title: Deaf culture

text: Deaf culture revolves around such institutions as residential schools for deaf students, universities for deaf students (including Gallaudet University and the National Technical Institute for the Deaf), deaf clubs, deaf athletic leagues, communal homes (such as The Home for Aged and Infirm Deaf-Mutes, founded by Jane Middleton, in New York City), deaf social organizations (such as the Deaf Professional Happy Hour), deaf religious groups, deaf theaters, and an array of conferences and festivals, such as the Deaf Way II Conference and Festival and the World Federation of the Deaf conferences.


title: Deaf culture

text: Deaf clubs, popular in the 1940s and 1950s, were also an important part of deaf culture. During this time there were very few places that the deaf could call their own– places run by deaf people for deaf people. Films were made from the Los Angeles Club for the Deaf and included styles of performances such as Vaudeville show and short comedy skills. These films survived through the 1940s. Wolf Bragg, a popular Deaf club performer through 1930 is known for interpreting sign language into "The Monkey's Paw" and Auf Weidersehen. Deaf clubs were the solution to this need. Money was made by selling alcohol and hosting card games. Sometimes these ventures were so successful that the building used by the club was able to be purchased. However, the main attraction of these clubs was that they provided a place that deaf people could go to be around other deaf people, sometimes sharing stories, hosting parties, comedians, and plays. Many of today's common ABC stories were first seen at deaf clubs. The clubs were found in all of the major cities, New York City being home to at least 12. These clubs were an important break from their usually solitary day spent at factory jobs.


title: Deaf culture

text: In the 1960s, deaf clubs began their quick and drastic decline. Today there are only a few spread-out deaf clubs found in the United States and their attendance is commonly small with a tendency to the elderly. This sudden decline is often attributed to the rise of technology like the TTY and closed captioning for personal TVs. With other options available for entertainment and communication, the need for deaf clubs grew smaller. It was no longer the only option for getting in touch with other members of the deaf community.


title: Deaf culture

text: However, others attribute the decline of deaf clubs to the end of World War II and a change in the job market. During WWII there was high demand for factory laborers and a promise of high pay. Many deaf Americans left their homes to move to bigger cities with the hope of obtaining a factory job. This huge influx of workers into new cities created the need for deaf clubs. When World War II ended and the civil rights movement progressed, the federal government started offering more jobs to deaf men and women. People began switching from manufacturing jobs to service jobs, moving away from solitary work with set hours. Today, deaf clubs are rare, but deaf advocacy centers and other deaf organizations have become widespread and popular.


title: Deaf culture

text: National Black Deaf Advocates was established in 1982 "to promote the leadership development, economic and educational opportunities, social equality, and to safeguard the general health and welfare of Black deaf and hard-of-hearing people."


title: Deaf culture

text: There are several major institutions supporting the Deaf queer community in the United States. The Rainbow Alliance of the Deaf (RAD), previously named National Rainbow Society of the Deaf (NRSD), is a nonprofit established in America in 1977 to, "establish and maintain a society of Deaf LGBT". The RAD hosts an annual conference "to encourage and promote the educational, economical, and social welfare of Deaf LGBTQ individuals. RAD now has chapters in the United States and Canada. The Deaf Queer Resource Center (DQRC), was founded in 1995 founded by Drago Renteria and began as a website connects people to resources nationally. The DQRC is now a nonprofit that provides "peer support, support groups, information and referrals, educational workshops, work to increase visibility, educate on accessibility and preserve Deaf LGBT history." Support and community groups for people with intersectional LGBGTQ+ identities in the Deaf, DeafBlind, DeafDisabled and Hard of Hearing communities using ASL are held regionally and virtually. Queer ASL is an educational platform taught virtually by Deaf queer instructors focused on educating queer and trans people in a safe space.


title: Deaf culture

text: Internationally, institutions include the Hong Kong Bauhinias Deaf Club, Deaf LGBTW in Fukoaka, Tohoku, Tokyo, and Osaka, Pinoy Deaf Rainbow in the Philippines, Deaf Rainbow NSW in Australia, Deaf Rainbow UK, Rainbow International Deaf at Israel, and the Greenbow LGBT Society of Ireland.


title: Deaf culture

text: There are deaf churches (where sign language is the main language), deaf synagogues, deaf Jewish community centers, and the Hebrew Seminary of the Deaf in Illinois. In 2011 the Conservative Movement unanimously passed the rabbinic responsa, "The Status of the Heresh [one who is deaf] and of Sign Language", by the Committee on Jewish Law and Standards (CJLS). This responsa declared that, among other things, "The Committee on Jewish Law and Standards rules that the deaf who communicate via sign language and do not speak are no longer to be considered mentally incapacitated. Jews who are deaf are responsible for observing mitzvot. Our communities, synagogues, schools, and camps must strive to be welcoming and accessible, and inclusive. Sign language may be used in matters of personal status and may be used in rituals. A deaf person called to the Torah who does not speak may recite the berakhot via sign language. A deaf person may serve as a shaliah tzibbur in sign language in a minyan whose medium of communication is sign language."


title: Deaf culture

text: There are 15 chapters of Deaf Women United throughout the United States; its mission is, "to promote the lives of Deaf women through empowerment, enrichment, and networking." There is also Pink Wings of Hope, an American breast cancer support group for deaf and hard-of-hearing women.


title: Deaf culture

text: The library at Gallaudet University, the only deaf liberal arts university in the United States, was founded in 1876. The library's collection has grown from a small number of reference books to the world's largest collection of deaf-related materials, with over 234,000 books and thousands of other materials in different formats. The collection is so large that the library had to create a hybrid classification system based on the Dewey Decimal Classification System in order to make cataloging and location within the library easier for both library staff and users. The library also houses the university's archives, which holds some of the oldest deaf-related books and documents in the world.


title: Deaf culture

text: The American Library Association, also founded in 1876, has stated that disabled people belong to a minority that is often overlooked and underrepresented by people in the library, and the Deaf community belongs in this minority group. The ALA's Library Bill of Rights preamble states that "all libraries are forums for information and ideas" and as such libraries need to remove the physical and technological barriers which in turn would allow persons with disabilities full access to the resources available.


title: Deaf culture

text: One notable American activist in the library community working toward accessibility for the deaf was Alice Lougee Hagemeyer, herself deaf. In 1974 she created Deaf Awareness Week, later called Deaf Heritage Week, in which programs about deaf culture are held in libraries. In 1980 she founded the unit now known as the Library Service to People who are Deaf or Hard of Hearing Forum, which is a unit within the American Library Association.


title: Deaf culture

text: Australian librarian Karen McQuigg stated in 2003 that "even ten years ago, when I was involved in a project looking at what public libraries could offer the deaf, it seemed as if the gap between the requirements of this group and what public libraries could offer was too great for public libraries to be able to serve them effectively."


title: Deaf culture

text: In 2006 the American Library Association and the (American) National Association of the Deaf declared that they would recognize March 13 to April 15 as National Deaf History Month.


title: Deaf culture

text: New guidelines from library organizations such as International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) and the ALA were written in order to help libraries make their information more accessible to people with disabilities, and in some cases, specifically the Deaf community. IFLA's "Guidelines for Library Services to Deaf People" is one such set of guidelines, and it was published to inform libraries of the services that should be provided for Deaf patrons. Most of the guidelines pertain to ensuring that Deaf patrons have equal access to all available library services. Other guidelines include training library staff to provide services for the Deaf community, availability of text telephones or TTYs not only to assist patrons with reference questions but also for making outside calls, using the most recent technology in order to communicate more effectively with Deaf patrons, including closed captioning services for any television services, and developing a collection that would interest the members of the Deaf community.


title: Deaf culture

text: Over the years, library services have begun to evolve in order to accommodate the needs and desires of local Deaf communities. For example, at the Queens Borough Public Library (QBPL) in New York, the staff implemented new and innovative ideas in order to involve the community and library staff with the Deaf people in their community. The QBPL hired a deaf librarian, Lori Stambler, to train the library staff about Deaf culture, to teach sign language classes for family members and people who are involved with deaf people, and to teach literacy classes for Deaf patrons. In working with the library, Stambler was able to help the community reach out to its deaf neighbors, and helped other deaf people become more active in their outside community.


title: Deaf culture

text: The library at Gallaudet University, the only Deaf liberal arts university in the United States, was founded in 1876. The library's collection has grown from a small number of reference books to the world's largest collection of deaf-related materials with over 234,000 books and thousands of other materials in different formats. The library created a hybrid classification system based on an extension of the Dewey decimal system because traditional Dewey was not fine-grained enough to handle thousands of books in relatively small classification areas such as audiology or Deaf communication. The library also houses the university's archives, which holds some of the oldest deaf-related books and documents in the world.


title: Deaf culture

text: In Nashville, Tennessee, Sandy Cohen manages the Library Services for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing (LSDHH). The program was created in 1979 in response to information accessibility issues for the Deaf in the Nashville area. Originally, the only service provided was the news via a teletypewriter or TTY, but today, the program has expanded to serving the entire state of Tennessee by providing all different types of information and material on deafness, Deaf culture, and information for family members of Deaf people, as well as a historical and reference collection.


title: Buzzer

text: A buzzer or beeper is an audio signaling device, which may be mechanical, electromechanical, or piezoelectric ("piezo" for short). Typical uses of buzzers and beepers include alarm devices, timers, train and confirmation of user input such as a mouse click or keystroke.


title: Buzzer

text: The electric buzzer was invented in 1831 by Joseph Henry. They were mainly used in early doorbells until they were phased out in the early 1930s in favor of musical chimes, which had a softer tone.


title: Buzzer

text: Piezoelectric buzzers, or piezo buzzers, as they are sometimes called, were invented by Japanese manufacturers and fitted into a wide array of products during the 1970s to 1980s. This advancement mainly came about because of cooperative efforts by Japanese manufacturing companies. In 1951, they established the Barium Titanate Application Research Committee, which allowed the companies to be "competitively cooperative" and bring about several piezoelectric innovations and inventions.


