food labels, the use of date labeling is entirely at the discretion of the manufacturer, and dates on labels do not indicate product safety. U.S. law does state that labels should be truthful and not misleading. Specific foods may be subject to regulations from the Food Safety and Inspection Service.


title: Expiration date

text: Most U.S. expiration dates are used as guidelines based on normal and expected handling and exposure to temperature. Use prior to the expiration date does not guarantee the safety of a food or drug, and a product is not necessarily dangerous or ineffective after the expiration date. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, "canned foods are safe indefinitely as long as they are not exposed to freezing temperatures, or temperatures above 90 °F (32.2° C). If the cans look okay, they are safe to use. Discard cans that are dented, rusted, or swollen. High-acid canned foods (tomatoes, fruits) will keep their best quality for 12 to 18 months; low-acid canned foods (meats, vegetables) for 2 to 5 years". .


title: Expiration date

text: "Sell by date" is a less ambiguous term for what is often referred to as an "expiration date". Most food is still edible after the expiration date. A product that has passed its shelf life might still be safe, but quality is no longer guaranteed. In most food stores, waste is minimized by using stock rotation, which involves moving products with the earliest sell by date from the warehouse to the sales area, and then to the front of the shelf, so that most shoppers will pick them up first and thus they are likely to be sold before the end of their shelf life. This is important, as consumers enjoy fresher goods, and furthermore some stores can be fined for selling out of date products; most if not all would have to mark such products down as wasted, resulting in a financial loss.


title: Expiration date

text: The expiration date of pharmaceuticals specifies the date the manufacturer guarantees the full potency and safety of a drug. Most medications continue to be effective and safe for a time after the expiration date. A rare exception is a case of renal tubular acidosis purportedly caused by expired tetracycline. A study conducted by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration covered over 100 drugs, prescription and over-the-counter. The study showed that about 90% of them were safe and effective as long as 15 years past their expiration dates. Joel Davis, a former FDA expiration-date compliance chief, said that with a handful of exceptions - notably nitroglycerin, insulin and some liquid antibiotics - most expired drugs are probably effective.


title: Babish Culinary Universe

text: Babish Culinary Universe (BCU; ), formerly Binging with Babish, is a YouTube cooking channel created by American cook and filmmaker Andrew Rea (alias Oliver Babish) that recreates recipes featured in film, television, and video games in the "Binging with Babish" series, as well as more traditional recipes in the "Basics with Babish" series. The first video in the series was uploaded on February 10, 2016.


title: Babish Culinary Universe

text: The YouTube channel was created by Rea as "Binging with Babish" on August 21, 2006; his name was inspired by "The West Wing" character Oliver Babish. Three videos unrelated to "Binging with Babish" were uploaded to the account, two in 2007 and one in 2010. The first episode of "Binging with Babish" aired on February 10, 2016, which is about a "Parks and Recreation" burger cook-off.


title: Babish Culinary Universe

text: Its first video to be widely circulated aired on November 14, 2016, making the "Moistmaker" sandwich from "Friends". The channel's growth has been driven by fans promoting its videos on Reddit and other social media platforms. Rea created a Patreon account to earn an income, and after reaching a monthly $10,000 goal, quit his day job to work full-time on "Binging with Babish", which is released weekly on Tuesdays. He spent $6,000 on a Sony digital camera, lights and editing software, and does the production, editing and narration for the videos. The cost of each episode, according to Rea, "varies wildly" because of the ever-changing variety of food and ingredients used.


title: Babish Culinary Universe

text: Rea posts recipes for the dishes on his website and on October 3, 2017, he published a cookbook titled "Eat What You Watch: A Cookbook for Movie Lovers", containing 40 recipes featured in film. He started the series "Basics with Babish" on October 12, 2017, teaching preparation of basic recipes, stocking up on and using essential tools and equipment for cooking, as well as a variety of cooking techniques. On October 22, 2019, Rea published his second cookbook titled "Binging with Babish: 100 Recipes Recreated from Your Favorite Movies and TV Shows", containing 100 pop-culture recipes from his series.


title: Babish Culinary Universe

text: During each episode, Rea prepares step-by-step instructions on the preparation of film and television-related meals. When "Binging with Babish" premiered on February 10, 2016, it was filmed at the kitchen of Rea's New York City apartment. Beginning with the "Meat Tornado from Parks & Rec" in August 2020, the show moved to his home studio in Brooklyn, NY, with a voiceover added in post-production. Each episode contains dry humor and is paced at a fast speed. After creating the dish as it originally appeared, some episodes include Rea's interpretation of the recipe.


title: Babish Culinary Universe

text: "Stump Sohla" is the fourth regular show added to the Babish Culinary Universe and features Sohla El-Waylly. The series aired for 10 episodes airing on Saturdays and features Sohla making dishes in a randomly chosen format or theme. Other shows hosted on the channel include "Basics with Babish," "Being with Babish, Botched by Babish, Pruébalo, Anime with Alvin Zhou", and "The FundaKendalls."


