title: Executive privilege

text: Leaders of the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) testified on February 4, 2009 before the United States House Committee on Financial Services subcommittee. The subject of the hearings was why the SEC had failed to act when Harry Markopolos, a private fraud investigator from Boston, alerted the SEC, detailing his persistent and unsuccessful efforts to get the SEC to investigate Bernard Madoff beginning in 1999. One official claimed executive privilege in declining to answer some questions.


title: Executive privilege

text: While investigating claims of Russian interference in the 2016 presidential election, the Senate Intelligence Committee subpoenaed former FBI Director James Comey to testify. Comey was fired several weeks before being subpoenaed but had appeared before the committee once before in March while still serving as director. Less than a week before the scheduled hearing, it was reported that President Trump was considering invoking executive privilege to prevent Comey's testimony. According to attorney Page Pate, it seemed unlikely that executive privilege would be applicable, as Trump had publicly spoken about the encounters in question multiple times.


title: Executive privilege

text: Sarah Huckabee Sanders, a White House spokesperson, released a statement on June 5: "The president's power to assert executive privilege is very well-established. However, in order to facilitate a swift and thorough examination of the facts sought by the Senate Intelligence Committee, President Trump will not assert executive privilege regarding James Comey's scheduled testimony."


title: Executive privilege

text: On May 8, 2019, Trump asserted executive privilege regarding the full Mueller report at the request of the attorney general. According to "The New York Times", this was Trump's "first use of the secrecy powers as president".


title: Executive privilege

text: On June 12, 2019, Trump asserted executive privilege over documents related to the addition of a citizenship question on the 2020 census. This was in response to a subpoena from the House of Representatives leading up to their impending vote over whether to hold Wilbur Ross and Attorney General William Barr in contempt of Congress over the census question.


title: Executive privilege

text: The privilege was invoked by Trump against the House Judiciary Committee: "" U.S. District Judge Ketanji Brown Jackson ruled against the President, but an appellate court overruled Jackson.


title: Executive privilege

text: The ability of Congress to subpoena the tax returns of the President is the subject of the federal court case "Trump v. Mazars USA, LLP", though the Supreme Court ruled in 2020 that this case raised questions of separation of powers rather than executive privilege. It said Congress needed a legislative reason to request the documents, rather than conducting a criminal investigation, which is a power of the executive branch.


title: Teeth blackening

text: Teeth blackening or teeth lacquering is a custom of dyeing one's teeth black. It was most predominantly practiced in Southeast Asian and Oceanic cultures, particularly among Austronesian, Austroasiatic, and Kra–Dai-speaking peoples. It was also practiced in Japan prior to the Meiji era, as well as in India. It was also performed among some groups in the Americas, most notably among the Shuar people of northern Peru and Ecuador.


title: Teeth blackening

text: Teeth blackening is usually done during puberty. It was primarily done to preserve the teeth into old age, as it prevents tooth decay similar to the mechanism of modern dental sealants. It was seen as a sign of maturity, beauty, and civilization. A common belief is that blackened teeth differentiated humans from animals. Teeth blackening is often done in conjunction with traditions of tooth sharpening and dental evulsion, as well as other body modification customs like tattoos. Teeth blackening and filing were regarded with fascination and disapproval by early European explorers and colonists.


title: Teeth blackening

text: The practice survives in some isolated ethnic groups in Southeast Asia and Oceania but has mostly disappeared after the introduction of Western beauty standards during the colonial era, and continues among many minority groups in China, Pacific Islands and Southeast Asia. It is mainly prevalent in older women, though the practice is still carried on by some younger women. Sometimes artificial teeth are used to achieve blackened teeth.


title: Teeth blackening

text: Teeth blackening is commonly confused with the red-stained teeth from betel chewing. However, betel chewing damages the teeth and gums, while teeth blackening does not.


title: Teeth blackening

text: In Japan, teeth blackening is known as . existed in one form or another for hundreds of years, and was seen amongst the population as beautiful until the end of the Meiji period (1868–1911). Objects that were pitch black, such as glaze-like lacquer, were seen as beautiful.


title: Teeth blackening

text: The word was an aristocratic term. There is an alternate term for , . At the old Imperial palace in Kyoto, it was called . Among civilians, such words as , and were used.


title: Teeth blackening

text: Traces of blackened teeth can be seen in the buried bones and of the Kofun period (300–538 CE). References to exist in "The Tale of Genji" and . At the end of the Heian period, at the time when aristocratic men and woman reached puberty and celebrated their or , the Taira clan and other samurai, and pages working at large temples, dyed their teeth. In particular, the Imperial family and other high-ranking aristocrats who had finished their (ceremony where a child is fitted with a ) blackened their teeth and painted their eyebrows (). This was done in the Imperial household until the end of the Edo era.


title: Teeth blackening

text: In the Muromachi period (1336–1573), was generally seen among adults, though when the Sengoku period (1467–1615) began, so as to prepare for political marriages of convenience, when the daughters of military commanders were around 8 to 10 years old, they would blacken their teeth as a marking of their coming of age. Relatives and guardians of the bride who blackened their teeth were called . It is said that military commanders who were struck in the head on the battlefield and who did not want to be ugly would wear average women's makeup and would blacken their teeth. These faces imitated the Noh masks of women and young boys.


title: Teeth blackening

text: After the Edo period (1603–1867), only men of the Imperial House of Japan and the aristocracy blackened their teeth. Due to the odor and labor required for the process, as well as a feeling among young women that they were ageing, was done only by married women, unmarried women who were older than 18, sex workers and geisha. For rural people, was done only at times of special celebrations, such as Japanese festivals, wedding ceremonies, and funerals. There were also depictions of in fairy tales, such as "Gon, the Little Fox".


title: Teeth blackening

text: On February 5, 1870, the government banned and the process gradually became obsolete. After the Meiji period, it temporarily spread, but it almost entirely died out in the Taishō period (1912–1926).


title: Teeth blackening

text: In contemporary times, the only places where can be seen is in plays, on some older apprentice geisha, some festivals, and movies.


title: Teeth blackening

text: In Vietnam, tooth painting was practiced by the majority Vietnamese people as well as by minority ethnic groups. Si La men paint their teeth red and the women paint theirs black. This practice has slowly declined with each new generation. The Baiyue in southern China and northern Vietnam also practiced teeth blackening. When Han Chinese ruled the Vietnamese in the Fourth Chinese domination of Vietnam due to the Ming dynasty's conquest during the Ming–Hồ War, they imposed the Han Chinese style of men wearing long hair on short haired Vietnamese men. The Vietnamese people were ordered to stop cutting and instead grow their hair long and switch to Han Chinese clothing in only a month by a Ming official. Ming administrators said their mission was to "civilize" the unorthodox, by Han Chinese standards, appearance of the Vietnamese.


title: Teeth blackening

text: The Ming dynasty only wanted the Vietnamese to wear long hair and to stop teeth blackening so they could have white teeth and long hair like Chinese. A royal edict was issued by Vietnam in 1474 forbidding Vietnamese from adopting foreign languages, hairstyles and clothes like that of the Lao, Champa or the "Northerners" which referred to the Ming. The edict was recorded in the 1479 Complete Chronicle of Dai Viet of Ngô Sĩ Liên.


title: Teeth blackening

text: In the Philippines, Spanish colonial official and historian, Antonio de Morga, recorded in his book, (1609), on how local men and women of the Philippines cared and presented themselves at the time. It was noted by Morga:


title: Teeth blackening

text: The late 19th century Filipino nationalist, writer, and polymath, José Rizal, commented in his annotations to Morga's account that: "This custom still exists... This custom exists also among the married women of Japan, as a Sign of their chastity. It is now falling into disuse."


title: Teeth blackening

text: Teeth blackening was practiced in Thailand since the very early kingdoms of Sukhothai, Lanna and Ayutthaya through betel chewing. The dark red black stain left on the teeth was considered a sign of beauty, and betel nut chewing was an activity performed during courtship.


title: Dijo Jose Antony

text: Dijo Jose Antony (born 25 August 1988) is an Indian film director and ad film maker, who works predominantly in Malayalam cinema. He debuted as a film director with the film "Queen" (2018) featuring newcomers. Dijo is also famous for conceptualising many ad films including the Kairali TMT's viral advertisement starring Mohanlal.


title: Dijo Jose Antony

text: Dijo Jose Antony was born in Ernakulam, Kerala on 25 August 1988 to Jose Antony and Deena Jose. He has two siblings, Deepu Jose and Deepti Jose. Dijo was educated at the Bhavan's Vidya Mandir, Girinagar and graduated in Electrical engineering from the Federal Institute of Science and Technology, Angamaly. Dijo began his media career in 2010 with a Malayalam musical album titled "La Cochin". In 2018, he debuted as a film director with the film "Queen" which featured many debutant artists and crew members. Dijo is also an ad film maker, making ads for various brands and corporates under the brand name La Cochin.


title: Dijo Jose Antony

text: In 2010, Dijo composed music and directed the musical album "La Cochin" which featured songs by renowned singers Vineeth Sreenivasan, Vidhu Prathap and Franco Simon. Later, Dijo ventured into making short films while managing his full time IT job. His short films won various accolades. In 2017, Dijo quit his IT career and joined the Malayalam film industry as a filmmaker. Dijo's first film "Queen" became a superhit and a much-discussed film of the year 2018. It spoke about social injustice towards young girls and the atrocities happen to women who are primarily cheerful and have male friends. Dijo is currently working on his second feature film "Jana Gana Mana" starring Prithviraj Sukumaran and Suraj Venjaramoodu in the lead. Another project with Tovino Thomas titled "Pallichattambi" has also been announced. His debut film, "Queen", has been remade into Tamil as "Friendship", starring cricketer Harbhajan Singh.


title: Debra Feuer

text: Debra Lee Feuer is an American former actress. She starred in the films "Moment by Moment", "The Hollywood Knights", "To Live and Die in L.A.", "MacGruder and Loud", "Il burbero", and "Homeboy"; the latter in which she starred with her then-husband Mickey Rourke.