title: Buzzer

text: Early devices were based on an electromechanical system identical to an electric bell without the metal gong. Similarly, a relay may be connected to interrupt its own actuating current, causing the contacts to buzz (the contacts buzz at line frequency if powered by alternating current) Often these units were anchored to a wall or ceiling to use it as a sounding board. The word "buzzer" comes from the rasping noise that electromechanical buzzers made.


title: Buzzer

text: A joy buzzer is an example of a purely mechanical buzzer and they require drivers. Other examples of them are doorbells.


title: Buzzer

text: A piezoelectric element may be driven by an oscillating electronic circuit or other audio signal source, driven with a piezoelectric audio amplifier. Sounds commonly used to indicate that a button has been pressed are a click, a ring or a beep.


title: Buzzer

text: A piezoelectric buzzer/beeper also depends on acoustic cavity resonance or Helmholtz resonance to produce an audible beep.


title: Buzzer

text: While technological advancements have caused buzzers to be impractical and undesirable, there are still instances in which buzzers and similar circuits may be used. Present day applications include:


title: COSCO

text: China Ocean Shipping Company, Limited, formerly China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company, commonly known for its abbreviated name COSCO Group, or simply, COSCO, is a former Chinese Government owned shipping and logistics services supplier company. It is one of the major holding company for China COSCO Shipping. China COSCO Shipping itself is formed by a merger of COSCO Group and China Shipping Group as one conglomerate, by a creation of a new common parent company of the two groups.


title: COSCO

text: COSCO headquarters is in Ocean Plaza in the Xicheng District in Beijing. It owns 1114 ships, including 365 dry bulk vessels, a container fleet with a capacity of , and a tanker fleet of 120 vessels. The fleet calls at over a thousand ports worldwide. It ranks among the largest in both number of container ships and aggregate container volume in the world. In 2012, it was among China's top 15 brands.


title: COSCO

text: It was the largest dry bulk carrier in China and one of the largest dry bulk shipping operators worldwide. In addition, the Group is the largest liner carrier in China.


title: COSCO

text: China Ocean Shipping Company, or COSCO in short, was founded in 1961 as a Chinese government agency. In the same year, a subsidiary was formed in Guangzhou, Guangdong Province. The Guangzhou subsidiary purchased a British vessel and renamed it as "Guanghua" (). "Guanghua" made its maiden voyage to Jakarta for the People's Republic of China in April 1961.


title: COSCO

text: After US resumed the relation with China in the 1970s, China Ocean Shipping Company signed an agreement with American company Lykes Brothers Steamship Company in 1979. The agreement opens the commercial sea routes between the United States and the People's Republic of China. In the same year, COSCO became the Chinese side representative to collaborate with International Telephone and Telegraph on repairing the communication facilities in the coastal cities of China.


title: COSCO

text: In 1981, COSCO won a contract from the Pakistani Government owned National Tanker Company of Pakistan, for crude oil transport.


title: COSCO

text: The company became a holding company and renamed as China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company in 1993. Two other government owned companies, China Marine Bunker Supply Company (Chimbusco in short) and China Road Transport Company, which engaged in oil tanker and road transport businesses respectively, became the subsidiaries of the group in 1988 and 1992 respectively. China Road Transport Company was renamed into COSCO Logistics in 2001 (now part of COSCO Shipping Logistics). As of 2003, COSCO Logistics engaged in shipping agency, freight forwarding, third party logistics and supporting services. While Chimbusco became a joint venture with PetroChina since 2003.


title: COSCO

text: COSCO has a Hong Kong division which the division acquired a HK-listed company Shun Shing Holdings in February 1997. Hong Kong was a British colony until June 30, 1997, and has been a special administrative region of China with a separate jurisdiction system since July 1. Another subsidiary of COSCO HK at that time, COSCO Pacific, was a HK-listed company since 1994. COSCO Pacific has a joint venture with Hongkong International Terminals Limited, which operates a terminal in Kwai Tsing Container Terminals, Hong Kong since 1991. COSCO Pacific acquired 49% stake of COSCO Logistics from the parent company in 2003. COSCO retained the remaining 51%. COSCO Pacific also owned 20% stake of Hong Kong-based Chong Hing Bank from 1997 to 2007. In 2007 the stake was sold to the parent company, COSCO HK.


title: COSCO

text: In 1995, another subsidiary, COSCO Corporation (Singapore) Limited, became a listed company in Singapore Exchange. The company was a component of Straits Times Index until 2010.


title: COSCO

text: COSCO also acquired a Shanghai-listed company in 1997 as a vehicle of backdoor listing. It became COSCO Development, which engaged in real estate. The direct parent company of COSCO Development was sold in 2005, thus COSCO Development was no longer part of the COSCO Group. Also in 2005, COSCO Group acquired a company from COSCO Development. That company was the operator of Boao Forum for Asia.


title: COSCO

text: In 2004, COSCO formed a joint venture with fellow Central Government owned Ansteel Group ("Angang" Group).


title: COSCO

text: In 2005, the flagship subsidiary of COSCO, China COSCO Holdings, became a listed company. The A share of China COSCO Holdings was listed in Shanghai since 2007.


title: COSCO

text: In 2005, a smaller Central Government owned company, China Ocean Shipping Tally (known as China Tally in short), was merged into COSCO Group.


title: COSCO

text: By 2015, after more than 5 decades, COSCO Group expanded into one of the major shipping company of the country. It also had a few listed subsidiaries: COSCO Pacific, COSCO International Holdings, China COSCO Holdings, China International Marine Containers, etc., . Real estate developer, Sino-Ocean Group, was an associate company of COSCO until 2010.


title: COSCO

text: In December 2015, COSCO Group merged with fellow Chinese Government owned China Shipping Group to form China COSCO Shipping. COSCO Group was retained as an intermediate holding company.


title: COSCO

text: In December 2017, COSCO Group (China Ocean Shipping (Group) Company) was re-incorporated from "An industrial enterprise owned by the whole people" to simply a limited company. The name of the company, also changed to China Ocean Shipping Company, Limited ().


title: COSCO

text: COSCO contains several listed companies and has more than 300 subsidiaries locally and abroad, providing services in freight forwarding, ship building, ship repair, terminal operation, container manufacturing, trade, financing, real estate, and information technology.


title: COSCO

text: Moreover, China International Marine Containers is an associate company of the group, which COSCO indirectly owned 22.77% shares of that listed company as of December 2015. The stake was owned by COSCO Pacific until 2013.


title: COSCO

text: COSCO also had an unlisted business unit in Hong Kong, which was known as COSCO (Hong Kong) Group Limited. COSCO (H.K.) Group was the direct parent company of COSCO Pacific (valid until December 2004) and COSCO International. COSCO (H.K.) Group bought the 20% stake of Chong Hing Bank and the entire stake of Shun Shing Construction from COSCO Pacific and COSCO International respectively in 2007.


title: COSCO

text: In 1991 COSCO was asked by the US Federal Maritime Commission (FMC) to submit information regarding Chinese Government restricting U.S.-flag carriers on doing business in China. However, COSCO asked FMC to drop its probe instead. FMC also investigated COSCO for its pricing behavior in 1997, but stating there is not enough evidence to launch a formal probe on alleged under-pricing its service to eliminate competitor.


title: COSCO

text: In August 1993, COSCO's ship "Yinhe", was anchored off the coast of Oman. US government alleged that the ship carried material exported to Iran, which could be used to make chemical weapons. COSCO claimed that the ship only contained "paper goods, hardware and machine parts".


title: COSCO

text: In 1997, Dianne Feinstein and Barbara Boxer, United States senators from California, had asked the Clinton administration to investigate COSCO's leasing on a former naval base in Long Beach. The site was developed into a container port terminal, Pacific Container Terminal. However, continued controversy and opposition by Republican lawmakers caused cancellation of the lease, and the new cargo terminal, which was in fact built by the Long Beach Harbor Department (Port of Long Beach), was leased to Hanjin Shipping, a South Korean firm.


title: COSCO

text: During the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine, most shipping companies halted all container shipping to Russia, except for basic food products, medicine and humanitarian aid. The exception is COSCO which continues to ship to Russia, and was the largest shipping company to do so.


title: COSCO

text: On 31 July 2009, the Panama-flagged bulk carrier, "Full City", operated by COSCO Group's HK division, experienced engine failure and ran aground near Langesund, Telemark, Norway, during a storm, spilling 200 tons of heavy bunker fuel oil in an ecologically and environmentally sensitive wildlife area.


title: Italian Open (tennis)

text: The Italian Open (; literally: "Italy's Internationals"), originally called the Italian International Championships, is a tennis tournament held in Rome, Italy. It is one of the most important clay tennis tournaments in the world with the men's competition being an ATP Tour Masters 1000 event on the Association of Tennis Professionals (ATP) tour, and the women's competition being a WTA 1000 event on the Women's Tennis Association (WTA) tour. The two events were combined in 2011. The tournament is played on clay courts, currently during the second week of May. The event is also known as the "Rome Masters" for male edition, as well as sponsored name "Internazionali BNL d'Italia". Rafael Nadal has won the men's singles title a record ten times.


title: Italian Open (tennis)

text: The Italian tennis championship was first held in 1930 in Milan at the Tennis Club and was initiated by Count Alberto Bonacossa. The singles events at the tournament were won by Bill Tilden and Lilí Álvarez. The championships were held in Milan until 1934. The next year, 1935, the event moved to the "Foro Italico" in Rome. No edition was held between 1936 and 1949. The competition resumed in 1950. In 1961 the tournament was held in Turin at the Sporting Club.


title: Italian Open (tennis)

text: The Italian Open became "open" to professional players in 1969. Between 1972 and 1989 it was a premier tournament of the Grand Prix Tennis Tour and was part of the Grand Prix Super Series top tier events. In 1990 it became an ATP Championship Series Single Week tournament, which included the nine most prestigious tournaments of the preceding Grand Prix tennis circuit. It has remained part of this category of events until today, that has changed names several times since, to be now known as the ATP Tour Masters 1000 events.


title: Italian Open (tennis)

text: In June 2022 ATP announced some changes to the ATP calendar for the coming year. The ATP Masters 1000 event in Rome along with those in Shanghai and in Madrid would now be held over two weeks starting in 2023, thus becoming 12 day events just like the Masters 1000 events in Indian Wells and Miami.


