title: Black January

text: The Memorial Society and Helsinki Watch reported in May 1991 that they had found compelling evidence that the imposition of the state of emergency had led to an unwarranted breach of civil liberties and that Soviet troops had used unjustified force resulting in many deaths. This includes the usage of armored vehicles, bayonets and firing on clearly marked ambulances.


title: Black January

text: The Human Rights Watch report entitled "Black January in Azerbaijan" states: "Indeed, the violence used by the Soviet Army on the night of January 19–20 was so out of proportion to the resistance offered by Azerbaijanis as to constitute an exercise in collective punishment. Since Soviet officials have stated publicly that the purpose of the intervention of Soviet troops was to prevent the ouster of the Communist-dominated government of the Republic of Azerbaijan by the nationalist-minded, noncommunist opposition, the punishment inflicted on Baku by Soviet soldiers may have been intended as a warning to nationalists, not only in Azerbaijan but in the other republics of the Soviet Union."


title: Black January

text: "The subsequent events in the Baltic Republics – where, in a remarkable parallel to the events in Baku, the alleged civil disorder was cited as justification for violent intervention by Soviet troops – further confirms that the Soviet Government has demonstrated that it will deal harshly with nationalist movements", continues the Human Rights Watch report.


title: Black January

text: "The Wall Street Journal" editorial of 4 January 1995 stated that Gorbachev chose to use violence against "independence-seeking Azerbaijan." When a year later the world press criticized Gorbachev for violent massacres of civilians in Lithuania and Latvia, the Azerbaijani public was embittered by the silence of the world media on Gorbachev's orders a year earlier, during Black January.


title: Black January

text: On 18 October 1991, the Azerbaijan parliament restored the country's independence. On 14 February 1992, the Azerbaijani General Prosecutor's Office instituted a lawsuit targeted at the individuals involved in the massacre. In March 2003, the same lawsuit was targeted at the ex-Soviet president Gorbachev for violating the article 119 of the Soviet Constitution and article 71 of the Constitution of the Azerbaijani SSR. In 1994, the National Assembly of Azerbaijan adopted a full political and legal evaluation of the Black January events. According to the decree of the President of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev from 16 December 1999, all victims of the crackdown were awarded an honorary title of the "Martyr of January 20" ().


title: Black January

text: 20 January is marked as Martyrs' Day (or literally, "the Day of the Nationwide Sorrow") in Azerbaijan.


title: Black January

text: 20 January is recognized as a Day of Mourning and it is commemorated as the Day of Nationwide Sorrow (). In January 2010, a memorial for the Black January victims was erected in the Yasamal district of Baku. The monument was designed by Javanshir Dadashov and Azad Agayed, and architect Adalat Mammadov. The opening of the monument took place on 20 January 2010. The President of Azerbaijan Ilham Aliyev and the head of the presidential administration Ramiz Mehdiyev, chief executive of Yasamal Ibrahim Mehdiyev, and families of the victims of the tragedy attended the ceremony. The total area of the complex is . The height of the monument and pedestal is . The memorial depicts a group of people who are determined not to miss armed troops coming into the city, with some of them already fallen.


title: James Naughton

text: James Naughton (born December 6, 1945) is an American actor and director. He is best known as Michael Bower on "Who's the Boss?" (1984-1992) and was also notable for his earlier role as the astronaut Pete Burke in the 1974 single-season television adaptation of Planet of the Apes.


title: James Naughton

text: Naughton was born in Middletown, Connecticut, the son of Rosemary (née Walsh) and Joseph Naughton, both of whom were teachers. He is the elder brother of actor David Naughton. He graduated from Conard High School. Jim began singing during his years at Conard High School "with the high school band and at parties."


title: James Naughton

text: Naughton graduated from Brown University and Yale School of Drama. His acting career began when he appeared in a series of Broadway dramas and musicals. He has since become an accomplished actor in both starring and supporting film and television roles.


title: James Naughton

text: His largest fame and first love has been the legitimate theater. He won the Theatre World Award for his performance in "Long Day's Journey into Night" in 1971. He starred with Geneviève Bujold in "Antigone", later made into a film in 1974. He starred in "I Love My Wife" in 1977 and in "Whose Life is it Anyway?" in 1980. He won his first Tony Award for Best Actor in a Musical in 1990 for "City of Angels". In 1997, he won a second Tony Award with his portrayal of lawyer Billy Flynn in the musical "Chicago". He played the role of Willy Brandt in "Democracy" on its U.S. première in 2004. His films include "The Paper Chase" and "The First Wives Club". In 2006, he appeared in the movie "The Devil Wears Prada". In 2006, he played Fuzzy Sedgwick in "Factory Girl".


title: James Naughton

text: On television, he starred in "Faraday & Company" with Dan Dailey and Sharon Gless (1973–1974). He also starred with Ron Harper in the 1974 television series "Planet of the Apes", a spin-off of the original film. He starred in "Making the Grade" and "Trauma Center" in the early 1980s. He starred in the short-lived series "Raising Miranda" in 1988. From 1991 to 1993 he played Lt. Patrick Monahan on the series "Brooklyn Bridge". He co-starred with Bill Cosby in "The Cosby Mysteries" in 1995. He appeared with Gless 20 years later, this time as her husband in "Cagney and Lacey: The Return" (1993) and "Cagney and Lacey: Together Again" (1995). He appeared on "Damages" with Glenn Close. Naughton had a recurring role on "Gossip Girl" as William van der Bilt, grandfather of main character Nate Archibald.


title: James Naughton

text: He has appeared in television commercials promoting the drugs Cialis, Nexium and Nasalcrom. Naughton has also been the official voice of Audi in the U.S. since 2007, heard in its national TV and radio spots. He is also a frequent narrator on television's "Nature" series.


title: James Naughton

text: He has directed several plays in New York City, including the 2002 revival of Thornton Wilder's "Our Town", starring his friend Paul Newman, filmed for cable TV in 2003. He appears in cabarets in New York City, including Manhattan Theatre Club and Caroline's Comedy Club.


title: James Naughton

text: His family is Irish American. He and his first wife, Pam Parsons, have two actor children: Keira and Greg. Greg is married to actress Kelli O'Hara. Pam died from pancreatic cancer in 2013.


title: Mud (band)

text: Mud are an English glam rock band, formed in February 1966. Their earlier success came in a pop and then glam rock style, while later hits were influenced by 1950s rock and roll, and they are best remembered for their hit singles "Dyna-mite" , "Tiger Feet", which was the UK's best-selling single of 1974, and "Lonely This Christmas" which reached Christmas number 1 in December 1974. After signing to Rak Records and teaming up with songwriters/producers Nicky Chinn and Mike Chapman, the band had fourteen UK Top 20 hits between 1973 and 1976, including three number ones.


title: Mud (band)

text: The band was founded by lead guitarist Rob Davis, lead vocalist Les Gray, drummer Dave Mount (born 3 March 1947, Carshalton; died 2 December 2006, St Helier Hospital, Carshalton) and bassist Ray Stiles (born 20 November 1946, Guildford, Surrey).


title: Mud (band)

text: The band released their debut single "Flower Power" on CBS in 1967, but were not immediately successful. Three further singles in 1967/68, "Up the Airy Mountain"/"The Latter Days", "Shangri-La"/"House on the Hill" and "Jumping Jehosophat"/"Won't Let It Go", made no impression on the UK Singles Chart.


title: Mud (band)

text: After years of unsuccessful singles, they were signed to Mickie Most's Rak label, and had three Top 20 successes in 1973 with "Crazy" (No. 12), "Hypnosis" (No. 16) and "Dyna-mite" (No. 4).


title: Mud (band)

text: At the peak of their career, they also enjoyed British number one singles with "Tiger Feet"; and "Lonely This Christmas" (1974), an affectionate Elvis Presley pastiche; plus "Oh Boy" (1975), a cover of the Buddy Holly hit, which also featured on their album "Mud Rock Volume 2". "Tiger Feet" sold over 500,000 copies in the UK and a million copies globally.


title: Mud (band)

text: Like contemporaries Sweet, their most successful period came when their records were written and produced by Nicky Chinn and Mike Chapman: in 1975 they had seven singles in the UK Top 40 totalling over 45 weeks on the chart, the most by any artist in 1975. "Oh Boy" was the only number one single produced by Chinn and Chapman that they did not also write.


title: Mud (band)

text: "Lonely This Christmas" gets seasonal airplay on British radio and television, (along with Slade's "Merry Xmas Everybody" and Wizzard's "I Wish It Could Be Christmas Everyday"). The band also embraced the burgeoning disco craze, as exemplified on their 1976 single "Shake It Down" which reached No. 12 in the UK chart. After "Tiger Feet" they released "The Cat Crept In" which reached No. 2 in April 1974, which was written to exploit Les Gray's vocal impression of Presley. Their next single "Rocket" reached No. 6 in the UK, after which they released another track from their album "Mud Rock", a cover of "In the Mood". This was released under the name of "Dum" ("Mud" spelt backwards), but it failed to chart.


title: Mud (band)

text: After the success with "Lonely This Christmas", they cracked the Valentine's Day market with "The Secrets That You Keep", which reached No. 3 in February 1975. Around this time Mud wound up their contract with Rak releasing three further singles, "Oh Boy" (their third and final UK No. 1), "Moonshine Sally" (No. 10) and "One Night" (No. 32). Mud also split from Chinn and Chapman in mid-1975 and signed to Private Stock (licensed to Philips in Continental Europe). There they enjoyed three more British Top 20 hits within seven months: "L'L'Lucy" (No. 10), the ballad "Show Me You're a Woman" (No. 8) and the disco-influenced track "Shake It Down" (No. 12). The latter two singles saw them gradually moving away from glam rock, which was now unfashionable. Keyboardist Andy Ball, formerly of Candlewick Green, joined the band briefly during this period, to be replaced in early 1978 by Brian Tatum.


title: Mud (band)

text: Their last single to reach the British charts was a cover of the Bill Withers song "Lean on Me" which reached No. 7 in the UK in December 1976.