title: Debra Feuer

text: In November 1978, Feuer portrayed Daisy Mae in an NBC-TV special, "Li'l Abner in Dogpatch Today". She also played a minor role as Becky Mae in the TV series "The Dukes of Hazzard", in the Season 2, Episode 6, "The Ghost of General Lee". She also played Sonny Crockett's love interest in the first two episodes of Season 5 of "Miami Vice".


title: Yong-pal

text: Yong-pal () is a 2015 South Korean drama series starring Joo Won, Kim Tae-hee, Chae Jung-an and Jo Hyun-jae. It aired on SBS from August 5 to October 1, 2015, on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21:55 for 18 episodes. Originally slated for 16 episodes, due to the high ratings and popularity of the drama, it was extended by two episodes.


title: Yong-pal

text: This drama reunites Kim Tae-hee and Jo Hyun-jae who first worked together in the 2004 drama "Forbidden Love".


title: Yong-pal

text: Kim Tae Hyun is a talented surgeon. Desperate for money to pay for his sister's medical bills, he adopts the code name Yong-pal and offers his medical skills to those in need of medical attention but who cannot do so publicly, dealing with criminals and corrupt plutocrats. Joining a team of corrupt physicians Kim rescues "sleeping beauty" Han Yeo Jin, a chaebol heiress, from a medically induced coma, leading to unintended consequences.


title: Yong-pal

text: Since it began airing, "Yong-pal" recorded steadily increasing viewership ratings, eventually hitting an impressive 20 percent by its sixth episode. It consistently topped other shows in its Wednesday-Thursday timeslot, eventually becoming one of the top-rated Korean drama primetime miniseries of 2015.


title: Yong-pal

text: There was a talk that the drama "Yong-pal" which starred Joo Won and Kim Tae-hee could be remade for American audiences. It was reported in December 2015 that a Russian remake produced by Sony Pictures Studios was in development.


title: Aligarh (film)

text: Aligarh is a 2015 Indian biographical drama film directed by Hansal Mehta and written by Apurva Asrani. It stars Manoj Bajpayee and Rajkummar Rao in the lead roles.


title: Aligarh (film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the 20th Busan International Film Festival, receiving a standing ovation. The film was released worldwide on 26 February 2016 to critical acclaim. Bajpayee won critical acclaim and a Filmfare Critics Award for Best Actor for his portrayal of Ramchandra Siras.


title: Aligarh (film)

text: Set in the city of Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh, it is the true story of Ramchandra Siras, a professor of Marathi and the head of the Classical Modern Indian Languages Faculty at the famed Aligarh Muslim University, who was suspended on grounds of morality. He was also sacked from his position of Reader and Chair of Modern Indian Languages. The film starts at the moment when the professor's privacy is invaded by a film crew from a local TV station who forcibly enter his house and film him having sex with a male rickshaw-puller. Siras is forced to leave his housing at the university and is suspended from his job. He is contacted by a journalist who is sympathetic to him, and his case is taken up in court. The court rules in his favor and Siras' suspension is revoked, but before he can return to work,


title: Aligarh (film)

text: The film was shot in various parts of Uttar Pradesh including Aligarh, Gorakhpur, Agra, Bareilly and Greater Noida (C-Block; Sector – Gamma 1). Wherein Greater Noida a small indoor sequence was shot for 3–4 days by Rajkumar Rao.


title: Aligarh (film)

text: "Aligarh" had its European première at the 59th BFI London Film Festival on 10 October 2015. The response was generally superlative and the film garnered excellent reviews. "Screen International" in its review called it a "A subtle, sensitive take on a controversial real-life court case involving the victimization of a gay college professor, Aligarh underscores the growing strength and diversity of Indian independent cinema".


title: Aligarh (film)

text: The British Film Institute, in its 'Whats On' review of "Aligarh" called it "Probably the best film yet on the Indian gay male experience, Hansal Mehta directs a riveting and nuanced tale that is as touching as it is powerful." "Aligarh" had its India première in Mumbai at the 17th Jio MAMI Mumbai Film Festival on 30 October 2015. It also has the honour of being the only Indian film to open the festival since its inception. The response was once again overwhelming. Meenakshi Shedde, South Asia Consultant to the Berlin Film Festival and award-winning critic, had this to say about in her "Mid-Day" review: ""Aligarh" is masterfully directed: it is that rare film that courageously stands for human rights, including those of homosexuals, yet offers a quiet, distilled perspective." Columnist Aseem Chhabra in his rediff.com review said "Aligarh is a very important film, a milestone in the history of Indian cinema that should start the much-needed conversation about how India treats a visible and yet often ignored minority group."


title: Aligarh (film)

text: Gay rights activist and editor of "Bombay Dost" magazine, Ashok Row Kavi, in his Firstpost.com review called "Aligarh" "a masterpiece of cinematic skills" and went on to say "What Mehta and writer Apurva Asrani have done is pluck out a commonplace professor in a commonplace university and weave a true life story into a tapestry of terrifying, compelling drama." "Indian Express" gave 3.5 rating out of 5.


title: Polyneuropathy

text: Polyneuropathy (poly- + neuro- + -pathy) is damage or disease affecting peripheral nerves (peripheral neuropathy) in roughly the same areas on both sides of the body, featuring weakness, numbness, and burning pain. It usually begins in the hands and feet and may progress to the arms and legs and sometimes to other parts of the body where it may affect the autonomic nervous system. It may be acute or chronic. A number of different disorders may cause polyneuropathy, including diabetes and some types of Guillain–Barré syndrome.


title: Polyneuropathy

text: Polyneuropathies may be classified in different ways, such as by "cause", by "presentation", or by "classes" of polyneuropathy, in terms of which part of the nerve cell is affected mainly: the axon, the myelin sheath, or the cell body.


title: Polyneuropathy

text: Among the signs/symptoms of polyneuropathy, which can be divided (into sensory and hereditary) and are consistent with the following:


title: Polyneuropathy

text: The causes of polyneuropathy can be divided into hereditary and acquired and are therefore as follows:


title: Polyneuropathy

text: In regard to the pathophysiology of polyneuropathy, of course, the former depends on "which" polyneuropathy. For instance in the case of chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy, one finds that it is an autoimmune disease. Here, T cells involvement has been demonstrated, while in terms of demyelination, antibodies alone are not capable.


title: Polyneuropathy

text: The diagnosis of polyneuropathies begins with a history and physical examination to ascertain the pattern of the disease process (such as-arms, legs, distal, proximal) if they fluctuate, and what deficits and pain are involved. If pain is a factor, determining where and how long the pain has been present is important, one also needs to know what disorders are present within the family and what diseases the person may have. Although diseases often are suggested by the physical examination and history alone, tests that may be employed include: electrodiagnostic testing, serum protein electrophoresis, nerve conduction studies, urinalysis, serum creatine kinase (CK) and antibody testing (nerve biopsy is sometimes done).


title: Polyneuropathy

text: Other tests may be used, especially tests for specific disorders associated with polyneuropathies, quality measures have been developed to diagnose patients with distal symmetrical polyneuropathy (DSP).


title: Polyneuropathy

text: In the treatment of polyneuropathies one must ascertain and manage the cause, among management activities are: weight decrease, use of a walking aid, and occupational therapist assistance. Additionally, BP control in those with diabetes is helpful, while intravenous immunoglobulin is used for multifocal motor neuropathy.


title: Polyneuropathy

text: According to Lopate, et al., methylprednisolone is a viable treatment for chronic inflammatory demyelinative polyneuropathy (which can also be treated with intravenous immunoglobulin). The authors also indicate that prednisone has greater adverse effects in such treatment, as opposed to intermittent (high-doses) of the aforementioned medication.


title: Polyneuropathy

text: According to Wu, et al., in critical illness polyneuropathy supportive and preventive therapy are important for the affected individual, as well as, avoiding (or limiting) corticosteroids.


title: Clare-Hope Ashitey

text: Clare-Hope Ashitey (born 12 February 1987) is an English actress. She attended the Centre Stage School of Performing Arts, Southgate while being educated at The Latymer School, located in the Edmonton area of London, for seven years.


title: Clare-Hope Ashitey

text: She took a gap year between school and university to work on the film "Children of Men" (2006). In 2018, she starred in the Netflix Original crime drama series "Seven Seconds".


title: Clare-Hope Ashitey

text: Ashitey was born in Enfield to Tina, a medical secretary, and Paul, a dentist, who are both from Ghana, and has an older sister (Grace, who studied at the University of Warwick), and an older brother. Ashitey attended Brimsdown primary school in Brimsdown, Enfield before being educated at The Latymer School in Edmonton, North London. She graduated in anthropology from SOAS, University of London in 2009.


title: Kelp forest

text: Kelp forests are underwater areas with a high density of kelp, which covers a large part of the world's coastlines. Smaller areas of anchored kelp are called kelp beds. They are recognized as one of the most productive and dynamic ecosystems on Earth. Although algal kelp forest combined with coral reefs only cover 0.1% of Earth's total surface, they account for 0.9% of global primary productivity. Kelp forests occur worldwide throughout temperate and polar coastal oceans. In 2007, kelp forests were also discovered in tropical waters near Ecuador.


title: Kelp forest

text: Physically formed by brown macroalgae, kelp forests provide a unique habitat for marine organisms and are a source for understanding many ecological processes. Over the last century, they have been the focus of extensive research, particularly in trophic ecology, and continue to provoke important ideas that are relevant beyond this unique ecosystem. For example, kelp forests can influence coastal oceanographic patterns and provide many ecosystem services.


title: Kelp forest

text: However, the influence of humans has often contributed to kelp forest degradation. Of particular concern are the effects of overfishing nearshore ecosystems, which can release herbivores from their normal population regulation and result in the overgrazing of kelp and other algae. This can rapidly result in transitions to barren landscapes where relatively few species persist. Already due to the combined effects of overfishing and climate change, kelp forests have almost disappeared in many especially vulnerable places, such as Tasmania's east coast and the coast of Northern California. The implementation of marine protected areas is one management strategy useful for addressing such issues, since it may limit the impacts of fishing and buffer the ecosystem from additive effects of other environmental stressors.