title: Italian Open (tennis)

text: In 1979 the women's event was held two weeks before the men's event. The women's event was played in Perugia from 1980 though 1984 and in Taranto in 1985. No women's event was held in 1986 and it moved back to Rome again in 1987 where it has remained.


title: Ready at Dawn

text: Ready at Dawn Studios LLC (RAD) is an American video game developer located in Irvine, California and is composed of former members of Naughty Dog and Blizzard Entertainment. Formed in 2003, the company has primarily worked on games for the PlayStation Portable (PSP), most notably the Sony Computer Entertainment intellectual property "God of War" and "Daxter". Ready at Dawn also now has a satellite campus in Portland, Oregon to assist with future PC and console game development. The studio is now part of Oculus Studios as of June 2020.


title: Ready at Dawn

text: Ready at Dawn was founded in 2003 in Irvine, California, United States by Ru Weerasuriya, Andrea Pessino, Didier Malenfant, and former members of the Sony Computer Entertainment subsidiary Naughty Dog. They released their first game, "Daxter", in 2006. The company finished working on their second PSP game, "" as well as a Wii port of "Ōkami", with added motion controls. In June 2008 it was confirmed that the company had ceased developing games for the PSP, and that they had returned the relevant development kits to Sony. However, reports claim that the developer received new development kits after returning. Their next game was "", collaboratively developed with Santa Monica Studio for the PSP, with their new proprietary engine. Ready at Dawn released the "" for the PlayStation 3 on September 13, 2011. This collection is a port of their two "God of War" games for the PSP, "Chains of Olympus" and "Ghost of Sparta", to the PS3 with high-definition graphics, DualShock 3 support, Trophies, and Stereoscopic 3D, the first "God of War" release to support this feature.


title: Ready at Dawn

text: In October 2009, Ready at Dawn began working on a new game engine. The Ready at Dawn Engine is said to be a wholly console-centric platform, integrated with a suite of third-party tools that require no additional license. These tools include 3D content editing, audio, user interface, and asset management systems. In July 2010, it was announced that Ready at Dawn had made thirteen employees redundant, citing difficulties in finding funding between projects behind the redundancies. In early 2012, the company began hiring for the development of a third-person action-adventure game for a "next generation home console game system." Ready at Dawn and Sony later revealed the game at E3 2013 as "". In June 2015, Ru Weerasuriya, the founder of the company, announced that his position as CEO will be replaced by Paul Sams and will step down to become the company's president and chief creative officer. Ready at Dawn was in attendance at the large Chinese game publisher, Tencent’s UP Conference in April 2017, this was to announce a partnership to bring Ready at Dawn games into China. This partnership was headlined by bringing the game Deformers to China, although it was short lived due to the Deformers servers being shut down August 2018.


title: Ready at Dawn

text: In July 2017, Ready at Dawn released Lone Echo and Echo Arena exclusively for the Oculus Rift. Echo Arena has since been included in the VR League, a VR esports segment of ESL, since Season 1. In November 2018, Ready at Dawn released Echo Combat, a first-person shooter DLC using the same zero-g movement found in Echo Arena, and announced that the company had opened a satellite studio in Portland, Oregon. It is to be believed that this new satellite studio is a part of the development of Ready at Dawn’s new project that was teased back in February 2018.


title: Ready at Dawn

text: In July 2018, it was announced by CTO Andrea Pessino that all future development at the company would be done using the Rust programming language. This made Ready at Dawn one of the first game studios to adopt the language, as game development is primarily done using C or C++.


title: Ready at Dawn

text: Oculus Studios, under Meta Platforms, acquired Ready at Dawn in June 2020 to develop VR titles for the platform.


title: Ready at Dawn

text: Wawro, A. (n.d.). Ready at Dawn joins list of devs working with Tencent to launch games into China. Retrieved from http://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/296511/Ready_At_Dawn_joins_list_of_devs_working_with_Tencent_to_launch_games_into_China.php


title: Ready at Dawn

text: Kidwell, E. (n.d.). Ready at Dawn shuts down Deformers servers. Retrieved from https://www.gamasutra.com/view/news/324451/Ready_at_Dawn_shuts_down_Deformers_servers.php


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: Southern Airways Flight 242 was a flight from Muscle Shoals, Alabama, to Atlanta, Georgia, with a stop in Huntsville, Alabama. On April 4, 1977, it executed a forced landing on Georgia State Route 381 in New Hope, Paulding County, Georgia, United States, after suffering hail damage and losing thrust on both engines in a severe thunderstorm.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: At the time of the accident, the Southern Airways aircraft was flying from Huntsville-Madison County Jetport to Hartsfield Atlanta International Airport. Sixty-three people on the aircraft (including both pilots) and nine people on the ground died; 20 passengers survived, as well as the two flight attendants.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The flight crew consisted of Captain William W. "Bill" McKenzie (54), a highly experienced pilot with 19,380 flight hours (including 3,205 hours on the DC-9), and first officer Lyman W. Keele Jr. (34), who had 3,878 flight hours, with 235 of them on the DC-9. The crew was advised of the presence of embedded thunderstorms and possible tornadoes along their general route prior to their departure from Huntsville, but they were not subsequently told that the cells had since formed a squall line. The flight crew had flown through that same area from Atlanta earlier in the day, encountering only mild turbulence and light rain.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The weather system had greatly intensified in the meantime. The peak convective activity was later shown on ground radar to be near Rome, Georgia, to which the flight was cleared to proceed by air traffic control. The crew attempted to pick out a path through the cells using their on-board weather radar display, but they were apparently misled by the radar's attenuation effect, and they proceeded toward what they believed was a low-intensity area, when in fact it was the peak convective activity point, attenuated by rain.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: As the aircraft descended from its cruising altitude of near Rome VOR, it apparently entered a thunderstorm cell and encountered a massive amount of rain and hail. The hail was so intense that it broke the aircraft's windshield, and because of the ingestion of both water and hail, both Pratt & Whitney JT8D-7A engines were damaged and underwent flameout.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The crew attempted unsuccessfully to restart the engines, gliding down unpowered, while simultaneously trying to find an emergency landing field within range. Air traffic control suggested Dobbins Air Force Base, about east, as a possible landing site, but it was beyond reach. Cartersville Airport, a general-aviation airport about north with a much shorter runway intended for light aircraft was considered, but it was behind the aircraft and now out of reach. Before the aircraft turned toward Dobbins, the closest airport was another general-aviation airport, Cornelius Moore Airport (now Polk County Airport – Cornelius Moore Field), but the air traffic controllers did not know about it (it was just outside their area of responsibility and not shown on their screens), and it was not considered.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: As the aircraft ran out of altitude and options, gliding with a broken windshield and no engine power, the crew made visual contact with the ground and spotted a straight section of a rural highway below. They executed an unpowered forced landing on that road, but during the rollout, the aircraft’s left wing collided with a gas station causing it to swerve to the left and crash into a wooded area. The pilots and 61 passengers were killed by impact forces and fire, but 20 of the passengers survived, as well as both flight attendants. Nine people on the ground were also killed, including a family of seven. Among the passengers killed was rhythm and blues singer Annette Snell.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) investigated the accident and concluded the following probable cause in its final report:The National Transportation Safety Board determines that the probable cause of this accident was the total and unique loss of thrust from both engines while the aircraft was penetrating an area of severe thunderstorms. The loss of thrust was caused by the ingestion of massive amounts of water and hail which in combination with thrust lever movement induced severe stalling in and major damage to the engine compressors.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The DC-9 broke into several large pieces; the cockpit had separated mostly intact and came to rest upside-down. Both pilots had been ejected from it, still strapped into their seats, and died of massive blunt-force injuries. The cockpit windows had separated and were mostly intact except for the two that had been struck by hail. No fire damage occurred to the fuselage until behind the wings, which area had been subjected to an intense conflagration, but most of the passenger section up to the wings had been demolished by impact forces. Some passengers were killed on impact, while others were ejected from the fuselage alive but injured. A number of other passengers succumbed to inhalation of smoke and fumes, including some who were unable to escape due to their injuries. Flight attendant Catherine Cooper survived unscathed because she was sitting in an area that provided her with relative protection from impact forces. She found herself hanging upside-down while still strapped into her seat, unbuckled the seatbelt, and jumped from an opening in the fuselage when the main cabin door turned out to be jammed and inoperable. Afterwards, Cooper ran to a nearby house to find help and discovered that some of the passengers were already there.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: Meanwhile, flight attendant Sandy Ward was seated in the back of the plane and reported it "bouncing up and down" several times during impact and that fire spread through the cabin. With a wall of flames blocking the way in front, she moved rearwards and tried to open the back cabin door, but it was also jammed. By now, the fire had died down and she was able to exit through the broken fuselage. Ward tried to assist passengers in escaping until an explosion forced her to run for cover.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: As per standard emergency procedure, the flight attendants removed their shoes and ordered passengers to do likewise. This policy was due to the possibility of high heels causing damage to evacuation slides. This resulted in a number of people sustaining lacerations and bruises to their feet that would have been unlikely to have occurred otherwise, but since the attendants did not know the exact circumstances of the crash, they simply followed by-the-book emergency directions. The NTSB believed that the pilots should have informed the flight attendants and crew to cushion themselves with blankets, coats, and pillows, and not remove their shoes.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The cockpit voice recorder (CVR) data indicated at least two interruptions to power, one lasting for 15 seconds and the other almost two minutes following the complete loss of engine thrust until the crew switched to backup battery power. The best chance for a (reasonably) safe landing would have been at Dobbins Air Force Base in Marietta, Georgia, but why the crew did not attempt it is unclear due to the two-minute gap in CVR data. Lacking CVR data, the NTSB concluded that it was most likely that the pilots turned away from Dobbins due to a combination of poor visibility and loss of electrical power, forcing the crew to turn the plane so they could maintain visual flight conditions.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The NTSB also included these contributing factors:the failure of the company's dispatching system to provide the flight crew with up-to-date severe weather information pertaining to the aircraft's intended route of flight, the captain's reliance on airborne weather radar for penetration of thunderstorm areas, and limitations in the Federal Aviation Administration's air traffic control system, which precluded the timely dissemination of real-time hazardous weather information to the flight crew.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: Moreover, the crew had no training for a situation that involved total loss of engine thrust, nor did Southern Airways require such training. FAA regulations had no such requirement either, because the possibility of complete failure of all engines on a jet-powered carrier aircraft was deemed so remote as to not require training or special procedures; the NTSB could not find a recorded instance prior to Flight 242 of a commercial jet aircraft experiencing such an emergency. (While other significant incidents involving loss of all engines in flight have occurred, including the Gimli Glider, Scandinavian Airlines Flight 751, and the Miracle on the Hudson, these happened after Flight 242's unpowered landing event in 1977.)