title: Claude Joseph

text: Claude Joseph () is a Haitian politician who served as Minister of Foreign Affairs and Worship from 4 March 2020 to 24 November 2021, and served as acting Prime Minister of Haiti from 14 April 2021 to 20 July 2021, and acting President of Haiti from 7 July 2021 to 20 July 2021.


title: Claude Joseph

text: Joseph was appointed interim Prime Minister following the resignation of Joseph Jouthe. After the assassination of President Jovenel Moïse on 7 July 2021, Joseph assumed the office of acting President and was internationally recognized as such. As he was not a confirmed Prime Minister, the legality of his succession was unclear and disputed by Prime Minister-designate Ariel Henry and Senate leader Joseph Lambert. On 19 July 2021, under a subsequent political agreement, it was announced that Joseph would yield the prime ministership to Henry and will remain the Minister of Foreign Affairs and Worship. He stepped down as the foreign minister in November 2021.


title: Claude Joseph

text: Joseph holds a doctorate in public policy from The New School in New York City where he was awarded a full merit-based scholarship as well as the Isador Lubin Fellowship, and worked as a university professor in the United States. He has taught at the University of Connecticut and Long Island University.


title: Claude Joseph

text: On 4 March 2020, he became Minister of Foreign Affairs in the government of Prime Minister Joseph Jouthe.


title: Claude Joseph

text: After the resignation of Jouthe, he was appointed interim prime minister by President Jovenel Moïse on 14 April 2021. Moïse chose Ariel Henry to succeed him in this role, but did not sign Henry's appointment.


title: Claude Joseph

text: On 7 July 2021, President Moïse was assassinated and First Lady Martine Moïse was injured during an attack at their residence in Pétion-Ville. Joseph assumed political control of the government, and blamed the attack on "a group of unidentified individuals, some of whom spoke in Spanish and English." At that time, Joseph stated that he was in control of the country. The legal succession to the presidency was unclear. Meanwhile, eight out of ten sitting members of Haiti's Senate chose the Senate speaker Joseph Lambert as the interim President on 9 July.


title: Claude Joseph

text: The United Nations special envoy for Haiti, Helen La Lime, said on 8 July 2021 that Joseph would lead Haiti until an election is held later in the year, urging all parties to set aside differences. The United States meanwhile recognized Joseph as the interim Prime Minister of Haiti.


title: Claude Joseph

text: A group of prominent diplomats to Haiti called the "Core Group", which is made up of ambassadors to Haiti from Brazil, the European Union, France, Germany, Spain and the United States, in addition to representatives to Haiti from the Organization of American States and the United Nations, called on Ariel Henry to take charge as the head of the government.


title: Claude Joseph

text: On 19 July, Joseph announced in an interview with "The Washington Post" that he would be stepping down soon and handing over power to Henry, whom he had met with many times in the past week to resolve the dispute, but expected that he will remain the foreign minister in that government. He added that he was doing it to honor the late President Moïse's final wish. Upon being questioned by "The New York Times", he rejected that he was stepping down due to international pressure. Henry was sworn-in on 20 July, while Joseph retained the post of foreign minister.


title: Claude Joseph

text: Joseph was replaced as foreign minister by Jean Victor Généus on 25 November 2021. He has defied Acting President Ariel Henry instigating upheaval against the Haitian administration.


title: Claude Joseph

text: On 3 September 2022, Joseph launched his own political party named "Les Engagés pour le Développement" ("Committed to Development"). On 7 September, Joseph was declared "persona non grata" by the Dominican Republic and is not allowed to enter that country.


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: Breaker Morant is a 1980 Australian war drama film directed by Bruce Beresford, who co-wrote the screenplay based on Kenneth G. Ross's 1978 play of the same name.


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: The film concerns the 1902 court martial of lieutenants Harry Morant, Peter Handcock and George Witton—one of the first war crime prosecutions in British military history. Australians serving in the British Army during the Second Anglo-Boer War, Morant, Handcock, and Witton stood accused of murdering captured enemy combatants and an unarmed civilian in the Northern Transvaal. The film is notable for its exploration of the Nuremberg Defence, the politics of the death penalty and the human cost of total war. As the trial unfolds, the events in question are shown in flashbacks.


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: In 1980, the film won ten Australian Film Institute Awards including: Best Film, Best Direction, Leading Actor, Supporting Actor, Screenplay, Art Direction, Cinematography, and Editing. It was also nominated for the 1980 Academy Award for the Best Writing (Screenplay Based on Material from Another Medium).


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: "Breaker Morant" remains the movie with which Beresford is most identified and has "hoisted the images of the accused officers to the level of Australian icons and martyrs". In a 1999 interview Beresford explained that "Breaker Morant" "never pretended for a moment" that the defendants were not guilty as charged. He had intended the film to explore how wartime atrocities can be "committed by people who appear to be quite normal". Beresford concluded that he was "amazed" that so many people see his film as being about "poor Australians who were framed by the Brits".


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: In Pretoria, South Africa, in 1902, Major Charles Bolton (Rod Mullinar) is summoned to a meeting with Lord Kitchener (Alan Cassell). He is told that three officers of the Bushveldt Carbineers—lieutenants Harry Morant (Edward Woodward), Peter Handcock (Bryan Brown) and George Witton (Lewis Fitz-Gerald)—have been arrested and charged with the murder of captured Boers and a German missionary. Explaining ominously that the German Emperor—Wilhelm II—has protested diplomatically about the latter killing, Kitchener asks Major Bolton to appear for the prosecution. To the Major's visible dismay, he is told that witnesses which would help the defence have been sent to India and that the defence counsel is expected to give him no trouble.


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: The defence counsel, Major James Francis Thomas (Jack Thompson) meets Morant, Handcock and Witton the day before he is to represent them in court. He tells them that he knows only the basic facts, which look bad. A small town solicitor from New South Wales in civilian life, Major Thomas explains that he has never handled anything except legal documents like wills. Handcock quips, "Might come in handy".


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: As court martial proceedings begin the following morning, Major Thomas argues, because his clients are Australians, that only the Australian Army can court martial them. Unmoved, the president of the court martial, Lt. Col. Denny, explains that the defendants may be tried for alleged crimes committed while serving under British command in the Bushveldt Carbineers. Without further ado, Denny reads the indictment. The three stand accused of the murder of a Boer prisoner named Denys Visser (Michael Procanin Bernosky) and the subsequent shooting of six other captured Boers whose names are unknown. Morant and Handcock are charged with the murder of the Reverend Daniel Hesse.


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: Bolton begins by calling witnesses who describe a lack of discipline, drunkenness, widespread looting and corruption among the Carbineers at Fort Edward. Thomas manages to damage their credibility during cross-examination. The testimony then turns to the shooting of Visser, which is shown in flashback.


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: On 5 April 1901, Morant's friend, Captain Simon Hunt, had led a group of men to a farmhouse at Duiwelskloof intending to capture or kill Boer Commando Field Cornet Barend Viljoen. On arrival, the Carbineers found the farm swarming with far more armed men than expected. Captain Hunt was wounded, pinned down by enemy fire and left behind when he ordered his men to retreat. When the patrol returned to Fort Edward without Captain Hunt, Intelligence Corps Captain Alfred Taylor (John Waters) suggests Morant "avenge Captain Hunt". After returning to the farm and finding Captain Hunt's body mutilated with knives, Morant gave chase, ambushed Viljoen's men, and forced them to retreat with many losses. After capturing a Boer named Visser who was wearing Captain Hunt's jacket, an enraged Morant ordered his men to line up into a firing squad and shoot him. They obeyed his order.


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: Thomas argues that standing orders existed to shoot "all Boers captured wearing khaki". To the shock of Thomas and his clients, Bolton explains that those orders only applied to Boers wearing British uniforms as a ruse of war. When Morant takes the witness stand and is grilled by Bolton, he defends the shooting of Visser by saying that he fought the Boers as they fought him. When asked which of the rules of engagement justifies shooting an unarmed prisoner, Morant shouts, in reference to his rifle's calibre, saying they applied and shot them under "Rule 303". That night, Thomas tells Morant that he was the best witness the prosecution had, and that he should watch his temper. The following day, testimony turns to the shooting of the six Boers.


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: Captain Taylor testifies that Captain Hunt had paid a visit to Kitchener's headquarters. Following Hunt's return to Fort Edward, Morant had brought in a group of Boers who surrendered, only to be told by Captain Hunt that new orders received from Kitchener, relayed through Colonel Hubert Hamilton, decreed that no more prisoners were to be taken. Explaining that "The gentlemen's war is over", Hunt orders the prisoners to be shot, as Morant watched. Captain Taylor testifies that Morant had continued to bring prisoners in until after Captain Hunt had been killed. Afterwards, he always ordered his men to shoot them. On cross-examination, Bolton damages Taylor by forcing him to admit that he is also awaiting court martial for shooting prisoners. According to other witnesses, a group of six Boer guerrillas had approached Fort Edward after Captain Hunt's death, bearing white flags. Morant ordered the prisoners disarmed, lined up and shot. One charged Witton, who killed the prisoner with his revolver.


title: Breaker Morant (film)

text: Thomas demands that Kitchener be summoned as a witness. He argues that, as his clients only followed orders, all charges must be dropped. Denny recoils at the suggestion that Kitchener, a man revered throughout the British Empire, would be capable of giving such criminal orders. Equally contemptuous of the idea, Bolton privately tells Thomas that, if Kitchener testifies and denies giving the orders, the defendants' lives will be doomed. He vainly urges Thomas not to insist. In private Kitchener tells Hamilton that, when he had issued orders to take no prisoners, he was trying to break the Boer guerrillas by waging total war. Now he is trying to win the hearts and minds of the Afrikaner people and arrange a peace conference. To this end, a few soldiers "have to be sacrificed" for the misdeeds of the British Army. He orders Hamilton to testify in his place. When Hamilton asks Kitchener what he should say, Kitchener replies, "I think you know what to say".