title: Kelp forest

text: The term kelp refers to marine algae belonging to the order Laminariales (phylum: Ochrophyta). Though not considered a taxonomically diverse order, kelps are highly diverse structurally and functionally. The most widely recognized species are the giant kelps ("Macrocystis" spp.), although numerous other genera such as "Laminaria", "Ecklonia", "Lessonia", "Nereocystis", "Alaria", and "Eisenia" are described.


title: Kelp forest

text: A wide range of sea life uses kelp forests for protection or food, including fish. In the North Pacific kelp forests, particularly rockfish, and many invertebrates, such as amphipods, shrimp, marine snails, bristle worms, and brittle stars. Many marine mammals and birds are also found, including seals, sea lions, whales, sea otters, gulls, terns, snowy egrets, great blue herons, and cormorants, as well as some shore birds.


title: Kelp forest

text: Frequently considered an ecosystem engineer, kelp provides a physical substrate and habitat for kelp forest communities. In algae (kingdom Protista), the body of an individual organism is known as a thallus rather than as a plant (kingdom Plantae). The morphological structure of a kelp thallus is defined by three basic structural units:


title: Kelp forest

text: In addition, many kelp species have pneumatocysts, or gas-filled bladders, usually located at the base of fronds near the stipe. These structures provide the necessary buoyancy for kelp to maintain an upright position in the water column.


title: Kelp forest

text: The environmental factors necessary for kelp to survive include hard substrate (usually rock or sand), high nutrients (e.g., nitrogen, phosphorus), and light (minimum annual irradiance dose > 50 E m). Especially productive kelp forests tend to be associated with areas of significant oceanographic upwelling, a process that delivers cool, nutrient-rich water from depth to the ocean's mixed surface layer. Water flow and turbulence facilitate nutrient assimilation across kelp fronds throughout the water column. Water clarity affects the depth to which sufficient light can be transmitted. In ideal conditions, giant kelp ("Macrocystis" spp.) can grow as much as 30–60 cm vertically per day. Some species, such as "Nereocystis", are annuals, while others such as "Eisenia" are perennials, living for more than 20 years. In perennial kelp forests, maximum growth rates occur during upwelling months (typically spring and summer) and die-backs correspond to reduced nutrient availability, shorter photoperiods, and increased storm frequency.


title: Kelp forest

text: Kelps are primarily associated with temperate and arctic waters worldwide. Of the more dominant genera, "Laminaria" is mainly associated with both sides of the Atlantic Ocean and the coasts of China and Japan; "Ecklonia" is found in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa; and "Macrocystis" occurs throughout the northeastern and southeastern Pacific Ocean, Southern Ocean archipelagos, and in patches around Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa. The region with the greatest diversity of kelps (>20 species) is the northeastern Pacific, from north of San Francisco, California, to the Aleutian Islands, Alaska.


title: Kelp forest

text: Although kelp forests are unknown in tropical surface waters, a few species of "Laminaria" have been known to occur exclusively in tropical deep waters. This general absence of kelp from the tropics is believed to be mostly due to insufficient nutrient levels associated with warm, oligotrophic waters. One recent study spatially overlaid the requisite physical parameters for kelp with mean oceanographic conditions and produced a model predicting the existence of subsurface kelps throughout the tropics worldwide to depths of . For a hotspot in the Galapagos Islands, the local model was improved with fine-scale data and tested; the research team found thriving kelp forests in all eight of their sampled sites, all of which had been predicted by the model, thus validated their approach. This suggests that their global model might actually be fairly accurate, and if so, kelp forests would be prolific in tropical subsurface waters worldwide. The importance of this contribution has been rapidly acknowledged within the scientific community and has prompted an entirely new trajectory of kelp forest research, highlighting the potential for kelp forests to provide marine organisms spatial refuge under climate change and providing possible explanations for evolutionary patterns of kelps worldwide.


title: Kelp forest

text: The architecture of a kelp forest ecosystem is based on its physical structure, which influences the associated species that define its community structure. Structurally, the ecosystem includes three guilds of kelp and two guilds occupied by other algae:


title: Kelp forest

text: Multiple kelp species often co-exist within a forest; the term understory canopy refers to the stipitate and prostrate kelps. For example, a "Macrocystis" canopy may extend many meters above the seafloor towards the ocean surface, while an understory of the kelps "Eisenia" and "Pterygophora" reaches upward only a few meters. Beneath these kelps, a benthic assemblage of foliose red algae may occur. The dense vertical infrastructure with overlying canopy forms a system of microenvironments similar to those observed in a terrestrial forest, with a sunny canopy region, a partially shaded middle, and darkened seafloor. Each guild has associated organisms, which vary in their levels of dependence on the habitat, and the assemblage of these organisms can vary with kelp morphologies. For example, in California, "Macrocystis pyrifera" forests, the nudibranch "Melibe leonina", and skeleton shrimp "Caprella californica" are closely associated with surface canopies; the kelp perch "Brachyistius frenatus", rockfish "Sebastes" spp., and many other fishes are found within the stipitate understory; brittle stars and turban snails "Tegula" spp. are closely associated with the kelp holdfast, while various herbivores, such as sea urchins and abalone, live under the prostrate canopy; many seastars, hydroids, and benthic fishes live among the benthic assemblages; solitary corals, various gastropods, and echinoderms live over the encrusting coralline algae. In addition, pelagic fishes and marine mammals are loosely associated with kelp forests, usually interacting near the edges as they visit to feed on resident organisms.


title: Kelp forest

text: Classic studies in kelp forest ecology have largely focused on trophic interactions (the relationships between organisms and their food webs), particularly the understanding and top-down trophic processes. Bottom-up processes are generally driven by the abiotic conditions required for primary producers to grow, such as availability of light and nutrients, and the subsequent transfer of energy to consumers at higher trophic levels. For example, the occurrence of kelp is frequently correlated with oceanographic upwelling zones, which provide unusually high concentrations of nutrients to the local environment. This allows kelp to grow and subsequently support herbivores, which in turn support consumers at higher trophic levels. By contrast, in top-down processes, predators limit the biomass of species at lower trophic levels through consumption. In the absence of predation, these lower-level species flourish because resources that support their energetic requirements are not limiting. In a well-studied example from Alaskan kelp forests, sea otters ("Enhydra lutris") control populations of herbivorous sea urchins through predation. When sea otters are removed from the ecosystem (for example, by human exploitation), urchin populations are released from predatory control and grow dramatically. This leads to increased herbivore pressure on local kelp stands. Deterioration of the kelp itself results in the loss of physical ecosystem structure and subsequently, the loss of other species associated with this habitat. In Alaskan kelp forest ecosystems, sea otters are the keystone species that mediates this trophic cascade. In Southern California, kelp forests persist without sea otters and the control of herbivorous urchins is instead mediated by a suite of predators including lobsters and large fishes, such as the California sheephead. The effect of removing one predatory species in this system differs from Alaska because redundancy exists in the trophic levels and other predatory species can continue to regulate urchins. However, the removal of multiple predators can effectively release urchins from predator pressure and allow the system to follow trajectories towards kelp forest degradation. Similar examples exist in Nova Scotia, South Africa, Australia, and Chile. The relative importance of top-down versus bottom-up control in kelp forest ecosystems and the strengths of trophic interactions continue to be the subject of considerable scientific investigation.


title: Kelp forest

text: The transition from macroalgal (i.e. kelp forest) to denuded landscapes dominated by sea urchins (or ‘urchin barrens’) is a widespread phenomenon, often resulting from trophic cascades like those described above; the two phases are regarded as alternative stable states of the ecosystem. The recovery of kelp forests from barren states has been documented following dramatic perturbations, such as urchin disease or large shifts in thermal conditions. Recovery from intermediate states of deterioration is less predictable and depends on a combination of abiotic factors and biotic interactions in each case.


title: Kelp forest

text: Though urchins are usually the dominant herbivores, others with significant interaction strengths include seastars, isopods, kelp crabs, and herbivorous fishes. In many cases, these organisms feed on kelp that has been dislodged from substrate and drifts near the ocean floor rather than expend energy searching for intact thalli on which to feed. When sufficient drift kelp is available, herbivorous grazers do not exert pressure on attached plants; when drift subsidies are unavailable, grazers directly impact the physical structure of the ecosystem. Many studies in Southern California have demonstrated that the availability of drift kelp specifically influences the foraging behavior of sea urchins. Drift kelp and kelp-derived particulate matter have also been important in subsidizing adjacent habitats, such as sandy beaches and the rocky intertidal.


title: Kelp forest

text: Another major area of kelp forest research has been directed at understanding the spatial-temporal patterns of kelp patches. Not only do such dynamics affect the physical landscape, but they also affect species that associate with kelp for refuge or foraging activities. Large-scale environmental disturbances have offered important insights concerning mechanisms and ecosystem resilience. Examples of environmental disturbances include:


title: Kelp forest

text: In addition to ecological monitoring of kelp forests before, during, and after such disturbances, scientists try to tease apart the intricacies of kelp forest dynamics using experimental manipulations. By working on smaller spatial-temporal scales, they can control for the presence or absence of specific biotic and abiotic factors to discover the operative mechanisms. For example, in southern Australia, manipulations of kelp canopy types demonstrated that the relative amount of "Ecklonia radiata" in a canopy could be used to predict understory species assemblages; consequently, the proportion of "E. radiata" can be used as an indicator of other species occurring in the environment.


title: Kelp forest

text: Kelp forests have been important to human existence for thousands of years. Indeed, many now theorise that the first colonisation of the Americas was due to fishing communities following the Pacific kelp forests during the last ice age. One theory contends that the kelp forests that would have stretched from northeast Asia to the American Pacific coast would have provided many benefits to ancient boaters. The kelp forests would have provided many sustenance opportunities, as well as acting as a type of buffer from rough water. Besides these benefits, researchers believe that the kelp forests might have helped early boaters navigate, acting as a type of "kelp highway". Theorists also suggest that the kelp forests would have helped these ancient colonists by providing a stable way of life and preventing them from having to adapt to new ecosystems and develop new survival methods even as they traveled thousands of miles. Modern economies are based on fisheries of kelp-associated species such as lobster and rockfish. Humans can also harvest kelp directly to feed aquaculture species such as abalone and to extract the compound alginic acid, which is used in products like toothpaste and antacids. Kelp forests are valued for recreational activities such as SCUBA diving and kayaking; the industries that support these sports represent one benefit related to the ecosystem and the enjoyment derived from these activities represents another. All of these are examples of ecosystem services provided specifically by kelp forests. The Monterey Bay aquarium was the first aquarium to exhibit an alive kelp forest.