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: Three of the NTSB's four board members signed the final report. Kay Bailey, who signed the final report, added a concurring statement, which reiterated the board's previous recommendations for improved real-time weather dissemination. Francis H. McAdams, one of the four NTSB members, dissented from the other members. In his dissenting opinion, McAdams provided his alternate view of the probable cause:the probable cause of this accident was the captain's decision to penetrate rather than avoid an area of severe weather, the failure to obtain all the available weather information despite having knowledge of the severity of the storm system, and the reliance upon airborne weather radar for penetration rather than avoidance of the storm system. The penetration resulted in a total loss of thrust from both engines due to the ingestion of massive amounts of water and hail, which in combination with advanced throttle settings, induced severe stalling in, and major damage to, the engine compressors, which prevented the crew from restarting the engines. Furthermore, if the company's dispatching system had provided the flight crew with timely severe weather information pertaining to the aircraft's intended route of flight, it is possible that the severe weather would not have been penetrated.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: McAdams also wrote in his dissent that he would add, as a contributing factor, the "inadequacies of the Federal Aviation Administration's air traffic control system, which precluded the dissemination of real-time hazardous weather information to the flight crew."


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The flight attendants on board were Catherine Lemoine Cooper (1950–2020) as senior flight attendant, and Sandy Purl Ward (born February 23, 1953), second flight attendant.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The NTSB noted in its report that despite the fact that the flight crew did not communicate with the cabin crew during the emergency sequence, the flight attendants on their own initiative briefed and prepared the passengers for an emergency landing as the plane glided down. Just prior to touchdown, with no prior notice or cue from the flight crew that the plane was about to crash land, the flight attendants "saw trees" in the windows, and immediately yelled to the passengers a final "brace for impact!" command. The flight attendants also helped evacuate the passengers from the burning plane after the crash landing. The NTSB concluded:The flight attendants acted commendably for initiating a comprehensive emergency briefing of the passengers for their protection in preparation for a crash landing. This contributed to the number of survivors.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: Purl wrote the book "Am I Alive?" about the experience, and is a motivational speaker. In her book, she tells the story of the crash and the history of critical incident stress management's entry into the aviation industry. Purl retired from Northwest in 1994.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The NTSB identified the accident site in its report as "Highway 92 Spur, bisecting New Hope, GA". They also include the geographical coordinates. In addition, the NTSB report includes a depiction of the accident site, hand drawn as a circled 'X' on an aviation sectional chart. Highway designations have been changed as of 2006. The road section used for the forced landing, formerly called Georgia State Route 92 Spur, is now called Dallas–Acworth Highway (formerly Georgia State Route 381).


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The small Georgia community of New Hope, in Paulding County, where a memorial and reunion were held by survivors and family members 20 years after the accident in 1997, now hosts a memorial and reunion annually near the crash site. The site is from Cartersville Airport and from Dobbins AFB. Cornelius Moore Field, between Cedartown and Rockmart, was about behind them at the time of the crash.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: Local residents and victims' family have formed the nonprofit New Hope Memorial Flight 242 Inc. to provide "an annual memorial service, survivor's reunion and a monument." New Hope Memorial installed a Georgia state historical marker at the southwest corner of the New Hope Cemetery, located about a half mile southwest of the crash site.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The text of the marker states:New Hope resident fatalities included Kathy Griffin Carter and son Jeffrey Richard Carter, Faye Robinson Griffin and son Larry Allen Griffin, Edna Griffin Gamel, son John T. Gamel and daughter Courtney A. Gamel, Berlie Mae Bell Cranton, and Ernest L. Prewett.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: In March 2015, the organization announced plans to build a permanent memorial to honor the victims of the crash. In March 2019, the group announced that sufficient funds had been raised for a larger memorial. On April 4, 2021, the memorial was dedicated on the tragedy's 44th anniversary with nearly 100 in attendance including survivors and family members spanning four states.


title: Southern Airways Flight 242

text: The Discovery Channel Canada / National Geographic TV series "Mayday" depicted the accident in a 2007 episode titled "Southern Storm". The episode featured interviews with witnesses and accident investigators, and a dramatization of the accident.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: The Ferrari SF90 is a Formula One racing car designed and constructed by Scuderia Ferrari to compete during the 2019 Formula One World Championship. The chassis was designed by Mattia Binotto, Enrico Cardile, Fabio Montecchi and David Sanchez with Corrado Iotti leading the powertrain design. The car was driven by Sebastian Vettel and Charles Leclerc, who was making his debut for Scuderia Ferrari. The car made its competitive debut at the 2019 Australian Grand Prix.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: Ferrari designed and constructed the SF90 as a Formula One car to compete during the 2019 Formula One World Championship. The car was driven by four time world champion Sebastian Vettel and Ferrari debutant Charles Leclerc in every race of the 2019 season. Ferrari named the car the SF90 to celebrate the company's 90th anniversary and in keeping with tradition Vettel named his car "Lina".


