title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: Burns served for five years (1990–1995) on the National Security Council staff at the White House. He was special assistant to President Bill Clinton and Senior Director for Russia, Ukraine, and Eurasia Affairs. He had lead responsibility in the White House for advising the president on all aspects of U.S. relations with the fifteen countries of the former Soviet Union.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: From 1995 to 1997, Burns was Spokesman of the Department of State and Acting Assistant Secretary for Public Affairs for Secretary of State Warren Christopher and Secretary Madeleine Albright. In this position, he gave daily press conferences on U.S. foreign policy issues, accompanied both Secretaries of State on all their foreign trips and coordinated all of the Department's public outreach programs.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: From 1997 to 2001, Burns was the United States Ambassador to Greece. During his tenure as Ambassador, the U.S. expanded its military and law enforcement cooperation with Greece, strengthened their partnership in the Balkans, increased trade and investment and people-to-people programs.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: Burns supported the 2003 invasion of Iraq. Prior to his final assignment, Burns was the United States Permanent Representative to the North Atlantic Treaty Organization. As Ambassador to NATO, he headed the combined State-Defense Department U.S. Mission to NATO at a time when the Alliance committed to new missions in Iraq, Afghanistan and the global war against terrorism, and accepted seven new members.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: On January 18, 2008, Burns announced his retirement from the Foreign Service effective March 2008. The reason cited was to go back to family concerns and to pursue other opportunities outside of government. A White House press statement stated that Burns would continue to serve in an advisory capacity as the United States Special Envoy in finalizing the United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: After leaving government service Burns started working for the Cohen Group, a consultancy and lobbying organization for arms manufacturers.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: At the Harvard Kennedy School, Burns has taught courses in diplomacy, American foreign policy, and international politics. He is a strong advocate for diplomacy, and has argued that the United States "should make a very strong effort to get to the negotiating table with Iran". Burns is also an active speaker on the lecture circuit and in 2013 gave the lecture at the year's installment of the Waldo Family Lecture Series on International Relations at Old Dominion University.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: Burns said that NSA whistleblower Edward Snowden is a traitor: "He went to China and Russia. That is why I dislike Snowden". On the 2012 Benghazi attack, Burns defended Secretary of State Clinton, saying "I find it distasteful that Benghazi has been politicized." He endorsed Hillary Clinton's campaign for president.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: Burns was a foreign policy adviser for the Joe Biden 2020 presidential campaign, and was an informal adviser to Hillary Clinton 2016 presidential campaign. As a Bush advisor Burns supported the Iraq War, though today he calls it “a pretty serious blunder.” He is also the director of the Aspen Strategy Group, a forum of establishment foreign policy thinkers.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: Burns has also consulted and given paid speeches for the employees of Goldman Sachs, Bank of America, State Street, CitiBank, Honeywell, and a number of other companies, universities, and associations.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: In August 2021, Burns was nominated by the Biden Administration to serve as Ambassador to China. The Senate Foreign Relations Committee held hearings on his nomination on October 20, 2021. The committee favorably reported his nomination to the Senate floor on November 3, 2021. Republican Senator Marco Rubio had stalled Burns' nomination, citing his business relationships in China. Burns was confirmed by the Senate on December 16, 2021, by a vote of 75–18. He presented his credentials to Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi on April 1, 2022. Unlike other nations, China's head of state, Xi Jinping, does not receive the credentials of foreign ambassadors.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: Burns speaks fluent French and is proficient in Arabic and Greek. He and his wife have three daughters.


title: R. Nicholas Burns

text: Burns is a member of the Council on Foreign Relations, The Trilateral Commission, American Academy of Diplomacy, The American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Order of St. John, America Abroad Media advisory board, and is a lifelong member of Red Sox Nation.


title: NHK General TV

text: , abbreviated on-screen as NHK G, is the main television service of NHK, the Japanese public broadcaster. Its programming includes news, drama, quiz/variety shows, music, sports, anime, and specials which compete directly with the output of its commercial counterparts. The channel is well known for its nightly newscasts, regular documentary specials, and popular historical dramas. Among the programs NHK General TV broadcasts are the annual New Year's Eve spectacular Kōhaku Uta Gassen, the year-long Taiga drama, and the daytime Asadora.


title: NHK General TV

text: The name is often abbreviated in Japanese to ("GTV" and "NHK G" are also used). The word "Sōgō" (general) serves to differentiate the channel from NHK's other television services, NHK Educational TV, NHK BS 1, NHK BS 2 (closed in 2011) and NHK BS HI (changed to BS Premium).


title: NHK General TV

text: Launched on 1 February 1953, NHK was Japan's only television channel prior to the launch of Nippon TV on 28 August 1953


title: NHK General TV

text: JIB TV is a Japanese television company which, since 2009, has produced English-language programs about Japan and Asia for an international audience. The programs will be shown all over the world through the English channel NHK World from the Japanese public service broadcaster NHK, as well as via the player through the JIB TV's website. NHK World TV and production company Jib was started in 2009 with the purpose of disseminating information, knowledge of Japanese and Asian culture and as a counterweight to channels such as CNN International and BBC World.


title: NHK General TV

text: Japan International Broadcasting Company owns 60 percent of the public service company NHK and to 40 percent of businesses with stakeholders such as Microsoft and Japanese bank Mizuho. Operations are financed for the most part by the Japanese TV license payers but also by external sponsors and advertisers. Broadcasts reach the Scandinavian countries via Astra and Eutelsat satellites. The aim is that in future also be distributed via leading cable and IPTV operators.


title: NHK General TV

text: In order to release capital NHK moved money from radio to TV. One consequence was that the Swedish, German and Italian departments of foreign channel Radio Japan were shut down in autumn 2007.


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha () is a 1998 Indian romantic comedy film starring Kajol and Ajay Devgn. The film is a scene to scene copy of the 1995 American film "French Kiss" starring Meg Ryan and Kevin Kline.


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: At the 44th Filmfare Awards, "Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha" received 5 nominations, including Best Film and Best Supporting Actor (Puri), and won Best Female Playback Singer (Jaspinder Narula for "Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha"). Moreover, Kajol also received a Best Actress nomination at the ceremony for her performance in the film, but instead won the award for her performance in "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai".


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: Sanjana (Kajol), an exceptionally clumsy woman, lives in Paris with her uncle (Harish Patel) and is about to marry her love, Rahul (Bijay Anand). Rahul is about to go to India on a business trip and Sanjana insists on going with him, even though she has an intense fear of flying. When the plane is ready to take off, Sanjana's fear gets the best of her and she creates havoc on the plane, managing to get herself off the aircraft safely. A few days later, during Rahul's daily phone call to Sanjana, he blurts out that he has fallen in love with Nisha (Kashmera Shah) and intends not to come back to Paris to marry Sanjana.


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: Sanjana decides to fly to India and get Rahul back whatever the cost, including overcoming her fear of flying. As the plane is about to take off, a passenger named Shekhar (Ajay Devgn) sits next to her. He realizes that Sanjana is scared of flying, so he diverts her attention by provoking her. During the flight, Sanjana accidentally spills a drink on Shekhar and realizes that he is hiding something. Shekhar goes to the toilet, and while inside he pulls a plant wrapped in cloth out of his pocket. He unwraps the cloth covering the plant, revealing a diamond necklace that he had stolen from Paris. After returning to his seat, he puts the necklace into one of Sanjana's bags in order to sneak it by customs. After a chaotic journey, the plane lands in India.


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: Sanjana's bags, however, are eventually stolen, and Shekhar decides to stay with her as a way of staying close to the necklace. Meanwhile, Police Inspector Khan (Om Puri) is after Shekhar for stealing the necklace. Shekhar and Sanjana end up in Shekhar's native village, where they participate in the festivities surrounding the wedding of Shekhar's sister, Chutki (Purnima Talwalkar). Shekhar falls in love with Sanjana but does not tell her. Meanwhile, Sanjana finds out that Shekhar wanted to earn money for the surgery of his nephew (Mohsin Memon), who needs a heart transplant. She tells him that she has had the diamond necklace all along, while Shekhar promises to help Sanjana find Rahul.


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: Rahul has gone to Palam Beach with Nisha, and Sanjana, still in love with Rahul, is determined to separate them. She and Shekhar go to Palam Beach and find Rahul and Nisha, and Shekhar pretends to be Sanjana's boyfriend to make Rahul jealous, all the while being careful not to reveal his true feelings to her. Sanjana, unfortunately, opts for another plot – acting as a rich heiress – and makes Rahul rethink his relationship with her. Shekhar and Sanjana are invited to Nisha's birthday party, where she announces that she and Rahul are engaged. Sanjana is shocked, and in a moment realizes that she has fallen for the brooding, intense Shekhar. However, she does not tell him, not knowing that he loves her as well.


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: One day, Inspector Khan finds Sanjana and tells her that Shekhar has stolen the necklace and that he wants it back without having to arrest him for theft. Sanjana, knowing how important the necklace is for Shekhar, gives it back to Inspector Khan but tells her boss in Paris to get all her francs, convert them to rupees, and give them to Shekhar. She then tells Shekhar that she sold the necklace and that she has decided to return to France. After Sanjana leaves, Inspector Khan tells Shekhar what Sanjana did for him, and he rushes off to the airport to tell Sanjana of his love. He manages to stop her flight from taking off. Shekhar tells Sanjana he loves her, and she tearfully confesses that she loves him too. The two embrace on the plane in front of the cheering passengers.


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: The album was released by Baba Music and was the fourth best selling album of 1998 after "Kuch Kuch Hota Hai" (also by Jatin–Lalit), "Dil Se.." and "Soldier". It received nominations at the Filmfare, Star Screen and Zee Cine Awards for Best Music Direction by Jatin–Lalit. The tracks "Pyar To Hona Hi Tha", "Aaj Hai Sagai", "Ajnabi Mujko Itna Bata" and "Jab Kisi Ki Taraf" were popular. The lyrics were written by Sameer, except for "Jab Kisiki Taraf Dil", whose lyrics were written by Vinoo Mahendra.