title: Kelp forest

text: Kelp forests grow in rocky places along the shore that are constantly eroding carrying material out to the deep sea. The kelp then sinks to the ocean floor and store the carbon where is it unlikely to be disturbed by human activity. Researchers from the University of Western Australia estimated kelp forest around Australia sequestered 1.3-2.8 teragrams of carbon per year which is 27–34% of the total annual blue carbon sequestered in the Australian continent by tidal marshes, mangrove forests and seagrass beds. Every year 200 million tons of carbon dioxide are being sequestered by macroalgae such as kelp.


title: Kelp forest

text: Given the complexity of kelp forests – their variable structure, geography, and interactions – they pose a considerable challenge to environmental managers. Extrapolating even well-studied trends to the future is difficult because interactions within the ecosystem will change under variable conditions, not all relationships in the ecosystem are understood, and the nonlinear thresholds to transitions are not yet recognized. With respect to kelp forests, major issues of concern include marine pollution and water quality, kelp harvesting and fisheries, invasive species, and climate change. The most pressing threat to kelp forest preservation may be the overfishing of coastal ecosystems, which by removing higher trophic levels facilitates their shift to depauperate urchin barrens. The maintenance of biodiversity is recognized as a way of generally stabilizing ecosystems and their services through mechanisms such as functional compensation and reduced susceptibility to foreign species invasions. More recently, the 2022 IPCC report states that kelp and other seaweeds in most regions are undergoing mass mortalities from high temperature extremes and range shifts from warming, as they are stationary and cannot adapt quick enough to deal with the rapidly increasing temperature of the Earth and thus, the ocean.


title: Kelp forest

text: In many places, managers have opted to regulate the harvest of kelp and/or the taking of kelp forest species by fisheries. While these may be effective in one sense, they do not necessarily protect the entirety of the ecosystem. Marine protected areas (MPAs) offer a unique solution that encompasses not only target species for harvesting, but also the interactions surrounding them and the local environment as a whole. Direct benefits of MPAs to fisheries (for example, spillover effects) have been well documented around the world. Indirect benefits have also been shown for several cases among species such as abalone and fishes in Central California. Most importantly, MPAs can be effective at protecting existing kelp forest ecosystems and may also allow for the regeneration of those that have been affected.


title: Kelp forest

text: Kelp bed recovery efforts in California are primarily focusing on sea urchin removal, both by scuba divers, and by sea otters, which are natural predators.


title: Kelp forest

text: A brown algae, "Sargassum horneri", an invasive species first spotted in 2003, has also been a concern.


title: Kelp forest

text: Researchers at the Bodega Marine Laboratory of UC Davis are developing replanting strategies, and volunteers of the Orange County Coastkeeper group are replanting giant kelp. Humboldt State University began cultivating bull kelp in its research farm in 2021.


title: Kelp forest

text: Research efforts at the state level to prevent kelp forest collapse in California were announced in July 2020.


title: Kelp forest

text: At the federal level, H.R. 4458, the Keeping Ecosystems Living and Productive (KELP) Act, introduced July 29, 2021, seeks to establish a new grant program within NOAA for kelp forest restoration.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: Budd–Chiari syndrome is a very rare condition, affecting one in a million adults. The condition is caused by occlusion of the hepatic veins that drain the liver. It presents with the classical triad of abdominal pain, ascites, and liver enlargement. The formation of a blood clot within the hepatic veins can lead to Budd–Chiari syndrome. The syndrome can be fulminant, acute, chronic, or asymptomatic. Subacute presentation is the most common form.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: The acute syndrome presents with rapidly progressive severe upper abdominal pain, yellow discoloration of the skin and whites of the eyes, liver enlargement, enlargement of the spleen, fluid accumulation within the peritoneal cavity, elevated liver enzymes, and eventually encephalopathy. The fulminant syndrome presents early with encephalopathy and ascites. Liver cell death and severe lactic acidosis may be present as well. Caudate lobe enlargement is often present. The majority of patients have a slower-onset form of Budd–Chiari syndrome. This can be painless. A system of venous collaterals may form around the occlusion which may be seen on imaging as a "spider's web". Patients may progress to cirrhosis and show the signs of liver failure.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: Budd–Chiari syndrome is also seen in tuberculosis, congenital venous webs and occasionally in inferior vena caval stenosis.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: Often, the patient is known to have a tendency towards thrombosis, although Budd–Chiari syndrome can also be the first symptom of such a tendency. Examples of genetic tendencies include protein C deficiency, protein S deficiency, the Factor V Leiden mutation, hereditary anti-thrombin deficiency and prothrombin mutation G20210A. An important non-genetic risk factor is the use of estrogen-containing (combined) forms of hormonal contraception. Other risk factors include the antiphospholipid syndrome, aspergillosis, Behçet's disease, dacarbazine, pregnancy, and trauma.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: Many patients have Budd–Chiari syndrome as a complication of polycythemia vera (myeloproliferative disease of red blood cells). People who have paroxysmal nocturnal hemoglobinuria (PNH) appear to be especially at risk for Budd–Chiari syndrome, more than other forms of thrombophilia: up to 39% develop venous thromboses, and 12% may acquire Budd-Chiari.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: A related condition is veno-occlusive disease, which occurs in recipients of bone marrow transplants as a complication of their medication. Although its mechanism is similar, it is not considered a form of Budd–Chiari syndrome.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: Other toxicologic causes of veno-occlusive disease include plant & herbal sources of pyrrolizidine alkaloids such as Borage, Boneset, Coltsfoot, T'u-san-chi, Comfrey, Heliotrope (sunflower seeds), Gordolobo, Germander, and Chaparral.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: Any obstruction of the venous vasculature of the liver is referred to as Budd–Chiari syndrome, from the venules to the right atrium. This leads to increased portal vein and hepatic sinusoid pressures as the blood flow stagnates. The increased portal pressure causes increased filtration of vascular fluid with the formation of ascites in the abdomen and collateral venous flow through alternative veins leading to esophageal, gastric and rectal varices. Obstruction also causes centrilobular necrosis and peripheral lobule fatty change due to ischemia. If this condition persists chronically what is known as nutmeg liver will develop. Kidney failure may occur, perhaps due to the body sensing an "underfill" state and subsequent activation of the renin-angiotensin pathways and excess sodium retention.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: When Budd–Chiari syndrome is suspected, measurements are made of liver enzyme levels and other organ markers (creatinine, urea, electrolytes, LDH).


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: Budd–Chiari syndrome is most commonly diagnosed using ultrasound studies of the abdomen and retrograde angiography. Ultrasound may show obliteration of hepatic veins, thrombosis or stenosis, spiderweb vessels, large collateral vessels, or a hyperechoic cord replacing a normal vein. Computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is sometimes employed although these methods are generally not as sensitive. Liver biopsy is nonspecific but sometimes necessary to differentiate between Budd–Chiari syndrome and other causes of hepatomegaly and ascites, such as galactosemia or Reye's syndrome. Evaluation for a JAK2 V617F mutation is recommended.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: A minority of patients can be treated medically with sodium restriction, diuretics to control ascites, anticoagulants such as heparin and warfarin, and general symptomatic management. However, the majority of patients require further intervention. Milder forms of Budd–Chiari may be treated with surgical shunts to divert blood flow around the obstruction or the liver itself. Shunts must be placed early after diagnosis for best results. The TIPS is similar to a surgical shunt: it accomplishes the same goal but has a lower procedure-related mortality, a factor that has led to a growth in its popularity. TIPS (transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic shunt) has replaced shunt surgery as it is less invasive and overcomes intrahepatic outflow obstruction by diverting hepatic and portal blood flow to the inferior vena cava. It is very effective in treating ascites and preventing further variceal bleeding. If all the hepatic veins are blocked, the portal vein can be approached via the intrahepatic part of inferior vena cava, a procedure called DIPS (direct intrahepatic portocaval shunt). Patients with stenosis or vena caval obstruction may benefit from angioplasty. Limited studies on thrombolysis with direct infusion of urokinase and tissue plasminogen activator into the obstructed vein have shown moderate success in treating Budd–Chiari syndrome; however, it is not routinely attempted.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: Liver transplantation is an effective treatment for Budd–Chiari. It is generally reserved for patients with fulminant liver failure, failure of shunts, or progression of cirrhosis that reduces the life expectancy to one year. Long-term survival after a transplant ranges from 69 to 87%. The most common complications of transplants are rejection, arterial or venous thromboses, and bleeding due to the need for anticoagulants. Up to 10% of patients may have a recurrence of Budd–Chiari syndrome after the transplant.


title: Budd–Chiari syndrome

text: Several studies have attempted to predict the survival of patients with Budd–Chiari syndrome. In general, nearly 2/3 of patients with Budd–Chiari are alive at 10 years. Important negative prognostic indicators include ascites, encephalopathy, elevated Child-Pugh scores, elevated prothrombin time, and altered serum levels of various substances (sodium, creatinine, albumin, and bilirubin). Survival is also highly dependent on the underlying cause of the Budd–Chiari syndrome. For example, a patient with an underlying myeloproliferative disorder may progress to acute leukemia, independently of Budd–Chiari syndrome.


The Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy is a Golden Globe Award that has been awarded annually since 1952 by the Hollywood Foreign Press Association (HFPA).


title: Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Musical or Comedy

text: Eligible films must be at least 70 minutes in length, and be commercially released for at least seven days in the "greater Los Angeles area" and screened for the HFPA membership. The commercial release must begin during the calendar year prior to the awards ceremony, and the screening can occur no later than one week after commercial release. For purposes of the award, a "musical" is "a comedy or a drama in which songs are used in addition to spoken dialogue to further the plot." In addition, the film must have its principal dialogue in English.


text: Under the 2007 revised rules of the HFPA, animated pictures are no longer eligible in this or the category of Golden Globe Award for Best Motion Picture – Drama, instead competing exclusively in the new category of Best Animated Feature Film.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: "Ghost Town" is a song by American rapper Kanye West from his eighth studio album, "Ye" (2018). The song features vocals from PartyNextDoor, Kid Cudi, and 070 Shake. It was produced by West, while co-produced by Mike Dean, and features additional production from Francis and the Lights, Benny Blanco and Noah Goldstein. The song is a hip hop track, which features psychedelic elements. It is composed around a sample of "Take Me for a Little While", performed by the Royal Jesters, and also includes a sample of "Someday", performed by Shirley Ann Lee.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: The mind of West is demonstrated as going through the unravelling process within "Ghost Town", which is connected to mental illness, and West's verse features him gargling unfinished thoughts. The song received generally strong reviews from music critics and was mostly named by them as one of the album's highlights, with general praise from critics going towards 070 Shake's outro. A number of them complimented the lush composition of the song, though other critics expressed somewhat mixed assessments of West's verse. The song was included in end of the year lists for 2018 by multiple publications, including "Consequence of Sound" and "NME".


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: "Ghost Town" reached number 16 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 in 2018, while also peaking at number 14 and 17 on the NZ Singles Chart and UK Singles Chart, respectively. The song has since been certified 2× platinum in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA). West and Kid Cudi have delivered multiple joint performances of the song, including performing it on "Saturday Night Live" and at the Coachella Music Festival in 2018 and 2019, respectively. The song was covered by both BadBadNotGood and Jungle in 2018. A sequel to the song was released by West and Kid Cudi, as Kids See Ghosts, under the title of "Freeee (Ghost Town, Pt. 2)" on their eponymous debut studio album (2018). The sequel features an interpolation of lyrics from the song.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: A link was shared by West via his blog on February 7, 2009 to a cover version of his 2007 single "Can't Tell Me Nothing" by American pop project Francis and the Lights. They first collaborated on the latter's single "Friends" in 2016 alongside Bon Iver, and West has a cameo in the accompanying music video. Along with "Ghost Town", Francis and the Lights contributed production to "Ye" tracks "I Thought About Killing You" and "All Mine". He handled additional production for the former of the three, alongside Benny Blanco and Noah Goldstein, while Mike Dean co-produced it and West served as the lead producer.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: In a November 2016 interview with "NOW Magazine", Canadian musician PartyNextDoor cited West as whom he wanted to produce and write at the level of, while also stating that he was influenced by West when he was younger. Following the release of his third EP "Colours 2" in June 2017, PartyNextDoor tweeted on July 20 of that year that he had new music on the way with West and Apple Music simultaneously responded via Twitter. At the time, it was unknown what project West and PartyNextDoor were recording for and the two had never collaborated in the past. PartyNextDoor later tweeted a picture of the two of them talking on July 22, 2017, the first photographic evidence of their collaboration. Alongside "Ghost Town", PartyNextDoor provided vocals and songwriting for "Ye" track "Wouldn't Leave", though he wasn't properly credited until the album's credits were updated on streaming services on June 15, 2018.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: Initially an unknown SoundCloud user, American hip hop artist 070 Shake refused to sign with anyone other than West. 070 Shake ultimately signed to his record label GOOD Music in 2016 and recalled West advising her "to ultimately be 100 percent open when you're creating and let your mind wander," as well as to not "set any boundaries for yourself." The song and fellow album track "Violent Crimes" both include vocals from 070 Shake. In an interview with "Rolling Stone", she stated that after the song, a lot of people were contacting her by phone, and recalled being "like, 'How did you get my number?' and shit." Of listening to the song for the first time, 070 Shake labeled the feeling "surreal" and said she placed focus on taking the whole moment in so she would not have regretted failing to take it in properly after the time, while 070 Shake opined that being on a record with West felt "crazy".


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: A promotional video was displayed on West's official website from the "Ye" listening party that was set to "Ghost Town" and "I Thought About Killing You", though the website was ultimately updated on October 22, 2019. West assembled the listening party on the night before the album's release in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, which is the same place that it was recorded by him. Kevin Parker of Tame Impala initially believed that he was credited as a co-writer on the song instead of "Violent Crimes", until he was informed that the latter was played at the listening party. Parker had allegedly sent a number samples to West for "Ye", but assumed that they hadn't made the cut after not hearing back from him. West began to come to Jackson Hole often from early 2017 onwards, months after his stay in hospital. After he left the hospital, notes were made by West about his experiences and feelings. As part of the album's songwriting process, West gave his notes to various writers for them to help add structure to his thoughts. When discussing his songwriting process during an interview with "The New York Times" on June 25, 2018, West revealed that co-writer Malik Yusef was responsible for the lyrics "Sometimes I take all the shine/Talk like I drank all the wine." Before combining rap with rock, West and Kid Cudi had shown admiration to rock artists.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: Musically, "Ghost Town" is a hip hop track, which was often noted for its rock elements. The song includes a sample of "Take Me for a Little While", written by Trade Martin, and performed by the Royal Jesters, within its leading bass, drum and keys combination. The opening of the track features a sample of "Someday", as performed by Shirley Ann Lee. Guitars are included within the song, which some writers viewed as psychedelic. In particular, "Ghost Town" has been noted for taking rock influence from Kid Cudi's work, with a "strong presence of guitars" that Will Lavin of Joe.co.uk called "very reminiscent of a couple of tracks" from his second studio album "" (2010). "The Atlantic"s Spencer Kornhaber commented that the song features "psychedelic, space-soul, and prog sounds." West's tone is dazed, with him using the same verse melody as that of his Pusha T-featuring single "Runaway" (2010). In the outro, laser sounds are featured.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: The song presents the mind of West going through the process of unravelling, with the ongoing speculation around his mental health often being poor. Mental illness is a common theme on "Ye"; the song is linked to the subject matter of the album that West's mind is unravelling. PartyNextDoor sings about feeling so good that it is dangerous. West's verse on the song sees him gargling multiple half-finished thoughts, as he opens up his mind. The lyrics of West's verse include a reference to the opioid painkiller fentanyl from him. While singing the chorus of "Ghost Town", Kid Cudi interpolates vocals from rock and roll artist Dave Edmunds' 1979 version of "Take Me for a Little While". The outro is performed by 070 Shake, featuring her singing about freedom and numbness in a manner that has been described as belting. 070 Shake explained that she used a metaphor for numbness with the line, "Put my hand on the stove, to see if I still bleed."


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: "Ghost Town" was released on June 1, 2018 as the sixth and penultimate track on West's eighth studio album "Ye". However, West had tweeted out an early track list of the eponymous debut studio album by Kids See Ghosts, a hip hop duo consisting of him and Kid Cudi, on May 15 of that year and this showed the song as originally being scheduled for release on the album. It was slated to be released as the fourth track, though the shuffling of tracks between albums recorded by West led to the song being released on "Ye" instead. The song's follow-up was released by Kids See Ghosts on "Kids See Ghosts" under the title of "Freeee (Ghost Town, Pt. 2)" on June 8, 2018, also being led to by the shuffling.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: In an interview with "Pigeons & Planes", 070 Shake revealed that the song was finished hours before the album's listening party on May 31, 2018 and recalled reference tracks being recorded: "I had done a reference for it, and then I guess he forgot about it. We put that reference on another song, then Kanye did his own reference for that 'free' concept." She explained in the interview that it came close to not making the album's final cut during the recording sessions: "At the end we were talking and asking, 'Is this the one right here?' And I kind of mentioned 'Ghost Town' and said maybe we could use something from that." 070 Shake elaborated, revealing that after listening to the reference again, West "said, 'Oh yeah, this is the one.'" She concluded, stating: "So 'Ghost Town' almost didn't make it." According to 070 Shake, she wrote the reference track after first arriving in Wyoming and West had forgot about it due to him being "very focused on a lot of other things, other songs and stuff , and it just left his mind a little bit." Recording for "Ye" had started after West made controversial comments about slavery in a TMZ interview earlier in May 2018 that led to the album being re-done afterwards.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: "Ghost Town" was met with generally strong reviews from music critics, often being ranked as one of the album's highlights. Meaghan Garvey of "Pitchfork" pointed to the track as ""ye"s clear highlight," while she regarded the outro by 070 Shake and Kid Cudi's refrain as being better than West's verse, specially noting that 070 Shake's "performance is unexpectedly magnetic." Carrie Battan from "The New Yorker" named the track as the best song, pointing out its elements of soul and pop punk, though viewed the track as "the finest example of hip-hop's current fascination with rock music" and praised the outro by 070 Shake for showing that her "androgynous, pubescent voice is used to create a bridge between the joyous and the morbid." Outside of "I Thought About Killing You" and "Yikes", "The Independent"s Christopher Hooton billed the track as the album's "only other remotely good song." Hooton continued, viewing it as being salvaged by 070 Shake "with a stunning, anthemic and sincere vocal over a crunchy guitar riff." Rob Sheffield of "Rolling Stone" complemented the song for being the only track on "Ye" that "stands on its own" and also directed praise towards 070 Shake's vocals, though concluded by writing that the song has "genuine heart – enough heart to make you wish Kanye could find a way out of his current creative trap." Douglas Greenwood from "NME" described the song as the album's "penultimate and perhaps strongest track" and argued that it "owes a great deal to its euphoric, rocky outro" from 070 Shake, with him viewing the outro as "a moment of real clarity on a record that's immediately impactful." Writing for "Entertainment Weekly", Alex Suskind highlighted the song as one of "Ye"s "few bright spots," commenting that it "resembles "My Beautiful Dark Twisted Fantasy" opus 'Runaway'" and Suskind directed praise towards the lyrical content. Adam Rothbarth of "Tiny Mix Tapes" commented with praise for Kid Cudi's "purposely gnarly" refrain, West's "elegant vocal performance" and the production of the song. However, Rothbarth opined that the production "sets the perfect foundation for 070 Shake's cyclical" outro and cited the outro as one of the highlights of "Ye".


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: Clayton Purdom from "The A.V. Club" stated that "Ghost Town" "holds up the entire album" and labeled the song as "a staggeringly dense sound collage that sounds like a wide-open Wyoming night sky coming alive with dreamy laser blasts." "The Irish Times" Ed Power referred to the song as "gorgeous and uncomplicated." Trent Clark from "HipHopDX" pointed towards the "passionate cameo" from 070 Shake on the song as what "unveils a star-in-the-making." Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune" said that it shows "West telegraphing his vulnerability through shaky singing," despite concluding that 070 Shake "walks away with the song." AllMusic writer Neil Z. Yeung asserted that the song shines as one of the album's "moments of clarity" and commended the lyrical content. For the "Los Angeles Times", Mikael Wood viewed West and 070 Shake's singing as "just astounding" and cited the latter's outro as "a star-making cameo," while also noting the clarity displayed by 070 Shake. Zachary Hoskins was less enthusiastic in "Slant Magazine", dismissing West's verse despite naming the song as the most polished track on "Ye" and positively writing of the guitar, as well as Kid Cudi's vocals. In a negative review for "The Line of Best Fit", Ross Horton panned the singing on the song and called it "the kind of thing that you once could, objectively, understand to be joke," with the loudness of the vocals receiving criticism from him. Similarly, Steve 'Flash' Juon of "RapReviews" complained that having to listen to West's singing on the song makes him "just like 'Whyyyyyyy?'" Juon insisted that his opinion of West lacking in singing ability bared no relevance to any dislike towards him, as Juon admitted that Chris Brown can sing despite not liking him either.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: "Vulture" named "Ghost Town" as one of the best new songs for the week of June 7, 2018. Hunter Harris of the site labelled the track as "a mediocre album's best offering," though directed praise towards 070 Shake's outro. It was listed as one of the best songs from the first half of the year by Junkee, with Lauren Ziegler calling the track "a therapy session." Refinery29 named it to their list of 2018's best summer songs, published in June of that year. On "uDiscoverMusic"s November 2019 list of West's best samples, the Royal Jesters sample on the track was ranked 20th. For the website, Paul Bowler wrote that the sample is where West "returns to the soulful grooves with which he made his name" and viewed it as "powering" West's performance on "Ghost Town".


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: The track appeared on year-end lists by multiple publications, including being listed as the fifth best song of 2018 by "Consequence of Sound". Matt Melis of the publication complimented it as the "very best" of West's 2018 and Melis described the track as where West is "backed by a killer, old-school sample; surrounded by friends; and delivering a liberating, back-to-basics message." "Joe" ranked "Ghost Town" at the same position on their list, with Dave Hanratty calling it "an exceptional song that hit the heavens with power and grace." The track was named by "The Daily Beast" as the seventh best song of 2018 and Marlow Stern called it West's most impressive work from that year, while he praised 070 Shake's outro that accordingly "soars to the stratosphere."


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: Following the release of "Ye", "Ghost Town" debuted on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 at number 16, standing as the highest charting non-single from the album. The song entered the US Streaming Songs chart at number eight, with 29.7 million streams. On the US Hot R&B/Hip-Hop Songs chart, it opened at number 11. By debuting at number two on the US Hot R&B Songs chart, the song stood as the only track from the album to enter to chart. The next week, following the release of "Kids See Ghosts", the song descended 44 places to number 60 on the Hot 100, though was two places higher on the chart than "Freeee (Ghost Town, Pt. 2)" that week. The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA) for selling 1,000,000 certified units in the United States on September 23, 2020. For 2018, "Ghost Town" ranked at number 42 on the year-end US Hot R&B Songs chart.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: The track performed best in New Zealand, peaking at number 14 on the NZ Singles Chart. Similarly, the track debuted on the UK Singles Chart at number 17, giving West his third top 40 entry on the chart issue that fell on the date of his 41st birthday. The track reached number 21 on the Canadian Hot 100. On the ARIA Singles Chart, it debuted at number 22 and came close to giving West his third top 20 entry for that week. The track also reached the top 30 in Slovakia, Greece, Ireland and Portugal. In Estonia, the song entered at number 37 on the Singlid tipp-40. The following week, it rose five places to number 32 on the chart. The track experienced lesser performance in the Czech Republic, reaching number 42 on the country's Singles Digitál Top 100 chart.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: 070 Shake performed solely her part on the song live on June 22, 2018 for her set at Ladyland Fest in Brooklyn. The performance generated a positive reaction from the crowd and they were able to recall the words to 070 Shake's part, though it marked the first time that any portion of the song had been performed live. On August 16, 2018, West and Kid Cudi delivered a performance of a rendition of it live at a surprise show in the Los Angeles nightclub Los Candiles, as part of a private party in celebration of West's Yeezy Season 4 collaborator Willo Perron. A small room was covered in red light for the performance and the crowd joined in when the rappers shouted lyrics from the song, while this marked the first time that West had performed it live. The track was performed live by West, Kid Cudi and 070 Shake on the outro of the 44th season premier of "Saturday Night Live (SNL)" in September 2018, with them being accompanied by a backing band. However, the performance was cut off around the time that 070 Shake began to deliver her part of it and the song was followed by a speech from West about his support of the US president Donald Trump. Prior to West's appearance, "SNL" creator Lorne Michaels revealed in an interview on the "Origins With James Andrew Miller" podcast that West was booked for the show when he stepped up after singer Ariana Grande dropped out. For West and Kid Cudi's first performance billed as Kids See Ghosts, the duo performed the song live as the closer to their set at the 2018 Camp Flog Gnaw Carnival.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: West was joined by Kid Cudi and 070 Shake when leading his gospel group the Sunday Service Choir through a rendition of it at their first concert on January 7, 2019. Later that month, the Sunday Service Choir collaborated with West for a rendition of the song as part of a concert from the group. The performance began once West got up off a stool 36 minutes in to the concert, with the rendition including an extended outro that saw him deliver a sermon. During the sermon, West said "Don't it feel to know you can never be canceled. They say, 'You can't do this. You can't do that, you'll lose your career,' but I'm still here." Kid Cudi brought out West as a surprise during the start of his weekend two set at the 2019 Coachella Music Festival, where the two performed a rendition of "Ghost Town".


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: Following the release of "Ye", the song became a popular topic with fans of West across Twitter. Avenged Sevenfold member M. Shadows' published a list of his favourite tracks from 2018, which included "Ghost Town" on it. At a fashion show of Virgil Abloh during 2018 Paris Fashion Week, Canadian instrumental music group BadBadNotGood performed a cover version of the song. During the show, West and Kid Cudi were both in attendance. The laser sounds from the song resurfaced on singer Teyana Taylor's track "Issues/Hold On", which was produced by West and released on "K.T.S.E." in June 2018. The song was covered by English soul musical collective Jungle on September 12, 2018, during a BBC Radio 1 Session.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: On June 8, 2018, the sequel to "Ghost Town", "Freeee (Ghost Town, Pt. 2)", was released as the fourth track on "Kids See Ghosts". Originally, the prequel was slated for release on it from this position, while the sequel had not been slated for inclusion initially. Prior to the album's release, Revolt TV writer Ralph Bristout stated that the song managed to "set up the excitement for" it. The titles of the album and the sequel, respectively, are part of a "spooky-ghost routine." The routine is continued from "Ghost Town" being titled as such, while "Kids See Ghosts" track "4th Dimension" is also linked to the song, since they both sample Ann Lee's "Someday". Kids See Ghosts are the lead performers of the sequel, differing from the prequel, on which Kid Cudi is an additional vocalist and West is the lead performer. The sequel includes vocals from American musician Ty Dolla Sign. The song also interpolates lyrics from the prequel.


title: Ghost Town (Kanye West song)

text: The song was less successful than the prequel on the Hot 100, debuting at number 62 on the chart. During Kid Cudi's appearance at Coachella 2019, he brought out West as a surprise. The two of them performed "Ghost Town" and the song, alongside other collaborations. The staff of "NME" reassembled "Ye" and "Kids See Ghosts" for an edited album entitled "Ye Sees Ghosts", featuring the prequel leading into the sequel.


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: A Man Called Horse is a 1970 Western film directed by Elliot Silverstein, produced by Sandy Howard, and written by Jack DeWitt. It is based on the short story "A Man Called Horse" by the Western writer Dorothy M. Johnson, first published in 1950 in "Collier's" magazine and again in 1968 in Johnson's book "Indian Country". The basic story was used in a 1958 episode of the television series "Wagon Train", titled "A Man Called Horse". The film stars Richard Harris as the titular character, alongside Judith Anderson, Jean Gascon, Manu Tupou, Corinna Tsopei, Dub Taylor, and James Gammon.


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: Partially spoken in Sioux, the film tells the story of an English aristocrat who is captured by the Sioux people. The film was a Mexican-American co-production filmed on location in Arizona and the Mexican states of Durango and Sonora. It received generally positive critical reviews, and was a financial success, spawning two sequels; "The Return of a Man Called Horse" (1976) and "Triumphs of a Man Called Horse" (1983).


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: English aristocrat John Morgan is captured, enslaved, and treated like an animal by a Native American tribe. He comes to respect his captors' culture and gain their respect. He is aided in understanding the Sioux by another captive, Batise, the tribe's half-breed fool, who had tried to escape and was hamstrung behind both knees.


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: Determining that his only chance of freedom is to gain the respect of the tribe, he overcomes his repugnance and kills two warriors from the neighboring enemy Shoshone tribe, which allows him to claim warrior status. After his victory, he proposes marriage to one of the women with the horses taken in battle as bride-price and undergoes painful initiation rites, taking the native name "Shunkawakan" (or "Horse") as his Sioux name.


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: When one of the warriors takes a vow never to retreat in battle, Morgan's changing perspective is shown, as he turns angrily on the uncomprehending Batise, telling him, "Five years you've lived here, and you've learned nothing about these people – all his death is to you is a means of escape." After successfully helping to fend off an attack by the enemy tribe, he becomes a respected member of the tribe and ultimately their leader.


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: For the crucial Native American initiation ceremony (Vow to the Sun), wherein actor Richard Harris is hung on pins in his chest, make-up artist John Chambers created a prosthetic chest.