title: Ferrari SF90

text: The new regulations for the 2019 season meant that the teams had to adopt a new simpler front wing design and a higher and wider rear wing. Ferrari produced a radical front wing design, that tapered downwards from the middle towards the endplates of the wing, whereas Mercedes and Red Bull, their nearest rivals, went with a conventional design that is high from middle to end. This design was meant to encourage flow around the tyres with the front wing being below the maximum allowed height. Ferrari's front wing design meant that the majority of the loading would be felt on the middle of the wing and this in turn would cause the air flow to be directed to within the front tyres. This design made the car's downforce levels more predictable, albeit with less downforce overall.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: An anonymous aerodynamicist commented that because the front wing did not generate as much downforce as the front wings of some of its rival cars, Ferrari instead had to compensate and increase the size of their barge boards to provide this downforce. This in turn meant that the rear was unable to produce as much downforce as the front going forward in the development of the car. This was likely to lead to a car prone to oversteer, therefore it was anticipated that the SF90 would not be as fast as some of its rivals and the amount of downforce the car would produce would be limited.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: Ferrari changed the engine cover on the SF90, making it smaller compared its predecessor, the SF71H, in order to save weight and improve aerodynamics. Ferrari adopted a matte finish to the car's livery instead of gloss to save weight. The SF90 also had a reworked cooling system with the engine cover having a smaller inlet, now triangular rather than oval and the radiator air inlets were made larger. The rear bodywork was also remodeled suggesting an increase in rear aerodynamic performance.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: Ferrari took a few upgrades to the first test. The most notable of these was the location of the exit for the air that would have come through the side pod. Instead of the traditional place of letting the air out of the rear of the car the SF90 redirected some of the air out behind the base of the halo. This would have two advantages, the first would be that by bringing the air up there is would help to generate extra downforce in the middle of the air and the second benefit would be that the SF90 would be able to manipulate the air flow to its rear wing. A second upgrade that Ferrari brought to the first test was with the wheel. The wheel rim was redesigned with holes in it to transfer heat away from the tyres thus keeping the tyres in their operating window. Although this innovation would not help with the SF90's outright pace it would allow the SF90 to take better care of its tyres therefore improving the cars' race pace. After the first week of pre-season testing it was the SF90 which had the clear advantage having completed a high number of laps and with both Leclerc and Vettel commenting how comfortable they felt with the car. Although the SF90 finished in eighth and ninth after the first test they only used the harder and therefore slower tyres, when the times were adjusted to show predicted lap time had they all been on the same tyre it was predicted that the SF90 would have been the fastest.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the the Ferraris lined up third and fifth piloted by Vettel and Leclerc, respectively. During the race, both cars suffered from a lack of overall pace compared to the two Mercedes cars, as well as the Red Bull of Max Verstappen. They finished in fourth and fifth places.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the Ferrari locked out the front row of the starting grid just as they had done the previous year, with Charles Leclerc setting a new track record in the process. However, during the race both cars suffered from issues, Vettel from driver errors and Leclerc with an engine problem which cost him the victory.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the the Ferraris were running close to each other when Leclerc was asked to yield to Vettel, allowing Vettel on an alternate strategy to fight Red Bull's Verstappen for a podium. Leclerc finished fifth himself.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the , the Ferraris looked to have the measure of the Mercedes in free practice with the Ferrari displaying superior straight line speed. However, during qualifying Leclerc crashed out heading into the castle section. The resulting delay of qualifying, and subsequent drop in track temperatures, played into the hands of the Mercedes, who locked out the front row with Vettel salvaging third for Ferrari. Vettel would go on to take a podium the next day while Leclerc, starting from tenth, fought through the field to finish fifth, setting the fastest lap and taking the accompanying point.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the , neither Ferrari finished on the podium, with Vettel fourth and Leclerc fifth. At the however, the team bounced back, with Vettel taking Ferrari's best result of the season in second place, however, Leclerc only managed to qualify 16th after a strategical error during qualifying; Leclerc also had to retire from the race following a puncture.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the , Ferrari were the favorites to win with their superior straight line speed. Vettel took pole position while Leclerc managed third behind Hamilton. During the race, Vettel and Hamilton dueled with Vettel managing to stay ahead of Hamilton. However, on lap 48 Vettel went off the track and rejoined in front of Hamilton, which resulted in Vettel being given a penalty for rejoining the track dangerously. As a result, Ferrari missed out on their first victory of the season due to Vettel's controversial penalty, although Ferrari subsequently announced that they would appeal.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the , Leclerc took third in qualifying while Vettel was hampered by an engine issue and started ninth. During the race Leclerc took a podium while Vettel finished in fifth.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the , Leclerc took his second pole position of his career while Vettel did not set a time in Q3 due to mechanical issues. During the race, an intense battle developed between Verstappen and Leclerc, which culminated in the Red Bull overtaking up the inside heading into turn 2. Leclerc was pushed wide and had to use the runoff area and despite an investigation being launched into the overtaking maneuver it was found to be lawful. Vettel finished off the podium in fourth having started ninth.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the , Leclerc qualified third and Vettel sixth. During the race Vettel and Verstappen collided which saw Vettel fall back to finish 16th while Leclerc took his fourth consecutive podium.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the , Ferrari seemed to be competitive for pole position, but the team had mechanical issues for Vettel in Q1 and Leclerc in Q3. In a rain-affected race Vettel managed to finish second after starting 20th. Leclerc crashed out of the grand Prix.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: The last race before the summer break was a poor performance for Ferrari. Leclerc and Vettel qualified fourth and fifth respectively at the . In the race, the Ferrari SF90 was not competitive and both drivers finished the race one minute behind race winner Hamilton with Vettel in third, on an alternate strategy, and Leclerc fourth.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: Ferrari entered both the Belgian and the Italian Grands Prix as favourites with a car which is highly suited to the circuits. Charles Leclerc subsequently won both races taking his debut win at the Belgian Grand Prix though both Grands Prix were only won narrowly with Mercedes finishing second and third on both occasions within a second of Leclerc. Vettel meanwhile finished fourth in Belgium and 13th in Italy following a collision with Lance Stroll.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: For the following race, the , Ferrari introduced new aero updates with new fins on the car's floor and a new nose in a bid to improve downforce among other smaller changes to the cars aerodynamics. The team managed a 1-3 qualifying result and Vettel won the race from pole-sitter Leclerc to secure Ferrari's first 1-2 finish since the 2017 Hungarian Grand Prix, and Vettel's first win since the 2018 Belgian Grand Prix. Ferrari continued to show their improved pace in the , with another 1-3 qualifying result. However, a nonstandard Mercedes strategy, a mechanical retirement for Vettel, and a Virtual Safety Car and Safety Car period meant that Ferrari were caught out and could only salvage a podium finish with Leclerc.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the Japanese Grand Prix, the Ferraris locked out the front row, with Sebastian Vettel setting a track record pole time. However, the start of the race went badly for Ferrari as Vettel lost out to Bottas at the start and Leclerc collided with Verstappen in turn 1. Leclerc was instructed to stay out despite a clearly damaged front wing, showering bits and pieces onto the cars behind. Finally, Michael Masi, the race director, instructed Ferrari to call Leclerc into the pits to repair the front wing. In the end Leclerc finished a lap down in eighth place, promoted to sixth following the disqualification of the Renault's, while Vettel withstood a challenge from a charging Hamilton to hold on to second.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the Mexican Grand Prix, the Ferraris appeared to once again be the team to beat, with Leclerc taking pole position ahead of his teammate after Verstappen received a penalty for ignoring yellow flags. However, an alternate strategy from Mercedes, combined with Ferrari's lack of race pace, saw the two drivers finish fourth and second for Leclerc and Vettel, respectively.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the United States Grand Prix, Ferrari looked to have a decent chance at the race victory with Vettel lining up on the front row and Leclerc lining up fourth. However, the team suffered a poor start, with Vettel dropping five places on the first lap as he struggled to warm his tyres. On lap 9 Vettel retired due to a suspension failure. Leclerc salvaged fourth for the Scuderia, 50 seconds behind race winner Bottas. Ferrari's poor performance once again created controversy around the legality of their engine.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the , Vettel qualified on the front row for the fourth consecutive time. Leclerc started 14th after a grid penalty. Vettel ran in third for most of the race, not really being a threat to the race leaders Hamilton and Verstappen. Leclerc meanwhile made his way through the field. After the safety car restart, Vettel lost third place to Albon. On lap 65, Leclerc overtook Vettel into turn 1 for fourth position, but a few corners later Vettel was on the attack. He got alongside his teammate and they made contact, resulting in a suspension failure for Leclerc and a puncture for Vettel. Both drivers retired after the collision. This was the first race since Singapore 2017 that Ferrari scored no points.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: At the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix, Leclerc qualified fourth and Vettel fifth, but both gained one grid position after Valtteri Bottas was handed a grid penalty. Leclerc took the final podium spot, while Vettel finished in fifth. After the race, the FIA investigated Leclerc's car for any illegalities. Although he was not disqualified, Ferrari were fined €50,000 for an inaccurate declaration of the car's fuel load.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: Ferrari enjoyed strong straight-line performance throughout the 2019 season, with their performance being particularly strong between the Belgian and Mexican Grands Prix, where they scored six consecutive pole positions and their only race wins of the season. As their form had noticeably improved when compared to their first 12 races of the season, Red Bull issued a query to the FIA asking for clarification if utilising a system that got around the fuel flow sensor would be allowed. The FIA responded before the United States Grand Prix, reminding all competitors through a technical directive that such systems would not be allowed. Subsequently, Ferrari's form faded as they failed to score a pole position or a race win in the remainder of the season. Mercedes-powered Lewis Hamilton claimed that Ferrari had lost power after the technical directives, while Honda-powered Max Verstappen accused Ferrari of cheating.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: After the end of pre-season testing for the 2020 season, the FIA announced that it had concluded an investigation of the 2019 Ferrari 064 power unit and formed a private settlement with Ferrari. All of the non-Ferrari-powered teams were "surprised and shocked" by the announcement, urging the FIA to give full disclosure of the legality of the 2019 Ferrari power unit. The FIA responded by saying that it was not fully satisfied with its legality, but decided to not take further action due to the complexity of the matter and to avoid complicated legal cases.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: A modified SF90 was used during testing of the 2022 tyre compounds after the 2021 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix.


title: Ferrari SF90

text: Driver failed to finish the race, but was classified as they had completed over 90% of the winner's race distance.


title: Holiday in Cambodia

text: "Holiday in Cambodia" is a song by American punk rock band Dead Kennedys. The record was released as the group's second single in May 1980 by Optional Music with "Police Truck" as the B-side. The photograph on the front cover of the single was taken from the Thammasat University massacre in Thailand, depicting a crowd member beating the hanged corpse of a student protester with a metal chair.


title: Holiday in Cambodia

text: The song was re-recorded for the band's first album, "Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables" (1980); the original recording of the song, as well as the single's B-side, are available on the rarities album "Give Me Convenience or Give Me Death" (1987).


title: Holiday in Cambodia

text: The song was written shortly after the genocidal dictatorship of the Khmer Rouge, led by Pol Pot and his Communist Party of Kampuchea, which is estimated to have been responsible for the deaths of roughly a quarter of the Cambodian population between 1975 and 1979. The lyrics are critical of disingenuous college-aged students in the Western world, contrasting their lifestyle with that of those under the Cambodian regime. The official video-clip shows American soldiers in helicopter, some chased by crowd, bombings including U.S. Air force napalm bombing, and people burned by napalm, in reference to Operation Menu.


title: Holiday in Cambodia

text: The re-recording of this song that appears on "Fresh Fruit for Rotting Vegetables" is different from the single version, being fifty-five seconds longer, at a higher tempo and featuring an extended, surf-influenced intro, as well as an extended bridge and guitar solo.


title: Holiday in Cambodia

text: In October 1998, Jello Biafra was sued by three former members of Dead Kennedys, who claimed that they had been defrauded of royalties owed to them. "The record industry has been skimming royalties owed artists since the beginning," according to Dead Kennedys' guitarist East Bay Ray. "This case is no different from blues musicians being taken advantage of in the twenties and thirties... [T]here is no denying we were the victims here." According to Biafra, the suit was the result of his refusal to allow "Holiday in Cambodia" to be used in a commercial for Levi's Dockers; Biafra opposes Levi's due to what he believes are their unfair business practices and sweatshop labor. Biafra lost the lawsuit and, as the owner of Alternative Tentacles, was ordered to pay $200,000 in damages to the other band members.


title: Udmurt people

text: The Udmurts (, ) are a Permian (Finnic) ethnic group in Eastern Europe, who speak the Udmurt language. In the course of history, Russian-speakers have referred to them as ' (), Otyaks, Wotyaks or Votyaks.


title: Udmurt people

text: The name "Udmurt" comes from * 'meadow people,' where the first part represents the Permic root * 'meadow, glade, turf, greenery', and the second part, "murt" means 'person' (cf. Komi , Mari ), probably an early borrowing from an Iranian language (such as Scythian): * or * 'person, man' (cf. Persian ), which is thought to have been borrowed from the Indo-Aryan term * 'man', literally 'mortal, one who is bound to die' (< PIE 'to die'), compare Old Indic 'young warrior' and Old Indic 'chariot warrior', both connected specifically with horses and chariots. This is supported by a document dated 1557, in which the Udmurts are referred to as "lugovye lyudi" 'meadow people', alongside the traditional Russian name .


title: Udmurt people

text: On the other hand, in the Russian tradition, the name 'meadow people' refers to the inhabitants of the left bank of river in general. Recently, the most relevant is the version of V. V. Napolskikh and S. K. Belykh. They suppose that ethnonym was borrowed from the Iranian entirely: 'resident of outskirts, border zone' (cf. "Antes") → Proto-Permic * → Udmurt .


title: Udmurt people

text: Most Udmurt people live in Udmurtia. Small groups live in the neighboring areas of Kirov Oblast and Perm Krai of Russia, Bashkortostan, Tatarstan, and Mari El.


title: Udmurt people

text: The Udmurt population is shrinking; the Russian Census reported 552,299 in 2010, down from the 2002 Russian census figure of 637,000, in turn down from 746,562 in 1989.


title: Udmurt people

text: The Udmurts have a national epic called "Dorvyzhy". Their national musical instruments include the "krez" zither (similar to the Russian "gusli") and a pipe-like wind instrument called the .


title: Udmurt people

text: Many Udmurt people have red hair, and a festival to celebrate the red-haired people has been held annually in Izhevsk since 2004.