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: A guitar riff from Bryan Adams' "Have You Ever Really Loved A Woman?" was sampled in the title track.


title: Pyaar To Hona Hi Tha

text: Deepa Deosthalee from "The Indian Express" observed of Kajol, "But once again, this is Kajol’s film all the way. Arguably the most competent actress of the current lot, she can lend credibility and class to even the most bizarre scenes. Just for her, it is worth watching this masala mix."


title: Roger Corman filmography

text: This is a partial list. Corman is famously prolific, both in his American International Pictures years and afterward. The IMDb credits Corman with 55 directed films and some 385 produced films from 1954 through 2008, many as un-credited producer or executive producer (consistent with his role as head of his own New World Pictures from 1970 through 1983). Corman also has significant credits as writer and actor.


title: Isaiah Mobley

text: Eric Isaiah Mobley (born September 24, 1999) is an American professional basketball player for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association (NBA), on a two-way contract with the Cleveland Charge of the NBA G League. He played college basketball for the USC Trojans. He attended Rancho Christian School in Temecula, California, where he was a five-star recruit and McDonald's All-American. He was named first-team All-Pac-12 as a junior with USC.


title: Isaiah Mobley

text: Mobley attended Rancho Christian School in Temecula, California. As a freshman, he won the CIF Southern Section (CIF-SS) Division 5A title, the school's first in any sport, and led his team to the CIF Division V Southern California Regional final. After averaging 16.2 points and 10.4 rebounds per game, Mobley shared CIF-SS Division 5A player of the year honors and made "The Press-Enterprise" All-Area second team. Over the summer, he played for the Compton Magic, one of the top travel teams in the country.


title: Isaiah Mobley

text: As a sophomore, Mobley was joined on the Rancho Christian basketball team by his younger brother Evan Mobley. He helped his team reach the CIF-SS Division 2A semifinal. In his junior season, Mobley averaged 19.9 points, 11.3 rebounds, and four assists per game and was named "The Press-Enterprise" player of the year and made the "USA Today" All-USA California second team and MaxPreps Junior All-American honorable mention team. He guided Rancho Christian to a 29–5 record and a CIF-SS Open Division playoff appearance. As a senior, Mobley averaged 19.4 points, 13.6 rebounds, and 3.8 assists per game, helping his team to a 26–6 record. He earned honorable mention on the MaxPreps All-American and "USA Today" All-USA teams, while making the All-USA California first team. Mobley played in the 2019 McDonald's All-American Game. Mobley at one point in high school was projected to be the second pick of the 2020 NBA Draft like his brother Evan Mobley was projected to be in the 2021 NBA Draft.


title: Isaiah Mobley

text: Mobley received offers from several NCAA Division I programs, including San Diego State and Nevada, before starting high school. On May 28, 2018, as a high school junior, he committed to playing college basketball for USC. By the end of his high school career, Mobley was considered a consensus five-star recruit and the best 2019 class prospect in California.


title: Isaiah Mobley

text: In his debut for USC, Mobley had 17 points and seven rebounds to lead the Trojans to a 77–48 victory over Florida A&M. He had 15 points and nine rebounds in a 101–79 loss to Marquette on November 29, 2019. Mobley made eight starts as a freshman and averaged 6.2 points and 5.3 rebounds per game. As a sophomore, he averaged 9.9 points and 7.3 rebounds per game. On April 17, 2021, he declared for the 2021 NBA draft while maintaining his college eligibility; he withdrew from the draft in July on the day of the deadline. As a junior, he averaged 14.2 points, 8.3 rebounds and 3.3 assists per game. Mobley was named first-team All-Pac-12 as a junior. On April 11, 2022, Mobley declared for the 2022 NBA draft, forgoing his remaining college eligibility.


title: Isaiah Mobley

text: Mobley was selected with the 49th overall pick by the Cleveland Cavaliers. On July 2, 2022, the Cavaliers signed him to a two-way contract. Under the terms of the deal he would split time between the Cavaliers and their NBA G League affiliate, the Cleveland Charge.


title: Isaiah Mobley

text: Mobley's father Eric played college basketball for Cal Poly Pomona and Portland and played professionally in China, Indonesia, Mexico, and Portugal. He later coached Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) basketball for 11 years. In 2018, he was hired as assistant basketball coach for USC. Mobley's younger brother Evan, with whom he played in high school and college, and were drafted by the same NBA team (Cavaliers) one year apart.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: "The Principal and the Pauper" is the second episode of the ninth season of the American animated television series "The Simpsons". It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on September 28, 1997. In the episode, Seymour Skinner begins to celebrate his twentieth anniversary as principal of Springfield Elementary School, when a man arrives claiming that Skinner has assumed his identity. Principal Skinner admits that his real name is Armin Tamzarian, and that he had thought the true Seymour Skinner, a friend from the Army, had died in the Vietnam War. Armin leaves Springfield, but is later persuaded to return as principal.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: "The Principal and the Pauper" was written by Ken Keeler and directed by Steven Dean Moore. It guest-starred Martin Sheen as the real Seymour Skinner. Although it aired during the show's ninth season, it was a holdover from season eight.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: Since its initial airing, the episode received largely negative reviews from longtime fans and critics, often regarded as one of the most controversial episodes of the entire series. Many fans and critics reacted negatively to the revelation that Principal Skinner, a recurring character since the first season who had undergone much character development, was an impostor. The episode has been criticized by series creator Matt Groening, and by Skinner's voice actor Harry Shearer.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: On the eve of his 20th anniversary as school principal, Seymour Skinner is lured by his mother to Springfield Elementary School for a surprise party. The celebration goes well until a strange man arrives, claiming to be the real Seymour Skinner. Principal Skinner admits that he is an impostor, and that his real name is Armin Tamzarian. Armin then tells the story of the events that led him to steal Seymour Skinner's identity.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: Armin was once a troubled young man from Capital City who enlisted in the Army in order to avoid a jail sentence for petty crimes (although merely apologizing to his victims was also an option). There, he met and befriended the real Sergeant Seymour Skinner, who became his mentor and helped him find meaning in his troubled life. Seymour told Armin that his dream was to become an elementary school principal in Springfield after the war. Later, Seymour was declared missing and presumed dead. Armin took the news of the apparent death to Seymour's mother, Agnes. Upon meeting him, however, Agnes mistook him for her son, and Armin could not bear to deliver the message. He instead allowed Agnes to call him Seymour, and took over Seymour's life. Meanwhile, the real Seymour Skinner spent five years in a POW camp, then worked in a Chinese sweatshop for two decades until it was shut down by the United Nations.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: After these revelations, the people of Springfield begin to distrust Armin, who decides that there is no longer any place for him in Springfield and leaves for Capital City, sadly breaking up with Edna Krabappel in the process. Having planned to resume his old persona as a no-good street thug, Armin still maintains his demeanour as Skinner. The real Skinner is then offered the chance to realize his dream and take over as school principal. He takes the job, but finds himself isolated by the townspeople, who realize they prefer Armin to him. With the real Skinner refusing to take up Armin's old hobbies and leading a more independent life away from home, Agnes realizes she misses having Armin as a son.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: The Simpson family heads to Capital City with Edna and Agnes to find Armin at his apartment. After Agnes orders Armin to return home, expressing that he is more of a real son to her than the real Skinner is, Homer persuades Mayor Quimby and all the other citizens to allow Armin to resume his assumed identity as Principal Skinner. The real Skinner is unhappy about this and refuses to give up his job and his dignity just because the people of Springfield prefer Armin to him. In response, the townspeople banish the real Skinner from town by tying him to a chair on a flatcar of a freight train (literally running him out of town on a rail). Judge Snyder declares that Armin will again be referred to as Seymour Skinner, that he will return to his job as school principal, and that no one shall ever again refer to Skinner or the fallout from his visit, under penalty of torture.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: "The Principal and the Pauper" was the last episode of "The Simpsons" written by Ken Keeler, who also pitched the original idea for the episode. Many fans believe the episode is based on the story of Martin Guerre or the 1993 film "Sommersby". According to animation director Steve Moore, one of the working titles for the episode was "Skinnersby". However, Keeler has said he was inspired by the Tichborne Case of nineteenth-century England. The episode's official title is a reference to the book "The Prince and the Pauper" by Mark Twain.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: Producers Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein were excited about the episode because Principal Skinner was one of their favorite characters. The pair had already written the season five episode "Sweet Seymour Skinner's Baadasssss Song", which was an in-depth study of the character. Oakley said he and Weinstein "spent a month immersed in the mind of Seymour Skinner" to prepare that episode, and from that point forward, took every opportunity to "tinker with [Skinner's] personality and his backstory and his homelife".