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: Harris and Silverstein clashed during filming, and when Howard and Harris reunited on "Man in the Wilderness", Howard hired Richard Sarafian.


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: The film notably treats both sides dispassionately, from the view of neither the White man nor the American Indian nations, but encompassing both cultures, but some Indian activists criticized the film harshly. Buffy Sainte Marie said: "Even the so-called authentic movies like "A Man Called Horse" — that's the whitest of movies I've ever seen." Vine Deloria, Jr. said: "As we learned from movies like "A Man Called Horse", the more 'accurate' and 'authentic' a film is said to be, the more extravagant it is likely to be in at least some aspects of its misrepresentation of Indians."


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: It was the first American Western to attempt to portray the Sioux as the protagonists and eulogize their culture, but fell short with Native American audiences because it still had leading White actors as the main characters for the film to appeal to White audiences.


title: A Man Called Horse (film)

text: "A Man Called Horse" was released to DVD by Paramount Home Entertainment on April 29, 2003, as a Region 1 widescreen DVD and on May 31, 2011, as a Blu-ray disc.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: Nick Van Eede (born Nicholas Eede, 14 June 1958) is an English musician, producer and songwriter. He is best known for singing and writing the 1986 No. 1 power ballad, "(I Just) Died in Your Arms" for his band Cutting Crew, which saw international success including a top 10 placing on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: While working as a hospital orderly in the late 1970s, Van Eede was discovered playing by ex-member of the Animals, Chas Chandler, who sent him on a tour of Poland as support for Slade. Van Eede was only 18 when sent on the road. He recalls, "I went with a kazoo and an acoustic guitar and opened for Slade in amphitheatres in front of 18,000 people. I went down as a storm and had the loudest kazoo in Europe, because Slade took their own PA on the road!" His career continued with tours supporting headliners like David Essex, Hot Chocolate and Alan Price.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: During that time, Van Eede released five solo singles on Barn Records between 1978 and 1980, but none of them charted on the UK Singles Chart. The first three were "Rock 'n' Roll Fool" b/w "Ounce of Sense", "All or Nothing" b/w "Hold on to Your Heart" and "I Only Want to Be Number One" b/w "Dicing".


title: Nick Van Eede

text: Van Eede formed The Drivers with friends Mac Norman and Steve Boorer. In the early 1980s, they signed with a record label in Canada. They had a couple of hits there with "Tears on Your Anorak" and "Talk All Night", plus an album, "Short Cuts". They had a support band called Fast Forward, whose line up included guitarist Kevin MacMichael. Van Eede was so impressed with MacMichael's guitar playing that the former asked MacMichael to form a new band with him; however, MacMichael could not commit at that time. After a final single release with "Things", a Bobby Darin cover, The Drivers split in 1983.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: Whilst Kevin MacMichael was with Fast Forward, the band was involved in a car crash which left all of the members except MacMichael unable to continue touring. Ready to begin working with Van Eede, MacMichael moved from Toronto to London, where the two of them gave themselves one year to sign a recording contract. They recruited drummer Martin "Frosty" Beedle, previously a member of the cabaret band on the QE2, and bass player Colin Farley, a session musician living in Spain. Van Eede came up with the band's name after reading an article in the British rock magazine "Sounds", which described the band Queen as a "cutting crew", meaning a band that does not play concerts and instead stays in the studio recording new songs.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: In 1985, Cutting Crew staged a showcase at a London recording studio for representatives from numerous record labels, and signed a recording contract with Siren Records, part of Virgin Records.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: The first single to be released by the band was "(I Just) Died in Your Arms" b/w "For the Longest Time", released in the UK in August 1986. After an appearance on the BBC Television show "Top of the Pops", with the song being regularly played on the radio and its music video shown on TV, the single shot up to number 4 in the UK Singles Chart and in May 1987 was number 1 in America for two weeks (Virgin's first number one single in America). In total, the song went to No. 1 in nineteen countries. This would be their biggest hit single. Van Eede came up with the title and concept for "(I Just) Died in Your Arms" after making love with his then-girlfriend. "I actually remember saying that," he admitted, and promptly jotted a note on a pad he always kept close at hand.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: The next single, "I've Been in Love Before" b/w "Life in a Dangerous Time" failed to break the UK in its first release in November 1986 but was quickly released again to reach No. 50 in the charts. The album "Broadcast" was released shortly, which reached 41 on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: After Cutting Crew's demise, Van Eede went on to write and produce for other artists, including producing the original demo of Cher's hit "Believe". In 1996, he auditioned for the job as the new lead singer of Genesis following Phil Collins's departure, in a process where Kevin Gilbert, future Big Big Train vocalist David Longdon, and former Stiltskin singer Ray Wilson were also seriously considered for the role; which ultimately went to Wilson.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: On the 2001 Marillion album "Anoraknophobia", Van Eede is credited with co-writing the lyrics to the song "Map of the World" with Marillion frontman Steve Hogarth.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: A new album originally titled "Grinning Souls" was released by Cutting Crew in 2005. Van Eede also appeared on the ITV show "Hit Me Baby One More Time", on which he performed "(I Just) Died in Your Arms" and a cover version of Macy Gray's hit "I Try". He then embarked on tour with his new line-up: Gareth Moulton (guitar), Sam Flynn (keyboards), Dominic Finley (bass) and Tom Arnold (drums). They toured the UK (which included the 'Here & Now 2008 Tour'), Germany, Trinidad and the United States.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: In 2015, a new album was released, "Add to Favourites". Joining Van Eede on the album included guitarists Gareth Moulton and Joolz Dunkley, bassist Nick Kay, keyboardist Jono Harrison, drummer Martyn Baker and the Blackjack Horns. Throughout 2015–2017, the band toured South America, the U.S., Australasia and Europe.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: In 2020, Van Eede received a BMI (Broadcast Music Inc) award for 5 million plays on US radio for "(I Just) Died in Your Arms". The track was also used in the hit film "The Lego Batman Movie" and in a season 3 episode of the Netflix series "Stranger Things".


title: Nick Van Eede

text: Since 2008, Van Eede has been a member of supergroup Man Doki Soulmates, formed by Hungarian musician Leslie Mándoki.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: Alongside Van Eede, the band's members in the group have included, amongst others: Randy Brecker, Bill Evans, John Helliwell, Chris Thompson, Bobby Kimball, Ian Anderson, Chaka Khan, Tony Carey and the late Jack Bruce and Greg Lake.


title: Nick Van Eede

text: Van Eede married Nikki McFarlane in June 1996. He has a daughter, Lauren (born 13 May 1986), with ex-partner Andrea Hodder.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: The Castillo de San Marcos (Spanish for "St. Mark's Castle") is the oldest masonry fort in the continental United States; it is located on the western shore of Matanzas Bay in the city of St. Augustine, Florida.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: It was designed by the Spanish engineer Ignacio Daza, with construction beginning in 1672, 107 years after the city's founding by Spanish Admiral and conquistador Pedro Menéndez de Avilés, when Florida was part of the Spanish Empire. The fort's construction was ordered by Governor Francisco de la Guerra y de la Vega after a raid by the English privateer Robert Searles in 1668 that destroyed much of St. Augustine and damaged the existing wooden fort. Work proceeded under the administration of Guerra's successor, Manuel de Cendoya in 1671, and the first "coquina" stones were laid in 1672. The construction of the core of the current fortress was completed in 1695, though it would undergo many alterations and renovations over the centuries.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Though built in part by black slaves owned by the Spanish, the fort later served as one of the first entry points of fugitive slaves from British North America into Spanish Florida, where they were freed by the colonial authorities. This quickly led to the first free Black settlement in the future United States (Fort Mose, formed just north of St Augustine).


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: When Britain gained control of Florida in 1763 pursuant to the Treaty of Paris, St. Augustine became the capital of British East Florida, and the fort was renamed Fort St. Mark until the Peace of Paris (1783) when Florida was transferred back to Spain and the fort's original name restored. In 1819, Spain signed the Adams–Onís Treaty which ceded Florida to the United States in 1821; consequently, the fort was designated a United States Army base and renamed Fort Marion, in honor of American Revolutionary War hero Francis Marion. The fort was declared a National Monument in 1924, and after 251 years of continuous military possession, was deactivated in 1933. The site was subsequently turned over to the United States National Park Service. In 1942 the original name, "Castillo de San Marcos", was restored by an Act of Congress.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Castillo de San Marcos was attacked several times and twice besieged: first by English colonial forces led by Carolina Colony Governor James Moore in 1702, and then by English Georgia colonial Governor James Oglethorpe in 1740, but was never taken by force. However, possession of the fort has changed five times, all peaceful, among four different governments: Spain, 1695–1763 and 1783–1821, Kingdom of Great Britain, 1763–1783, and the United States of America, 1821–date (during 1861–1865, under control of the Confederate States of America).