title: Udmurt people

text: The Udmurts used to be semi-nomadic forest dwellers that lived in riverside communities. However, most Udmurts now live in towns. Although the clan-based social structure of the Udmurts no longer exists, its traces are still strong and it continues to shape modern Udmurt culture.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Charles-Marie-Photius Maurras (; ; 20 April 1868 – 16 November 1952) was a French author, politician, poet, and critic. He was an organizer and principal philosopher of "Action Française", a political movement that is monarchist, anti-parliamentarist, and counter-revolutionary. Maurras also held anti-communist, anti-masonic, anti-protestant, and anti-Semitic views, though he was highly critical of Nazism, referring to it as "stupidity". His ideas greatly influenced National Catholicism and integral nationalism, with a major tenet of his views being that "a true nationalist places his country above everything".


title: Charles Maurras

text: Raised Catholic, Maurras went deaf and became an agnostic in his youth, but remained anti-secularist and politically supportive of the Church. His ideas were opposed by Pope Pius XI, but received mixed to positive reception from Pius X, Billot, and Pius XII. An Orléanist, he began his career by writing literary criticism and became politically active during the Dreyfus affair. In 1926, Pius XI issued a controversial papal condemnation against "Action Française", which was later repealed by Pius XII in 1939.


title: Charles Maurras

text: In 1936, after voicing death threats against Léon Blum, Maurras was sentenced to eight months in La Santé. While imprisoned, he received the support of Mother Agnes of Jesus (the elder sister of Thérèse of Lisieux), Bordeaux, Pius XI, and 40 to 60,000 people. During World War II, Maurras was a supporter of Vichy France, believing that Free France was being manipulated by the Soviet Union. He wrote many anti-Semitic articles during its regime, but was opposed to Vichy's deportation of Jews. He explained his support for Vichy, writing that "As a royalist I never lost sight of the necessity of monarchy. But to invest the royal heir the heritage had to be saved." After its collapse, he was arrested and accused of complicity with the enemy. Following a political trial, he was convicted for incitement to murder, receiving "Indignité nationale" and a life sentence. In 1951, after falling ill, he was transferred to a hospital and later received a medical pardon. In his final days, he reverted to Catholicism and received the last rites shortly before his death.


title: Charles Maurras

text: A political theorist and a major right-wing intellectual of 20th-century Europe, Maurras significantly influenced right-wing and far-right ideologies, anticipating some of the ideas of fascism. He has been described as the most important French conservative intellectual and has directly influenced a large number of politicians, theorists, and writers on both the left and right, including Eliot, Hulme, Douglas, Evola, Schmitt, Heidegger, Bernanos, Mauriac, Thibon, Sorel, Déon, Laurent, Henri of Orléans, Kuehnelt-Leddihn, Maritain, de Oliveira, Sardinha, Pereyra, Althusser, Osma, Lanz, de Gaulle, Franco, Salazar, Duplessis, Coughlin, Degrelle, Petain, Batista, Perón, Pinochet, Ferrara and Bannon. To this day, Maurras proves to be a highly controversial figure. Critics have attacked Maurras for his anti-Semitic views and support of Vichy, calling him a "fascist icon." Conversely, supporters such as Georges Pompidou have praised him as a prophet. Others, including Emmanuel Macron, have taken a nuanced approach, with Macron stating "I fight all the antisemitic ideas of Maurras, but I find it absurd to say that Maurras must no longer exist."


title: Charles Maurras

text: Maurras was born into a Provençal family, brought up by his mother and grandmother in a Catholic and monarchist environment. In his early teens, he became deaf. Like many other French politicians, he was affected greatly by France's defeat in the 1870 Franco-Prussian War. After the 1871 Commune of Paris and the 1879 defeat of Marshal MacMahon's "Moral Order" government, French society slowly found a consensus for the Republic, symbolized by the rallying of the monarchist Orleanists to the Republic. Maurras published his first article, at the age of 17 years, in the review "Annales de philosophie chrétienne". He then collaborated on various reviews, including "L'Événement", "La Revue bleue", "La Gazette de France" and "La Revue encyclopédique", in which he praised Classicism and attacked Romanticism.


title: Charles Maurras

text: At some point during his youth, Maurras lost his Catholic faith and became an agnostic. In 1887, at the age of seventeen, he came to Paris and began writing literary criticism in the Catholic and Orleanist "Observateur". At this time, Maurras was influenced by Orleanism, as well as German philosophy reviewed by Catholic thinker Léon Ollé-Laprune, an influence of Henri Bergson, and by the philosopher Maurice Blondel, one of the inspirations of Christian "modernists", who would later become his greatest opponents. He became acquainted with the Provençal poet Frédéric Mistral in 1888 and shared the federalist thesis of Mistral's Félibrige movement (see Maurras and Félibrige). The same year he met the nationalist writer Maurice Barrès.


title: Charles Maurras

text: In 1890, Maurras approved Cardinal Lavigerie's call for the rallying of Catholics to the Republic, thus making his opposition not to the Republic in itself, but to "sectarian Republicanism".


title: Charles Maurras

text: Beside this Orleanist affiliation, Maurras shared some traits with Bonapartism. In December 1887, he demonstrated to the cry of "Down with the robbers!" during the , which had involved , the son-in-law of President Jules Grévy. Despite this, he initially opposed the nationalist-populist Boulangist philosophy. But in 1889, after a visit to Maurice Barrès, Barrès voted for the Boulangist candidate; despite his "anti-Semitism of the heart" (""anti-sémitisme de coeur""), he decided to vote for a Jew.


title: Charles Maurras

text: During 1894–1895, Maurras briefly worked for Barrès' newspaper "La Cocarde" (The Cockade), although he sometimes opposed Barrès' opinions concerning the French Revolution. "La Cocarde" supported General Boulanger, who had become a threat to the parliamentary Republic in the late 1880s.


title: Charles Maurras

text: During a trip to Athens for the first modern Olympic Games in 1896, Maurras came to criticize the Greek democratic system of the "polis", which he considered doomed because of its internal divisions and its openness towards "métèques" (foreigners).


title: Charles Maurras

text: Maurras became involved in politics at the time of the Dreyfus affair, becoming an Anti-Dreyfusard. He endorsed Colonel Henry's forgery blaming Dreyfus, as he considered that defending Dreyfus weakened the Army and the justice system. According to Maurras, Dreyfus was to be sacrificed on the altar of national interest. But while the Republican nationalist thinker Barrès accused Dreyfus of being guilty because of his Jewishness, Maurras went a step further, vilifying the "Jewish Republic". While Barrès' anti-Semitism originated both in pseudo-scientific racist contemporary theories and Biblical exegesis, Maurras decried "scientific racism" in favor of a more radical "state anti-Semitism."


title: Charles Maurras

text: Maurras assisted with the foundation of the nationalist and anti-Dreyfusard Ligue de la patrie française at the end of 1898, along with Maurice Barrès, the geographer Marcel Dubois, the poet François Coppée and the critic and literature professor Jules Lemaître.


title: Charles Maurras

text: In 1899, Maurras founded the review "Action Française" (AF), an offshoot of the newspaper created by Maurice Pujo and Henri Vaugeois the year preceding. Maurras quickly became influential in the movement, and converted Pujo and Vaugeois to monarchism, which became the movement's principal cause. With Léon Daudet, he edited the movement's review, "La Revue de l'Action Française", which during 1908 became a daily newspaper with the shorter title "L'Action Française". The AF mixed integral nationalism with reactionary themes, shifting the nationalist ideology, previously supported by left-wing Republicans, to the political right. It had a wide readership during the implementation of the 1905 law on the separation of Church and State. In 1899 he wrote a short notice in favour of monarchy, "Dictateur et roi" ("Dictator and King"), and then in 1900 his "Enquête sur la monarchie" ("Investigations on Monarchy"), published in the Legitimist mouthpiece "La Gazette de France", which made him famous. Maurras also published thirteen articles in the newspaper "Le Figaro" during 1901 and 1902, as well as six articles between November 1902 and January 1903 in Edouard Drumont's anti-Semitic newspaper, "La Libre Parole".


title: Charles Maurras

text: Between 1905 and 1908, when the "Camelots du Roi" monarchist league was initiated, Maurras introduced the concept of political activism through extra-parliamentary leagues, theorizing the possibility of a "coup d'état".


title: Charles Maurras

text: Maurras also founded the Ligue d'Action Française in 1905, whose mission was to recruit members for the Action Française.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Members pledged to fight the republican regime and to support restoration of the monarchy under Prince Philippe, Duke of Orléans (1869–1926).


title: Charles Maurras

text: Many early members of the Action Française were practicing Catholics, including Bernard de Vésins, the art historian Louis Dimier and the essayist Léon de Montesquiou. They helped Maurras develop the royalist league's pro-Catholic policies.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Maurras then endorsed France's entry into World War I (even to the extent of supporting the thoroughly republican Georges Clemenceau) against the German Empire. During the war, the Jewish businessman Emile Ullman was forced to resign from the board of directors of the Comptoir d'Escompte bank after Maurras accused him of being a German agent. He then criticized the Treaty of Versailles for not being harsh enough on the Germans and condemned Aristide Briand's policy of cooperation with Germany. In 1923, Germaine Berton carried out the assassination of fellow Action Française member Marius Plateau. Berton had planned to also assassinate Léon Daudet and Maurras but was unsuccessful.


title: Charles Maurras

text: In 1925, he called for the murder of Abraham Schrameck, the Interior Minister of Paul Painlevé's Cartel des Gauches's (left-wing coalition) government, who had ordered the disarming of the far-right leagues. For this death threat, he was sentenced to a fine and a year in jail (suspended). He also voiced death threats against the President of the Council Léon Blum, organizer of the Popular Front, in the "Action Française" of 15 May 1936, emphasizing his Jewish origins (he once called him an "old semitic camel"). This other death threat earned him eight months in prison, from 29 October 1936 to 6 July 1937. Fearing communism, he joined the pacifists and praised the Munich Agreement of 1938, which the President of the Council Édouard Daladier had signed without any illusions. He also wrote in "Action Française":


title: Charles Maurras

text: During the 1930s – especially after the 6 February 1934 crisis—many of Action Française members turned to fascism, including Robert Brasillach, Lucien Rebatet, Abel Bonnard, Paul Chack, and Claude Jeantet. Most of them belonged to the staff of the fascist newspaper "Je suis partout" ("I am everywhere").