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: Describing the real Seymour Skinner, Keeler remarked, "It would have been easy to make him a really horrible, nasty, dislikeable guy, but we didn't do that. We made him just not quite right, not quite Skinner, and a little bit off." Bill Oakley said the idea behind the character was that he "just lacked pizzazz". The producers selected Martin Sheen to voice the character because they admired his performance in "Apocalypse Now" and felt his voice would be appropriate for a Vietnam veteran.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: Keeler borrowed the name Armin Tamzarian from a claims adjuster who had assisted him after a car accident when he moved to Los Angeles. However, the real Armen Tamzarian (now a California Superior Court Judge) was unaware his name was being used until after the episode aired. Keeler said he later received a "curtly phrased" letter from Tamzarian, who wanted to know why his name appeared in the episode. Keeler feared he would face legal troubles, but afterwards, Tamzarian explained that he was simply curious and did not intend to scare anyone.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: "The Principal and the Pauper" finished 41st in the United States in the ratings for the week of September 22–28, 1997, with a Nielsen rating of 9.2. The episode was the second highest rated show on the Fox network that week, following "King of the Hill". The Fox network's ratings average for the week was 6.4.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: The revelation that Principal Skinner was an impostor and the self-referential deus ex machina/reset button ending were negatively received by many fans and critics, with many seeing this episode responsible for the series as a whole jumping the shark. Skinner had been a recurring character since the first season and, after years of development, his backstory had suddenly been changed. Bill Oakley considers "The Principal and the Pauper" the most controversial episode from his tenure as executive producer.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: In his 2004 book "Planet Simpson", Chris Turner describes "The Principal and the Pauper" as the "broadcast that marked [the] abrupt plunge" from "The Simpsons"<nowiki>'</nowiki> "Golden Age", which he says began in the middle of the show's third season. He calls the episode "[one of] the weakest episodes in "Simpsons" history", and adds, "A blatant, continuity-scrambling plot twist of this sort might've been forgivable if the result had been as funny or sharply satirical as the classics of the Golden Age, but alas it's emphatically not." Turner notes that the episode "still sports a couple of virtuoso gags", but says that such moments are limited.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: In July 2007, in an article in "The Guardian", Ian Jones argues that the "show became stupid" in 1997, pointing to "The Principal and the Pauper" as the bellwether. "Come again? A major character in a long-running series gets unmasked as a fraud? It was cheap, idle storytelling", he remarks. In a February 2006 article in "The Star-Ledger", Alan Sepinwall and Matt Zoller Seitz cite the episode when asserting that the quality of "The Simpsons" "gets much spottier" in season nine. Alan Sepinwall observes in another "Star-Ledger" article, "[The episode] was so implausible that even the characters were disavowing it by the end of the episode." Jon Hein, who coined the term "jumping the shark" to refer to negative changes in television series, writes in "Jump the Shark: TV Edition", "We finally spotted a fin at the start of the ninth season when Principal Skinner's true identity was revealed as Armin Tamzarian." James Greene of "Nerve.com" put the episode fifth on his list "Ten Times The Simpsons Jumped the Shark", calling it a "nonsensical meta-comedy" and arguing that it "seemed to betray the reality of the show itself". In 2022, on the 25th anniversary of the episode airing, "Fatherly" looked back negatively at the episode, described the plot twist as the moment the show stopped being perfect, saying: "It wasn’t funny, it was just mean, and the ending of the episode inadvertently made you complicit in its viciousness. Ultimately, the citizens of Springfield decide to force things back to normal by tying the real Skinner to a departing train and legally declaring that Tamzarian’s theft of an entire life is fine. And, well, yeah we as the viewers wanted things to go back to normal once the episode was over, but…this was just heartless."


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: Other figures associated with "The Simpsons" have publicly criticized the episode. In an April 2001 interview, Harry Shearer, the voice of Principal Skinner, recalled that after reading the script, he told the writers, "That's "so" wrong. You're taking something that an audience has built eight years or nine years of investment in and just tossed it in the trash can for no good reason, for a story we've done before with other characters. It's so arbitrary and gratuitous, and it's disrespectful to the audience." In a December 2006 interview, Shearer added, "Now, [the writers] refuse to talk about it. They realize it was a horrible mistake. They never mention it. It's like they're punishing [the audience] for paying attention." In the introduction to the ninth season DVD boxset, series creator Matt Groening describes "The Principal and the Pauper" as "one of [his] least favorite episodes". He also called the episode "a mistake" in an interview with "Rolling Stone".


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: In contrast, Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood, the authors of "I Can't Believe It's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide", praised the episode, calling it "one of the series' all-time best episodes, mainly because it shows us a human side, not just of Principal Skinner, but of his hectorish Mom as well." They add that "Martin Sheen steals the show ... in a brief but important slice of Simpsons history." "Total Film"s Nathan Ditum named Martin Sheen's performance in the episode the 20th best guest appearance on "The Simpsons".


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: Ken Keeler, Bill Oakley, and Josh Weinstein all defend the episode in its DVD commentary. Keeler asserts, "I am very, very proud of the job I did on this episode. This is the best episode of television I feel I ever wrote." He describes the episode as a commentary on "people who like things just the way they are", and remarks, "It never seems to have occurred to anyone that this episode is about the people who hate it." However, Keeler says that some of the dialogue was changed from his original draft, making this point less obvious. Oakley and Weinstein explain that they wanted to push the boundaries of the series while working as show-runners, and advise viewers to treat "The Principal and the Pauper" as an "experiment". They surmise that the negative reception was partly due to the fact that it was not immediately apparent to viewers that this was such an episode (as opposed to, for example, "The Simpsons Spin-Off Showcase"). They also describe the ending of the episode as an attempt to reset the continuity and allow fans to consider the episode as non-canonical, divorced from the larger series.


title: The Principal and the Pauper

text: Later episodes of "The Simpsons" contain references to "The Principal and the Pauper". A clip from the episode was used in season eleven's "Behind the Laughter" as an example of the show's increasingly "gimmicky and nonsensical plots". In the season fifteen episode "I, (Annoyed Grunt)-Bot", Lisa addresses Principal Skinner as "Principal "Tamzarian"" when Skinner chides her for naming her new cat Snowball II, after a cat that had died earlier in the episode.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The Kingdom of Galicia (, or "Galiza"; ; ; ) was a political entity located in southwestern Europe, which at its territorial zenith occupied the entire northwest of the Iberian Peninsula. It was founded by the Suebic king Hermeric in 409, with its capital established in Braga. It was the first kingdom that officially adopted Catholicism. In 449, it minted its own currency. In 585, it became a part of the Visigothic Kingdom. In the 8th century, Galicia became a part of the newly founded Christian Kingdom of Asturias, which later became the Kingdom of León, while occasionally achieving independence under the authority of its own kings. Compostela became the capital of Galicia in the 11th century, while the independence of Portugal (1128) determined its southern boundary. The accession of Castilian King Ferdinand III to the Leonese kingdom in 1230 brought Galicia under the control of the Crown of Castile.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Galicia resisted central control, supporting a series of alternative claimants, including John of León, Galicia and Seville (1296), Ferdinand I of Portugal (1369) and John of Gaunt (1386), and was not brought firmly into submission until the Catholic Monarchs imposed the Santa Hermandad in Galicia. The kingdom of Galicia was then administered within the Crown of Castile (1490–1715) and later the Crown of Spain (1715–1833) by an "Audiencia Real" directed by a Governor which also held the office of Captain General and President. The representative assembly of the Kingdom was then the Junta or Cortes of the Kingdom of Galicia, which briefly declared itself sovereign when Galicia alone remained free of Napoleonic occupation (1808–1809). The kingdom and its "Junta" were dissolved by Maria Cristina of Bourbon-Two Sicilies, Regent of Spain, in 1834.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The origin of the kingdom lies in the 5th century, when the Suebi settled permanently in the former Roman province of "Gallaecia". Their king, Hermeric, probably signed a "foedus", or pact, with the Roman Emperor Honorius, which conceded them lands in Galicia. The Suebi set their capital in the former Bracara Augusta, setting the foundations of a kingdom which was first acknowledged as "Regnum Suevorum" (Kingdom of the Suebi), but later as "Regnum Galliciense" (Kingdom of Galicia).


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: A century later, the differences between Gallaeci and Suebi people had faded, leading to the systematic use of terms like "Galliciense Regnum" (Galician Kingdom), "Regem Galliciae" (King of Galicia), "Rege Suevorum" (King of Suebi), and "Galleciae totius provinciae rex" (king of all Galician provinces), while bishops, such as Martin of Braga, were recognized as "episcopi Gallaecia" (Bishop of Galicia).