title: Mud (band)

text: "Lean on me" was followed by in 1977 Gray's solo version of "Groovy Kind of Love" on Warner Bros., which peaked at No. 32 in the UK. Also in 1977, with Private Stock in financial difficulties, the band moved to RCA. Their first single on RCA was "Slow Talking Boy", a folk rock song composed by John Kongos, and featuring Davis playing a Vox 12-string guitar-mandolin; they performed this song on BBC TV's "Top of the Pops", but without reaping any chart success. Mud's next single, "(Just Try) A Little Tenderness", was their final appearance on any major national chart, stalling at No. 98 in Australia. Three more singles, all cover versions, followed in 1978 before RCA dropped the band and Gray quit for a solo career.


title: Mud (band)

text: The original band continued for a short while with female vocalist Margo Buchanan in Gray's place, releasing an unsuccessful single for Carrere, before finally disbanding in 1979.


title: Mud (band)

text: Following the band's dissolution, Stiles joined the Hollies; whilst Davis went on to co-write several highly successful dance hits for Kylie Minogue and Spiller featuring Sophie Ellis-Bextor. Drummer Mount went into the insurance business. Mount appeared on an episode of "Never Mind the Buzzcocks" on BBC Two in November 2005, and featured in the "spot the pop star of the past" identity parade segment. Mount died on 2 December 2006. He had been married twice and worked as a salesman latterly. His obituary appeared in "The Independent" newspaper. The last performance by the four original members was on 3 March 1990 at Dave Mount's wedding; a video recording of which was made by Mount.


title: Mud (band)

text: After the original band broke up in 1979, Gray reformed the band as 'Les Gray's Mud'. The initial lineup featured Stuart Amesbury (rhythm guitar) and Cherie Beck (backing vocals) of the Bristol-based Cherie Beck Band; together with Dale Fry (bass), Nick Richie (lead guitar) and Rob John (drums); with the latter two being replaced in 1983 by guitarist Tim Fish and drummer Mark Hatwood respectively. In 1985, a further lineup change saw Amesbury, Beck, and Fry depart the band; with the new lineup being rounded out by Kevin Fairburn on bass.


title: Mud (band)

text: In 1987, all members with the exception of Gray departed the band, and Gray brought in bassist John Berry, drummer Wole Rothe, and guitarist Syd Twynham as replacements. Rothe and Twynham had both been members of Liquid Gold prior to joining Mud. This lineup lasted until 1998 when Rothe was replaced by Phil Wilson, and the band underwent no further changes until Gray died in 2004.


title: Mud (band)

text: Following Gray's death, the three remaining members were given permission by the other founding members of Mud, plus that of Gray's family, to continue using the band's name. Berry, Twynham, and Wilson then rechristened the band 'Mud II' and recruited keyboardist and longterm Mud collaborator Chris Savage. The following year, Berry left and was replaced by Marc Michalski, creating the lineup of the band which still continues to this day.


title: Jonathan Melvoin

text: Jonathan David Melvoin (December 6, 1961 – July 12, 1996) was an American musician, active in the 1980s and 1990s.


title: Jonathan Melvoin

text: He was the son of Constance (née Ives) and Mike Melvoin, keyboardist for The Wrecking Crew, and brother of twins Susannah and Wendy Melvoin of Prince and The Revolution. He first learned to play drums at the age of five.


title: Jonathan Melvoin

text: Melvoin performed with many punk bands in the 1990s, such as The Dickies. He was also a member of The Family, a Prince side project band which produced the original recording of "Nothing Compares 2 U", "Screams of Passion" and "Mutiny", and made musical contributions to many Wendy & Lisa projects, as well as to Prince and the Revolution's 1985 album "Around the World in a Day". He also played drums on "Do U Lie?" from the 1986 Prince & the Revolution album "Parade". At the time of his death he was the touring keyboardist for The Smashing Pumpkins during their worldwide tour for the album "Mellon Collie and the Infinite Sadness".


title: Jonathan Melvoin

text: Melvoin died at age 34 as the result of a heroin overdose. Melvoin injected high purity heroin that was intended for snorting, he had previously consumed alcohol, which can lower the body's drug tolerance. The Smashing Pumpkins were not invited to Melvoin's funeral. Pumpkins drummer Jimmy Chamberlin injected the same heroin that night. Yet despite rumors of injecting together, after acquiring the drugs, both musicians retired to their own rooms to use alone. Several songs were inspired by his death, including the Sarah McLachlan song "Angel", the Wendy & Lisa song "Jonathan" (as Girl Bros.), and Prince's "The Love We Make" from the album "Emancipation".


title: Linocut

text: Linocut, also known as lino print, lino printing or linoleum art, is a printmaking technique, a variant of woodcut in which a sheet of linoleum (sometimes mounted on a wooden block) is used for a relief surface. A design is cut into the linoleum surface with a sharp knife, V-shaped chisel or gouge, with the raised (uncarved) areas representing a reversal (mirror image) of the parts to show printed. The linoleum sheet is inked with a roller (called a brayer), and then impressed onto paper or fabric. The actual printing can be done by hand or with a printing press.


title: Linocut

text: Since the material being carved has no directional grain and does not tend to split, it is easier to obtain certain artistic effects with lino than with most woods, although the resultant prints lack the often angular grainy character of woodcuts and engravings. Lino is generally diced, much easier to cut than wood, especially when heated, but the pressure of the printing process degrades the plate faster and it is difficult to create larger works due to the material's fragility.


title: Linocut

text: Linocuts can also be achieved by the careful application of arts on the surface of the lino. This creates a surface similar to a soft ground etching and these caustic-lino plates can be printed in either a relief, intaglio or a viscosity printing manner.


title: Linocut

text: Colour linocuts can be made by using a different block for each colour as in a woodcut, as the artists of the Grosvenor School frequently did, but, as Pablo Picasso demonstrated, such prints can also be achieved using a single piece of linoleum in what is called the 'reductive' print method. Essentially, after each successive colour is imprinted onto the paper, the artist then cleans the lino plate and cuts away what will not be imprinted for the subsequently applied colour.


title: Linocut

text: Due to ease of use, linocut is widely used in schools to introduce children to the art of printmaking, using it to complete many tasks in the art lesson rather than going straight for the pencil and eraser; similarly, non-professional artists often cut lino rather than wood for printing. Nevertheless, in the contemporary art world the linocut is an established professional print medium, because of its extensive use by the artists of the Grosvenor School, followed by Pablo Picasso and Henri Matisse.


title: Linocut

text: In 1911 “linoleum art” was first displayed in New York City by the Czech émigré Vojtěch Preissig. In his publications on linocuts (1926–29) the respected American printmaker, Pedro Joseph de Lemos, simplified the methods for art schools and introduced new techniques for color linocuts, including the printing of the key block first. The first large-scale colour linocuts made by an American artist were created ca. 1943–45 by Walter Inglis Anderson, and exhibited at the Brooklyn Museum in 1949.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The Hypogeum of Ħal Saflieni is a Neolithic subterranean structure dating to the Saflieni phase (3300 – 3000 BC) in Maltese prehistory, located in Paola, Malta. It is often simply referred to as the Hypogeum (), literally meaning "underground" in Greek. The Hypogeum is thought to have been a sanctuary and necropolis, with the remains of more than 7,000 people documented by archeologists, and is among the best preserved examples of the Maltese temple building culture that also produced the Megalithic Temples and Xagħra Stone Circle.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The Hypogeum was discovered by accident in 1902 when workers cutting cisterns for a new housing development broke through its roof. The workers tried to hide the temple at first, but eventually it was found. The study of the structure was first conducted by Manuel Magri, who directed the excavations on behalf of the Museums Committee, starting from November 1903. During the excavations, a portion of the contents of the Hypogeum, including grave goods and human remains, were emptied out and discarded without being properly catalogued. To confound things further, Magri died in 1907 while conducting missionary work in Tunisia and his report on the Hypogeum was lost.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: Excavation continued under Sir Themistocles Zammit, who attempted to salvage what he could. Zammit began publishing a series of reports in 1910 and continued excavating until 1911, depositing his findings at the National Museum of Archaeology in Valletta. The Hypogeum was first opened to visitors in 1908 while the excavations were ongoing.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: Real attempts to preserve the site started in 1991 when it closed for a decade to arrange it for visits. In 2011, a more intensive program was launched to monitor the decay of the site.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The Hypogeum reopened in May 2017 after closing for a year to improve its environmental management system.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: Later archeological excavations indicate there was once a surface shrine that marked the entrance to the Hypogeum, with its subsequent destruction likely shielding the lower structure from discovery for thousands of years. Nothing remains of any potential enclosure that would have marked the entry to the Hypogeum. The underground structure may have originated from a natural cave, expanded over time by cutting directly into the rock with crude tools including antlers, flint, chert and obsidian. Burial chambers in the upper level of the Hypogeum date from the early phases of the Maltese Temple Period, with lower chambers dating from later. The site may have first been used as early as 4000 BC, and was likely used until around 2500 BC, based on pottery sample analysis and examination of human remains.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The temple structure uses a careful direction of light from the surface to penetrate into the lower chambers, with intricate patterns painted on portions of the ceiling with red ochre, following motifs of spots, spirals and honeycombs. One of the main chambers, called "The Holy of Holies", appears to be oriented such that light from the winter solstice illuminated its facade from the original opening above.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: A resonance niche cut in the middle chamber, called the Oracle Room, was possibly designed to project chanting or drumming throughout the rest of the Hypogeum.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: A broad range of objects were recovered from the site, including intricately decorated pottery vessels, stone and clay beads, shell buttons, amulets, axe-heads, and carved figures depicting humans and animals. The most notable discovery was the Sleeping Lady, a clay figure thought to represent a mother goddess. The figures range from abstract to realistic in style, with major themes thought to be related to veneration of the dead and spiritual transformation. Complex artistic techniques are also represented, as in the case of a single large pottery bowl which utilized both naturalistic and stylized themes, with one side realistically depicting bovines, pigs and goats, and the other side representing hatched animals hidden within complex geometric patterns.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The remains of some 7,000 individuals were found in the Hypogeum, and though many of the bones were lost early in excavation, most of the skulls were deposited at the National Museum. A small percentage of the skulls have an abnormal cranial elongation, similar to priestly skulls from Ancient Egypt, fueling speculation about the people who occupied the Hypogeum, and their practices and beliefs.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: Further excavations took place between 1990 and 1993 by Anthony Pace, Nathaniel Cutajar and Reuben Grima. The Hypogeum was then closed to visitors between 1991 and 2000 for restoration works; and since its reopening, Heritage Malta (the government body that looks after historical sites) allows entry to only 80 people per day, while the site's microclimate is strictly regulated. Scientific research on the Hypogeum is ongoing, and in 2014, an international team of scientists visited to study acoustics.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The Hypogeum is constructed entirely underground and consists of three superimposed levels hewn into soft globigerina limestone, with its halls and chambers interconnected through a labyrinthine series of steps, lintels and doorways. The upper level is thought to have been occupied first, with the middle and lower levels expanded and excavated later. Some of the middle chambers appear to share stylistic characteristics with the contemporaneous Megalithic Temples found across Malta.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The last level is only one meter above the surface, and it is very different from tombs hidden in Malta, near Rabat. Some rooms are natural caves which were later extended. This level contains many rooms, some of which were used for burial.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The second level is a later expansion, with the rock hoisted up to the surface by Cyclopean rigging. This level features several noted rooms:


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The lower story contained no bones or offerings, only water. It strongly suggests storage, probably of grain.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The Hypogeum and its museum are a popular attraction in Malta. The museum is open at 9am, but queuing for tickets starts around 8am."Last minute" 20 tickets for next day are always available from the National War Museum, located in Valletta. Visitors are recommended to book months before, as limited people are allowed per day.


title: Ħal Saflieni Hypogeum

text: The site closed in September 2016 for a €1.1 million renovation partly financed by a grant from Iceland, Norway and Liechtenstein. The renovated museum was inaugurated by Minister for Culture on 28 April 2017 and includes a new climate control system for the Hypogeum as well as an expanded visitor centre. The site reopened to visitors on 15 May 2017.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: The Merchant Navy is the maritime register of the United Kingdom and comprises the seagoing commercial interests of UK-registered ships and their crews. Merchant Navy vessels fly the Red Ensign and are regulated by the Maritime and Coastguard Agency (MCA). King George V bestowed the title of "Merchant Navy" on the British merchant shipping fleets following their service in the First World War; a number of other nations have since adopted the title. Previously it had been known as the Mercantile Marine or Merchant Service, although the term "Merchant Navy" was already informally used from the 19th century.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: The Merchant Navy has been in existence for a significant period in English and British history, owing its growth to trade and imperial expansion. It can be dated back to the 17th century, when an attempt was made to register all seafarers as a source of labour for the Royal Navy in times of conflict. That registration of merchant seafarers failed, and it was not successfully implemented until 1835.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: The merchant fleet grew over successive years to become the world's foremost merchant fleet, benefiting considerably from trade with British possessions in India and the Far East. The lucrative trades in sugar, contraband opium to China, spices, and tea (carried by ships such as the "Cutty Sark") helped to entrench this dominance in the 19th century.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, maritime education expanded to train merchant navy officers. For example, in 1855 Leith Nautical College provided training for seafarers in Scotland. Other maritime colleges developed in this period included the South Tyneside Marine and Technical College, founded 1861 (now the South Tyneside College) and the Southampton School of Navigation, 1902 (now the Warsash Maritime School).


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: In the First and Second World Wars, the merchant service suffered heavy losses from German U-boat attacks. A policy of unrestricted warfare meant that merchant seafarers were at risk of attack from enemy ships. The tonnage lost to U-boats in the First World War was around 7,759,090 tons, and around 14,661 merchant seafarers were killed. In honour of the sacrifice made by merchant seafarers in the First World War, George V granted the title "Merchant Navy" to the companies.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: In 1928 George V gave Edward, Prince of Wales the title of "Master of the Merchant Navy and Fishing Fleets"; which he retained after his accession to the throne in January 1936 and relinquished only at his abdication that December. Since Edward VIII, the title has been held by the sovereigns George VI and Elizabeth II. When the United Kingdom and the British Empire entered the Second World War in September 1939, George VI issued this message:


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: "In these anxious days I would like to express to all Officers and Men and in the British Merchant Navy and the British Fishing Fleets my confidence in their unfailing determination to play their vital part in defence. To each one I would say: Yours is a task no less essential to my people's experience than that allotted to the Navy, Army and Air Force. Upon you the Nation depends for much of its foodstuffs and raw materials and for the transport of its troops overseas. You have a long and glorious history, and I am proud to bear the title "Master of the Merchant Navy and Fishing Fleets". I know that you will carry out your duties with resolution and with fortitude, and that high chivalrous traditions of your calling are safe in your hands. God keep you and prosper you in your great task."


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: During the Second World War, German U-boats sank nearly 14.7 million tons of Allied shipping, which amounted to 2,828 ships (around two-thirds of the total allied tonnage lost). The United Kingdom alone suffered the loss of 11.7 million tons, which was 54% of the total Merchant Navy fleet at the outbreak of the Second World War. 32,000 merchant seafarers were killed aboard convoy vessels in the war, but along with the Royal Navy, the convoys successfully imported enough supplies to allow an Allied victory.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: Between 1941 and 1949, the SR Merchant Navy class steam locomotives were built in the UK. Each locomotive of the class was named after British shipping lines from the Second World War, principally those operating out of Southampton.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: In honour of the sacrifices made in both World Wars, representatives of the Merchant Navy lay wreaths of remembrance alongside the armed forces in the annual Remembrance Day service on 11 November. Following many years of lobbying to bring about official recognition of the sacrifices made by merchant seafarers in the two world wars and since, Merchant Navy Day became an official day of remembrance on 3 September 2000.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: Despite maintaining its dominant position for many decades, the decline of the British Empire, the rise of the use of the flag of convenience, and foreign competition led to the decline of the merchant fleet. For example, in 1939 the Merchant Navy was the largest in the world with 33% of total tonnage. By 2012, the Merchant Navy – while still remaining one of the largest in the world – held only 3% of total tonnage.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: In 2010 the Merchant Navy consisted of 504 UK registered ships of or over. In addition, UK merchant marine interests possessed a further 308 ships registered in other countries and 271 foreign-owned ships were registered in the UK.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: In 2012 British merchant marine interests consisted of 1,504 ships of or over. This included ships either directly UK-owned, parent-owned or managed by a British company. This amounted to: or alternatively . This is according to the annual maritime shipping statistics provided by the British Government and the Department for Transport.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: As a signatory to the STCW Convention UK ships are commanded by Deck Officers and Engineering Officers. Officers undergo 3 years of training, known as a cadetship at one of the approved maritime colleges in the United Kingdom. These include Warsash Maritime Academy, South Tyneside College, Fleetwood, Plymouth University and City of Glasgow College. Cadets usually have a choice of two academic routes; Foundation Degree or Higher National Diploma. Successful completion of this results in a qualification in marine operations or marine engineering. Generally the costs of a cadetship will be met by sponsorship from a UK shipping company. During the three years of training, cadets also go to sea, for a period of a year or more, usually spread across the cadetship. This affords a practical education, that along with the academic time in college prepares a candidate for a separate and final oral exam. This oral exam is carried out with a Master Mariner at an office of the Maritime and Coastguard Agency. Successful completion of the oral exam will result in the award of a certificate of competency. This is the international qualification, issued by the UK government which allows an Officer to work in their qualified capacity on board a ship. Certificates are issued for different ranks and as such an Officer will usually return to complete a subsequent series of studies until they reach the highest qualification.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: The first UK Deck Officer certificates of competency were issued in 1845, conducted then, as now, by a final oral exam with a Master Mariner. The training regime for Officers is set out in the official syllabus of the Merchant Navy Training Board. This training still encompasses all of the traditional trades such as celestial navigation, ship stability, general cargo and seamanship, but now includes training in business, legislation, law, and computerisation for deck officers and marine engineering principles, workshop technology, steam propulsion, motor (diesel) propulsion, auxiliaries, mechanics, thermodynamics, engineering drawing, ship construction, marine electrics as well as practical workshop training for engineering officers.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: Historically a person wishing to become a captain, or master prior to about 1969, had three choices: to attend one of the three elite naval schools from the age of 12, the fixed-base HMS "Conway" and HMS "Worcester" or Pangbourne Nautical College, which would automatically lead to an apprenticeship as a seagoing cadet officer; apply to one of several training programmes elsewhere; or go to sea immediately by applying directly to a merchant shipping company at about age 17. Then there would be three years (with prior training or four years without) of seagoing experience aboard ship, in work-clothes and as mates with the deck crew, under the direction of the bo'sun cleaning bilges, chipping paint, polishing brass, cement washing freshwater tanks, and holystoning teak decks, and studying navigation and seamanship on the bridge in uniform, under the direction of an officer, before taking exams to become a second mate.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: Historically, the composition of the crew on UK ships was diverse. This was a characteristic of the extant of the shipping companies trade, the extent of the British Empire and the availability of crew in different ports. One ship might have a largely all British crew, while another might have a crew composed of many Indians, Chinese or African sailors. Crews from outside Britain were usually drawn from areas in which the ship traded, so Far East trading ships had either Singapore or Hong Kong crews, banana boats had West Indian crews, ships trading to West Africa and Southern Africa had African crews and ships trading to the Indian Ocean (including East Africa) had crews from the Indian subcontinent. Crews made up of recruits from Britain itself were commonly used on ships trading across the North Atlantic, to South America and to Australia and New Zealand. Traditionally and still now, the ships crew is run by the Bosun, as overseen by a responsible Deck Officer, usually the Chief Mate. A ship may also have different sub-departments, such as the galley, radio department or hospitality services, overseen by a Chief Cook, Radio Officer or Chief Steward. Many of these roles have now changed, as ships crews have become smaller in commercial shipping. On most ships the Radio department has disappeared, along with the Radio Officer (colloquially known as 'sparks') replaced by changes in technology and the requirement under the STCW Convention for Deck Officers to hold individual certification in the GMDSS System. Electro-technical Officers (ETO) also serve aboard some ships and are trained to fix and maintain the more complex systems.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: Ensigns are displayed at the stern of the vessel or displayed on the gaff, on a yardarm. Red Ensigns can be defaced, those can only be flown with a warrant on board the vessel. Bermuda (historically part of British North America, but left out of the Confederation of Canada) flies the red ensign also as a territorial flag on land, as did other British North American colonies that still do so as Provinces of modern Canada, including Ontario (other British Overseas Territories that fly a nautical ensign as the territorial flag on land use the Blue Ensign which in Bermuda is only flown from civil government vessels such as ferry boats).


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: House flags are personal and designed by a company. A house flag is displayed on a port halyard of a Yardarm.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: Members of the UK Merchant Navy have been awarded the Victoria Cross, George Cross, George Medal, Distinguished Service Order, and Distinguished Service Cross for their actions while serving in the Merchant Navy. Canadian Philip Bent, ex-British Merchant Navy, joined the British Army at the outbreak of World War I and won the Victoria Cross. Members of the Merchant Navy who served in either World War also received relevant campaign medals.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: In the Second World War many Merchant Navy members received the King's Commendation for Brave Conduct. Lloyd's of London awarded the Lloyd's War Medal for Bravery at Sea to 541 Merchant Navy personnel for their bravery in 1939–45. Many Royal Humane Society medals and awards have been conferred on Merchant Navy seafarers for acts of humanity in both war and peacetime.


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: In September 2016 the UK Government introduced the Merchant Navy Medal for Meritorious Service. The medal is awarded:


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: ""to those who are serving or have served in the Merchant Navy and fishing fleets of the UK, Isle of Man or Channel Islands for exemplary service and devotion to duty, rewarding those who have set an outstanding example to others.""


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: It is the first state award for meritorious service in the history of the Merchant Navy. Recipients must be nominated by someone other than themselves, with at least two written letters of support and are normally required to have completed 20 years service in the Merchant Navy (although in exceptional circumstances it may be less).


title: Merchant Navy (United Kingdom)

text: The British Merchant Navy consists of various private shipping companies. Over the decades many companies have come and gone, merged, changed their name or changed owners. British Shipping is represented nationally and globally by the UK Chamber of Shipping, headquartered in London. British shipping registrars belong to the Red Ensign Group.


title: Madhuram

text: Madhuram is a 2021 Indian Malayalam-language romantic comedy-drama film written and directed by Ahammed Khabeer. The film stars Joju George, Shruti Ramachandran, Arjun Ashokan, Nikhila Vimal and Indrans in important roles. The film was produced by Joju George and Sijo Vadakkan under the banner of Appu Pathu Pappu Production House. The film released digitally through SonyLIV on 24 December 2021.


title: Madhuram

text: The movie mainly focuses on Sabu and Kevin, the two bystanders at Kochi Medical College hospital. Sabu waits for his wife Chitra's recovery and Kevin, for his mother's surgery. The friendship between the two and other bystanders, the stories shared by each of them and how they give strength and support to each other to recover from the problems they face in life becomes the premise of the movie.


title: Madhuram

text: The film marks the second directional of Ahammed Khabeer after the movie "June". The director actually announced another movie, "Insha Allah" starring Joju George as his second directional. The movie was postponed due to COVID-19 protocols. Then this film was planned to be made before "Insha Allah". Ahammed Khabeer announced the movie on 17 December 2020, through his social media accounts. The shooting of the movie began on 18 December 2020, after the pooja ceremony. Government Medical College Kochi, Fort Kochi and Arjun Ashokan's house were the main shooting locations. The shooting was wrapped up on 22 February 2021. Editing, sound recording, dubbing and other post-production works ended on 2 August 2021.


title: Madhuram

text: Jithin Stanislaus, the cinematographer of the film "June" did the cinematography in the film. The editing of the film was done by Mahesh Bhuvanend. Ashiq Amir and Fahim Safar worked on the script of the movie. Sameera Saneesh arranged the costumes for the movie and Ronnex Xavier handled the makeup.


title: Madhuram

text: The official teaser of the film starring Joju George and Shruti Ramachandran was released on 14 February 2021, which promised that the film will be a romantic drama. The trailer of the film was released on 10 December 2021. The second trailer of the film was released on 22 December 2021, in which the release date was announced.


title: Madhuram

text: Hesham Abdul Wahab and Govind Vasantha composed the songs of the movie. Govind Vasantha arranged the background score in the movie. Vinayak Sasikumar and Sharfu penned the lyrics for the songs.


title: Madhuram

text: "The News Minute" wrote that, "Ahammed Khabeer’s story is about hospital bystanders, which he has directed with beautiful visuals, especially of the food. Joju George with the help of the unfailing Indrans and a talented crew of younger actors, gives us a cosy ride with "Madhuram"." Anasooya of "Mathrubhumi News" said that, "Madhuram is all about beautiful and sweet love stories. The film has lots of emotional moments that touches our heart. Joju George requires a special mention for his excellent performance. Music and framing used in the movie are also good." "Asianet News" wrote that, "Madhuram' is a beautiful film that lives up to the expectations of the audience when the director arrives for his next film after June."


title: Madhuram

text: "Sify" rated the movie with 3.5 on 5 and wrote that, "Madhuram has its spectacular moments, which makes this a genuine effort. Joju George shines way ahead of the rest, with a stellar show. His chemistry with Shruti Ramachandran is so good." Baradwaj Rangan of "Film Companion" wrote that, "Madhuram is a set of love stories as sweet as the title. The film is so evenly made without getting too sugary or sentimental and that is the secret of the movie's success."


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: Oleksandr Stanislavovych Syrskyi (; born 26 July 1965) is a Ukrainian military officer. Holding the rank of Colonel general, he has been the commander of the Ukrainian Ground Forces since 2019. Previously, he was the commander of the Joint Forces Operation from May to August 2019.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: During the Russian invasion of Ukraine, Syrskyi commanded the defence of Kyiv. From September 2022, he commands the Kharkiv counteroffensive.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: Syrskyi graduated from the Moscow Higher Military Command School, the Soviet Union’s leading higher military educational institution. Before the war in Donbass in the 2000s, he commanded the 72nd Mechanized Brigade and was promoted to major general.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: As of 2013, he was the First Deputy Chief of the Main Command Center of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, and was involved in the then processes of cooperation with NATO. In November 2013, Syrskyi, on behalf of the Ministry of Defense, discussed changes to the Ukrainian army in accordance with NATO standards at NATO headquarters.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: With the beginning of the war in Eastern Ukraine he was the chief of staff of anti-terrorist operations.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: In particular, he was one of the chief commanders of the anti-terrorist operation forces during the battle of Debaltseve in the winter of 2015, together with the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine Viktor Muzhenko they went to the city itself. He led the battles in Vuhlehirsk, the village of Ridkodub and an unsuccessful attempt to recapture Logvinov. He also coordinated the withdrawal of the Ukrainian military from Debaltseve. Under his leadership, possible routes of crossing the Karapulka River were blown up.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: Oleksandr Syrskyi was awarded the Order of Bohdan Khmelnytsky III degree and later received the rank of lieutenant general due to his achievement during the battle of Debaltseve.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: In 2016, he headed the Joint Operational Headquarters of the Armed Forces of Ukraine, which coordinates the operational actions of various Ukrainian security forces in the Donbas. In 2017, he was the commander of the entire Anti-Terrorist Operation in eastern Ukraine, which was later replaced by Joint Forces Operation.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: From 6 May to 5 August 2019 he was the commander of the Joint Operational Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: Since 5 August 2019, Syrskyi has been the Commander of the Ground Forces of the Armed Forces of Ukraine. On 23 August 2020, he was promoted to the rank of colonel general. The rank is no longer awarded in the Ukrainian army since 1 October of the same year, but Syrskyi retained it, being at this moment the only Ukrainian military officer left in active service to hold this particular rank.


title: Oleksandr Syrskyi

text: During the Russian Invasion of Ukraine, Syrskyi initially organised and lead the defense of Kyiv. In April 2022, Syrskyi was given the Hero of Ukraine award for his efforts. In September 2022, media reported that Syrskyi is the architect behind the successful Kharkiv counteroffensive. Syrskyi has been described as “the most successful general of the 21st century so far.”


title: Positive Christianity

text: Positive Christianity () was a movement within Nazi Germany which promoted the belief that the racial purity of the German people should be maintained by mixing racialistic Nazi ideology with either fundamental or significant elements of Nicene Christianity. Adolf Hitler used the term in point 24 of the 1920 Nazi Party Platform, stating: "the Party as such represents the viewpoint of Positive Christianity without binding itself to any particular denomination". The Nazi movement had been hostile to Germany's established churches. The new Nazi idea of Positive Christianity allayed the fears of Germany's Christian majority by implying that the Nazi movement was not anti-Christian. That said, in 1937, Hans Kerrl, the Reich Minister for Church Affairs, explained that "Positive Christianity" was not "dependent upon the Apostle's Creed", nor was it dependent on "faith in Christ as the son of God", upon which Christianity relied, rather, it was represented by the Nazi Party: "The "Führer" is the herald of a new revelation", he said. Hitler's public presentation of Positive Christianity as a traditional Christian faith differed. Despite Hitler's insistence on a unified peace with the Christian churches, to accord with Nazi antisemitism, Positive Christianity advocates also sought to distance themselves from the Jewish origins of Christ and the Christian Bible. Based on such elements, most of Positive Christianity separated itself from traditional Nicene Christianity and as a result, it is in general considered apostate by all mainstream Trinitarian Christian churches, regardless of whether they are Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, or Protestant.


title: Positive Christianity

text: Hitler consistently self-identified as a Christian, and even on occasion as a Catholic, specifically throughout his entire political career, despite criticizing biblical figures. He identified himself as a Christian in a 12 April 1922 speech. Hitler also identified himself as a Christian in "Mein Kampf". However, historians, including Ian Kershaw and Laurence Rees, characterize his acceptance of the term "positive Christianity" and his political involvement in religious policy as being driven by opportunism, and a pragmatic recognition of the political importance of the Christian churches in Germany. Nevertheless, efforts by the regime to impose a Nazified "positive Christianity" on a state-controlled German Evangelical Church essentially failed, and it resulted in the formation of the dissident Confessing Church which saw great danger to Germany from the "new religion". The Catholic Church also denounced the creed's "blood and soil" ideology in the 1937 papal encyclical "Mit brennender Sorge". Hitler privately assured General Gerhard Engel in 1941 that "I am now as before a Catholic and will always remain so."


title: Positive Christianity

text: The official Nazi ideologist Alfred Rosenberg played an important role in the development of "positive Christianity", which he conceived in discord with both Rome and the Protestant churches, whose doctrines he called "negative Christianity". Peculiarly, Eastern Orthodoxy had not been criticized by Rosenberg, and Richard Steigmann-Gall questions whether or not this opposition to Western Christianity made Rosenberg a genuine anti-Christian. Rosenberg conceived of Positive Christianity as a transitional faith to bring Christianity toward Nazi antisemitism and amid the failure of the regime's efforts to control Protestantism through the agency of the pro-Nazi "German Christians", Rosenberg, along with fellow radicals Robert Ley and Baldur von Schirach backed the Neo-Pagan "German Faith Movement", which completely rejected traditional Judeo-Christian conceptions of God from Western thought. During the war, Rosenberg drafted a plan for the future of religion in Germany which would see a Positive Christian Reich influenced by Germanic paganism conduct the "expulsion of the foreign Christian religions", the replacement of the Bible as the supreme religious authority with "Mein Kampf" as the holy scripture of Positive Christianity, and the replacement of the Christian cross with the swastika as the universal symbol of European Christianity in Nazified Christian churches.


title: Positive Christianity

text: Adherents of positive Christianity argued that traditional Christianity emphasized the passive rather than the active aspects of Christ's life, stressing his miraculous birth, his suffering, his sacrifice on the cross and other-worldly redemption. Although Hitler publicly affirmed such doctrines and did not deny them in "Mein Kampf", his inner circle party intellectuals such as Alfred Rosenberg (who himself taught in his book that Christ followed an early form of (Messianic) Judaism) wanted to replace this doctrine of such emphasis on biblical traditionalism instead with a "positive" emphasis on Christ as an active preacher, organizer and fighter who opposed the Rabbinic Judaism of his day embodied by the Pharisees and Sadducees. At various points in the Nazi regime, attempts were made to replace conventional Christianity with its "positive" alternative.


title: Positive Christianity

text: Positive Christianity differed from traditional Nicene Christianity in that positive Christianity had these main tactical objectives:


title: Positive Christianity

text: Under Hitler's regime, in the Reich Protestant churches the New Testament was also altered; by removing the genealogies of Jesus that showed his Davidic descent, Jewish names and places were removed, quotations from the Old Testament were removed unless they showed Jews in a bad light, references to fulfilled Old Testament prophecies were removed, and Jesus was reworked into a militaristic, heroic figure fighting the Jews using Nazified language.


title: Positive Christianity

text: Although positive Christianity is explicitly associated with the racial ideology of Nazi Germany, its theological underpinnings long predate the latter. The earliest form of Christianity that resembled positive Christianity was the 2nd-century Marcionite sect, which also declared the Old Testament non-canon and associated it with Judaism. However, this stemmed from a rejection of the Jewish religion in favor of Gnostic theology, rather than a racially-based hatred of the Jews as a people.


title: Positive Christianity

text: Steigmann-Gall traces the origins of positive Christianity to higher criticism of the nineteenth century, with its emphasis on the distinction between the historical Jesus, and the divine Jesus of theology. According to some schools of thought, the saviour-figure of orthodox Christianity was very different from the historical Galilean preacher. While many such scholars sought to place Jesus in the context of ancient Judaism, some writers reconstructed a historical Jesus who corresponded to racialist and antisemitic ideology. In the writings of such antisemites as Emile Burnouf, Houston Stewart Chamberlain, and Paul de Lagarde, Jesus was redefined as an Aryan hero who struggled against Jews and Judaism. Consistent with their origins in higher criticism, such writers often either rejected or minimized the miraculous aspects of Gospel narratives, reducing the crucifixion to a tragic coda to Jesus's life rather than its prefigured culmination. Both Burnouf and Chamberlain argued that the population of Galilee was racially distinct from that of Judea. Lagarde insisted that German Christianity must become "national" in character.


title: Positive Christianity

text: Various historians credit the origins of "positive Christianity" more to the political acumen and opportunism of the Nazi leadership. Leading Nazis like Himmler, Rosenberg, Bormann, and Goebbels, backed by Hitler, were hostile to Christianity and ultimately planned to de-Christianize Germany. However, Germany had been Christian for over a thousand years, and Hitler recognized the practical reality of the political significance of the Churches in Germany and determined that any moves against the churches must be made in stages. In the words of Paul Berben, "positive Christianity" therefore came to be advocated as a "term that could be overlaid with any interpretation required, depending on the circumstances" and the party declared itself for religious freedom provided this liberty did not "endanger the State or clash with the views of the 'Germanic Race'".


title: Positive Christianity

text: The historian Derek Hastings has written about the Catholic roots in the nationalistic and disaffected Catholic circles of Munich, of the explicit endorsement of 'positive Christianity' in the Nazi party program. This group helped to shape its tenets, suspicious as they were of both ultramontanism and political Catholicism.


title: Positive Christianity

text: In "Mein Kampf", Hitler reassured his readers that both Christian denominations (Catholicism and Protestantism) were valid bases for the German people, provided the churches did not intervene in state affairs. In private it is documented that Hitler scorned Pauline Christianity to his friends such as Martin Bormann and played himself off as a type of Jesusist to him, but when out campaigning for power in Germany, he publicly made statements in favour of the religion. "The most persuasive explanation of these statements", wrote Laurence Rees,


title: Positive Christianity

text: Contrarily, this thesis proposing that Hitler did not consider himself some type of Christian is highly disputed by the historian Richard Stiegmann-Gall in his book 'The Holy Reich'.


title: Positive Christianity

text: Positive Christianity was highly supported by the Nazi movement, which promoted its ideals in its journals "Der Stürmer" and "Völkischer Beobachter", both of which stressed the "Nordic" character of Jesus. However, the party was careful to stress the point that positive Christianity was not intended to be a third confession, nor was it supposed to contradict the traditional theologies of the established churches. As early as 1920, the Nazis proclaimed in their 25-point program that the "Party as such advocates the standpoint of a positive Christianity without binding itself confessionally to any one denomination. It combats the Jewish-materialistic spirit within and around us". Despite this proclamation, a number of Nazis openly challenged the established churches.


title: Positive Christianity

text: Alfred Rosenberg, editor of "Völkischer Beobachter", wrote "The Myth of the Twentieth Century", in which he argued that the Catholic and Protestant churches had distorted Christianity in such a way that the "heroic" and "Germanic" aspects of Jesus's life had been ignored. For Rosenberg, positive Christianity was a transitional ideology that would pave the way to build a new fully racialist faith from the Hitlerian Reich Church. Instead of the cross, its symbol was the orb of the sun in the form of a sun cross and in principle it was the elevation of the Nordic race, a rejection of Old Europe's traditional divine revelation dogmas, and the promotion of a German God. For Rosenberg the Aryan-Nordic race was divine, and god was in the blood and its culture was the kingdom of heaven, in contrast the Jewish race was evil and it was a satanic counter race against the divine Aryan-Nordic race. Adolf Hitler approved of the book's work in general and emphasized the desirability of positive Christianity, yet distanced himself from much of Rosenberg's more radical ideas sidelined to the lunatic fringe within his movement, wishing to retain the support of the conservative Christian electorate and social elite. Hitler's official brand of State-sanctioned Positive Christianity incorporated Protestant and Catholic variant denominations into the Reich Church.


title: Positive Christianity

text: As an aspect of "Gleichschaltung", the regime planned to nazify the Protestant Church in Germany (Evangelical Church) by unifying the separate 28 state churches under a single national church that would be controlled by the German Christians faction. However, the subjugation of the Protestant churches proved to be more difficult than Hitler had envisaged. In 1933, the "German Christians" wanted Nazi doctrines on race and leadership to be applied to a Reich Church, but they only had around 3,000 of Germany's 17,000 pastors. In July, church leaders submitted a constitution for a Reich Church, which the Reichstag approved. The Church Federation proposed that the well qualified Pastor Friedrich von Bodelschwingh should be the new Reich Bishop, but Hitler proposed that his friend Ludwig Müller, a Nazi and a former naval chaplain, should serve as the new Reich Bishop. The Nazis terrorized supporters of Bodelschwingh, and they also dissolved various church organizations, ensuring the election of Müller as the new Reich Bishop. Müller's heretical views of St Paul and his arguments against the Semitic origins of Christ and the Bible quickly alienated sections of the Protestant church. Pastor Martin Niemöller responded by founding the "Pastors' Emergency League", a Protestant denomination which re-affirmed the Bible. Some clergymen who opposed the Nazi regime joined the movement, and it grew into the Confessing Church.


title: Positive Christianity

text: Ludwig Müller was elected the first "Reichsbischof" of the new "Reichskirche" (the so-called German Evangelical Church) in September 1933. However, the German Christians' theological initiatives were met with resistance from many pastors, most notably Niemöller, whose Pastors' Emergency League was supported by nearly 40 per cent of the Evangelical pastors. Following this failure, Hitler backtracked on his attempts to directly nazify the churches and he eventually became disinterested in supporting the "German Christians".


title: Positive Christianity

text: The German Faith Movement which was founded by Jakob Wilhelm Hauer adopted a more thoroughly Aryanized form of the ideology, to support its claim that it represented the essence of the "Protestant" spirit, it mixed aspects of Christianity with ideas which were derived from "Aryan" religions such as Vedicism and "Aryo"-Persian religiosity (Manicheanism, etc.). It attempted to separate Nazi officials from church affiliations, banning nativity plays and calling for an end to daily prayers in schools.


title: Positive Christianity

text: By 1934, the Confessing Church had declared itself to be the legitimate Protestant Church of Germany. Despite his closeness to Hitler, Müller had failed to unite Protestantism in a single Nazi-dominated Church. In 1935, the Nazis arrested 700 Confessing pastors. Müller resigned. To instigate a new effort to coordinate the Protestant churches, Hitler appointed another friend, Hans Kerrl to the position of Minister for Church Affairs. A relative moderate, Kerrl initially had some success in this regard, but amidst continuing protests against Nazi policies by the Confessing Church, he accused churchmen of failing to appreciate the Nazi doctrine of "Race, blood and soil" and he also gave the following explanation for the Nazi conception of positive Christianity, telling a group of submissive clergy:


title: Positive Christianity

text: The Nazi policy of interference in Protestantism did not achieve its aims. The majority of German Protestants did not side with either the "German Christians", or the Confessing Church. Both groups also struggled with significant internal disagreements and divisions. Mary Fulbrook wrote in her history of Germany:


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Werewolf by Night is an American television special directed by Michael Giacchino and written by Heather Quinn and Peter Cameron for the streaming service Disney+, based on the Marvel Comics featuring the character of the same name. It is the first Marvel Studios Special Presentation in the Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU), sharing continuity with the films and television series of the franchise. The special was produced by Marvel Studios and follows a secret group of monster hunters as they compete for a powerful relic while going up against a dangerous monster.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Gael García Bernal stars in the special as Jack Russell / Werewolf by Night, along with Laura Donnelly and Harriet Sansom Harris. Development of the special had begun by August 2021, with Bernal cast that November. Giacchino was revealed to be directing in March 2022, ahead of the start of filming later that month at Trilith Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, concluding in late April. The special was formally announced in September, when Giacchino revealed he was also composing.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: "Werewolf by Night" was released on October 7, 2022, as part of of the MCU. The special received positive reviews from critics, with praise for its use of practical effects, the black-and-white cinematography, performances (particularly Bernal and Donnelly), Giacchino's direction and score, and its story, with many noting its departure from previous MCU media.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Following the death of Ulysses Bloodstone, five experienced monster hunters, including Jack Russell, are summoned by Ulysses' widow, Verussa, to Bloodstone Manor, where they are instructed to participate in a competitive hunt to determine their new leader, who will wield the powerful Bloodstone. Ulysses' estranged daughter Elsa also arrives to compete for the Bloodstone, despite Verussa warning her against doing so.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: The hunt begins in a large maze on the grounds of the manor, with a captured monster that has been implanted with the Bloodstone as the hunters' quarry. Following a brief encounter with Elsa, Russell finds the monster, "Ted", a friend that Russell was searching for and intended to rescue, while Elsa fights and kills one of the other hunters. Russell leaves Ted to carry out his escape plan, and once again stumbles upon Elsa while she is hiding in a mausoleum. The two agree to work together to free Ted and obtain the Bloodstone for Elsa. Ted kills another of the hunters and Russell destroys the outer wall of the maze so they can escape. Ted flees into the forest after Elsa removes the Bloodstone from him. However, the Bloodstone reacts violently to Russell's touch, indicating that he is also a monster, as Verussa and the remaining hunters arrive.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Verussa captures Russell and Elsa, places them in a cage, and uses the Bloodstone to trigger Russell's transformation into his werewolf form. Instead of killing Elsa as Verussa intended, the werewolf escapes the cage and slaughters Verussa's guards, only for Verussa to subdue him using the Bloodstone. Elsa also escapes, kills the two remaining hunters, and stops Verussa from killing the werewolf. As she attempts communication, the werewolf attacks Elsa, but spares her upon recognizing her and leaves the manor. A furious Verussa tries to shoot Elsa, but is incinerated by Ted, who then leaves to find Russell while Elsa takes possession of the manor and the Bloodstone. The next day, Russell awakens in the forest in his human form with Ted watching over him, and is pleased to learn that Elsa is safe.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Also appearing as the additional monster hunters are Kirk R. Thatcher as Jovan, Eugenie Bondurant as Azarel, Leonardo Nam as Liorn, and Daniel J. Watts as Barasso. Al Hamacher appears as Billy Swan, the Bloodstones' servant; Carey Jones provides the motion-capture of the swamp creature Ted / Man-Thing, with the special's editor Jeffrey Ford providing additional vocalizations; David Silverman appears as the flaming tuba player; Rick Wasserman narrates the special's opening sequence; and Richard Dixon voices Ulysses Bloodstone, Elsa's deceased monster-hunting father who originally wielded the Bloodstone and has become a talking corpse. Erik Beck was a puppeteer on the special.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: The Marvel Comics character Werewolf by Night was planned for a feature film by May 2001, to be licensed from Marvel Studios and distributed by Dimension Films, with a story developed by Marvel Studios' Avi Arad, Kevin Feige, and Ari Arad. Hans Rodionoff was writing the script by June 2002 following several drafts by John Fasano, and Crystal Sky Pictures was set to co-produce the film. By February 2003, Robert Nelson Jacobs was writing the film, with Steven Paul and Patrick Ewald producing for Crystal Sky alongside Brad Weston and Nick Phillips for Dimension Films. In early March 2004, the project was advertised at the American Film Market for distribution, and by November, Crystal Sky was preparing to shoot the film in the United Kingdom over the following six months. The next November, Crystal Sky was planning to announce a director and cast shortly, and start filming in 2006, but this did not materialize. Marvel Studios had intended to use the character in a Marvel Cinematic Universe (MCU) project as early as February 2019, when Kevin Smith was informed that he could not feature Werewolf by Night in his then-planned Marvel Television animated "Howard the Duck" series due to Marvel Studios' own plans. Additionally, "Howard the Duck" along with "M.O.D.O.K." (2021), "Hit-Monkey" (2021), and "Tigra & Dazzler" were planned to lead to a crossover event "The Offenders", which would have been titled "The Offenders: Giant Sized Man Thing", with the characters all meeting the swamp monster Man-Thing; the crossover was cancelled in part once again because of Marvel Studios' plans for the character.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: By August 2021, Marvel Studios was developing a Halloween-themed television special for Disney+ that was reportedly centered on Werewolf by Night, though it was unclear if either the Jack Russell or Jake Gomez versions of the character would be featured. Earlier in the month, "Production Weekly" had included a Werewolf by Night project in their report of upcoming projects in development. Michael Giacchino was hired to direct the one-hour special by March 2022, after previously scoring several MCU films, and having been rumored to be directing a Marvel Disney+ project since December 2021; Giacchino previously directed the 2018 short film "Monster Challenge" and the animated "" episode "Ephraim and Dot" (2019). When Feige asked Giacchino which Marvel Comics property he wanted to work on, the producer was initially surprised to hear Giacchino's interest in Werewolf by Night, but was enthused after further discussing his ideas for it. The project was being referred to by some as "Werewolf by Night", although "The Hollywood Reporter" noted that it could have a different title. Giacchino confirmed he was directing the special in June 2022, calling it an enjoyable but "challenging process".


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: That September, Marvel Studios officially revealed the special, titled "Werewolf by Night". The special was described as Marvel Studios' "first-ever special presentation", and was marketed as a "Marvel Studios Special Presentation"; it is 53 minutes long. There was no mandate for how long the special should be, but the creatives all believed it should be around an hour. Giacchino approached the special like an episode of "The Twilight Zone", in that it would present "one night in the life of [Jack Russell and Elsa Bloodstone<nowiki>]</nowiki>, and see what happens". This allowed them to avoid needing to cover more of an origin story than needed, or setting up what would happen after the events of the special. Marvel Studios' Feige, Stephen Broussard, Louis D'Esposito, Victoria Alonso, and Brad Winderbaum serve as executive producers.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Heather Quinn and Peter Cameron co-wrote the screenplay, from a story by Quinn; Quinn previously wrote for the Marvel Studios Disney+ series "Hawkeye" (2021) and Cameron wrote for "WandaVision" (2021) and "Moon Knight" (2022). Quinn was asked to pitch for the special while she was working on set of "Hawkeye" in early 2021. She worked closely with Giacchino to craft the story of the special.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Giacchino said the special was inspired by horror films from the 1930s and 1940s, comparing it to the film "Poltergeist" (1982), which was a major influence for the special, in that it would have "the right level of scares". Other inspirations included "The Twilight Zone", "King Kong" (1933), and "The Wolf Man" (1941), with Giacchino calling "Werewolf by Night" a "love letter" to these horror inspirations. Additionally, Giacchino tried to approach the special with a "moral center" beyond "just blood and guts". Disney+ stated that the special would "evoke a sense of dread and the macabre, with plenty of suspense and scares along the way". Feige called the special "fun", adding that it was also "a little darker [and] a little scarier" than the studio's other content. Elements of the Werewolf by Night character were altered from the comics to allow the story to work in a more modern setting; Quinn had been inspired by the "Werewolf by Night" issues "Carnival of Fear" and "The Danger Game". The special also features Man-Thing, at the suggestion of Feige. Man-Thing is only referred to as Ted in "Werewolf by Night", with Giacchino wanting to call him by his actual name as "a way to humanize him". There were also considerations to refer to him as a "Giant-Size Man-Thing" (a reference to one of his comic book titles) but this and others "never felt quite right" and seemed "a little too cheeky".


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Giacchino had assumed "Werewolf by Night" would be rated TV-MA given its use of blood and the scare elements, but felt that it being in black-and-white helped it be rated TV-14. "Werewolf by Night" does not give exact details as to how it fits into the larger MCU, but Giacchino described it as being "within the realm" of the MCU. He added that it was "not important" to show the "where, when, how" of how "Werewolf by Night" fits within the MCU. The special's introduction provides context to how monsters have previously existed within the MCU, despite no previous mentions, much in the way the film "Eternals" (2021) weaved the Eternals into the background history of the MCU. Giacchino has "a very specific idea" of how the special fits into the MCU that he used as a personal reference while making the special, but had not discussed it with Marvel Studios. The special is largely a self-contained story within the MCU, with no appearances by established characters, though there had been some consideration to include Blade.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: A search for a male Latino actor in their 30s to portray the lead role in the special was underway by the end of August 2021, with Gael García Bernal cast in the role in November. In January 2022, Laura Donnelly was cast in an undisclosed role. Bernal and Donnelly did not have to audition, with Giacchino directly reaching out to Bernal and choosing Donnelly given he was a fan of her previous work. In September, Bernal and Donnelly were respectively confirmed as Jack Russell / Werewolf by Night and Elsa Bloodstone. Additional castings include Harriet Sansom Harris as Verussa Bloodstone, Al Hamacher as Billy Swan, Eugenie Bondurant as Azarel, Kirk R. Thatcher as Jovan, Leonardo Nam as Liorn, Daniel J. Watts as Barasso, Carey Jones as Ted / Man-Thing, with the special's editor Jeffrey Ford providing additional vocalizations, and Richard Dixon voicing Ulysses Bloodstone. Jovan was loosely based on and inspired by the comics character Joshua Kane.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Maya Shimoguchi served as the production designer, having previously worked on "Hawkeye". Prior to that, she also served as the supervising art director for the MCU film "Thor" (2011). Shimoguchi created "a richly textured environment" out of concrete for the rotunda and garden that evoked film noir. The fresco in the hallway of Bloodstone Manor that referenced the history of monsters in the MCU was inspired by the Bayeux Tapestry.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: For the werewolf design in the special, Giacchino enjoyed being able to see an actor's face and eyes in the designs for older films such as "Werewolf of London" (1935) since they "kept the human qualities", with Werewolf by Night looking more like Larry Talbot / The Wolf Man from "The Wolf Man" than a more monster-like design created through CGI in more modern films. Mayes C. Rubeo served as the costume designer, after doing so for "" (2017), "WandaVision" (2021) and "" (2022).


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Filming was expected to begin in late March 2022 at Trilith Studios in Atlanta, Georgia, under the working title "Buzzcut", and had begun by March 29. Zoë White served as cinematographer. Filming was previously expected to begin in February to last for a month until March. "Werewolf by Night" employed many practical effects, such as Russell's transformation into a werewolf. Visual effects supervisor Joe Farrell assisted with this, which "took months to design and figure out" how to execute. The transformation is seen mainly from Elsa's perspective, which was done because Giacchino felt this would be scarier if the audience was not fully shown the transformation. The only CGI elements were the cage bars, as the practical ones had to be removed when shooting in order to achieve the proper shadow projection from the projector. Another practical technique used was filming various moments backwards to then be reversed during editing, such Verussa being grabbed by the werewolf; actress Samson was filmed starting against the cage and then was pulled away from it.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Man-Thing was realized through a combination of actor Carey Jones in a practical suit, animatronics, and practical and CGI effects. KNB EFX Group created all of the practical monsters and animatronics for the special, including a life-size practical Man-Thing animatronic that was used for an on-set reference. Giacchino noted the other monsters in the special were created with practical effects and that CGI elements were only used for Man-Thing because they would have not been able to create him without them, though they had attempted to use the animatronic for the entire special. Ulysses Bloodstone was an animatronic puppet, which came at the suggestion of Cameron late in the production process. Some of the "more brutal elements" in the special and its fight sequences were conceived on the day of filming. The fight between the guards and the werewolf was filmed as a continuous shot, with the stunt performers in the scene only needing two takes for it. Filming lasted 12 days, and had wrapped by late April.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Jeffrey Ford served as the editor for the special, after previously doing so for prior MCU media. The special was shot in color and early edits were also in color. Giacchino hoped to be able to release it in black-and-white, and eventually created a black-and-white cut to show Feige; he explained that Marvel Studios was onboard with the special being in black-and-white after they saw it that way, noting it was "the right thing to do for the spirit of the story we were telling". Co-executive producer Brian Gay further noted that the black-and-white cinematography paid homage to classic monster films and emphasized the special's uniqueness from other MCU properties. The end of the special transitions into color, with Giacchino doing this to show the "nightmare is over" for Elsa and "things are now changing and evolving and hopefully the future will be a brighter place". Visual effects were created by JAMM, Zoic Studios, Base FX, SDFX Studios, and Digital Domain.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Giacchino also scored the special in addition to directing, and wrote the theme for the special prior to filming, allowing him to modify it during that process. He would present musical excerpts during meeting in pre-production or ahead of filming to help convey the tone he was envisioning for what was being discussed. Much of the score was composed while Giacchino was editing the special, which allowed him to present new ideas to Ford in the moment, who would subsequently suggest another edit based on that new music. The special also featured the songs "I Never Had a Chance" by Irving Berlin, "Wishing (Will Make It So)" by Vera Lynn, and "Over the Rainbow" by Judy Garland. The score for the special was released digitally by Marvel Music and Hollywood Records on October 7, with four additional tracks released on October 27, 2022 as part of an updated edition of the soundtrack album.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: The teaser trailer and poster for the special were revealed at the 2022 D23 Expo. The trailer was noted for appearing in black-and-white and having other film elements resembling classic horror films. Maggie Boccella from "Collider" felt the trailer was "presented like an old school Hammer Horror film", comparing it to the works of Lon Chaney and Bela Lugosi, both actors known primarily for their roles in horror films. Amanda Lamadrid of "Screen Rant" called the trailer "shocking and unique", saying it shows Marvel "going all-in on the vintage scream factor" while adding that the special looks "unlike any previous MCU project".


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: "Werewolf by Night" was released on Disney+ on October 7, 2022. A special screening occurred at Fantastic Fest in Austin, Texas on September 25, 2022, and at Hollywood Forever Cemetery on October 6 as part of a Disney+ Halloween-themed event called "Hallowstream" alongside the "WandaVision" episode "All-New Halloween Spooktacular!" (2021). An additional screening occurred on October 13, 2022 at the New Beverly Cinema, with the special being presented on 35 mm movie film. It is part of of the MCU.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: According to Whip Media's TV Time, "Werewolf by Night" was the top streaming film for viewers in the United States for the week ending October 9, 2022, the second-most streamed for the week ending October 16, the third-most for the week ending October 23, and the sixth-most for the week ending October 30.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported a 90% approval rating, with an average score of 7.6/10, based on 103 reviews. The website's critics consensus reads: "A spooky yarn told with taut economy, "Werewolf by Night" is a standout Marvel entry that proves Michael Giacchino as atmospheric and skilled a director as he is a composer." Metacritic, which uses a weighted average, assigned the special a score of 69 out of 100 based on 17 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Jordan Moreau from "Variety" called "Werewolf by Night" "a triumphant first effort at losing the capes and spandex and delving into more genre territory for Marvel" and enjoyed the introduction of Russell and Bloodstone to the MCU, particularly noting Man-Thing's appearance which he called the "MVP" of the special, though felt the other characters were forgettable. Moreau was not as keen on the look of the werewolf, wishing it was more "intimidating or hulking" as creatures from other monster films. Writing for "The Hollywood Reporter", Daniel Feinberg said, "At only 52 minutes and decidedly light on plot and supporting characters, it’s a slight but fairly amusing thing, elevated above being a mere exercise in style by the lead performances from Gael Garcia Bernal and Laura Donnelly." He applauded the design of Bloodstone Manor and the "vintage spooky homages" but wished Giacchino and White had "pushed the extremes of the aesthetic even more" than they did. Feinberg called Giacchino's score "the standout element that ties everything together". In his review for "Rolling Stone", David Fear said ""Werewolf by Night" feels less like a franchise detour than a fun day trip into previously untrampled genre territory." He continued that Giacchino's direction had "a great sense of how to sustain a mood without losing momentum" and praised the cinematography and Russell's werewolf transformation.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: Chris Evangelista of "/Film" gave "Werewolf by Night" a 7 out of 10, describing the television special as "a quick, violent, funny monster movie homage, and it's perfect for Halloween." He praised the use of practical effects for the werewolf's portrayal as opposed to CGI and the black-and-white cinematography styles. Germain Lussier at "Gizmodo" described the special as "a beautiful, over-the-top, entertaining short that would work even if it had nothing to do with Marvel". He did feel the pace of the special prevented being able to fully take in all the characters and encounters presented. Marisa Mirabal of "IndieWire" gave the special "B+", enjoying the design work of Shimoguchi and White, Giacchino's "larger-than-life score", and the use of practical effects. Though she was impressed by the balance of violence and comedy in the special, along with a "tight and concise" storyline, she noted that because of its short run time, "the characters [were] not able to be fully developed and explored".


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: In September 2022, a documentary special for "Werewolf by Night" was announced from Marvel Studios Unscripted Content and Michael Giacchino's brother Anthony, who served as the writer and director. The documentary, titled "Director by Night", goes behind the scenes at the making of "Werewolf by Night" and explores Michael Giacchino's style, vision, and dream for directing, and includes 8 mm film footage Giacchino shot in his childhood. "Director by Night" was released on Disney+ on November 4, 2022, marketed with the "Marvel Studios Special Presentation" branding.


title: Werewolf by Night (TV special)

text: In September 2022, Gay said that "Werewolf by Night" would begin to explore a variety of monsters that have existed in the MCU for centuries, such as artwork featured in the special. Furthermore, he stated that the idea was to have such monsters appear in future projects. Gay also explained the special's ending intentionally left Russell and Bloodstone "totally changed" and in "a space that they did not expect to find themselves in", and felt it was the beginning for their characters but was uncertain if they would return. Feige said the special would introduce a part of the MCU that would become "quite important" to its future.


title: Salento

text: Salento (Salentino: "Salentu", Salentino Griko: "Σαλέντο") is a cultural, historical and geographic region at the southern end of the administrative region of Apulia in Southern Italy. It is a sub-peninsula of the Italian Peninsula, sometimes described as the "heel" of the Italian "boot".


title: Salento

text: It encompasses the entire administrative area of the province of Lecce, a large part of the province of Brindisi and part of that of Taranto.


title: Salento

text: The peninsula is also known as Terra d'Otranto, and in the past Sallentina. In ancient times it was called variously Calabria or Messapia.


title: Salento

text: Messapia (from Greek "Μεσσαπία") was the ancient name of a region of Italy largely corresponding to modern Salento. It was inhabited chiefly by the Messapii in classical times. Pokorny derives the toponym from the reconstructed PIE "*medhyo-", "middle" and PIE "*ap-", "water" ("Mess-apia", "amid waters"). Pokorny compares the toponym "Messapia" to another ancient Italic toponym, "Salapia", "salt water", a city in Apulia.


title: Salento

text: Late Bronze Age settlements were complex and comparatively rich, They lost their wealth at the beginning of the Iron Age and degraded into dispersed huts. Farmers cultivated cereals and used meadows for stock grazing. In the subsequent archaic time stone built houses were erected accompanied by funerary plots. Trade with the Greek was established. Surplus production and the intensification of wine and olive oil production enabled the culture of the Hellenistic period. The Romans conquered the Salento in the third century BC leading to a consolidation process of farms.


title: Salento

text: The Salento peninsula is composed of limestone, dividing the Gulf of Taranto to the west from the Strait of Otranto on the east, with the Adriatic Sea to the north and the Ionian Sea to the south. Known also as "peninsula salentina", from a geo-morphologic point of view it encompasses the land borders between Ionian and the Adriatic Seas, to the “Messapic threshold”, a depression that runs along the Taranto-Ostuni line and separates it from the Murge.


title: Salento

text: The climate is typically Mediterranean with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters which provides suitable conditions for the cultivation of olives, citrus fruits and palm trees. The generally flat topography and surrounding seas can make Salento prone to windy weather year round.


title: Salento

text: Winters are mild and rainy with temperatures generally hovering in the teens °C during the day. Occasional bora winds from the northeast can bring colder temperatures to the east of the Italian Peninsula. Snowfall has been recorded as recently as 2017 but is generally very rare in coastal Salento. In contrast, southerly sirocco winds can bring warm temperatures of 20°C+ even during the midwinter months.


title: Salento

text: Alongside much of southern Italy, summers are hot, dry and sunny. While the seas which surround Salento moderate it from the extreme heat seen in Foggia and Basilicata, summer temperatures are still high with temperatures occasionally reaching 40°C or higher during heatwaves. Sirocco winds from the south occasionally deposit dust and sand from the Sahara in the coastal towns of Salento during such heatwaves. Humidity levels can be high and summer thunderstorms are not unknown.


title: Salento

text: Acquarica del Capo, Alessano, Alezio, Alliste, Andrano, Aradeo, Arnesano, Bagnolo del Salento, Botrugno, Calimera, Campi Salentina, Cannole, Caprarica di Lecce, Carmiano, Carpignano Salentino, Casarano, Castri di Lecce, Castrignano de' Greci, Castrignano del Capo, Castro, Cavallino, Collepasso, Copertino, Corigliano d'Otranto, Corsano, Cursi, Cutrofiano, Diso, Gagliano del Capo, Galatina, Galatone, Gallipoli, Giuggianello, Giurdignano, Guagnano, Lecce, Lequile, Leverano, Lizzanello, Maglie, Martano, Martignano, Matino, Melendugno, Melissano, Melpignano, Miggiano, Minervino di Lecce, Monteroni di Lecce, Montesano Salentino, Morciano di Leuca, Muro Leccese, Nardò, Neviano, Nociglia, Novoli, Ortelle, Otranto, Palmariggi, Parabita, Patù, Poggiardo, Porto Cesareo, Presicce, Racale, Ruffano, Salice Salentino, Salve, San Cassiano, San Cesario di Lecce, San Donato di Lecce, San Pietro in Lama, Sanarica, Sannicola, Santa Cesarea Terme, Scorrano, Seclì, Sogliano Cavour, Soleto, Specchia, Spongano, Squinzano, Sternatia, Supersano, Surano, Surbo, Taurisano, Taviano, Tiggiano, Trepuzzi, Tricase, Tuglie, Ugento, Uggiano la Chiesa, Veglie, Vernole, Zollino.


title: Salento

text: Brindisi, Carovigno, Cellino San Marco, Erchie, Francavilla Fontana, Latiano, Mesagne, Oria, Ostuni, San Donaci, San Michele Salentino, San Pancrazio Salentino, San Pietro Vernotico, San Vito dei Normanni, Torchiarolo, Torre Santa Susanna, Villa Castelli.


title: Salento

text: Avetrana, Carosino, Faggiano, Fragagnano, Grottaglie, Leporano, Lizzano, Manduria, Maruggio, Monteiasi, Monteparano, Pulsano, Roccaforzata, San Giorgio Ionico, San Marzano di San Giuseppe, Sava, Taranto, Torricella.


title: Salento

text: In Salentino, the Salentino dialect of the Sicilian language is predominantly spoken, although an old Hellenic dialect (known as Griko) is also spoken in a few inland towns.


title: Salento

text: The nearest international airports are those of Brindisi and Bari (the latter is out of Salento but not far).


title: Salento

text: A 2-lane freeway connects Salento to Bari. The main railway line ends at Lecce. Other locations are served by regional railroads.


title: Salento

text: Leisure ports are those of: Taranto, Brindisi, Campomarino di Maruggio's tourist and leisure Marina, Gallipoli, Santa Maria di Leuca, Otranto.


title: Salento

text: The coastal towers in Salento are coastal watchtowers, as the peninsula's coast was long subject to maritime attacks by the Saracens. The first towers may have been built by Normans. The remaining historic towers are mostly from the 15th and 16th centuries. Many are now in ruins.


title: Salento

text: Salento’s "sagre" food festivals show off local cuisine, cooking traditions and local culture. These communal feasts are vibrant, welcoming occasions that provide an introduction to Salento’s cuisine.


title: Salento

text: Salento is a major holiday destination for the Italian gay population. Long hot summers, varied coastline and vibrant nightlife draw an international gay crowd. A sophisticated gay scene has developed around the southern Salento town of Gallipoli, the lidos at Baia Verde and nearby naturist beaches.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: The JAK-STAT signaling pathway is a chain of interactions between proteins in a cell, and is involved in processes such as immunity, cell division, cell death, and tumour formation. The pathway communicates information from chemical signals outside of a cell to the cell nucleus, resulting in the activation of genes through the process of transcription. There are three key parts of JAK-STAT signalling: Janus kinases (JAKs), signal transducer and activator of transcription proteins (STATs), and receptors (which bind the chemical signals). Disrupted JAK-STAT signalling may lead to a variety of diseases, such as skin conditions, cancers, and disorders affecting the immune system.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: There are four JAK proteins: JAK1, JAK2, JAK3 and TYK2. JAKs contains a FERM domain (approximately 400 residues), an SH2-related domain (approximately 100 residues), a kinase domain (approximately 250 residues) and a pseudokinase domain (approximately 300 residues). The kinase domain is vital for JAK activity, since it allows JAKs to phosphorylate (add phosphate groups to) proteins.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: There are seven STAT proteins: STAT1, STAT2, STAT3, STAT4, STAT5A, STAT5B and STAT6. STAT proteins contain many different domains, each with a different function, of which the most conserved region is the SH2 domain. The SH2 domain is formed of 2 α-helices and a β-sheet and is formed approximately from residues 575–680. STATs also have transcriptional activation domains (TAD), which are less conserved and are located at the C-terminus. In addition, STATs also contain: tyrosine activation, amino-terminal, linker, coiled-coil and DNA-binding domains.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: The binding of various ligands, usually cytokines, such as interferons and interleukins, to cell-surface receptors, causes the receptors to dimerize, which brings the receptor-associated JAKs into close proximity. The JAKs then phosphorylate each other on tyrosine residues located in regions called activation loops, through a process called transphosphorylation, which increases the activity of their kinase domains. The activated JAKs then phosphorylate tyrosine residues on the receptor, creating binding sites for proteins possessing SH2 domains. STATs then bind to the phosphorylated tyrosines on the receptor using their SH2 domains, and then they are tyrosine-phosphorylated by JAKs, causing the STATs to dissociate from the receptor. At least STAT5 requires glycosylation at threonine 92 for strong STAT5 tyrosine phosphorylation. These activated STATs form hetero- or homodimers, where the SH2 domain of each STAT binds the phosphorylated tyrosine of the opposite STAT, and the dimer then translocates to the cell nucleus to induce transcription of target genes. STATs may also be tyrosine-phosphorylated directly by receptor tyrosine kinases - but since most receptors lack built-in kinase activity, JAKs are usually required for signalling.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: To move from the cytosol to the nucleus, STAT dimers have to pass through nuclear pore complexes (NPCs), which are protein complexes present along the nuclear envelope that control the flow of substances in and out of the nucleus. To enable STATs to move into the nucleus, an amino acid sequence on STATs, called the nuclear localization signal (NLS), is bound by proteins called importins. Once the STAT dimer (bound to importins) enters the nucleus, a protein called Ran (associated with GTP) binds to the importins, releasing them from the STAT dimer. The STAT dimer is then free in the nucleus.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: Specific STATs appear to bind to specific importin proteins. For example, STAT3 proteins can enter the nucleus by binding to importin α3 and importin α6. On the other hand, STAT1 and STAT2 bind to importin α5. Studies indicate that STAT2 requires a protein called interferon regulatory factor 9 (IRF9) to enter the nucleus. Not as much is known about nuclear entrance of other STATs, but it has been suggested that a sequence of amino acids in the DNA-binding domain of STAT4 might allow nuclear import; also, STAT5 and STAT6 can both bind to importin α3. In addition, STAT3, STAT5 and STAT6 can enter the nucleus even if they are not phosphorylated at tyrosine residues.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: After STATs are made by protein biosynthesis, they have non-protein molecules attached to them, called post-translational modifications. One example of this is tyrosine phosphorylation (which is fundamental for JAK-STAT signalling), but STATs experience other modifications, which may affect STAT behaviour in JAK-STAT signalling. These modifications include: methylation, acetylation and serine phosphorylation.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: Acetylation of STAT3 has been suggested to be important for its dimerization, DNA-binding and gene-transcribing ability, and IL-6 JAK-STAT pathways that use STAT3 require acetylation for transcription of IL-6 response genes.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: STAT5 acetylation on lysines at positions 694 and 701 is important for effective STAT dimerization in prolactin signalling. Adding acetyl groups to STAT6 is suggested to be essential for gene transcription in some forms of IL-4 signalling, but not all the amino acids which are acetylated on STAT6 are known.


title: JAK-STAT signaling pathway

text: Like many other transcription factors, STATs are capable of recruiting co-activators such as CBP and p300, and these co-activators increase the rate of transcription of target genes. The coactivators are able to do this by making genes on DNA more accessible to STATs and by recruiting proteins needed for transcription of genes. The interaction between STATs and coactivators occurs through the transactivation domains (TADs) of STATs. The TADs on STATs can also interact with histone acetyltransferases (HATs); these HATs add acetyl groups to lysine residues on proteins associated with DNA called histones. Adding acetyl groups removes the positive charge on lysine residues, and as a result there are weaker interactions between histones and DNA, making DNA more accessible to STATs and enabling an increase in the transcription of target genes.