title: Charles Maurras

text: Influencing António de Oliveira Salazar's "Estado Novo" regime in Portugal, Maurras also supported Francisco Franco and, until spring 1939, Benito Mussolini's Fascist regime. Opposing Adolf Hitler because he was anti-German, Maurras himself criticized the racist policies of Nazism in 1936, and requested a complete translation of "Mein Kampf" – some passages had been censored in the French edition.


title: Charles Maurras

text: After his failure against Charles Jonnart in 1924 to be elected to the Académie française, he succeeded in entering the ranks of the "Immortals" on 9 June 1938, replacing Henri-Robert, winning by 20 votes against 12 to Fernand Gregh. He was received in the Academy on 8 June 1939 by Catholic writer Henry Bordeaux.


title: Charles Maurras

text: In June 1940 articles in "Action Française" signed by Maurras, Léon Daudet, and Maurice Pujo praised General Charles de Gaulle. While Maurras described Marshal Philippe Pétain as a "divine surprise", the statement is usually quoted without context; Maurras was referring specifically to Pétain having political talent as well as being a symbol of France, and there is no evidence of the remark until February 1941.


title: Charles Maurras

text: It is Vichy France's reactionary program of a Révolution Nationale (National Revolution) that was fully approved of by Maurras, who inspired large parts of it. The monarchist newspaper was forbidden in the Occupied Zone and under Vichy censorship in the Southern Zone from November 1942. In "La Seule France" (1941) Maurras argued for a policy of "France d'abord" ("France First"), whereby France would restore itself politically and morally under Pétain, resolving the causes in his eyes of France's defeat in 1940, before dealing with the issue of the foreign occupation. This position was contrasted to the attitude of the Gaullists, who fled France and continued the military struggle. Maurras savaged the pre-war French governments for taking an increasingly bellicose position vis-à-vis Germany at precisely the same time that these governments were weakening France, militarily, socially and politically, thereby making France's defeat during 1940 all but inevitable. Maurras also criticized the 1940 Law on the status of Jews for being too moderate. At the same time, he continued to express elements of his longstanding antipathy towards Germany by arguing in "La Seule France" that Frenchmen must not be drawn to that country's model and by hosting anti-German conferences, and he opposed both the "dissidents" in London and the collaborators in Paris and Vichy (such as Lucien Rebatet, Robert Brasillach, Pierre Laval, or Marcel Déat). In 1943, the Germans planned to arrest Maurras.


title: Charles Maurras

text: A pre-war admirer of de Gaulle, who himself had been influenced by Maurras' integralism, Maurras then harshly criticized the General in exile. He later claimed he believed that Pétain was playing a "double game", working for an Allied victory in secret.


title: Charles Maurras

text: After the liberation of France, Maurras was arrested in September 1944 together with his right-hand man Maurice Pujo, and indicted before the High Court of Lyon for "complicity with the enemy" on the basis of the articles he had published since the beginning of the war. At the end of the trial, during which there were many irregularities such as false dating or truncated quotations, Maurras was sentenced to life imprisonment and deprivation of civil liberties. He was automatically dismissed from the Académie française (a measure included in the ordinance of 26 December 1944). His response to his conviction was to exclaim "C'est la revanche de Dreyfus!" ("It's Dreyfus's revenge!")


title: Charles Maurras

text: According to historian Eugen Weber, the trial against Maurras was political and was rigged against him. Weber writes that the jurors who were chosen for Maurras' case were taken from a list drawn up by his political enemies.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Meanwhile, the Académie française declared his seat vacant, as it had for Pétain's, instead of expelling him as it did for Abel Hermant and Abel Bonnard. (The academy waited until his death to elect his successor, and chose Antoine de Lévis-Mirepoix, who was himself influenced by Action Française and collaborated with Pierre Boutang's monarchist review "La Nation Française".)


title: Charles Maurras

text: After being imprisoned in Riom and then Clairvaux, Maurras was released in March 1952 to enter hospital. He was supported by Henry Bordeaux, who repeatedly asked the President of the Republic, Vincent Auriol, to pardon Maurras. Although weakened, Maurras collaborated with "Aspects de la France", which had replaced the outlawed review "Action Française" in 1947. He was transferred to a clinic in Tours, where he died soon afterwards. In his last days he readopted the Catholic faith of his childhood and received the last rites.


title: Charles Maurras

text: A Provence-born author, Maurras joined Félibrige, a literary and cultural association founded by Frédéric Mistral and other Provençal writers to defend and promote Occitan languages and literature. The name of the association was derived from "félibre", a Provençal word meaning pupil or follower.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Maurras' political ideas were based on intense nationalism (what he described as "integral nationalism") and a belief in an ordered society based on strong government. These were the bases of his endorsement for both a French monarchy and the Roman Catholic Church.


title: Charles Maurras

text: He formulated an aggressive political strategy, which contrasted with the Legitimists' apathy for political action. He managed to combine the paradox of a reactionary thought which would actively change history, a form of Counter-revolution opposed to simple conservatism. His "integral nationalism" rejected all democratic principles which he judged contrary to "natural inequality", criticizing all evolution since the 1789 French Revolution, and advocated the return to a hereditary monarchy.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Like many people in Europe at the time, he was haunted by the idea of "decadence", partly inspired by his reading of the publications of Hippolyte Taine and Ernest Renan, and admired classicism. He felt that France had lost its grandeur during the Revolution of 1789, a grandeur inherited from its origins as a province of the Roman Empire and forged by, as he put it, "forty kings who in a thousand years made France." The French Revolution, he wrote in the "Observateur Français", was negative and destructive.


title: Charles Maurras

text: He traced this decline further back, to the Enlightenment and the Reformation; he described the source of the evil as "Swiss ideas", a reference to the adopted nation of Calvin and the birth nation of Rousseau. Maurras further blamed France's decline on "Anti-France", which he defined as the "four confederate states of Protestants, Jews, Freemasons and foreigners" (his actual word for the latter being the xenophobic term "métèques"). Indeed, to him the first three were all "internal foreigners."


title: Charles Maurras

text: Antisemitism and anti-Protestantism were common themes in his writings. He believed that the Reformation, the Enlightenment, and the eventual outcome of the French Revolution had all contributed to individuals valuing themselves more than the nation, with consequent negative effects on the latter, and that democracy and liberalism were only making matters worse.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Although Maurras advocated the revival of monarchy, in many ways Maurras did not typify the French monarchist tradition. His endorsement of the monarchy and for Catholicism was explicitly pragmatic, as he alleged that a state religion was the only way of maintaining public order. By contrast with Maurice Barrès, a theorist of a kind of Romantic nationalism based on the Ego, Maurras claimed to base his opinions on reason rather than on sentiment, loyalty and faith.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Paradoxically, he admired the positivist philosopher Auguste Comte, like many of the Third Republic politicians he detested, with which he opposed German idealism. Whereas the Legitimist monarchists refused to engage in political action, retreating into an intransigently conservative Catholicism and a relative indifference to a modern world they believed was irredeemably wicked and apostate, Maurras was prepared to engage in political action, both orthodox and unorthodox (the Action Française's Camelots du Roi league frequently engaged in street violence with left-wing opponents, as well as Marc Sangnier's socialist Catholic Le Sillon). Maurras was twice convicted of inciting violence against Jewish politicians, and Léon Blum, the first Jewish French prime minister, nearly died from the injuries inflicted by associates of Maurras. His slogan was the phrase "La politique d'abord!" ("Politics first!"). Other influences included Frédéric Le Play, British empiricism, which allowed him to reconcile Cartesian rationalism with empiricism, and René de La Tour du Pin.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Maurras' religious views were likewise less than orthodox. He supported the political Catholic Church both because it was intimately involved with French history and because its hierarchical structure and clerical elite mirrored his image of an ideal society. He considered the Church to be the mortar which held France together, and the association linking all Frenchmen together. However, he distrusted the Gospels, written, as he put it, "by four obscure Jews", but admired the Catholic Church for having allegedly concealed much of the Bible's "dangerous teachings". Maurras' interpretation of the Gospels and his integralist teachings were fiercely criticised by many Catholic clergy. However, towards the end of his life Maurras eventually converted from agnosticism to Catholicism.


title: Charles Maurras

text: Notwithstanding his religious unorthodoxy, Maurras gained a large following among French monarchists and Catholics, including the Assumptionists and the Orleanist pretender to the French throne, the comte de Paris, Philippe. Nonetheless, his agnosticism worried parts of the Catholic hierarchy, and in 1926 Pope Pius XI placed some of Maurras's writings on the Index of Forbidden Books and condemned the Action Française philosophy as a whole. Seven of Maurras' books had already been placed on this list in 1914 and a dossier on Maurras had been submitted to Pius X.


title: Charles Maurras

text: It was not just his agnosticism which worried the Catholic hierarchy but that by insisting upon "politiques d'abord" he questioned the primacy of the spiritual and thus the teaching authority of the Church and the authority of the Pope himself. That this was the basis of the matter is shown by Jacques Maritain's book "Primauté du Spirituel". Maritain was associated with L'Action Française and knew Maurras. While his unease with the movement pre-dates the 1926 crisis, it was this which occasioned his alienation from Maurras and L'Action Française. This papal condemnation was a great surprise to many of his devotees, who included a considerable number of French clergy, and caused great damage to the movement. The papal ban was later ended by Pope Pius XII in 1939, a year after Maurras was elected to the "Académie française".


title: Charles Maurras

text: Maurras was a major intellectual influence of national Catholicism, far-right movements, Latin conservatism, and integral nationalism. He and the "Action Française" influenced many people and movements including General Francisco Franco, José Antonio Primo de Rivera, António Sardinha, Leon Degrelle, and autonomist movements in Europe. The Christian Democrat Jacques Maritain was also close to Maurras before the papal condemnation of the AF in 1927, and criticized democracy in one of his early writings, "Une opinion sur Charles Maurras ou le devoir des catholiques". Furthermore, Maurrassism also influenced many writings from members of the "Organisation armée secrète" who theorized "counter-revolutionary warfare". In Spain, the "Acción Española" adopted not only its far right monarchism but also its name from Maurras's movement.