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The independent Suebic kingdom of Galicia lasted from 409 to 585, having remained relatively stable for most of that time.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 409 Gallaecia was divided, "ad habitandum", between two Germanic people, the Hasdingi Vandals, who settled the eastern lands, and the Suebi, who established themselves in the coastal areas. As with most Germanic invasions, the number of the original Suebi is estimated to be relatively low, generally fewer than 100,000, and most often around 30,000 people. They settled mainly in the regions around modern northern Portugal and Western Galicia, in the towns of Braga ("Bracara Augusta") and Porto, and later in Lugo ("Lucus Augusta") and Astorga ("Asturica Augusta"). The valley of the Limia (or Lima) River is thought to have received the largest concentration of Germanic settlers, and Bracara Augusta—the modern city of Braga—became the capital of the Suebi, as it had previously been the capital of Gallaecia.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 419 a war broke out between the Vandal king Gunderic and the Suebi's Hermeric. After a blockade alongside the Nervasian Mountains, the Suebi obtained Roman help, forcing the Vandals to flee into the Baetica. In the absence of competitors, the Suebi began a period of expansion, first inside Gallaecia, and later into other Roman provinces. In 438 Hermeric ratified a peace treaty with the "Gallaeci", the native and partially Romanized people.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Illness led Hermeric to abdicate in favor of his son, Rechila, who moved his troops to the south and the east, conquering Mérida and Seville, the capitals of the Roman provinces of Lusitania and Betica. In 448 Rechila died, leaving the expanding state to his son Rechiar, who in 449 became one of the first Germanic kings of post-Roman Europe to convert to Catholicism. Rechiar married a Visigothic princess, and was also the first Germanic king to mint coins in ancient Roman territories. Rechiar led further expansions to the east, marauding through the "Provincia Tarraconensis", which was still held by Rome. The Roman emperor Avitus sent a large army of , under the direction of the Visigoth Theoderic II, who defeated the Suebi army by the river Órbigo, near modern-day Astorga. Rechiar fled, but he was pursued and captured, then executed in 457.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In the aftermath of Rechiar's death, multiple candidates for the throne appeared, finally grouping into two allegiances. The division between the two groups was marked by the Minius River (now Minho River), probably as a consequence of the localities of the Quadi and Marcomanni tribes, who constituted the Suebi nation on the Iberian Peninsula. The Suebi in the north conquered Lugo, proceeding to use that city as their co-capital, while the Suebi in the south expanded into Lisbon and Conimbriga, which were assaulted, and abandoned after their Roman inhabitants were banished. By 465 Remismund, who established a policy of friendship with the Goths and promoted the conversion of his own people into Arianism, was recognized by his people as the only king of the Suebi.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: After a period of obscurity, with very little remaining information on the history of this area, or in fact Western Europe in general, the Suebi Kingdom reappears in European politics and history during the second half of the 6th century. This is following the arrival of Saint Martin of Braga, a Pannonian monk dedicated to converting the Suebi to Nicene Christianity and consequently into allegiance with the other Nicene Christian regional powers, the Franks and the Eastern Roman Empire.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Under King Ariamir, who called for the First Council of Braga, the conversion of the Suebi to Nicene Christianity was apparent; while this same council condemned Priscillianism, it made no similar statement on Arianism. Later, King Theodemar ordered an administrative and ecclesiastical division of his kingdom, with the creation of new bishoprics and the promotion of Lugo, which possessed a large Suebi community, to the level of Metropolitan Bishop along with Braga.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Theodemar's son and successor, King Miro, called for the Second Council of Braga, which was attended by all the bishops of the kingdom, from the Briton bishopric of Britonia in the Bay of Biscay, to Astorga in the east, and Coimbra and Idanha in the south. Five of the attendant bishops used Germanic names, showing the integration of the different communities of the country. King Miro also promoted contention with the Arian Visigoths, who under the leadership of King Leovigild were rebuilding their fragmented kingdom which had been ruled mostly by Ostrogoths since the beginning of the 6th century, following the defeat and expulsion of Aquitania by the Franks. After clashing in frontier lands, Miro and Leovigild agreed upon a temporary peace.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The Suebi maintained their independence until 585, when Leovigild, on the pretext of conflict over the succession, invaded the Suebic kingdom and finally defeated it. Audeca, the last king of the Suebi, who had deposed his brother-in-law Eboric, held out for a year before being captured in 585. This same year a nobleman named Malaric rebelled against the Goths, but he was defeated.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: As with the Visigothic language, there are only traces of the Suebi tongue remaining, as they quickly adopted the local vulgar Latin. Some words of plausible Suebi origin are the modern Galician and Portuguese words "laverca" (lark), "meixengra" or "mejengra" (titmouse), "lobio" (vine), "escá" (a measure, formerly "cup"), "groba" (ravine), and others. Much more significant was their contribution to names of the local toponymy and onomastics.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The historiography of the Suebi, and of Galicia in general, was long marginalized in Spanish culture, with the first connected history of the Suebi in Galicia being written by a German scholar.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 585, Liuvigild, the Visigothic king of Hispania and Septimania, annexed the Kingdom of Galicia, after defeating King Audeca, and later the pretender to the throne, Malaric. Thus the kingdom of the Suebi, which incorporated large territories of the ancient Roman provinces of Gallaecia and Lusitania, became the sixth province of the Visigothic Kingdom of Toledo.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The government of the Visigoths in Galicia did not totally disrupt the society, and the Suevi Catholic dioceses of Bracara, Dumio, Portus Cale or Magneto, Tude, Iria, Britonia, Lucus, Auria, Asturica, Conimbria, Lameco, Viseu, and Egitania continued to operate normally. During the reign of Liuvigild, new Arian bishops were raised among the Suebi in cities such as Lugo, Porto, Tui, and Viseu, alongside the cities' Catholic bishops. These Arian bishops returned to Catholicism in 589, when King Reccared himself converted to Catholicism, along with the Goths and Suebi, at the Third Council of Toledo.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The territorial and administrative organization inherited from the Suevi was incorporated into the new Provincial status, although Lugo was reduced again to the category of bishopric, and subjected to Braga. Meanwhile, the Suevi, Roman, and Galician cultural, religious, and aristocratic elite accepted new monarchs. The peasants maintained a collective formed mostly by freemen and serfs of Celtic, Roman and Suebi extraction, as no major Visigoth immigration occurred during the 6th and 7th centuries.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: This continuity led to the persistence of Galicia as a differentiated province within the realm, as indicated by the acts of several Councils of Toledo, chronicles such as that of John of Biclar, and in military laws such as the one extolled by Wamba which was incorporated into the "Liber Iudicum", the Visigothic legal code. It was not until the administrative reformation produced during the reign of Recceswinth that the Lusitanian dioceses annexed by the Suevi to Galicia (Coimbra, Idanha, Lamego, Viseu, and parts of Salamanca) were restored to Lusitania. This same reform reduced the number of mints in Galicia from a few dozen to just three, those in the cities of Lugo, Braga, and Tui.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The most notable person of 7th century Galicia was Saint Fructuosus of Braga. Fructuosus was the son of a provincial Visigoth "dux" (military provincial governor), and was known for the many foundations he established throughout the west of the Iberian peninsula, generally in places with difficult access, such as mountain valleys or islands. He also wrote two monastic rulebooks, characterized by their pact-like nature, with the monastic communities ruled by an abbot, under the remote authority of a bishop ("episcopus sub regula"), and each integrant of the congregation having signed a written pact with him. Fructuosus was later consecrated as abbot-bishop of Dumio, the most important monastery of Gallaecia—founded by Martin of Braga in the 6th century—under Suebi rule. In 656 he was appointed bishop of Braga and metropolitan of Galicia, ostensibly against his own will.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: During his later years the Visigothic monarchy suffered a pronounced decline, due in large part to a decrease in trade and therefore a sharp reduction in monetary circulation, largely as a result of the Muslim occupations in the early 8th century in the south Mediterranean. The Gallaecia were also affected, and Fructuosus of Braga denounced the general cultural decline and loss of the momentum from previous periods, causing some discontent in the Galician high clergy. At the tenth Council of Toledo in 656, Fructuosus was appointed to the Metropolitan seat of Potamio after the renunciation of its previous occupier. At the same time the Will of the Bishop of Dume Recimiro was declared void after he donated the wealth of the diocese convent to the poor.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The crisis at the end of the Visigoth era dates to the reign of Egica. The monarch appointed his son Wittiza as his heir, and despite the fact that the Visigothic monarchy had been traditionally elective rather than hereditary Egica associated Wittiza during his lifetime to the throne (for example, Egica and Wittiza are known to have issued coinage with the confronted effigies of both monarchs). In 701 an outbreak of plague spread westward from Greece to Spain, reaching Toledo, the Visigothic capital, in the same year, and having such impact that the royal family, including Egica and Wittiza, fled. It has been suggested that this provided the occasion for sending Wittiza to rule the Kingdom of the Suevi from Tui, which is recorded as his capital. The possibility has also been raised that the 13th-century chronicler, Lucas of Tuy, when he records that Wittiza relieved the oppression of the Jews (a fact unknown from his reign at Toledo after his father), may in fact refer to his reign at Lucas' hometown of Tui, where an oral tradition may have been preserved of the events of his Galician reign.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 702, with the death of Egica, Wittiza as sole king moved his capital to Toledo. In 710, part of the Visigothic aristocracy violently raised Roderic to the throne, triggering a civil war with the supporters of Wittiza and his sons. In 711, the enemies of Roderic got a Muslim army to cross the Straits of Gibraltar and face him at the Battle of Guadalete. The defeat was the end of Roderic and of the Visigothic rule, with profound consequences for the whole of the Iberian peninsula.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: For several centuries after the defeat of the Goths, Galicia was united with other neighboring regions under the same monarchs, with only brief periods of separation under different kings. Along with the rest of the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, it was free of Arab presence from the mid-8th century, being gradually incorporated into a growing Christian state. This is usually called the Kingdom of Asturias in traditional and modern sources, although the precise historical details of these events have been obscured by the national myths leading to the construction of modern Spanish identity.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The 9th century saw this state expand southward, with Castilian and Asturian noblemen acquiring most of the northern Meseta, while in Galicia, a similar impulse led to the conquest and re-population of the regions of Astorga, southern Galicia, and northern Portugal down to Coimbra, by noblemen mostly proceeding from northern Galicia. Also significant was the pretended discovery of the tomb of Saint James the Great at what would become Santiago de Compostela; the shrine constructed there became the religious center of the nation, as well as being the destination of a major international pilgrimage route, the Way of St. James. This increased the political and military relevance of Galicia, and its noble families aspired to positions of power within the kingdom through either military force or by matrimonial alliance with the royal family. To the east, this southern expansion led the capital of the Christian kingdom to be moved to the city of León, from which time the state is usually called the Kingdom of León. This same kingdom was frequently known as either Gallaecia or Galicia ("Yillīqiya" and "Galīsiya") in Al-Andalus Muslim sources up to the 14th century, as well as by many European Christian contemporaries.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: During the Iron Age, and later during Roman and Germanic rule, Southern Gallaecia—today north Portugal and south Galicia—was the more dynamic, urbanized, and richest area of Gallaecia. This role was assumed by the rural north during the Early and High Middle Ages, as a consequence not only of the Islamic invasion, but as the final result of a continent-wide urban crisis.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The old bishoprics of Braga, Ourense, Tui, Lamego, and others, were either discontinued, or re-established in the north, under the protection of Lugo—which was now a stronghold due to its Roman walls—and Iria Flavia. Dumio was re-established by the Bay of Biscay in Mondoñedo, Lugo assumed the role of Braga, and the bishops of Lamego and Tui sought refuge in Iria, where they received generous territorial grants. During the 9th, 10th, and 11th centuries most of these bishoprics were re-established in their historical sees, but at this time the bishops of Lugo, Mondoñedo, and Iria became major political players—not just as religious figures, but also as wealthy, and sometimes mighty, secular powers. In particular, the bishops of Iria and Compostela were notorious warlords, due to the many fortresses and military resources they controlled as heads of a military Norman mark, as well as due to the wealth that the pilgrimages and royal grants brought to their lands.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Each bishopric was divided into a number of territories or counties, named , or in local charters, which in the north were true continuations of the Suebic dioceses which frequently preserved old tribal divisions and denominations, such as "Lemabos, Celticos, Postamarcos, Bregantinos, and Cavarcos". Rights to the tax collection and government of each territory was granted by the titular ruler—usually the king—to a count, bishopric, or large monastery, although there existed some singularities. The bishopric of Lugo was divided into counties, each one under the government of an "infanzon" (a lesser nobleman) as a concession of the bishop, while in the south, large and mighty territories such as the "Portucalense" became hereditary, passed down to the descendants of the 9th century's conquerors. In the "Terra de Santiago" (Land of Saint James, the fief of the bishops of Iria-Compostela) each territory was administered by a bishop's vicar, while justice was administered by a council composed of representatives of the local churchmen, knights, and peasants.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Each territory or county could be further divided into and . The basic territorial division was the "villa", centered on a church, and composed of one or more hamlets or villages, together with all its facilities, lands, and possessions. The "villas" perpetuated ancient Roman and Suevic foundations, and they were the base for the ecclesiastical organization, and for the economic production of the country, later evolving into the modern "parroquias" and "freguesias" (rural parishes). The local economy was subsistence, based mainly on the production of grain and beans, and notably in cattle breeding. Other valuable—though geographically restricted—products included fruits, salt, wine, honey, olive oil, horses, iron for the production of weapons and tools, and exotic oriental fabrics introduced from "Spania". There were also specialized artisans who worked on demand, such as masons and goldsmiths.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: While local commerce was common, long range interchanges—generally maintained by Hebrew merchants—were rare and appreciated. Monetary circulation was scarce, composed mainly of old Suebi and Visigothic coinage known locally as "solidos gallicianos". War and pillaging against the thriving Al-Andalus was also a very important source for the acquisition of riches, exotic items, and Muslim serfs. Later, pilgrimage of Christians from all over Europe to Santiago de Compostela brought not only riches, but also a range of continental innovations and trends, from shipbuilding, to new architectural styles such as Romanesque art.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The elites were composed of counts, dukes, "senatores", and other high noblemen, who were frequently related by marriage with the monarch, and who usually claimed the most powerful positions in society, either as governors, bishops, or as palatine officials or companions of the king or queen. The Galician nobility, however, were also frequently found as rebels, either as supporters of a different candidate to the throne, or aspiring to it themselves, or simply as disobedient to the king's orders and will. At the service of the noblemen were "miles" (knights) and "infanzones"; they were often found marching to war with their subalterns on behalf of a patron, or as vicars and administrators.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: A sizable section of the society were churchmen—presbyters, deacons, clergymen, "lectors", "confessos", monks, and nuns—who frequently lived in religious communities, some of which were composed of both men and women living under vows of chastity and poverty. Most of these monasteries were directed by an abbot or abbess, ruled under a pactual tradition heavily influenced by Germanic legal traditions, with a bishop "sub regula" as the highest authority of the community. Other monasteries used different, sometimes antagonistic rules. The Benedictine and Augustine rules were uncommon until the 11th century. As in most of Europe, the chartulary and chronicle proceedings of monasteries and bishoprics are the most important sources for the study of local history.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: By the 12th century the only known bourgeois were the multinational inhabitants of Compostela, by this stage a fortified and strong city. Meanwhile, the City Council of Santiago for centuries had struggled against their bishops for the recognition of a number of liberties. In the country, most people were freemen, peasants, artisans, or infantrymen, who could freely choose a patron, or buy and sell properties, although they frequently fell prey to the greed of the big owners, leading many of them to a life of servitude. Finally, "servos", "libertos", and "pueros" (serfs and slaves), either obtained in war with the Moors or through trial, constituted a visible part of the society; they were employed as household workers ( and ), shepherds, and farmhands. Local charters also show that, in time, they were freed.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In terms of religion, most were Roman Catholics, although the local rites—known today as Mozarabic rites—were notably different from those used in most of Western Europe. No Arian, Priscillianist, or Pagan organizations are known to have survived during the High Middle Ages. However, there were still pagans and pagan shrines in the Bierzo region during the 7th century, whilst Arian or Priscillianist tonsure—seen as long hair, with only a partial tonsure atop the head—was in use in Galicia up to 681, when it was forbidden at a council in Toledo. There were no known Muslim communities in Galicia and northern Portugal, other than Moor serfs. Records of Hebrew people are also uncommon in local charters until the 12th century, except as travelers and merchants.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Personal names in Galicia and northern Portugal were chiefly of Germanic origin, although Christian, Roman, and Greek names were also common. Names were usually composed just of a single surname, although noblemen frequently also used a patronymic. Muslim names and patronymics were rare amongst Galicians, as even serfs were frequently given a Germanic or Roman name, which is in contrast with the relative popularity of Muslim names amongst the Leonese.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: When Alfonso III of León was forced by his sons to abdicate in 910, his lands were partitioned, bringing about the first episode of a short-lived distinct kingdom of Galicia. García I obtained the "Terra de Fora" or León, consisting of the southeastern portion of their father's realm, while Ordoño II held the western lands, "i.e.", Galicia (including the recently acquired lands of Coimbra) where he had already been serving as governor, and was now recognized as king in an assembly of magnates held in Lugo. The youngest brother, Fruela II, received the Asturian heartland in the northeast, with Oviedo as its capital.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: From Galicia, Ordoño launched several successful raids on the Islamic south, returning with riches and Muslim serfs, and confirming himself as an able commander. At the death of García in 914, Ordoño also acquired León, and on his death in 924 his younger brother, Fruela, reunited Alfonso's realm. Fruela's death a year later initiated a period of chaos, with several claimants to the crown. Fruela's son, Alfonso Fróilaz, received support from Asturias, but was captured and blinded by Sancho, Alfonso IV, and Ramiro II, sons of Ordoño, with the aid of the Basque troops of Jimeno Garcés of Pamplona. Vague and conflicting historical records make it uncertain whether Alfonso Fróilaz reigned briefly as king of the entire kingdom, or simply held a remote part of Asturias. In Galicia, Sancho succeeded, being crowned in Santiago de Compostela and marrying a Galician noblewoman. After reigning for just three years he died childless. Alfonso IV then took control of an again-reunited Kingdom of León in 929; however, he was forced into a monastery by their youngest brother, Ramiro, two years later.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Ramiro II had ties with the Galician nobility through kinship, marriage and patronage, and he and his son, Ordoño III, whose mother was Galician, reigned with their support. This was not the case when Ordoño was succeeded by his half-brother Sancho I of León in 956. Sancho proved unpopular and ineffectual and the Galician nobles grew fractious, forming a coalition with Fernán González of Castile to overthrow Sancho in favor of Ordoño IV, who was enthroned in Santiago de Compostela in 958. However, Sancho reclaimed the crown in 960 with support from his mother's Kingdom of Pamplona, the Leonese nobility, and Muslim assistance. His son, Ramiro III, grew increasingly absolutist, alienating the Galician nobility who also resented the lack of Leonese help when the Normans raided Galicia from 968 through 970.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The Galician nobility again rose in rebellion, in 982 crowning and anointing Bermudo, son of Ordoño III, as king in Santiago de Compostela. With their support, he first repelled the army of Ramiro in the battle of "Portela de Areas" and eventually made himself undisputed ruler of the Leonese kingdom. Once in control, Bermudo lost many of his Galician and Portuguese supporters by repudiating his Galician wife in favor of a new marriage alliance with Castile. His later reign was marked by the ascension of a strong military leader, Almanzor, who led a brief resurgence of the Cordoban Caliphate, reconquering Coimbra or Viseu, and even raiding Santiago de Compostela.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In the 1030s, Galicia became the sole holdout to the Leonese conquests of Sancho III of Pamplona. When the Count of Castile—nominally a Leonese vassal, but "de facto" independent—was assassinated in León in 1029, Sancho claimed the right to name the successor, giving it to his own son Ferdinand. Taking advantage of the youth of Leonese king Bermudo III, Sancho seized disputed border regions, formalizing the arrangement by including the lands in the dowry of Bermudo's sister, who was married to Ferdinand in 1032. Two years later, in 1034, Sancho took Bermudo's capital, becoming "de facto" ruler of most of the kingdom, whilst leaving Bermudo to rule from his refuge in Galicia. Sancho's death the next year allowed Bermudo to regain not only the entire kingdom, but to briefly become overlord of Ferdinand's Castile. However, in 1037, the Castilian count killed Bermudo in battle, and Galicia passed with the Kingdom of León into the hands of Ferdinand, who then had himself crowned king.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Ferdinand's death in 1065 led to another short-lived Galician state. In 1063 he had opted to partition his realm, giving the eastern Kingdom of Castile to his eldest son, Sancho II, along with the right to the "paria" (tribute) from the Taifa of Zaragoza. His second son Alfonso VI was given the Kingdom of León, representing the central portion of the old realm, with the "paria" from Toledo. His youngest son, García II, who had been educated in Galicia under the tutelage of bishop Cresconius of Compostela, received the western half of Bermudo's old kingdom as King of Galicia, along with the right to "parias" from the Taifas of Badajoz and Seville.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: As king, Garcia aimed to restore the old episcopal sees of Tui, Lamego, and Braga, which had been dissolved due to Arab and Viking assaults. The death of two of his most notable supporters, bishops Cresconius of Compostela and Uistrarius of Lugo, left the young king in a weaker position, and in 1071 the Count of Portugal, Nuno Mendes, rose in rebellion. García defeated and killed him in the same year at the Battle of Pedroso, and in recognition of his solidified control adopted the title King of Galicia and Portugal. However, his brothers, Alfonso and Sancho, immediately turned on the victor, forcing García to flee, first to central Portugal and later—after defeating him near Santarém—into exile in Seville in 1072. García's realm was divided, with Alfonso joining the county of Portugal to his Kingdom of León, while Sancho held the north.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: This situation was inherently unstable, with Sancho's lands separated by Alfonso's León, and the two soon fought a war in which Sancho proved victorious, forcing Alfonso into exile and reuniting all of Ferdinand's kingdom except the autonomous city of Zamora, held by his sister Urraca. While besieging this town in 1072, Sancho was assassinated, inducing Alfonso to return and claim the entire realm. García also returned in 1073 from his exile, either with the hope of re-establishing himself in Galicia, or simply having been misled by promises of safety from Alfonso, however, he was imprisoned by Alfonso for the rest of his life, dying in 1091. As an aftermath to these events, before 1088 Alfonso deposed the bishop of Compostela, Diego Pelaez, who was charged "on trying to deliver the Kingdom of Galicia <nowiki>[</nowiki>"Galleciae Regnum"<nowiki>]</nowiki> to the king of the English and of the Normans <nowiki>[</nowiki>William the Conqueror<nowiki>]</nowiki>, while taking it away from the kings of the Spaniards". This reunion with the Kingdom of León would prove permanent, although both kingdoms maintained their separate personality.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1091 the daughter of King Alfonso VI, "infanta" Urraca, married a Burgundian nobleman, Raymond of Burgundy, who had participated in the Crusades against the Almoravids. His military victories as well as his Anscarid lineage justified this union, and Alfonso bestowed on him the government of Galicia between Cape Ortegal and Coimbra, as a personal fief. This union gave rise to the House of Burgundy, which would rule in Galicia, León, and Castile until the death of King Peter.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Two years after Raymond's marriage, in 1093, another French crusader, his cousin Henry, the grandson of Duke Robert I of Burgundy and nephew of Alfonso's queen, was given the hand of the Alfonso's illegitimate daughter Theresa, receiving lands in Castille. Both Burgundians were close allies in the affairs of the realm, ratifying a pact of friendship where Raymond promised his cousin the Kingdom of Toledo or the Kingdom of Galicia, together with a third of his treasure, in return for Henry's aid in acquiring the crown as successor of King Alfonso. However, by 1097 King Alfonso granted Henry the counties of Portugal and Coimbra, from the river Minho to the Tagus, thus limiting the powers of Raymond, who by this time was securing an important nucleus of partisans in Galicia, including Count Pedro Fróilaz de Traba, whilst appointing his own notary, Diego Gelmírez, as bishop of Compostela. In successive years he also obtained the government of Zamora, Salamanca, and Ávila, but he died in 1107, two years before King Alfonso, who was now in his seventies. The government of Galicia and their other possessions was retained by Alfonso's widow, Urraca, who styled herself Mistress and Empress of Galicia. King Alfonso, in a council held in León, asked the magnates of Galicia to swear an oath on the defense of the rights of his grandson, Alfonso Raimúndez, to the kingdom of Galicia, in case his mother Urraca remarried.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: On June 30, 1109, King Alfonso VI died. He was succeeded by Queen Urraca, who was remarried in 1109 to the king of Aragon, Alfonso the Battler, a soldier by nature who was immediately received as king in Castille and León, but not in Galicia. As part of the marriage settlement, any children born to the union were to have priority over Raymond's son Alfonso in the succession. In Galicia this union was rejected by the old party of count Raymond, now led by count Pedro Fróilaz, tutor of young Alfonso, although the partisans of Urraca also joined forces. With Leon and Castille quiet and under control, Alfonso moved on Galicia in 1110, and while he did not suffer any major defeat, he had little success, returning three months later to León. Probably as a consequence of this development, Pedro Froila drew Diego Gelmirez to his party. In 1111, the young Alfonso Raimúndez was crowned and anointed king in Compostela.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: On the death of Henry in 1112, his widow Theresa succeeded him as head of the two Counties of Portugal and Coimbra, during the minority of her son, Afonso Henriques. Two trends emerged at this time, firstly a policy of rapprochement with the new King Alfonso VII, and secondly the maintenance of their power with the aim that the heir to the county would be proclaimed king. The increasing importance of Santiago de Compostela—now metropolitan church of Lusitania, which was in open competition with Braga, metropolitan church of Galicia—and the support for Theresa's rule north of the Minho brought about by her romantic union with Fernando Pérez de Traba altered the "status quo". The Archbishop of Braga, who had suffered the nocturnal theft of the relics of Fructuosus of Braga by Diego Gelmirez in 1102, and the major Portuguese aristocrats who were pursuing a larger territorial authority, gave support to the royal pretensions of Afonso Henriques. Given this situation, King Alfonso VII marched on Portugal, taking first Tui and other territories north of the river Minho, later besieging Guimarães and obtaining the submission of the Portuguese.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Several months later, in 1128, inspired by the shortcomings of Afonso Henriques, the Galician and Portuguese troops of Theresa and Fernando Perez de Trava entered Portugal, but the men of Afonso scored a decisive victory at the Battle of São Mamede. The later death of Theresa, and Afonso's success against the Moors at the Battle of Ourique, led to him being proclaimed King of the Portuguese in 1139, this independence being recognized at the Treaty of Zamora in 1143. Still, the status of frontier lands such as Toroño and Limia in southern Galicia led to frequent border conflicts during most of the Lower Middle Ages.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: At Santiago de Compostela on September 17, 1111 the Galician high nobility crowned Alfonso VII, the son of Raymond and Urraca, as king of Galicia, and he was anointed by bishop Diego Gelmírez; the coronation was led by Pedro Fróilaz de Traba, who had been Alfonso's mentor throughout his childhood. The coronation was intended to preserve the rights of the son of Raymond of Burgundy in Galicia, at a time when Urraca effectively delivered the kingdoms of Castile and León to her new husband, Alfonso the Battler of Aragon and Navarre.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The ceremony in Compostela was more symbolic than effective, and Diego Gelmírez, Pedro Fróilaz, and other Galician nobles headed first to Lugo, and later to the royal seat in León to enthrone Alfonso VII there. However, they were intercepted at Viadangos, near León, by the troops of Alfonso the Battler. The Galician knights charged, but they were outnumbered and surrounded by the Aragonese infantry, who defeated the Galicians and frustrated their plans. Pedro Fróilaz was taken prisoner, whilst other nobles were killed, but bishop Gelmírez managed to escape, delivering his protégé, the young king, to his mother, who began acting against her new husband. From then until Alfonso VII came of age and Urraca died, the entire realm lived under a constant state of civil war, experiencing frequent seizures and shifting alliances between mother and child, and between Urraca and her Aragonese husband. This same civil war was evident in the kingdom of Galicia, where partisans of Diego Gelmirez, of Pedro Fróilaz, and of other nobles and warlords, found themselves battling each other as defenders of either Queen Urraca or King Alfonso VII, or under their own agenda, whilst Alfonso of Aragón and Theresa of Portugal also had their own supporters.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: With Calixtus II, uncle of Alfonso VII, becoming Pope, Diego Gelmírez secured the elevation of Compostela into an archdiocese in 1120 through a steady flow of generous donations sent to Rome. Bishop Diego attempted to gain recognition for Compostela by becoming primate of Spain, but lost the title to Toledo, the old Visigoth capital. Later, however, he sought to have Compostela recognized as the metropolitan church of the Kingdom of Galicia, in opposition to the church of Braga, which had been the metropolitan since at least the days of Martin of Dumio. Calixtus II did not grant Gelmirez's claims, but finally decided to enlarge Compostela's jurisdiction in an anomalous fashion: instead of Galicia, Compostela was granted control over the old jurisdiction of Mérida, the former metropolitan church of Lusitania, which was then under Muslim control without a bishop. Consequently, the bishops of Coimbra, Lamego, Viseu, or Salamanca, among others, were subjected to the rule of Compostela. Braga, metropolitan of the cities of Galicia other than Compostela, found itself limited by the jurisdiction of the latter, and became the centre of the movement for the independence of Portugal. In 1128 the leader of the Galician nobility, Fernando Peres de Trava, together with his lover Countess Theresa of Portugal, who were acting with absolute liberty in most of Galicia and Portugal, were defeated by Afonso Henriques, Theresa's son. This was the foundation of the future kingdom of Portugal.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: On his death in 1156, Alfonso VII divided his domains under pressure from the Castilian and Galician nobles, bequeathing León and Galicia to his second son, Ferdinand II. Ferdinand, who had been using the title of "King of Galicia" at least since 1152, had been as a child ward of the influential Count Fernando Peres de Trava, heir and son of Count Pedro Fróilaz, who in turn had been tutor of Alfonso VII. In 1158 the death of his brother Sancho III of Castile permitted him to intervene the Castilian internal affairs, which led him to use the title "Rex Hispaniarum". In his own realm, he continued his father's policies by granting "Cartas Póvoa" or "Foros" (constitutional charters) to towns such as Padrón, Ribadavia, Noia, Pontevedra and Ribadeo, most of them possessing important harbors or sited in rich valleys. Thus he promoted the growth of the bourgeoisie and improved the local economy through the expansion of commerce. He also contributed to the economic and artistic development of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela, at least after the death of bishop Martin in 1168, and under the rule of two of his closest subjects, bishops Pedro Gudesteiz and Pedro Suárez de Deza. Ferdinand died in 1188, in Benavente, leaving two main claimants to the throne: his sons Sancho, born of a Castilian noblewoman, and Alfonso, from Ferdinand's first marriage, to Urraca of Portugal. Alfonso, supported by the Galician nobility and by the archbishop of Compostela Pedro Suárez de Deza, hastened to Santiago de Compostela carrying the remains of his father and proclaiming himself King there. Unlike his father, he dropped the title of "King of the Spains", preferring the use of "King of León" and "King of León and Galicia".


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Alfonso IX's long reign was characterized by his rivalry with Castile and Portugal, and by the promotion of the royal power at the expense of the church and nobility, whilst maintaining his father's urban development policies. He was one of the first European monarchs to call for a general council, summoning not only the nobility and the Church, but also the inhabitants of the towns and cities, presaging modern representative parliaments. The last years of his reign were also marked by the conquest of large areas of what is now Extremadura (including the cities of Cáceres, Mérida and Badajoz) then in the hands of the Almohad Caliphate, a territory also wanted by the Portuguese.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Alfonso granted constitutional charters to the towns of Betanzos, A Coruña, Baiona, Salvaterra de Miño, Verín, Monforte de Lemos, O Valadouro, Milmanda, Bo Burgo de Castro Caldelas, Melide, Sarria and Triacastela, sited in good harbors along the Galician coastline, by the Miño river, or at major crossroads in the country. These new "reguengo" villages (royal villages under direct royal political and economical control, and administered by their autonomous city councils), each one usually known as a "burgo" due to its walled circuits, attracted peasants, who could find better living conditions under the direct protection of the king than abroad under the authority of a bishop, a monastery or a nobleman; they also attracted foreigners, most notably artisans and merchants, who brought new trends and knowledge. These burgs effected a revolution in the social structure of the time, leading to economic diversification, removing the dominant autarky of the previous centuries, and facilitating the development of fishing and pre-industrial mass production of some resources, especially salted and dried fish, fish oil, and wine, marketed through the seaports to England and the Mediterranean.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In these cities and villages the emergence of an associative movement led to the creation of permanent city councils, and the organization of artisan guilds or "confrarías", which would in time acquire a religious hue just to avoid being banned or punished in their patrimonies. These new burgs also allowed a number of minor noble houses to consolidate power by occupying the new administrative and political offices, in open competition with the new classes: mayors, aldermen ("regedores", "alcaldes", "justiças"), agents and other officials ("procuradores", "notarios", "avogados") and judges () of the town council; or "mordomos" and (leader and deputies) of the diverse guilds.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Throughout this century there was also a rapid growth of the rural population, resulting in a larger force of farm labor which consequently allowed the great monasteries to develop new agricultural lands. This, coupled with the improvement of farming equipment and techniques, such as the introduction of the heavy wheeled plough, resulted in an increase in productivity that impacted the people's lifestyles. The distribution of this increased productivity between peasants and lords was regulated by the establishment of "foros" or lifelong contracts, frequently spanning several generations or "vozes". The economic and social transformations led to profound changes in mindset. In the towns, it initiated a religious and intellectual renewal under the mendicant orders, most notably the Franciscans, who instituted social reforms.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Compostela, "capital and looking glass" of the Kingdom of Galicia, became a showcase of this thriving era, reflected in Master Matthew's work in the granite of the Cathedral of Santiago de Compostela—especially in the "Portico da Gloria" and in Prateria's façade—demonstrating a prosperity also witnessed through the numerous surviving Romanesque buildings in Galicia. This period is also responsible for Latin literary creations such as the "Codex Calixtinus" and the "Historia Compostellana". The "Historia" is an extensive chronicle of the deeds of the bishop of Compostela, Diego Gelmirez, and, though partisan, it is a source of great significance for the understanding of contemporary events and Galician society in the first half of the 12th century.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In the early Medieval era, a fluid pattern of union and division was observed among the states of Christian Iberia. While marriage of royals had resulted in the union of some of these states—for example between Navarre and Aragon, and Castile and León—subsequent divisions amongst heirs created a dynamic pattern of union and separation. However, the 12th century initiated a series of unions that would prove permanent.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Alfonso IX married twice. From his first marriage to Teresa of Portugal he had a son, Ferdinand, and two daughters, Sancha and Aldonza. From his second marriage to Berengaria of Castile, he had five children: Eleanor, who died as a child, a second Ferdinand, Alfonso, Berengaria, and Constance. The death of Alfonso IX's son from his first marriage, Ferdinand, in 1214 left the younger Ferdinand, from his second marriage, as heir to his father. When the Castilian king, Henry I, died in 1217 and Berengaria ceded her rights to her son, Ferdinand became King of Castile, against the will of his father.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: To preserve the independence of his realm, Alfonso IX applied Galician-Leonese inheritance customs to nominate Aldonza as future queen of Galicia and Sancha as queen of León, enlisting their uncle Afonso II of Portugal to support their succession. Alfonso died in 1230 in Sarria, while on pilgrimage to Santiago de Compostela to thank the apostle for his help in the conquest of Extremadura, and his body was taken there for burial. Most of the Leonese nobility cleaved to Ferdinand, who also gained the support of the new Portuguese king, Sancho II. After clashes in León and Galicia, Alfonso IX's two former wives, Berengaria and Theresa, reached an agreement whereby Theresa induced Aldonza and Sancha to abandon their regal claims in exchange for an annuity. As a result, Ferdinand III became successor to Alfonso's kingdoms of León and Galicia, bringing about a permanent union into what would come to be called the Crown of Castile, wherein the kingdoms continued as administrative entities under the unified rule of a single monarch.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Latinate Galician charters from the 8th century onward show that the local written Latin was heavily influenced by local spoken romance, yet not until the 12th century do we find evidence for the identification of the local language as a language different from Latin itself. During this same 12th century we can find full Galician sentences being inadvertently used inside Latin texts, whilst its first reckoned use as a literary language dates to the last years of the 12th century.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The linguistic stage from the 13th to the 15th centuries is usually known as Galician-Portuguese (or "Old Portuguese", or "Old Galician") as an acknowledgement of the cultural and linguistic unity of Galicia and Portugal during the Middle Ages, as both linguistic varieties differed only in minor dialectal phenomena, and were considered by contemporaries as just one language.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: This language flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries as a language of culture, developing a rich lyric tradition of which some 2000 compositions ("cantigas", meaning 'songs') have been preserved—a few hundred even with their musical score—in a series of collections, and belonging to four main genres: "Love songs", where a man sings for his love; "Cantiga de amigo", where a woman sings for her boyfriend; crude, taunting and sexual "Songs of Scorn"; and religious songs.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Its most notable patrons—themselves well-known authors—were kings Dom Dinis in Portugal, and Alfonso X the Wise in Galicia, who was a great promoter of both Galician and Castilian Spanish languages. The noble houses of both countries also encouraged literature in Galician-Portuguese, as being an author or bringing famous troubadours into one's home became a way of promoting social prestige; as a result many noblemen, businessmen and clergymen of the 13th and 14th centuries became notable authors, such as Paio Gomes Charinho, lord of Rianxo, and the aforementioned kings.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Aside from the lyric genres, Galicia also developed a minor tradition of literary prose, most notably translations of European popular series, such as those dealing with king Arthur written by Chretien de Troyes, or those based on the war of Troy, usually commissioned by noblemen who desired to read these romances in their own language. Other genres include history books (either translations of Spanish ones, or original creations like the "Chronicle of St. Mary of Iria", by Rui Vasques), religious books, legal studies, and a treatise on horse breeding. Prose literary creation in Galician had stopped by the 16th century, when the printing press became popular; the first complete translation of the Bible was not printed until the 20th century.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: As for other written uses of Galician, legal charters (last wills, hirings, sales, constitutional charters, city council books of acts, guild constitutions, books of possessions, and any type of public or private contracts and inventories) written in Galicia are to be found from 1230 to 1530—the earliest one a document from the monastery of Melon, dated in 1231. Galician was by far the most-used language during the 13th to 15th centuries, in preference to Latin.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Whilst the written use of Castilian in Galicia had been common since 1400, at least in the documents issued by the offices of foreigners established in the country, since 1500 the open substitution of Galician elites by Castilian officials led to the progressive discrimination against the Galician language and even the Galician people, although public inscriptions in tombstones and foundations were still common during much of the 16th century. These developments led to the appearance of a series of literary and historical works, the goal of which was the vindication of Galician history, language, people and culture, most notably during the 17th and 18th centuries.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Later Galician language would become a regional language, with just minor literary use up to the 19th century, when a thriving literature developed. As Galician had no official recognition, no legal Galician documents were issued again up to the last quarter of the 20th century.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The rule of Ferdinand III initiated a gradual decline in the influence of Galicia in the politics of state, in which the aristocracy and the Galician city councils would lose power to the local bishops. Galicia found itself on the periphery of the enlarged kingdom, which was largely ruled from Toledo or Seville, and increasingly controlled by Castilians. The royal court abandoned Compostela and began a policy of centralization. Despite this, Galician nobles and bishops continued to exercise a degree of autonomy from the Castilian crown until the time of the Catholic Monarchs.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1231 Fernando established in his newly acquired kingdoms positions known in Galicia as , a high official and personal representative of the king, in 1251 substituted by an "adelantado mayor" (Galician: "endeantado maior"), with even greater powers. These officials were established in each one of the three old Christian kingdoms (Galicia, León and Castile); in the vassal Kingdom of Murcia; and in the frontier with the Muslims, 'La Frontera'. During the 13th and the 14th centuries these positions were occupied either by local noblemen—such as Estevan Fernandes de Castro, Paio Gomes Chariño, Fernando José de Estrada, or Afonso Suares de Deza—or by members of the royal family, such as the "infante" Felipe, son of Sancho IV, thus maintaining a state of fluid relations and communications between the Crown and the Kingdom, which would prove fruitful during the conquest and colonization of Seville and other Andalusian cities.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Ferdinand's policy of centralization was continued during the reign of his son Alfonso X: during a period of unrest in Compostela, with the city council at odds with the archbishop, he introduced an "alcalde", or representative of the Crown, into the local government, later delivering the see of Compostela to a Castilian, after forcing Archbishop Gonsalvo Gomes to flee to France. This started a process that eventually led to the replacement of Galician bishops, abbots, and noblemen by Castilians during the 15th and successive centuries. Unlike his father, he usually favoured the bourgeois through the concession of numerous constitutional charters to new towns, angering the nobility.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: While the Castilian (Castile-Toledo) and Leonese (Galicia and León) crowns were linked in the person of the king, both crowns retained political peculiarities. Galicia and León retained the legal code "Liber Iudicium" and their own parliament ("Cortes"). Also, whilst the public charters within the kingdom of Galicia continued to be written in Galician, documents from the royal court were issued only in Castilian. The creation in 1282 of a joint Brotherhood (league) of the Kingdoms of León and Galicia showed the existence of a grade of unrest in the old western kingdoms of the Crown.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The reign of Alfonso X ended in civil war and political instability regarding the succession. The death of his eldest son Ferdinand de la Cerda led Ferdinand's younger brother, Sancho, to rebel in a bid to secure the succession, which was ultimately successful. A similar pattern then followed Sancho's own death in 1295, with the reign of his juvenile son Ferdinand IV of Castile being contested by his uncle John, who had been in revolt since 1286.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: With the help of King Denis I of Portugal, John—who lived exiled in Granada—advanced to Badajoz to claim the throne of Castile, but negotiations with Ferdinand's party, together with the assassination of his closest ally the "adelantado mayor" of Galicia Paio Gómez Charinho, led him to withdraw his claim. In 1296 John took the lead of the nobility of the old Leonese crown, and with the support of the kings of Aragon and Portugal was proclaimed king of León and Galicia in 1296, which also included the Kingdom of Seville, a vassal of Galicia since the 11th century. Charinho was succeeded by Fernando Ruíz de Castro, a kinsman of the house of Traba, whose wife also supported John and encouraged calls for a rapprochement with Portugal.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: This attempted secession lasted five years amid great political and military instability due to opposition from many sectors of society, including the party of Sancho's widow Maria de Molina, which was supported by the Castilian nobility, and the high Galician clergy. Faced with this resistance, King Denis of Portugal proposed to Queen Maria de Molina that John and his heirs should be granted the Kingdom of Galicia, where he counted on the strong support of Fernando Ruiz de Castro and other noblemen. In 1301, however, after losing the support of the King of Portugal, John was forced to abandon his claim to kingship in exchange for a number of minor titles, thus confirming the unity of the Crown of Castile.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: After John's challenge, Ferdinand decided to send his brother Don Felipe to Galicia as Adelantado Mayor; he would later be granted the title of "Pertigueiro Maior", or first minister and commander of the "Terra de Santiago". For nearly thirty years he would act as "alter ego" of the king, closely supported by the local nobility.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The beginning of the 14th century was characterized by the civil unrest in the cities of the kingdom, most notably in Lugo, Tui, Ourense and Compostela. The aspiration of their city councils to become "reguengas"--"i.e.", direct dependencies of the king, and as such virtually autonomous republics under the direction of their elected councils--which placed them in direct conflict with their bishops, intent on maintaining their fiefs. This unrest was not new, as Compostela had known bloody conflicts between the bourgeois and the bishops since the first years of the 12th century, when the bishop Gelmirez himself was chased inside the city. In these conflicts, Don Felipe and the local nobility usually supported the councils' pretensions in opposition to the mighty and rich bishops, although most of the time the military and economic influence of the archbishop of Santiago proved determinative in the maintenance of the "status quo".


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The conflict in the City of Compostela reached its zenith in September 1320, when, after forty years of autonomy and two years of war, the new archbishop, the French Bérenger de Landore, assassinated the nobleman Alonso Suárez de Deza together with the members of the City Council in his castle, "A Rocha Forte" near Santiago, where he had lured them for talks. While Berenger's forcefulness temporarily pacified the city, he still had to fight for another year just to take the rest of the fiefdom. However, twenty-five years later, the City Council of Compostela obtained the long-sought "reguengo" status from King Alfonso XI. Similar conflicts are known to have occurred in other Galician cities.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1348, the Black Death, locally known as "A Mortaldade", reached the ports of Galicia, decimating the population, and causing a severe and lasting economic crisis.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1360 the kingdom of Galicia was again at the centre of a succession crisis, this time of European dimension. The throne of Castile was disputed between King Peter I and his half-brother, Henry Count of Trastámara, within the broader context of the Hundred Years' War. This fratricidal conflict lasted from 1354 to 1369, having its origin in the policies of Peter I, who tried to expand his royal power while leaning on the municipal councils; this would come at the expense of the high nobility, including Castilian families such as Pimentel, Ponce de León, Mendoza, Fernández de Córdoba, and Alvarez de Toledo; and Galician ones such as Castro. As a result, in 1354 a coalition of nobles rose in defence of a pactual monarchy, although this coalition did not last long.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Henry, illegitimate son of Alfonso XI of Castile and half-brother of Peter, took advantage of the dissatisfaction among the noblemen to launch a war against Peter, with the support of Peter IV of Aragon, with whom Peter I was already at war, and along companies of mercenaries such as that commanded by Bertrand du Guesclin. Meanwhile, Peter I drew his support from the municipalities and part of the nobility, most notably the Galician Castro family headed by Fernando Rodrigues de Castro, "Pertegueiro Maior" of Santiago and "Adelantado Mayor" of Galicia, who, after defecting from Henry's side in 1355, was playing the same role as the Traba family two hundred years before. Other notable supporters were Sueiro Eans Parada, Men Rodrigues de Seabra, and the Moscoso family.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1366 Pedro was forced to flee into Andalusia, while Fernando de Castro returned to Galicia. After a dangerous journey through Portugal, King Pedro made it to Galicia, where an assembly of supporters decided to send him into Gascony to seek English support, whilst at the same time internal enemies such as the archbishop of Compostela were assassinated or prosecuted. This same year, with Pedro abroad, a temporary truce permitted Henry to surface in Galicia, where he obtained the support of some important aristocrats, most notably Fernan Peres de Andrade.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1367, counting on the additional support of the archers of the English prince Edward of Woodstock, Peter won the battle of Nájera, which allowed him to take the war into Andalusia. However, the entry of England's enemy Charles V of France on Henry's side had a destabilising effect. In 1369 the new archbishop of Santiago, the loyalist Rodrigo de Moscoso, urgently ordered his knights to march to Andalusia and support the King and Fernando de Castro, but the call was ignored. The capture of Peter during the Battle of Montiel and his subsequent murder left Henry II in control of the Crown of Castile.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The triumph of the high nobility in Castile, as represented by the death of Peter I and crowning of their candidate, Henry II, was resented by the majority of Galician nobles, who had been forgiven by the new King. Under the leadership of Fernando de Castro, the Galician loyalist party and the cities, invited Ferdinand I of Portugal to be their king, assuring him that the Galician nobles and citizens would "raise their voices for him ... and they hand him the cities and recognize as lord and will honor him".


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In his triumphant entrance Ferdinand was accompanied by many aristocratic Galician supporters, including Fernando de Castro, Count of Trastámara; Alvar Peres de Castro, the lord of Salvaterra; and Nuno Freire de Andrade, Master of the Portuguese Order of Christ. He was acclaimed in the cities and towns: Tui, Redondela, Ribadavia, Ourense, Lugo, Padrón, Compostela, and finally A Coruña, which was given to the king by its keeper, Joan Fernandes de Andeiro.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: During his brief government in Galicia, Ferdinand I set about restoring the Galician strongholds, including Tui and Baiona, and liberalized trade between Galicia and Portugal, supplying grain and wine by sea to the war-weakened Galician populace. He also made provisions for the issuance of gold and silver coinage at Tui and A Coruña to be recognized as valid throughout Galicia and Portugal.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: Despite these measures, the presence of the Portuguese monarch was short-lived. Henry II of Castile, with the support of the mercenaries of Du Guesclin, launched an offensive that forced Ferdinand I back to Portugal. Later, in 1371, with the Portuguese troops defending themselves from Henry's mercenaries, Fernando de Castro and his fellow nobles were defeated in the battle of "Porto de Bois", near Lugo, by Henry's men: Pedro Manrique, governor of Castile, and Pedro Rois Sarmento. Fernando de Castro fled to Portugal, but was later banished to Gascony under the terms of the "Treaty of Santarém", which forced Portugal to expel many of the Galician supporters of Fernando I, dying there in 1377.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: In 1372, after Henry had defeated Men Rodrigues de Seabra, Castilian rule was re-established over most of Galicia, although A Coruña, regularly supplied by Portuguese ships, held out until 1373.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: The expulsion of Ferdinand I of Portugal and the abandonment of his claim to Galicia was followed a year later by the capture of Tui by Diego Sarmento on behalf of Henry II. However, the town of Coruña remained faithful to Portugal until 1373, whilst João Fernandes de Andeiro, exiled in England, entered negotiations for further support for the loyalist Galician party, at the same time laying the foundation of the secular alliance between England and Portugal. On July 10, 1372 a treaty was signed by which Constance, daughter of Peter I, claimed the legitimate right to succeed her father. Her husband, John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster and son of King Edward III of England, then claimed the Castilian Crown on her behalf.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: John's first attempt to make good on this claim failed when his troops were diverted to Poitou to participate in the clashes against France as part of the Hundred Years' War. On July 25, 1386, with the support of a papal bull of Urban IV confirming his right to the Crown of Castile, he landed in Coruña with some 1500 archers, 1500 lancers and some 4000 other supporters, without fighting or attacking the city. Following negotiations it was agreed that the city would open its gates once the Duke was received in Santiago de Compostela; being admitted there, John's troops, assisted by Galician exiles, took control of Pontevedra, Vigo, Baiona and Betanzos without a fight, whilst John himself proceeded to Ourense, defended by Breton troops in the service of John I of Castile. Meanwhile, the port of Ferrol was taken by John's ally the Portuguese king John I of Portugal, and the town of Ribadavia—where the local Jews, most of them of Leonese extraction, apparently presented a fierce defence—was assaulted after a siege by troops commanded by Thomas Percy. With the capture of Ferrol, the Duke controlled the whole Kingdom of Galicia, as reported in the chronicles of Jean Froissart: «avoient mis en leur obeissance tout le roiaulme de Gallice».


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: John was unable to capitalize on this initial success, as plague decimated the English army in Galicia during 1386 and 1387. Later, in 1387, together with the Portuguese, he launched an unsuccessful assault into the dry terrain of Castile; finally, John was forced to negotiate with John I of Castile. In their 1388 peace treaty, the Duke of Lancaster and Constance of Castile renounced their claims to Castile in exchange for monetary compensation and a marriage alliance between their daughter and the son and heir of Henry II, the future Henry III of Castile. The withdrawal of the English armies brought an end to Galicia's attempts, spearheaded by its nobles and town councils, to secede from the Crown of Castile.


title: Kingdom of Galicia

text: After the defeat of the loyalist party, with their leaders consequently exiled in Portugal or dead abroad, Henry II and John I introduced a series of foreign noble houses in Galicia as tenants of important fiefs. For example, the County of Trastámara, ancient dominion of the Traba and Castro houses, was given first to Pedro Eníquez de Castro, nephew of Henry II; later, in 1440, it was divided into two counties, Trastámara and Lemos, and given to the Osorios, of the frontier lands of Bierzo. In the South some important concessions were given to the Sarmento family, which, in time, would hold the job of "Adelantado Mayor" of the Kingdom of Galicia as a family legacy; and to the Pimentels of Benavente. Some of these families, most notably the Osorios, would become during the 16th and 17th centuries the most influential defenders of Galician causes. But during the 15th century, in the absence of solid leadership, such as exercised in the past by the archbishop of Santiago or by the Counts of Trastámara, the Kingdom of Galicia was reduced to a set of semi-independent and rival fiefdoms, militarily important, but with little political influence abroad.