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Under United States control the fort was used as a military prison to incarcerate members of Native American tribes starting with the Seminole—including the famous war chief, Osceola, in the Second Seminole War—and members of western tribes, including Geronimo's band of Chiricahua Apache. The Native American art form known as Ledger Art had its origins at the fort during the imprisonment of members of the Plains tribes such as Howling Wolf of the southern Cheyenne.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Ownership of the Castillo was transferred to the National Park Service in 1933, and it has been a popular tourist destination since then.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: The European city of St. Augustine was founded by the admiral Pedro Menéndez de Avilés for the Spanish Crown in 1565 on the site of a former Native American village called Seloy. The need for fortifications was recognized after it was attacked by Sir Francis Drake and his fleet of 22 ships in 1586, and over the next 80 years, a succession of nine wooden forts were built in various locations along the coastline. However, after a 1668 attack by the English pirate Robert Searle during which the town of St. Augustine was burned to the ground, wooden forts were deemed inadequate, and Mariana, Queen Regent of Spain, approved the construction of a masonry fortification to protect the city.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: The Castillo is a masonry star fort made of a stone called "coquina" (Spanish for "small shells"), which consists of ancient shells that have bonded together to form a sedimentary rock similar to limestone. Native Americans from Spain's nearby missions did most of the labor, with additional skilled workers brought in from Havana, Cuba. The coquina was quarried from the 'King's Quarry' on Anastasia Island in what is today Anastasia State Park across Matanzas Bay from the Castillo, and ferried across to the construction site. Construction began on October 2, 1672, and lasted twenty-three years, with completion in 1695.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: The fort has four bastions named San Pedro, San Agustín, San Carlos and San Pablo with a ravelin protecting the sally port. On the two landward sides a large glacis was constructed which would force any attackers to advance upward toward the fort's cannon and allow the cannon shot to proceed downslope for greater efficiency in hitting multiple targets. Also, the artificial mound of the glacis in front of the walls helped to protect them from direct cannon fire attempting to breach them in a siege. Immediately surrounding the fort was a moat which was usually kept dry, but that could be flooded with seawater to a depth of about a foot in case of attack by land.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Multiple embrasures were built into the curtain wall along the top of the fort as well as into the bastions for the deployment of a cannon of various calibers. Infantry embrasures were also built into the walls below the level of the terreplein for the deployment of muskets by the fort's defenders. It was through one of these embrasures that twenty Seminoles held as prisoners would escape in 1837.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: In 1670, Charles Town (modern-day Charleston, South Carolina) was founded by English colonists. As it was just two days' sail from St. Augustine, the English settlement and encroachment of English traders into Spanish territory spurred the Spanish in their construction of a fort.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Slaves from the Carolina colony began escaping to St Augustine in 1687, where the Spanish agreed to free (and employ) them if they converted to Catholicism. When a British master attempted to retrieve escapees in 1688, the Spanish Governor Diego de Quiroga refused. King Charles II issued an official policy in 1693, cementing the informal practice.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: In 1702, English colonial forces under the command of Carolina Governor James Moore embarked on an expedition to capture St. Augustine early in Queen Anne's War. The English laid siege to St. Augustine in November 1702. About 1,500 town residents and soldiers were crammed into the fort during the two-month siege. The small English cannons had little effect on the walls of the fort, because the "coquina" masonry was very effective at absorbing the impact of cannonballs causing them to sink into the walls, rather than shattering or puncturing them.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: The siege was broken when the Spanish fleet from Havana arrived, trapping some English vessels in the bay. The English were defeated and decided to burn their ships to prevent them from falling under Spanish control, and then marched overland back to Carolina. The town of St. Augustine was destroyed, in part by the Spanish and in part by the English, as a result of the siege.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Beginning in 1738, under the supervision of Spanish engineer Pedro Ruiz de Olano, the interior of the fort was redesigned and rebuilt. Interior rooms were made deeper, and vaulted ceilings replaced the original wooden ones. The vaulted ceilings allowed for better protection from bombardments and allowed for cannon to be placed along the gun deck, not just at the corner bastions. The new ceilings required the height of the exterior wall to be increased from 26 to .


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Spain and Britain were rivals in Europe, and since the two countries had both founded empires in the New World, their rivalry continued there as well. In 1733 a British vessel, the "Rebecca", commanded by Captain Robert Jenkins, was seized in the Caribbean by the Spanish coast guard. Suspecting that the British had been trading illegally with Spanish colonies (which was forbidden by both Spain and Britain), the Spanish searched the ship. A fight broke out between the Spanish and British sailors. In the skirmish, Jenkins had his ear cut off by a Spanish officer, who picked it up and said "Take this to your king and tell him that if he were here I would serve him in the same manner!" When Jenkins reported the incident to British authorities, they used it as a pretext to declare war on Spain in 1739. The war was called the War of Jenkins' Ear.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: After British Admiral Edward Vernon won a huge victory at Portobelo, General James Oglethorpe, the founder of Georgia, was quick to imitate him in North America. In June 1740, Oglethorpe and a British fleet of seven ships appeared off St. Augustine. As in the 1702 siege, three hundred soldiers and 1,300 residents found refuge within the Castillo's walls. For 27 days the British bombarded the Castillo and St. Augustine. Realizing his cannon were not affecting the Castillo's walls of coquina, Oglethorpe decided to starve the people of St. Augustine by blockading the inlet at the Matanzas River and all roads into St. Augustine. However, some supplies were able to reach the city via the river, and with morale and supplies low for the British forces, Oglethorpe had to retreat. In order to protect the city from future blockades and sieges, the Spanish built Fort Matanzas to guard the river, which could be used as a rear entrance to avoid St. Augustine's primary defense system.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: In 1763, the British managed to take control of the Castillo but not by force. As a provision of the Treaty of Paris (1763) after the Seven Years' War, Britain gained all of Spanish Florida in exchange for returning Havana and Manila to Spain. On July 21, 1763, the Spanish governor turned the Castillo over to the British, who established St. Augustine as the capital of the province of East Florida, established by the Royal Proclamation of 1763.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: The British made some changes to the fort, and renamed it Fort St. Mark. As Great Britain was the dominant power in North America, they were not worried about keeping the fort in top condition. This attitude prevailed until the outbreak of the American Revolutionary War. The fort was used as a military prison during the war. Among those imprisoned was Christopher Gadsden, the Lieutenant governor of South Carolina. He was also a delegate to the Continental Congress and a brigadier general in the Continental Army during the war. He was released after 11 months.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Improvements were begun on the fort, in keeping with its new role as a base of operations for the British in the South. The gates and walls were repaired, and second floors were added to several rooms to increase the housing capacity of the fort. The Castillo saw action during the American Revolution mainly as a prison, although St. Augustine was targeted by several aborted expeditions from Georgia. Several revolutionary fighters who had been captured in Charleston were held there when it was taken by the British, including three Founding Fathers; Thomas Heyward Jr., Arthur Middleton, and Edward Rutledge. The Spanish declared war on Britain in 1779, drawing off forces from Fort St. Mark and keeping the British occupied. Bernardo de Gálvez, governor of Spanish Louisiana, attacked several British-held cities in West Florida, capturing all of them. The only major British operation that used troops from St. Augustine was the poorly coordinated but successful capture of Savannah, Georgia; the city was taken by troops from New York before those from St. Augustine arrived.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: At the end of the war, the Peace of Paris (1783) called for the return of Florida to Spain. On July 12, 1784, Spanish troops returned to St. Augustine.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: When Spain regained control over Florida they found a much-changed territory. Many Spaniards had left Florida after the handover to Britain, and many British citizens stayed after it was returned to Spain. Many border problems arose between Spanish Florida and the new United States. Spain changed the name of the fort back to the Castillo de San Marcos, and continued to build upon the improvements that Britain had made to the fort in an effort to strengthen Spain's hold on the territory. However, due to increased pressure from the United States and several other factors, in 1819 Spain signed the Adams–Onís Treaty, ceding Florida to the United States, which was transferred in 1821.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: Upon receiving the fort from Spain, the Americans changed its name to Fort Marion. It was named to honor General Francis Marion, an American Revolutionary War hero nicknamed "The Swamp Fox." Structurally, the Americans made few changes to the fort during this time. Many storerooms were converted to prison cells on account of their heavy doors and barred windows. Also, part of the moat was filled in and transformed into an artillery battery as part of the American coastal defense system. The original Spanish seawall was dismantled to ground level and a new seawall constructed immediately adjacent to the seaward side of the original. At this time a hotshot furnace was also built in the filled-in section of the moat behind the newly built water battery. Cannonballs were heated in the furnace to fire at wooden enemy ships.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: In October 1837, during the Second Seminole War, Seminole chief Osceola was taken prisoner by the Americans while attending a peace conference near Fort Peyton under a flag of truce. He was imprisoned in Fort Marion along with his followers, including Uchee Billy, King Philip and his son Coacoochee (Wild Cat), and then transported to Fort Moultrie on Sullivan's Island in Charleston's harbor. Uchee Billy was captured on September 10, 1837, and he died at the fort on November 29. His skull was kept as a curio by Dr. Frederick Weedon. The doctor also decapitated Osceola after his death in Fort Moultrie and kept the head in preservative.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: On November 19, 1837, Coacoochee and nineteen other Seminole, including two women, escaped from Fort Marion. Coacoochee, known for fabricating entertaining stories, later said that only he and his friend Talmus Hadjo had escaped - by squeezing through the eight-inch (203 mm) opening of the embrasure located high in their cell and sliding down a makeshift rope into the dry moat. Hadjo, however, was not on the official list of prisoners. However the Seminole escaped, they made their way to their band's encampment at the headwaters of the Tomoka River, about forty miles south of St. Augustine. Because of their having been poorly treated, they vowed to continue fighting, and the war was prolonged for four more years. The cell from which Coacoochee escaped was long part of the official lore of the fort.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: In January 1861, Florida seceded from the United States in the opening months of the American Civil War. Union troops had withdrawn from the fort, leaving only one man behind as caretaker. On January 7, 1861, three days before Florida seceded, 125 militiamen marched on the fort by the order of Governor Madison S. Perry. The Union soldier manning the fort refused to surrender it unless he was given a receipt for it from the Confederacy. He was given the receipt and the fort was taken by the Confederacy without a shot. General Robert E. Lee, then in command of the coastal defenses of South Carolina, Georgia, and East Florida, ordered that most of the artillery in the fort be sent to other, more strategic, forts. This left only five cannons in the water battery to defend Fort Marion.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: The Saint Augustine Blues, a militia unit formed in St. Augustine, were enrolled into the Confederate Army at Ft. Marion on August 5, 1861. They were assigned to the recently organized Third Florida Infantry as its Company B. More than a dozen former members of the St. Augustine Blues are buried in a row at the city's Tolomato Cemetery.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: The fort, along with the rest of the city of St. Augustine, was reoccupied by Union troops after acting mayor Cristobal Bravo officially surrendered the city to Union Navy fleet commander Christopher Raymond Perry Rodgers on March 11, 1862. The Confederate forces left the city the previous evening in anticipation of the arrival of the Union fleet under the command of Commodore Dupont.


title: Castillo de San Marcos

text: The fort was taken back by Union forces on March 11, 1862, when the USS "Wabash" entered the bay, finding the city evacuated by Confederate troops. The city leaders were willing to surrender in order to preserve the town, and the city and the fort were retaken without firing a shot. Throughout the rest of the fort's operational history, it was used as a military prison.