title: Charles Maurras

text: The influence extended to Latin America, as in Mexico where Jesús Guiza y Acevedo was nicknamed "the little Maurras", as well as the historian Carlos Pereyra or the Venezuelan author Laureano Vallenilla Lanz, who wrote a book titled "Cesarismo democrático" (Democratic Caesarism). Other figures influenced include the Brazilian Plinio Corrêa de Oliveira. Maurras' thought also influenced Catholic fundamentalist supporters of the Brazilian dictatorship (1964–85) as well as the "Cursillos de la Cristiandad" (Christendom Courses), similar to the "Cité Catholique" group, which were initiated during 1950 by the bishop of Ciudad Real, Mgr. Hervé. The Argentine militarist Juan Carlos Onganía, who overthrew Arturo Illia in a military putsch in 1966, as well as Alejandro Agustín Lanusse, who succeeded Onganía after another coup, had participated in the "Cursillos de la Cristiandad", as did also the Dominican militarists Antonio Imbert Barrera and Elías Wessin y Wessin, chief of staff of the military and an opponent of the restoration of the 1963 Constitution after Rafael Trujillo was deposed. In Argentina he also influenced the nationalist writers of the 1920s and 1930s such as Rodolfo Irazusta and Juan Carulla.


title: Charles Maurras

text: In 2017, Michael Crowley wrote that Steve Bannon, then chief strategist to President Donald Trump, "has also expressed admiration for the reactionary French philosopher Charles Maurras, according to French media reports confirmed by "Politico"."


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: Eamonn Andrews, (19 December 1922 – 5 November 1987) was an Irish radio and television presenter, employed primarily in the United Kingdom from the 1950s to the 1980s. From 1960 to 1964 he chaired the Radio Éireann Authority (now the RTÉ Authority), which oversaw the introduction of a state television service in the Republic of Ireland.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: Andrews was born in Synge Street, Dublin, and educated at Synge Street CBS. He began his career as a clerk in an insurance office. He was a keen amateur boxer and won the Irish junior middleweight title in 1944.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: By 1944 he was the Hon. Secretary of St. Andrew's Boxing Club. In 1946 he became a full-time freelance sports commentator, working for Radio Éireann, Ireland's state broadcaster. In 1950, he began presenting programmes for the BBC, being particularly well known for boxing commentaries, and soon became one of television's most popular presenters. The following year, the game show "What's My Line?" began and Andrews was the host. He was also an occasional panellist and host of the original American version.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: Throughout the 1950s, he commentated on the major British heavyweight fights on the BBC Light Programme, with inter-round summaries by W. Barrington Dalby. On 20 January 1956, he reached No 18 in the UK Singles Chart with a "spoken narrative" recording named "The Shifting Whispering Sands (Parts 1 & 2)", which was produced by George Martin with musical backing by the Ron Goodwin Orchestra, released by Parlophone as catalogue number R 4106, a double-sided 78 rpm record. The song later reappeared on Kenny Everett's compilation album "The World's Worst Record Show", released in June 1978.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: Between 1955 and 1964, he presented the long-running "Sports Report" on the BBC Light Programme. In 1965, he left the BBC to join the ITV contractor ABC, where he pioneered the chat show format in the UK. He hosted "The Eamonn Andrews Show" on ITV for five years. He was known for coming up with off-the-cuff linkings that did not work, such as: "Speaking of cheese sandwiches, have you come far?" This was parodied by the character Seamus Android on "Round the Horne" in the 1960s, performed by Bill Pertwee. In the 1960s and 1970s he presented Thames Television's "Today" news magazine programme.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: He was probably best known as the presenter of the UK version of "This Is Your Life", between its inception in 1955 and his death in 1987, when he was succeeded by Michael Aspel (who had also succeeded Andrews as the host of "Crackerjack!" more than twenty years earlier). Andrews was the first "This Is Your Life" subject on British television when he was surprised by the show's creator, Ralph Edwards. Andrews also created a long-running panel game called "Whose Baby?" that originally ran on the BBC and later on ITV. He was a regular presenter of the early Miss World pageants.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: Andrews chaired the Radio Éireann Authority (now the RTÉ Authority) between 1960 and 1964, overseeing the introduction of state television to the Republic of Ireland and establishing the broadcaster as an independent semi-state body. At about this time, he also acquired a number of business interests in Ireland, including recording studios and a dance hall. Andrews stepped down from the RTÉ Authority amidst a bitter political storm over what was seen as the controversial content of "The Late Late Show". Before leaving RTÉ, Andrews defended the show as 'freedom of expression'.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: After months of illness during 1987, originally caused by a virus contracted during a plane journey, Andrews died from heart failure on 5 November 1987 aged 64 at the Cromwell Hospital in London.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: He had recorded his last edition of "This Is Your Life" six days before on 30 October 1987. After his death, the show, and two others that had yet to be broadcast, were postponed until, with his widow's permission, they were broadcast in January 1988.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: A funeral service was held for Andrews at St Anne's Church in Portmarnock where he had his home, and his body was buried in Balgriffin Cemetery to the north of Dublin. A memorial mass was held for him in Westminster Cathedral.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: For his work in British broadcasting, Andrews was awarded an honorary Commander of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire in 1970.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: Andrews' contribution to radio in the United Kingdom is commemorated in the Radio Academy Hall of Fame.


title: Eamonn Andrews

text: Andrews appears as a character in Series 8, Episode 1, of the television detective series "Endeavour". Andrews, played by Lewis Macleod, surprises a celebrity footballer during a fashion show in Oxford. Andrews also served as the namesake for a song by English progressive rock band Soft Machine.


title: Molality

text: Molality is a measure of the number of moles of solute in a solution corresponding to 1 kg or 1000 g of solvent. This contrasts with the definition of molarity which is based on a specified volume of solution.


title: Molality

text: A commonly used unit for molality in chemistry is mol/kg. A solution of concentration 1 mol/kg is also sometimes denoted as "1 molal". The unit "mol/kg" requires that molar mass be expressed in "kg/mol", instead of the usual "g/mol" or "kg/kmol".


title: Molality

text: The molality ("b"), of a solution is defined as the amount of substance (in moles) of solute, "n", divided by the mass (in kg) of the solvent, "m":


title: Molality

text: In the case of solutions with more than one solvent, molality can be defined for the mixed solvent considered as a pure pseudo-solvent. Instead of mole solute per kilogram solvent as in the binary case, units are defined as mole solute per kilogram mixed solvent.


title: Molality

text: The term "molality" is formed in analogy to "molarity" which is the molar concentration of a solution. The earliest known use of the intensive property molality and of its adjectival unit, the now-deprecated "molal", appears to have been published by G. N. Lewis and M. Randall in the 1923 publication of "Thermodynamics and the Free Energies of Chemical Substances." Though the two terms are subject to being confused with one another, the molality and molarity of a dilute aqueous solution are nearly the same, as one kilogram of water (solvent) occupies the volume of 1 liter at room temperature and a small amount of solute has little effect on the volume.


title: Molality

text: A solution with a molality of 3 mol/kg is often described as "3 molal", "3 m" or "3 "m"". However, following the SI system of units, the National Institute of Standards and Technology, the United States authority on measurement, considers the term "molal" and the unit symbol "m" to be obsolete, and suggests mol/kg or a related unit of the SI.


title: Molality

text: The primary advantage of using molality as a measure of concentration is that molality only depends on the masses of solute and solvent, which are unaffected by variations in temperature and pressure. In contrast, solutions prepared volumetrically (e.g. molar concentration or mass concentration) are likely to change as temperature and pressure change. In many applications, this is a significant advantage because the mass, or the amount, of a substance is often more important than its volume (e.g. in a limiting reagent problem).


title: Molality

text: Unlike all the other compositional properties listed in "Relation" section (below), molality "depends" on the choice of the substance to be called “solvent” in an arbitrary mixture. If there is only one pure liquid substance in a mixture, the choice is clear, but not all solutions are this clear-cut: in an alcohol–water solution, either one could be called the solvent; in an alloy, or solid solution, there is no clear choice and all constituents may be treated alike. In such situations, mass or mole fraction is the preferred compositional specification.


title: Molality

text: In what follows, the solvent may be given the same treatment as the other constituents of the solution, such that the molality of the solvent of an "n"-solute solution, say "b", is found to be nothing more than the reciprocal of its molar mass, "M" (expressed as kg/mol):


title: Molality

text: The expressions linking molalities to mass fractions and mass concentrations contain the molar masses of the solutes "M":


title: Molality

text: Similarly the equalities below are obtained from the definitions of the molalities and of the other compositional quantities.


title: Molality

text: The mole fraction of solvent can be obtained from the definition by dividing the numerator and denominator to the amount of solvent n:


title: Molality

text: Then the sum of ratios of the other mole amounts to the amount of solvent is substituted with expressions from below containing molalities:


title: Molality

text: More generally, for an "n"-solute/one-solvent solution, letting "b" and "w" be, respectively, the molality and mass fraction of the "i"-th solute,


title: Molality

text: where "M" is the molar mass of the "i"th solute, and "w" is the mass fraction of the solvent, which is expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the other mass fractions,


title: Molality

text: The conversions to and from the mole fraction, "x" mole fraction of the solute in a single-solute solution are


title: Molality

text: More generally, for an "n"-solute/one-solvent solution, letting "x" be the mole fraction of the "i"th solute,


title: Molality

text: where "x" is the mole fraction of the solvent, expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the other mole fractions:


title: Molality

text: where "ρ" is the mass density of the solution, "b" is the molality, and "M" is the molar mass (in kg/mol) of the solute.


title: Molality

text: where the molar concentration of the solvent "c" is expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the other molarities:


title: Molality

text: where "ρ" is the mass density of the solution, "b" is the molality, and "M" is the molar mass of the solute.


title: Molality

text: For the general "n"-solute solution, the mass concentration of the "i"th solute, "ρ", is related to its molality, "b", as follows:


title: Molality

text: where the mass concentration of the solvent, "ρ", is expressible both as a function of the molalities as well as a function of the other mass concentrations: