title: GNU GRUB

text: The legacy MBR partition table supports a maximum of four partitions and occupies 64 bytes, combined. Together with the optional disk signature (four bytes) and disk timestamp (six bytes), this leaves between 434 and 446 bytes available for the machine code of a boot loader. Although such a small space can be sufficient for very simple boot loaders, it is not big enough to contain a boot loader supporting complex and multiple file systems, menu-driven selection of boot choices, etc. Boot loaders with bigger footprints are therefore split into pieces, where the smallest piece fits in the MBR, while one or more larger pieces are stored in other locations such as empty sectors between the MBR and the first partition. The code in the MBR then does little more than starting the second part.


title: GNU GRUB

text: The purpose of the remaining part(s) of the boot loader is to actually boot an operating system by configuring it and starting the kernel. Kernels are in most cases stored as files residing on appropriate file systems, but the concept of a file system is unknown to the BIOS. Thus, in BIOS-based systems, the duty of a boot loader is to access the content of those files, so it can be loaded into the RAM and executed.


title: GNU GRUB

text: One possible approach for boot loaders is to load kernel images by directly accessing hard disk sectors without understanding the underlying file system. Usually, an additional level of indirection is required, in form of "maps" or "map files" auxiliary files that contain a list of physical sectors occupied by kernel images. Such maps need to be updated each time a kernel image changes its physical location on disk, due to installing new kernel images, file system defragmentation, etc. Also, in case of the maps changing their physical location, their locations need to be updated within the boot loader's MBR code, so the sectors indirection mechanism continues to work. This is not only cumbersome, but it also leaves the system in need of manual repairs in case something goes wrong during system updates.


title: GNU GRUB

text: Another approach is to make a boot loader aware of the underlying file systems, so kernel images are configured and accessed using their actual file paths. That requires a boot loader to contain a driver for each of the supported file systems, so they can be understood and accessed by the boot loader itself. This approach eliminates the need for hardcoded locations of hard disk sectors and existence of map files, and does not require MBR updates after kernel images are added or moved around. The configuration of a boot loader is stored in a regular file, which is also accessed in a file system-aware way to obtain boot configurations before the actual booting of any kernel images. Thus, fewer things can go wrong during system updates. As a downside, such boot loaders are larger and more complex.


title: GNU GRUB

text: GNU GRUB uses the second approach, by understanding the underlying file systems. The boot loader itself is split into multiple "stages" so that it fits in the MBR boot scheme.


title: GNU GRUB

text: Two major versions of GRUB are in common use: GRUB version 1, called "GRUB legacy," is only prevalent in older releases of Linux distributions. "GRUB 2" was written from scratch and intended to replace its predecessor, and is now used by a majority of Linux distributions.


title: GNU GRUB

text: GRUB 0.x follows a two-stage approach. The master boot record (MBR) usually contains GRUB "stage 1," or can contain a standard MBR implementation which chainloads GRUB "stage 1" from the active partition's boot sector. Given the small size of a boot sector (512 bytes), "stage 1" can do little more than load the next stage of GRUB by loading a few disk sectors from a fixed location near the start of the disk (within its first 1024 cylinders).


title: GNU GRUB

text: "Stage 1" can load "stage 2" directly, but it is normally set up to load the "stage 1.5.", located in the first 30 KiB of hard disk immediately following the MBR and before the first partition. In case this space is not available (unusual partition table, special disk drivers, GPT or LVM disk) the install of "stage 1.5" will fail. The "stage 1.5" image contains file system drivers, enabling it to directly load "stage 2" from any known location in the filesystem, for example from codice_1. "Stage 2" will then load the default configuration file and any other modules needed.


title: GNU GRUB

text: GRUB presents a menu where the user can choose from operating systems (OS) found by grub-install. GRUB can be configured to automatically load a specified OS after a user-defined timeout. If the timeout is set to zero seconds, pressing and holding while the computer is booting makes it possible to access the boot menu.


title: GNU GRUB

text: Once boot options have been selected, GRUB loads the selected kernel into memory and passes control to the kernel. Alternatively, GRUB can pass control of the boot process to another boot loader, using "chain loading". This is the method used to load operating systems that do not support the Multiboot Specification or are not supported directly by GRUB.


title: GNU GRUB

text: A computer can have multiple hard disks connected to it. These could be identified via their SATA port. Each time the computer POSTs, the hard disk connected to port 1 (of the motherboard), "could" be assigned the same identifier, e.g. . But what if such consistency cannot be guaranteed? What if the constellation of connected hard disks changed from one start up to another? What if a hard disk shall be connected to another computer?


title: GNU GRUB

text: By entering into either the in "GRUB rescue console" (available after loading core.img ) or the "GRUB console" (available after loading normal.mod) a list of all available hard disks and partitions can be obtained. Either by guessing or by further investigation (e.g. can these numbers be assigned to actual hard disks and partitions.


title: GNU GRUB

text: As it cannot be guaranteed that the numbering of hard disks via dumb numbers is consistent, GNU GRUB can use the UUID to identify partitions (actually file system instances) – that have this feature – instead.


title: GNU GRUB

text: The file systems ext2, ext3, ext4 and xfs use an Universally Unique Identifier (UUID) to uniquely identify an instance. The UUID is created when a partition is formatted. The UUID is part of the file system and written to the superblock. All operations but a formatting should leave the UUID unaltered, but it is possible to change it or duplicate it (by using dd to clone an entire partition).


title: GNU GRUB

text: The file is used to configure GRUB. It is the file where the commands which shall be executed during each start up are stored. Without an existing and valid , GRUB will present a prompt.


title: GNU GRUB

text: More fancy will describe a menu to be presented, will use multiple colors, and maybe a background picture.


title: GNU GRUB

text: GRUB was initially developed by Erich Boleyn as part of work on booting the operating system GNU/Hurd, developed by the Free Software Foundation. In 1999, Gordon Matzigkeit and Yoshinori K. Okuji made GRUB an official software package of the GNU Project and opened the development process to the public. , the majority of Linux distributions have adopted GNU GRUB 2, as well as other systems such as Sony's PlayStation 4.


title: GNU GRUB

text: GRUB version 1 (also known as "GRUB Legacy") is no longer under development and is being phased out. The GNU GRUB developers have switched their focus to GRUB 2, a complete rewrite with goals including making GNU GRUB cleaner, more robust, more portable and more powerful. GRUB 2 started under the name PUPA. PUPA was supported by the Information-technology Promotion Agency (IPA) in Japan. PUPA was integrated into GRUB 2 development around 2002, when GRUB version 0.9x was renamed GRUB Legacy.


title: GNU GRUB

text: Some of the goals of the GRUB 2 project include support for non-x86 platforms, internationalization and localization, non-ASCII characters, dynamic modules, memory management, a scripting mini-language, migrating platform specific (x86) code to platform specific modules, and an object-oriented framework. GNU GRUB version 2.00 was officially released on June 26, 2012.


title: GNU GRUB

text: Three of the most widely used Linux distributions use GRUB 2 as their mainstream boot loader. Ubuntu adopted it as the default boot loader in its 9.10 version of October 2009. Fedora followed suit with Fedora 16 released in November 2011. OpenSUSE adopted GRUB 2 as the default boot loader with its 12.2 release of September 2012. Solaris also adopted GRUB 2 on the x86 platform in the Solaris 11.1 release.


title: GNU GRUB

text: In late 2015, the exploit of pressing backspace 28 times to bypass the login password was found and quickly fixed.


title: GNU GRUB

text: GNU GRUB is free and open-source software, so several variants have been created. Some notable ones, which have not been merged into GRUB mainline:


title: GNU GRUB

text: The setup tools in use by various distributions often include modules to set up GRUB. For example, YaST2 on SUSE Linux and openSUSE distributions and Anaconda on Fedora/RHEL distributions. StartUp-Manager and GRUB Customizer are graphical configuration editors for Debian-based distributions. The development of StartUp-Manager stopped on 6 May 2011 after the lead developer cited personal reasons for not actively developing the program. GRUB Customizer is also available for Arch-based distributions.


title: GNU GRUB

text: is a simple graphical tool for recovering from frequent boot-related problems with GRUB and Microsoft Windows bootloader. This application is available under GNU GPL license. Boot-Repair can repair GRUB on multiple Linux distributions including, but not limited to, Debian, Ubuntu, Mint, Fedora, openSUSE, and Arch Linux.


title: GNU GRUB

text: is a Windows open-source software package. It allows GNU GRUB to boot from a Windows directory. The setup program installs GNU GRUB version 2.06 to an NTFS partition. A Windows GUI application is then used to customize the GRUB boot menu, themes, UEFI boot order, scripts etc. All GNU GRUB scripts and commands are supported for both UEFI and legacy systems. Grub2Win can configure GRUB for multiboot of Windows, Ubuntu, openSuse, Fedora and many other Linux distributions. It is freely available under GNU GPL License at .


title: GNU GRUB

text: The strength of GRUB is the wide range of supported platforms, file systems, and operating systems, making it the default choice for distributions and embedded systems.


title: GNU GRUB

text: However, there are boot managers targeted at the end user that give more friendly user experience, graphical OS selector and simpler configuration:


title: Johnny Whitworth

text: Johnny Whitworth (born October 31, 1975) is an American actor. He is known for his roles as A.J. in "Empire Records" (1995), as Donny Ray Black in Francis Ford Coppola's "The Rainmaker" (1997), as Vernon Gant in "Limitless" (2011), as Blackout in the Marvel superhero film "" (2011), and as Cage Wallace in The CW's series "The 100".


title: Johnny Whitworth

text: Whitworth's early years were spent in his birthplace, Charleston, South Carolina, with his mother. As his parents were divorced, he eventually chose to live with his father in Plano, Texas. But following that he moved to Los Angeles with his mother and at the age of 15 started his acting career with a guest appearance on "Party of Five" in 1994. His debut in movies was with "Bye Bye Love" in 1995. That same year, he played A.J. in the film "Empire Records".


title: Johnny Whitworth

text: Whitworth quit acting after his first few movies but then made a comeback in 1997's "The Rainmaker" He had a recurring role on the CBS crime drama "", where he played bad-boy Detective Jake Berkeley, a love interest of Calleigh Duquesne. The story line swiftly made Whitworth's character a controversial one, as his competition for Duquesne was long-time CSI agent Eric Delko. From the end of Season 5 and throughout Season 6, Berkeley was no longer an ATF agent but a Miami-Dade homicide detective working with the CSI team. Whitworth returned in the first episode of Season 7 and again in the 21st episode of Season 8. This was his last appearance.


title: Johnny Whitworth

text: In 2003 he costarred in MTV's musical adaptation of "Wuthering Heights", which was a modern take on the classic novel. In 2007, Whitworth appeared in the film "", and in 2009 appeared in "Gamer". He later appeared in the films "Locked In" and "Limitless". He also played the villain Blackout in the 2011 film "" and Griffin Cavenaugh in the thriller "Pathology".


title: Johnny Whitworth

text: From 2014 to 2015, Whitworth had the recurring role of Cage Wallace in The CW's series "The 100". In 2015, Whitworth had a recurring role in NBC series "Blindspot".


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: where and are homogeneous functions of the same degree of and . In this case, the change of variable leads to an equation of the form


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: Otherwise, a differential equation is homogeneous if it is a homogeneous function of the unknown function and its derivatives. In the case of linear differential equations, this means that there are no constant terms. The solutions of any linear ordinary differential equation of any order may be deduced by integration from the solution of the homogeneous equation obtained by removing the constant term.


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: The term "homogeneous" was first applied to differential equations by Johann Bernoulli in section 9 of his 1726 article "De integraionibus aequationum differentialium" (On the integration of differential equations).


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: is a homogeneous type if both functions and are homogeneous functions of the same degree . That is, multiplying each variable by a parameter , we find


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: In the quotient formula_6, we can let to simplify this quotient to a function of the single variable :


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: which can now be integrated directly: equals the antiderivative of the right-hand side (see ordinary differential equation).


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: can be transformed into a homogeneous type by a linear transformation of both variables ( and are constants):


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: A linear differential equation is homogeneous if it is a homogeneous linear equation in the unknown function and its derivatives. It follows that, if is a solution, so is , for any (non-zero) constant . In order for this condition to hold, each nonzero term of the linear differential equation must depend on the unknown function or any derivative of it. A linear differential equation that fails this condition is called inhomogeneous.


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: A linear differential equation can be represented as a linear operator acting on where is usually the independent variable and is the dependent variable. Therefore, the general form of a linear homogeneous differential equation is


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: where is a differential operator, a sum of derivatives (defining the "0th derivative" as the original, non-differentiated function), each multiplied by a function of :


title: Homogeneous differential equation

text: The existence of a constant term is a sufficient condition for an equation to be inhomogeneous, as in the above example.


title: Skin condition

text: A skin condition, also known as cutaneous condition, is any medical condition that affects the integumentary system—the organ system that encloses the body and includes skin, nails, and related muscle and glands. The major function of this system is as a barrier against the external environment.


title: Skin condition

text: Conditions of the human integumentary system constitute a broad spectrum of diseases, also known as dermatoses, as well as many nonpathologic states (like, in certain circumstances, melanonychia and racquet nails). While only a small number of skin diseases account for most visits to the physician, thousands of skin conditions have been described. Classification of these conditions often presents many nosological challenges, since underlying causes and pathogenetics are often not known. Therefore, most current textbooks present a classification based on location (for example, conditions of the mucous membrane), morphology (chronic blistering conditions), cause (skin conditions resulting from physical factors), and so on.


title: Skin condition

text: Clinically, the diagnosis of any particular skin condition begins by gathering pertinent information of the presenting skin lesion(s), including: location (e.g. arms, head, legs); symptoms (pruritus, pain); duration (acute or chronic); arrangement (solitary, generalized, annular, linear); morphology (macules, papules, vesicles); and color (red, yellow, etc.). Some diagnoses may also require a skin biopsy which yields histologic information that can be correlated with the clinical presentation and any laboratory data. The introduction of cutaneous ultrasound has allowed the detection of cutaneous tumors, inflammatory processes, and skin diseases.


title: Skin condition

text: The skin weighs an average of , covers an area of , and is made of three distinct layers: the epidermis, dermis, and subcutaneous tissue. The two main types of human skin are glabrous skin, the nonhairy skin on the palms and soles (also referred to as the "palmoplantar" surfaces), and hair-bearing skin. Within the latter type, hairs in structures called pilosebaceous units have a hair follicle, sebaceous gland, and associated arrector pili muscle. In the embryo, the epidermis, hair, and glands are from the ectoderm, which is chemically influenced by the underlying mesoderm that forms the dermis and subcutaneous tissues.


title: Skin condition

text: The epidermis is the most superficial layer of skin, a squamous epithelium with several strata: the stratum corneum, stratum lucidum, stratum granulosum, stratum spinosum, and stratum basale. Nourishment is provided to these layers via diffusion from the dermis, since the epidermis is without direct blood supply. The epidermis contains four cell types: keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, and Merkel cells. Of these, keratinocytes are the major component, constituting roughly 95% of the epidermis. This stratified squamous epithelium is maintained by cell division within the stratum basale, in which differentiating cells slowly displace outwards through the stratum spinosum to the stratum corneum, where cells are continually shed from the surface. In normal skin, the rate of production equals the rate of loss; about two weeks are needed for a cell to migrate from the basal cell layer to the top of the granular cell layer, and an additional two weeks to cross the stratum corneum.


title: Skin condition

text: The dermis is the layer of skin between the epidermis and subcutaneous tissue, and comprises two sections, the papillary dermis and the reticular dermis. The superficial papillary dermis interdigitates with the overlying rete ridges of the epidermis, between which the two layers interact through the basement membrane zone. Structural components of the dermis are collagen, elastic fibers, and ground substance also called extra fibrillar matrix. Within these components are the pilosebaceous units, arrector pili muscles, and the eccrine and apocrine glands. The dermis contains two vascular networks that run parallel to the skin surface—one superficial and one deep plexus—which are connected by vertical communicating vessels. The function of blood vessels within the dermis is fourfold: to supply nutrition, to regulate temperature, to modulate inflammation, and to participate in wound healing.


title: Skin condition

text: The subcutaneous tissue is a layer of fat between the dermis and underlying fascia. This tissue may be further divided into two components, the actual fatty layer, or panniculus adiposus, and a deeper vestigial layer of muscle, the panniculus carnosus. The main cellular component of this tissue is the adipocyte, or fat cell. The structure of this tissue is composed of septal (i.e. linear strands) and lobular compartments, which differ in microscopic appearance. Functionally, the subcutaneous fat insulates the body, absorbs trauma, and serves as a reserve energy source.


title: Skin condition

text: In 1572, Geronimo Mercuriali of Forlì, Italy, completed ('On the diseases of the skin'). It is considered the first scientific work dedicated to dermatology.


title: Skin condition

text: The physical examination of the skin and its appendages, as well as the mucous membranes, forms the cornerstone of an accurate diagnosis of cutaneous conditions. Most of these conditions present with cutaneous surface changes termed "lesions," which have more or less distinct characteristics. Often proper examination will lead the physician to obtain appropriate historical information and/or laboratory tests that are able to confirm the diagnosis. Upon examination, the important clinical observations are the (1) morphology, (2) configuration, and (3) distribution of the lesion(s). With regard to morphology, the initial lesion that characterizes a condition is known as the "primary lesion", and identification of such a lesions is the most important aspect of the cutaneous examination. Over time, these primary lesions may continue to develop or be modified by regression or trauma, producing "secondary lesions". However, with that being stated, the lack of standardization of basic dermatologic terminology has been one of the principal barriers to successful communication among physicians in describing cutaneous findings. Nevertheless, there are some commonly accepted terms used to describe the macroscopic morphology, configuration, and distribution of skin lesions, which are listed below.


title: Skin condition

text: "Configuration" refers to how lesions are locally grouped ("organized"), which contrasts with how they are distributed (see next section).


title: Skin condition

text: "Distribution" refers to how lesions are localized. They may be confined to a single area (a patch) or may exist in several places. Some distributions correlate with the means by which a given area becomes affected. For example, contact dermatitis correlates with locations where allergen has elicited an allergic immune response. Varicella zoster virus is known to recur (after its initial presentation as chicken pox) as herpes zoster ("shingles"). Chicken pox appears nearly everywhere on the body, but herpes zoster tends to follow one or two dermatomes; for example, the eruptions may appear along the bra line, on either or both sides of the patient.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Methoxyflurane, sold under the brand name Penthrox among others, is an inhaled medication primarily used to reduce pain following trauma. It may also be used for short episodes of pain as a result of medical procedures. Onset of pain relief is rapid and of a short duration. Use is only recommended with direct medical supervision.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Common side effects include anxiety, headache, sleepiness, cough, and nausea. Serious side effects may include kidney problems, liver problems, low blood pressure, and malignant hyperthermia. It is unclear if it is safe in either pregnancy or breastfeeding. It is only recommended in those who have a normal level of consciousness and stable blood pressure and heart rate. It is classified as a volatile anaesthetic.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: It was first made in 1948 by William T. Miller and came into medical use in the 1960s. It was used as a general anesthetic from its introduction in 1960 until the late 1970s. In 1999, the manufacturer discontinued methoxyflurane in the United States, and in 2005 the Food and Drug Administration withdrew it from the market. It is still used in New Zealand, Australia, Ireland, and the United Kingdom for pain.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Methoxyflurane is used for relief of moderate or severe pain as a result of trauma. It may also be used for short episodes of pain as a result of procedures.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Each dose lasts approximately 30 minutes. Pain relief begins after 6–8 breaths and continues for several minutes after stopping inhalation. The maximum recommended dose is 6 milliliters per day or 15 milliliters per week because of the risk of kidney problems, and it is not recommended to be used on consecutive days. Despite the potential for kidney problems when used at anesthetic doses, no significant adverse effects have been reported when it is used at the lower doses (up to 6 milliliters) used for pain relief. Due to the risk of kidney toxicity, methoxyflurane is contraindicated in people with pre-existing kidney disease or diabetes mellitus, and is not recommended to be administered in conjunction with tetracyclines or other potentially nephrotoxic or enzyme-inducing drugs.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: It is self-administered to children and adults using a hand-held inhaler device. A non-opioid alternative to morphine, it is also easier to use than nitrous oxide. A portable, disposable, single-use inhaler device, along with a single 3 milliliter brown glass vial of methoxyflurane allows people who are conscious and hemodynamically stable (including children over the age of 5 years) to self-administer the medication, under supervision.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: In prehospital care Penthrox offers an alternative to Entonox, it being smaller, lighter and not contraindicated with chest injuries.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: The consensus is that the use of methoxyflurane should be restricted only to healthy individuals, in situations where it offers specific advantages and even then, only at dosages less than 2.5 MAC hours. The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health maintains a recommended exposure limit for methoxyflurane as waste anesthetic gas of 2 ppm (13.5 mg/m) over 60 minutes.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: The first report of nephrotoxicity appeared in 1964, when Paddock and colleagues reported three cases of acute kidney injury, two of whom were found to have calcium oxalate crystals in the renal tubules at autopsy. In 1966, Crandell and colleagues reported a series in which 17/95 (18%) of patients developed an unusual type of nephropathy after operations in which methoxyflurane was used as a general anesthetic. This particular type of chronic kidney disease was characterized by vasopressin-resistant high-output kidney failure (production of large volumes of poorly concentrated urine) with a negative fluid balance, pronounced weight loss, elevation of serum sodium, chloride, osmolality and blood urea nitrogen. The urine of these patients was of a relatively fixed specific gravity and an osmolality very similar to that of the serum. Furthermore, the high urine output persisted a challenge test of fluid deprivation. Most cases resolved within 2–3 weeks, but evidence of renal dysfunction persisted for more than one year in 3 of these 17 cases (18%), and more than two years in one case (6%).


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Compared with halothane, methoxyflurane produces dose-dependent abnormalities in kidney function. The authors showed that subclinical nephrotoxicity occurred following methoxyflurane at minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) for 2.5 to 3 hours (2.5 to 3 MAC hours), while overt toxicity was present in all patients at dosages greater than five MAC hours. This study provided a model that would be used for the assessment of the nephrotoxicity of volatile anesthetics for the next two decades. Furthermore, the concurrent use of tetracyclines and methoxyflurane has been reported to result in fatal renal toxicity.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Reports of severe and even fatal hepatotoxicity related to the use of methoxyflurane began to appear in 1966.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: The biodegradation of methoxyflurane begins immediately. The kidney and liver toxicity observed after anesthetic doses is attributable to one or more metabolites produced by O-demethylation of methoxyflurane. Products of this catabolic process include methoxyfluoroacetic acid (MFAA), dichloroacetic acid (DCAA), and inorganic fluoride. Methoxyflurane nephrotoxicity is dose dependent and irreversible, resulting from O-demethylation of methoxyflurane to fluoride and DCAA. It is not entirely clear whether the fluoride itself is toxic—it may simply be a surrogate measure for some other toxic metabolite. The concurrent formation of inorganic fluoride and DCAA is unique to methoxyflurane biotransformation compared with other volatile anesthetics, and this combination is more toxic than fluoride alone. This may explain why fluoride formation from methoxyflurane is associated with nephrotoxicity, while fluoride formation from other volatile anesthetics (such as enflurane and sevoflurane) is not.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Methoxyflurane has a very high lipid solubility (oil:gas partition coefficient of around 950), which gives it very slow pharmacokinetics (induction and emergence characteristics); this being undesirable for routine application in the clinical setting. Initial studies performed in 1961 revealed that in unpremedicated healthy individuals, induction of general anesthesia with methoxyflurane-oxygen alone or with nitrous oxide was difficult or even impossible using the vaporizers available at that time. It was found to be necessary to administer an intravenous anesthetic agent such as sodium thiopental to ensure a smooth and rapid induction. It was further found that after thiopental induction, it was necessary to administer nitrous oxide for at least ten minutes before a sufficient amount of methoxyflurane could accumulate in the bloodstream to ensure an adequate level of anesthesia. This was despite using high flow (liters/minute) of nitrous oxide and oxygen, and with the vaporizers delivering the maximum possible concentration of methoxyflurane.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Similar to its induction pharmacokinetics, methoxyflurane has very slow and somewhat unpredictable emergence characteristics. During initial clinical studies in 1961, the average time to emergence after discontinuation of methoxyflurane was 59 minutes after administration of methoxyflurane for an average duration of 87 minutes. The longest time to emergence was 285 minutes, after 165 minutes of methoxyflurane administration.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: The effects of methoxyflurane on the circulatory system resemble those of diethyl ether. In dogs, methoxyflurane anesthesia causes a moderate decrease in blood pressure with minimal changes in heart rate, and no significant effect on blood sugar, epinephrine, or norepinephrine. Bleeding and increased arterial partial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO) both induce further decreases in blood pressure, as well as increases in blood glucose, epinephrine and norepinephrine. In humans, methoxyflurane produces some decrease in blood pressure, but cardiac output, stroke volume, and total peripheral resistance are only minimally depressed. Its effect on the pulmonary circulation is negligible, and it does not predispose the heart to cardiac dysrhythmias.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Unlike diethyl ether, methoxyflurane is a significant respiratory depressant. In dogs, methoxyflurane causes a dose-dependent decrease in respiratory rate and a marked decrease in respiratory minute volume, with a relatively mild decrease in tidal volume. In humans, methoxyflurane causes a dose-dependent decrease in tidal volume and minute volume, with respiratory rate relatively constant. The net effect of these changes is profound respiratory depression, as evidenced by CO retention with a concomitant decrease in arterial pH (this is referred to as a respiratory acidosis) when anesthetized subjects are allowed to breathe spontaneously for any length of time.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Although the high blood solubility of methoxyflurane is often undesirable, this property makes it useful in certain situations—it persists in the lipid compartment of the body for a long time, providing sedation and analgesia well into the postoperative period. There is substantial data to indicate that methoxyflurane is an effective analgesic and sedative agent at subanesthetic doses. Supervised self-administration of methoxyflurane in children and adults can briefly lead to deep sedation, and it has been used as a patient controlled analgesic for painful procedures in children in hospital emergency departments. During childbirth, administration of methoxyflurane produces significantly better analgesia, less psychomotor agitation, and only slightly more somnolence than trichloroethylene.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Similar to other inhalational anesthetics, the exact mechanism of action is not clearly defined and likely involves multiple molecular targets in the brain and spinal cord. Methoxyflurane is a positive allosteric modulator of GABA and glycine receptors as demonstrated in electrophysiology studies. This mechanism is shared with alcohols that produce general anesthesia.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: With a molecular formula of CHClFO and a condensed structural formula of CHClCFOCH, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) name for methoxyflurane is 2,2-dichloro-1,1-difluoro-1-methoxyethane. It is a halogenated ether in form of a clear, colorless liquid, and its vapor has a strong fruity aroma. It is miscible with ethanol, acetone, chloroform, diethyl ether, and fixed oils. It is soluble in rubber.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: With a minimum alveolar concentration (MAC) of 0.16%, methoxyflurane is an extremely potent anesthetic agent. It is a powerful analgesic agent at well below full anesthetic concentrations. Because of its low volatility and very high boiling point (104.8 °C at 1 atmosphere), methoxyflurane has a low vapor pressure at ambient temperature and atmospheric pressure. It is therefore quite difficult to vaporize methoxyflurane using conventional anesthetic vaporizers.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: The carbon–fluorine bond, a component of all organofluorine compounds, is the strongest chemical bond in organic chemistry. Furthermore, this bond becomes shorter and stronger as more fluorine atoms are added to the same carbon on a given molecule. Because of this, fluoroalkanes are some of the most chemically stable organic compounds.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Methoxyflurane has been used since the 1970s in Australia as an emergency analgesic for short-term use by the Australian Defence Force and New Zealand Defence Force, the Australian ambulance services, and both St John Ambulance and Wellington Free Ambulance in New Zealand. Since 2018, it has also been used by some emergency medical services in Germany.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: All of the currently used volatile anesthetic agents are organofluorine compounds. Aside from the synthesis of Freon (Thomas Midgley, Jr. and Charles F. Kettering, 1928) and the discovery of Teflon (Roy J. Plunkett, 1938), the field of organofluorine chemistry had not attracted a great deal of attention up to 1940 because of the extreme reactivity of elemental fluorine, which had to be produced "in situ" for use in chemical reactions. The development of organofluorine chemistry was a spin-off from the World War 2 nuclear Manhattan Project, during which elemental fluorine was produced on an industrial scale for the first time.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: The need for fluorine arose from the need to separate the isotope uranium-235 (U) from uranium-238 (U) because the former, present in natural uranium at a concentration of less than 1% is fissile (capable of sustaining a nuclear chain reaction of nuclear fission with thermal neutrons), whereas the latter is not. Members of the MAUD Committee (especially Francis Simon and Nicholas Kurti) proposed the use of gaseous diffusion for isotope separation, since, according to Graham's law the rate of diffusion is inversely proportional to molecular mass. After an extensive search, uranium hexafluoride (UF) was determined to be the most suitable compound of uranium to be used for the gaseous diffusion process. Elemental fluorine is needed in the production of UF.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Obstacles had to be overcome in the handling of both fluorine and UF. Before the K-25 gaseous diffusion enrichment plant could be built, it was first necessary to develop non-reactive chemical compounds that could be used as coatings, lubricants and gaskets for the surfaces which would come into contact with the UF gas (a highly reactive and corrosive substance). William T. Miller, professor of organic chemistry at Cornell University, was co-opted to develop such materials, because of his expertise in organofluorine chemistry. Miller and his team developed several novel non-reactive chlorofluorocarbon polymers that were used in this application.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: Miller and his team continued to develop organofluorine chemistry after the end of World War II and methoxyflurane was made in 1948.


title: Methoxyflurane

text: In 1968, Robert Wexler of Abbott Laboratories developed the Analgizer, a disposable inhaler that allowed the self-administration of methoxyflurane vapor in air for analgesia. The Analgizer consisted of a polyethylene cylinder 5 inches long and 1 inch in diameter with a 1 inch long mouthpiece. The device contained a rolled wick of polypropylene felt which held 15 milliliters of methoxyflurane. Because of the simplicity of the Analgizer and the pharmacological characteristics of methoxyflurane, it was easy for patients to self-administer the drug and rapidly achieve a level of conscious analgesia which could be maintained and adjusted as necessary over a period of time lasting from a few minutes to several hours. The 15 milliliter supply of methoxyflurane would typically last for two to three hours, during which time the user would often be partly amnesic to the sense of pain; the device could be refilled if necessary. The Analgizer was found to be safe, effective, and simple to administer in obstetric patients during childbirth, as well as for patients with bone fractures and joint dislocations, and for dressing changes on burn patients. When used for labor analgesia, the Analgizer allows labor to progress normally and with no apparent adverse effect on Apgar scores. All vital signs remain normal in obstetric patients, newborns, and injured patients. The Analgizer was widely utilized for analgesia and sedation until the early 1970s, in a manner that foreshadowed the patient-controlled analgesia infusion pumps of today. The Analgizer inhaler was withdrawn in 1974, but use of methoxyflurane as a sedative and analgesic continues in Australia and New Zealand in the form of the Penthrox inhaler. During 2020 trials of methoxyflurane as an analgesic in emergency medicine were held in the UK.


title: Jong PSV

text: Jong PSV is a Dutch football team based in Eindhoven. It is the reserve team of PSV Eindhoven and plays in the Eerste Divisie since the 2013–14 season.


title: Jong PSV

text: Until 2013, Jong PSV played in the Beloften Eredivisie, a league exclusively for reserve teams. That year, the KNVB decided to expand the Eerste Divisie to 20 teams by adding two amateur teams and two reserve teams. Initially, Jong Ajax and Jong FC Twente were chosen, based on the team's interest and the Beloften Eredivisie league results. But after amateur team VV Katwijk rejected the offer, Jong PSV were offered the fourth and final league slot. Because Jong PSV have entered the same league system as PSV, the team has to adhere to certain rules. The team is ineligible for promotion, play-offs, relegation or the KNVB Cup; the maximum player age is 23 (minus three field players and one goalkeeper); and players with 150 or more appearances in PSV are ineligible for Jong PSV. Other rules for Eerste Divisie teams regarding accommodation and coaching licenses apply as well.


title: Jong PSV

text: Jong PSV used to play their home matches in the Philips Stadion. When the Philips Stadion was unavailable, PSV used the Jan Louwers Stadion as alternative location. Originally, De Herdgang was considered as an option, but the Dutch Football Association rejected the idea. After adjustments were made, De Herdgang is now the official place where Jong PSV play their games.


title: Transatlantic communications cable

text: A transatlantic telecommunications cable is a submarine communications cable connecting one side of the Atlantic Ocean to the other. In the 19th and early 20th centuries, each cable was a single wire. After mid-century, coaxial cable came into use, with amplifiers. Late in the 20th century, all cables installed used optical fiber as well as optical amplifiers, because distances range thousands of kilometers.


title: Transatlantic communications cable

text: When the first transatlantic telegraph cable was laid in 1858 by Cyrus West Field, it operated for only three weeks; subsequent attempts in 1865 and 1866 were more successful. In July 1866 "Great Eastern" sailed out of Valentia Island, Ireland and on July 26th landed at Hearts Content in Newfoundland. It was active until 1965. Although a telephone cable was discussed starting in the 1920s, to be practical it needed a number of technological advances which did not arrive until the 1940s. Starting in 1927, transatlantic telephone service was radio-based.


title: Transatlantic communications cable

text: TAT-1 (Transatlantic No. 1) was the first transatlantic telephone cable system. It was laid between Gallanach Bay, near Oban, and Clarenville, Newfoundland between 1955 and 1956 by the cable ship "Monarch". It was inaugurated on September 25, 1956, initially carrying 36 telephone channels. In the first 24 hours of public service, there were 588 London–U.S. calls and 119 from London to Canada. The capacity of the cable was soon increased to 48 channels. Later, an additional three channels were added by use of C Carrier equipment. Time-assignment speech interpolation (TASI) was implemented on the TAT-1 cable in June 1960 and effectively increased the cable's capacity from 37 (out of 51 available channels) to 72 speech circuits. TAT-1 was finally retired in 1978. Later coaxial cables, installed through the 1970s, used transistors and had higher bandwidth. The Moscow–Washington hotline was initially connected through this system.


title: Transatlantic communications cable

text: All cables presently in service use fiber optic technology. Many cables terminate in Newfoundland and Ireland, which lie on the great circle route from London, UK to New York City, US.


title: Transatlantic communications cable

text: There has been a succession of newer transatlantic cable systems. All recent systems have used fiber optic transmission, and a self-healing ring topology. Late in the 20th century, communications satellites lost most of their North Atlantic telephone traffic to these low-cost, high-capacity, low-latency cables. This advantage only increases over time, as tighter cables provide higher bandwidth – the 2012 generation of cables drop the transatlantic latency to under 60 milliseconds, according to Hibernia Atlantic, deploying such a cable that year.


title: Transatlantic communications cable

text: Some new cables are being announced on the South Atlantic: SACS (South Atlantic Cable System) and SAex (South Atlantic Express).


title: Transatlantic communications cable

text: The TAT series of cables constitute a large percentage of all North Atlantic cables. All TAT cables are joint ventures between a number of telecommunications companies, e.g. British Telecom. CANTAT cables terminate in Canada rather than in the US.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Nucleosynthesis is the process that creates new atomic nuclei from pre-existing nucleons (protons and neutrons) and nuclei. According to current theories, the first nuclei were formed a few minutes after the Big Bang, through nuclear reactions in a process called Big Bang nucleosynthesis. After about 20 minutes, the universe had expanded and cooled to a point at which these high-energy collisions among nucleons ended, so only the fastest and simplest reactions occurred, leaving our universe containing hydrogen and helium. The rest is traces of other elements such as lithium and the hydrogen isotope deuterium. Nucleosynthesis in stars and their explosions later produced the variety of elements and isotopes that we have today, in a process called cosmic chemical evolution. The amounts of total mass in elements heavier than hydrogen and helium (called 'metals' by astrophysicists) remains small (few percent), so that the universe still has approximately the same composition.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Stars fuse light elements to heavier ones in their cores, giving off energy in the process known as stellar nucleosynthesis. Nuclear fusion reactions create many of the lighter elements, up to and including iron and nickel in the most massive stars. Products of stellar nucleosynthesis remain trapped in stellar cores and remnants except if ejected through stellar winds and explosions. The neutron capture reactions of the r-process and s-process create heavier elements, from iron upwards.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Supernova nucleosynthesis within exploding stars is largely responsible for the elements between oxygen and rubidium: from the ejection of elements produced during stellar nucleosynthesis; through explosive nucleosynthesis during the supernova explosion; and from the r-process (absorption of multiple neutrons) during the explosion.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Neutron star mergers are a recently discovered major source of elements produced in the r-process. When two neutron stars collide, a significant amount of neutron-rich matter may be ejected which then quickly forms heavy elements.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Cosmic ray spallation is a process wherein cosmic rays impact nuclei and fragment them. It is a significant source of the lighter nuclei, particularly He, Be and B, that are not created by stellar nucleosynthesis. Cosmic ray spallation can occur in the interstellar medium, on asteroids and meteoroids, or on Earth in the atmosphere or in the ground.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: On Earth new nuclei are also produced by radiogenesis, the decay of long-lived, primordial radionuclides such as uranium, thorium, and potassium-40.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: It is thought that the primordial nucleons themselves were formed from the quark–gluon plasma around 13.8 billion years ago during the Big Bang as it cooled below two trillion degrees. A few minutes afterwards, starting with only protons and neutrons, nuclei up to lithium and beryllium (both with mass number 7) were formed, but hardly any other elements. Some boron may have been formed at this time, but the process stopped before significant carbon could be formed, as this element requires a far higher product of helium density and time than were present in the short nucleosynthesis period of the Big Bang. That fusion process essentially shut down at about 20 minutes, due to drops in temperature and density as the universe continued to expand. This first process, Big Bang nucleosynthesis, was the first type of nucleogenesis to occur in the universe, creating the so-called primordial elements.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: A star formed in the early universe produces heavier elements by combining its lighter nucleihydrogen, helium, lithium, beryllium, and boronwhich were found in the initial composition of the interstellar medium and hence the star. Interstellar gas therefore contains declining abundances of these light elements, which are present only by virtue of their nucleosynthesis during the Big Bang, and also cosmic ray spallation. These lighter elements in the present universe are therefore thought to have been produced through thousands of millions of years of cosmic ray (mostly high-energy proton) mediated breakup of heavier elements in interstellar gas and dust. The fragments of these cosmic-ray collisions include helium-3 and the stable isotopes of the light elements lithium, beryllium, and boron. Carbon was not made in the Big Bang, but was produced later in larger stars via the triple-alpha process.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: The subsequent nucleosynthesis of heavier elements ("Z" ≥ 6, carbon and heavier elements) requires the extreme temperatures and pressures found within stars and supernovae. These processes began as hydrogen and helium from the Big Bang collapsed into the first stars after about 500 million years. Star formation has been occurring continuously in galaxies since that time. The primordial nuclides were created by Big Bang nucleosynthesis, stellar nucleosynthesis, supernova nucleosynthesis, and by nucleosynthesis in exotic events such as neutron star collisions. Other nuclides, such as Ar, formed later through radioactive decay. On Earth, mixing and evaporation has altered the primordial composition to what is called the natural terrestrial composition. The heavier elements produced after the Big Bang range in atomic numbers from "Z" = 6 (carbon) to "Z" = 94 (plutonium). Synthesis of these elements occurred through nuclear reactions involving the strong and weak interactions among nuclei, and called nuclear fusion (including both rapid and slow multiple neutron capture), and include also nuclear fission and radioactive decays such as beta decay. The stability of atomic nuclei of different sizes and composition (i.e. numbers of neutrons and protons) plays an important role in the possible reactions among nuclei. Cosmic nucleosynthesis, therefore, is studied among researchers of astrophysics and nuclear physics ("nuclear astrophysics").


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: The first ideas on nucleosynthesis were simply that the chemical elements were created at the beginning of the universe, but no rational physical scenario for this could be identified. Gradually it became clear that hydrogen and helium are much more abundant than any of the other elements. All the rest constitute less than 2% of the mass of the Solar System, and of other star systems as well. At the same time it was clear that oxygen and carbon were the next two most common elements, and also that there was a general trend toward high abundance of the light elements, especially those with isotopes composed of whole numbers of helium-4 nuclei (alpha nuclides).


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Arthur Stanley Eddington first suggested in 1920, that stars obtain their energy by fusing hydrogen into helium and raised the possibility that the heavier elements may also form in stars. This idea was not generally accepted, as the nuclear mechanism was not understood. In the years immediately before World War II, Hans Bethe first elucidated those nuclear mechanisms by which hydrogen is fused into helium.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Fred Hoyle's original work on nucleosynthesis of heavier elements in stars, occurred just after World War II. His work explained the production of all heavier elements, starting from hydrogen. Hoyle proposed that hydrogen is continuously created in the universe from vacuum and energy, without need for universal beginning.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Hoyle's work explained how the abundances of the elements increased with time as the galaxy aged. Subsequently, Hoyle's picture was expanded during the 1960s by contributions from William A. Fowler, Alastair G. W. Cameron, and Donald D. Clayton, followed by many others. The seminal 1957 review paper by E. M. Burbidge, G. R. Burbidge, Fowler and Hoyle is a well-known summary of the state of the field in 1957. That paper defined new processes for the transformation of one heavy nucleus into others within stars, processes that could be documented by astronomers.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: The Big Bang itself had been proposed in 1931, long before this period, by Georges Lemaître, a Belgian physicist, who suggested that the evident expansion of the Universe in time required that the Universe, if contracted backwards in time, would continue to do so until it could contract no further. This would bring all the mass of the Universe to a single point, a "primeval atom", to a state before which time and space did not exist. Hoyle is credited with coining the term "Big Bang" during a 1949 BBC radio broadcast, saying that Lemaître's theory was "based on the hypothesis that all the matter in the universe was created in one big bang at a particular time in the remote past." It is popularly reported that Hoyle intended this to be pejorative, but Hoyle explicitly denied this and said it was just a striking image meant to highlight the difference between the two models. Lemaître's model was needed to explain the existence of deuterium and nuclides between helium and carbon, as well as the fundamentally high amount of helium present, not only in stars but also in interstellar space. As it happened, both Lemaître and Hoyle's models of nucleosynthesis would be needed to explain the elemental abundances in the universe.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: The goal of the theory of nucleosynthesis is to explain the vastly differing abundances of the chemical elements and their several isotopes from the perspective of natural processes. The primary stimulus to the development of this theory was the shape of a plot of the abundances versus the atomic number of the elements. Those abundances, when plotted on a graph as a function of atomic number, have a jagged sawtooth structure that varies by factors up to ten million. A very influential stimulus to nucleosynthesis research was an abundance table created by Hans Suess and Harold Urey that was based on the unfractionated abundances of the non-volatile elements found within unevolved meteorites. Such a graph of the abundances is displayed on a logarithmic scale below, where the dramatically jagged structure is visually suppressed by the many powers of ten spanned in the vertical scale of this graph.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: There are a number of astrophysical processes which are believed to be responsible for nucleosynthesis. The majority of these occur within stars, and the chain of those nuclear fusion processes are known as hydrogen burning (via the proton–proton chain or the CNO cycle), helium burning, carbon burning, neon burning, oxygen burning and silicon burning. These processes are able to create elements up to and including iron and nickel. This is the region of nucleosynthesis within which the isotopes with the highest binding energy per nucleon are created. Heavier elements can be assembled within stars by a neutron capture process known as the s-process or in explosive environments, such as supernovae and neutron star mergers, by a number of other processes. Some of those others include the r-process, which involves rapid neutron captures, the rp-process, and the p-process (sometimes known as the gamma process), which results in the photodisintegration of existing nuclei.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Big Bang nucleosynthesis occurred within the first three minutes of the beginning of the universe and is responsible for much of the abundance of (protium), (D, deuterium), (helium-3), and (helium-4). Although continues to be produced by stellar fusion and alpha decays and trace amounts of continue to be produced by spallation and certain types of radioactive decay, most of the mass of the isotopes in the universe are thought to have been produced in the Big Bang. The nuclei of these elements, along with some and are considered to have been formed between 100 and 300 seconds after the Big Bang when the primordial quark–gluon plasma froze out to form protons and neutrons. Because of the very short period in which nucleosynthesis occurred before it was stopped by expansion and cooling (about 20 minutes), no elements heavier than beryllium (or possibly boron) could be formed. Elements formed during this time were in the plasma state, and did not cool to the state of neutral atoms until much later.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Stellar nucleosynthesis is the nuclear process by which new nuclei are produced. It occurs in stars during stellar evolution. It is responsible for the galactic abundances of elements from carbon to iron. Stars are thermonuclear furnaces in which H and He are fused into heavier nuclei by increasingly high temperatures as the composition of the core evolves. Of particular importance is carbon because its formation from He is a bottleneck in the entire process. Carbon is produced by the triple-alpha process in all stars. Carbon is also the main element that causes the release of free neutrons within stars, giving rise to the s-process, in which the slow absorption of neutrons converts iron into elements heavier than iron and nickel.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: The products of stellar nucleosynthesis are generally dispersed into the interstellar gas through mass loss episodes and the stellar winds of low mass stars. The mass loss events can be witnessed today in the planetary nebulae phase of low-mass star evolution, and the explosive ending of stars, called supernovae, of those with more than eight times the mass of the Sun.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: The first direct proof that nucleosynthesis occurs in stars was the astronomical observation that interstellar gas has become enriched with heavy elements as time passed. As a result, stars that were born from it late in the galaxy, formed with much higher initial heavy element abundances than those that had formed earlier. The detection of technetium in the atmosphere of a red giant star in 1952, by spectroscopy, provided the first evidence of nuclear activity within stars. Because technetium is radioactive, with a half-life much less than the age of the star, its abundance must reflect its recent creation within that star. Equally convincing evidence of the stellar origin of heavy elements is the large overabundances of specific stable elements found in stellar atmospheres of asymptotic giant branch stars. Observation of barium abundances some 20–50 times greater than found in unevolved stars is evidence of the operation of the s-process within such stars. Many modern proofs of stellar nucleosynthesis are provided by the isotopic compositions of stardust, solid grains that have condensed from the gases of individual stars and which have been extracted from meteorites. Stardust is one component of cosmic dust and is frequently called presolar grains. The measured isotopic compositions in stardust grains demonstrate many aspects of nucleosynthesis within the stars from which the grains condensed during the star's late-life mass-loss episodes.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Supernova nucleosynthesis occurs in the energetic environment in supernovae, in which the elements between silicon and nickel are synthesized in quasiequilibrium established during fast fusion that attaches by reciprocating balanced nuclear reactions to Si. Quasiequilibrium can be thought of as "almost equilibrium" except for a high abundance of the Si nuclei in the feverishly burning mix. This concept was the most important discovery in nucleosynthesis theory of the intermediate-mass elements since Hoyle's 1954 paper because it provided an overarching understanding of the abundant and chemically important elements between silicon ("A" = 28) and nickel ("A" = 60). It replaced the incorrect although much cited alpha process of the BFH paper, which inadvertently obscured Hoyle's 1954 theory. Further nucleosynthesis processes can occur, in particular the r-process (rapid process) described by the BFH paper and first calculated by Seeger, Fowler and Clayton, in which the most neutron-rich isotopes of elements heavier than nickel are produced by rapid absorption of free neutrons. The creation of free neutrons by electron capture during the rapid compression of the supernova core along with the assembly of some neutron-rich seed nuclei makes the r-process a "primary process", and one that can occur even in a star of pure H and He. This is in contrast to the BFH designation of the process as a "secondary process". This promising scenario, though generally supported by supernova experts, has yet to achieve a satisfactory calculation of r-process abundances. The primary r-process has been confirmed by astronomers who had observed old stars born when galactic metallicity was still small, that nonetheless contain their complement of r-process nuclei; thereby demonstrating that the metallicity is a product of an internal process. The r-process is responsible for our natural cohort of radioactive elements, such as uranium and thorium, as well as the most neutron-rich isotopes of each heavy element.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: The rp-process (rapid proton) involves the rapid absorption of free protons as well as neutrons, but its role and its existence are less certain.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Explosive nucleosynthesis occurs too rapidly for radioactive decay to decrease the number of neutrons, so that many abundant isotopes with equal and even numbers of protons and neutrons are synthesized by the silicon quasi-equilibrium process. During this process, the burning of oxygen and silicon fuses nuclei that themselves have equal numbers of protons and neutrons to produce nuclides which consist of whole numbers of helium nuclei, up to 15 (representing Ni). Such multiple-alpha-particle nuclides are totally stable up to Ca (made of 10 helium nuclei), but heavier nuclei with equal and even numbers of protons and neutrons are tightly bound but unstable. The quasi-equilibrium produces radioactive isobars Ti, Cr, Fe, and Ni, which (except Ti) are created in abundance but decay after the explosion and leave the most stable isotope of the corresponding element at the same atomic weight. The most abundant and extant isotopes of elements produced in this way are Ti, Cr, and Fe. These decays are accompanied by the emission of gamma-rays (radiation from the nucleus), whose spectroscopic lines can be used to identify the isotope created by the decay. The detection of these emission lines were an important early product of gamma-ray astronomy.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: The most convincing proof of explosive nucleosynthesis in supernovae occurred in 1987 when those gamma-ray lines were detected emerging from supernova 1987A. Gamma-ray lines identifying Co and Co nuclei, whose half-lives limit their age to about a year, proved that their radioactive cobalt parents created them. This nuclear astronomy observation was predicted in 1969 as a way to confirm explosive nucleosynthesis of the elements, and that prediction played an important role in the planning for NASA's Compton Gamma-Ray Observatory.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Other proofs of explosive nucleosynthesis are found within the stardust grains that condensed within the interiors of supernovae as they expanded and cooled. Stardust grains are one component of cosmic dust. In particular, radioactive Ti was measured to be very abundant within supernova stardust grains at the time they condensed during the supernova expansion. This confirmed a 1975 prediction of the identification of supernova stardust (SUNOCONs), which became part of the pantheon of presolar grains. Other unusual isotopic ratios within these grains reveal many specific aspects of explosive nucleosynthesis.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: The merger of binary neutron stars (BNSs) is now believed to be the main source of r-process elements. Being neutron-rich by definition, collisions of this type had been suspected of being a source of such elements, but definitive evidence was difficult to obtain. In 2017 strong evidence emerged, when LIGO, VIRGO, the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope and INTEGRAL, along with a collaboration of many observatories around the world, detected both gravitational wave and electromagnetic signatures of a likely neutron star collision, GW170817, and subsequently detected signals of numerous heavy elements such as gold as the ejected degenerate matter decays and cools. The first detection of the merger of a neutron star and black hole (NSBHs) came in July 2021 and more after but analysis seem to favor BNSs over NSBHs as the main contributors to heavy metal production.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Cosmic ray spallation process reduces the atomic weight of interstellar matter by the impact with cosmic rays, to produce some of the lightest elements present in the universe (though not a significant amount of deuterium). Most notably spallation is believed to be responsible for the generation of almost all of He and the elements lithium, beryllium, and boron, although some and are thought to have been produced in the Big Bang. The spallation process results from the impact of cosmic rays (mostly fast protons) against the interstellar medium. These impacts fragment carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen nuclei present. The process results in the light elements beryllium, boron, and lithium in the cosmos at much greater abundances than they are found within solar atmospheres. The quantities of the light elements H and He produced by spallation are negligible relative to their primordial abundance.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Beryllium and boron are not significantly produced by stellar fusion processes, since Be is not particle-bound.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Theories of nucleosynthesis are tested by calculating isotope abundances and comparing those results with observed abundances. Isotope abundances are typically calculated from the transition rates between isotopes in a network. Often these calculations can be simplified as a few key reactions control the rate of other reactions.


title: Nucleosynthesis

text: Tiny amounts of certain nuclides are produced on Earth by artificial means. Those are our primary source, for example, of technetium. However, some nuclides are also produced by a number of natural means that have continued after primordial elements were in place. These often act to create new elements in ways that can be used to date rocks or to trace the source of geological processes. Although these processes do not produce the nuclides in abundance, they are assumed to be the entire source of the existing natural supply of those nuclides.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Murder in the First is a 1995 American legal drama film, directed by Marc Rocco, written by Dan Gordon, and starring Christian Slater, Kevin Bacon, Gary Oldman, Embeth Davidtz, Brad Dourif, William H. Macy, and R. Lee Ermey. It tells the alternate history of a petty criminal named Henri Young who is sent to Alcatraz Federal Penitentiary and later put on trial for murder in the first degree. This film was described on the poster as "the case that took down Alcatraz".


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: As a 17-year-old orphan, Henri Young (Kevin Bacon) steals $5.00 from a grocery store to feed himself and his little sister Rosetta (Amanda Borden), both of whom are destitute. He is apprehended by the shopkeeper (Wally Rose) and Rosetta is sent to an orphanage. Because that grocery store also housed a U.S. Post Office, his crime is upgraded to a federal offense. Young never sees Rosetta again and is sentenced to Leavenworth Penitentiary, Kansas.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: After later being transferred to Alcatraz where he gets oppressed by associate prison warden Milton Glenn (Gary Oldman), he participates in an escape attempt with two other prisoners Rufus McCain (David Michael Sterling) and Arthur Barker (Michael Melvin).


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: The escape plan fails due to the betrayal of McCain. Barker is killed by the guards and Glenn punishes Young by having him sent to "the hole", which is in Alcatraz's dungeons where Glenn also had him tortured. Except for 30 minutes on Christmas Day in 1940, he is left in there for three years. The solitary confinement causes Young to lose his sanity.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: On release back to the general population, he experiences a psychotic episode in the prison cafeteria and attacks McCain, stabbing him to death with a spoon in full view of the prison staff and the other convicts.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Young is put on trial in San Francisco for first degree murder in what district attorney William McNeil (William H. Macy) and the public-defender's office run by Mr. Henkin (Stephen Tobolowsky) believe is an open-and-shut case. Public defender James Stamphill (Christian Slater), a recent graduate of Harvard Law School, is given the case. After discovering the facts of Young's case, Stamphill attempts to put Alcatraz on trial by alleging that its harsh conditions drove him insane.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: The trial overseen by Judge Clawson (R. Lee Ermey) becomes highly politicized and contentious. While Glenn denied any mistreatment of Young, Stamphill also held Warden James Humson (Stefan Gierasch) accountable for not being present during Glenn's actions towards Young.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Young tells Stamphill that he wants to change the plea to guilty as he would rather be dead than be sent back to Alcatraz. Young is convicted of involuntary manslaughter and not first-degree murder. He is returned to Alcatraz and put in "the hole" on Glenn's orders with Young claiming that he still won either way. Young was found dead in his confinement prior to his appeal where he has "victory" written on the walls. Stamphill's narration stated that Young did not die in vain and thanked him for making him a baseball fan.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: The film concludes with an investigation into Alcatraz. Glenn was convicted for mistreatment and banned from working in the US penal system.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: To prepare for his role as Henri Young, Kevin Bacon spent a night in a solitary cell and lost twenty pounds.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Principal photography began on December 13, 1993 in Los Angeles, California, with the courtroom sequences being filmed first. On January 17, 1994, filming at Triscenic Production Services Inc. in Sylmar was interrupted by the 1994 Northridge earthquake. Filming resumed two weeks after the quake, and in February, the production moved to Alcatraz Island in the San Francisco Bay. Filming there had to be done at night, because the National Park Service did not want to disrupt daily tourism in the daytime. More than 300 crew members had to be crammed in the prison cells. Production wrapped on March 12, 1994.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: The film makes numerous changes to historical events. The real Henri Young was not convicted of stealing $5 to save his sister from destitution. He had been a hardened bank robber who had taken a hostage on at least one occasion and had committed a murder in 1933. Young was also no stranger to the penal system. Before being incarcerated at Alcatraz in 1936, he had already served time in two state prisons in Montana and Washington. In 1935 he spent his first year in federal correctional facilities at McNeil Island, Washington before being transferred to Alcatraz.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: The film ends with the fictional Henri Young being returned to the dungeons of Alcatraz in the early 1940s where he supposedly dies. In reality the real Young remained on Alcatraz until 1948 before he was moved to the United States Medical Center for Federal Prisoners at Springfield, Missouri where he stayed until 1954. While on Alcatraz he remained in the main cell block. Young was not kept in any dungeon as they had been closed almost a decade earlier. In 1954, Young was transferred to the Washington State Penitentiary at Walla Walla to begin a life sentence for the murder conviction in 1933.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: In 1972, after Young was released from Washington State Penitentiary at age 61, he jumped parole. According to Washington State authorities his whereabouts remain unknown. Young was born in 1911; if still alive as of 2022, he would be about years old.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: According to the "San Francisco Examiner", April 16, 1941, the Defense stated in court that Henri Young was locked up in solitary confinement for over three years. This is taken directly from the paper, "Emphasis which they repeatedly laid on the fact that Young was in isolation or solitary confinement for more than three years—and that he drove his knife into McCain’s abdomen just eleven days after release from such confinement, made it clear that the defense hopes to show not only that Young was “punch-drunk” but that the punches were administered by the Alcatraz "system".


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Four other prisoners attempted to escape Alcatraz with Young, not just two. One of the men omitted from the film (Dale Stamphill) has the same name as Young's lawyer.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Many of the ideas in the movie were taken directly from newspaper articles of the trials, including the ending scene where the jury only convicts Young of manslaughter, and requests that Alcatraz be investigated.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: The film was released on January 20, 1995 in 1,237 theaters in the U.S. and Canada and grossed $4,719,188 in its opening weekend. The film went on to gross $17,381,942 in the U.S. and Canada and $29.5 million worldwide against a $20 million budget.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: On review aggregate website Rotten Tomatoes, "Murder in the First" has a score of 53% based on reviews from 38 critics. The site's consensus states: "Despite a strong cast and story inspired by incredible real-life events, "Murder in the First" is strictly second rate."


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Though Bacon received a positive notices for his performance, critics negatively cited the film's handheld camera shots, scenes of brutality, and underdeveloped characters. Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" wrote, ""'Murder in the First"' lacks an all-important core of emotion. It tries to find it in the growing friendship between the lawyer and the client on trial for murder, with scenes of the lawyer trying to draw the convict out — and of the two men talking freely. But the friendship never seems more than a device."


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Roger Ebert gave the film 2 out of 4 stars, and said Slater "is an actor with talent, but he is too young for this role, and not confident enough to dial [his performance] down a little."


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Screenwriter Dan Gordon, who was unhappy with the film version of his script, wrote a novelization of his screenplay and later adapted it into a stage play.


title: Murder in the First (film)

text: Kevin Bacon won the Critics' Choice Award for Best Actor and was nominated for a Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Male Actor in a Supporting Role.


title: NCIS (season 14)

text: The fourteenth season of "NCIS" an American police procedural drama originally aired on CBS from September 20, 2016, through May 16, 2017.


title: NCIS (season 14)

text: "NCIS" revolves around a fictional team of special agents from the Naval Criminal Investigative Service, which conducts criminal investigations involving the U.S. Navy and Marine Corps. This season brought three new characters: Wilmer Valderrama as NCIS Special Agent Nicholas "Nick" Torres, formerly working with an undercover unit, Agent Alexandra "Alex" Quinn (Jennifer Esposito), and Clayton Reeves (Duane Henry), an MI6 Senior Officer and liaison to NCIS.


title: NCIS (season 14)

text: "NCIS" was renewed for seasons fourteen and fifteen on February 29, 2016. During production of this season, "NCIS" showrunner Gary Glasberg died on September 28, 2016. In November 2016, it was reported that executive producer George Schenck and Frank Cardea, would succeed Gary Glasberg as co-showrunner for season fourteen.


title: NCIS (season 14)

text: On April 4, 2016, Duane Henry, appeared as MI6 Officer Clayton Reeves in the final two episodes of thirteen season. Henry was promoted to series regular for season fourteen. Wilmer Valderrama joined the cast as Nicholas Torres on June 16, 2016, along with Jennifer Esposito as Alex Quinn on July 11, 2016. On June 9, 2017 (after the airing of the fourteenth season finale), "Deadline Hollywood" and "TV Guide" reported that Jennifer Esposito would not return for season fifteen.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: Eleanor Holmes Norton (born June 13, 1937) is an American lawyer and politician serving as a delegate to the United States House of Representatives, representing the District of Columbia since 1991. She is a member of the Democratic Party.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: Eleanor K. Holmes was born in Washington, D.C., the daughter of Vela ("née" Lynch), a schoolteacher, and Coleman Holmes, a civil servant. While a student at Dunbar High School she was elected junior class president and was a member of the National Honor Society. She attended Antioch College (B.A. 1960), Yale University (M.A. in American Studies 1963) and Yale Law School (LL.B. 1964).


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: While in college and graduate school, she was active in the civil rights movement and an organizer for the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. By the time she graduated from Antioch, she had already been arrested for organizing and participating in sit-ins in Washington, D.C., Maryland, and Ohio. While in law school, she traveled to Mississippi for the Mississippi Freedom Summer and worked with civil rights stalwarts such as Medgar Evers. Her first encounter with a recently released but physically beaten Fannie Lou Hamer forced her to bear witness to the intensity of violence and Jim Crow repression in the South. Her time with the SNCC inspired her lifelong commitment to social activism and her budding sense of feminism. She contributed the piece "For Sadie and Maud" to the 1970 anthology "", edited by Robin Morgan. Norton was on the founding advisory board of the "Women's Rights Law Reporter" (founded 1970), the first legal periodical in the United States to focus exclusively on the field of women's rights law. In the early 1970s, Norton was a signer of the "Black Woman's Manifesto", a classic document of the Black feminist movement.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: Upon graduation from law school, she worked as a law clerk to Federal District Court Judge A. Leon Higginbotham, Jr. In 1965, she became the assistant legal director of the American Civil Liberties Union, a position she held until 1970. In 1970, Norton represented sixty female employees of "Newsweek" who had filed a claim with the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) that "Newsweek" had a policy of allowing only men to be reporters. The women won, and "Newsweek" agreed to allow women to be reporters.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: Holmes Norton specialized in freedom of speech cases, and her work included winning a Supreme Court case on behalf of the National States' Rights Party, a victory she put into perspective in an interview with one of the District of Columbia Bar's website editors: "I defended the First Amendment, and you seldom get to defend the First Amendment by defending people you like ... You don't know whether the First Amendment is alive and well until it is tested by people with despicable ideas. And I loved the idea of looking a racist in the face—remember this was a time when racism was much more alive and well than it is today—and saying, 'I am your lawyer, sir, what are you going to do about that?'" She worked as an adjunct assistant professor at New York University Law School from 1970 to 1971. In 1970, Mayor John Lindsay appointed her as the head of the New York City Human Rights Commission, and she held the first hearings in the country on discrimination against women. Prominent feminists from throughout the country came to New York City to testify, while Norton used the platform as a means of raising public awareness about the application of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 to women and sex discrimination.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: President Jimmy Carter appointed Holmes Norton as the chair of the EEOC in 1977; she became the first female head of the agency. Norton released the EEOC's first set of regulations outlining what constituted sexual harassment and declaring that sexual harassment was indeed a form of sexual discrimination that violated federal civil rights laws.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: She has also served as a senior fellow of the Urban Institute. Norton became a professor at Georgetown University Law Center in 1982. During this time, she was a vocal anti-apartheid activist in the U.S., and was a part of the Free South Africa Movement.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: In 1990, Norton, along with 15 other African American women and one man, formed African-American Women for Reproductive Freedom.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: She contributed the piece "Notes of a Feminist Long Distance Runner" to the 2003 anthology "", edited by Robin Morgan.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: She received a Foremother Award for her lifetime of accomplishments from the National Research Center for Women & Families in 2011.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: Norton was elected in 1990 as a Democratic delegate to the House of Representatives. She defeated city council member Betty Ann Kane in the primary despite the last-minute revelation that Norton and her husband, both lawyers, had failed to file D.C. income tax returns between 1982 and 1989. The Nortons paid over $80,000 in back taxes and fines. Her campaign manager was Donna Brazile. The delegate position was open because Del. Walter Fauntroy was running for mayor rather than seeking reelection. Norton received 39 percent of the vote in the Democratic primary election, and 59 percent of the vote in the general election. Norton took office on January 3, 1991, and has been reelected every two years since.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: Delegates to Congress are entitled to sit in the House of Representatives and vote in committee, and to offer amendments in the Committee of the Whole, but are not allowed to take part in legislative floor votes. The district and four U.S. territories—Guam, American Samoa, the Northern Mariana Islands, and the U.S. Virgin Islands—send delegates to Congress; the Resident Commissioner of Puerto Rico has the same rights as delegates.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: William Thomas and the White House Peace Vigil inspired Norton to introduce the Nuclear Disarmament and Economic Conversion Act, which would require the United States to disable and dismantle its nuclear weapons at such time as all other nations possessing nuclear weapons do likewise. Norton has been introducing a version of the bill since 1994.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: Legislation strongly supported by Norton that would grant the District of Columbia a voting representative in the House, the District of Columbia House Voting Rights Act of 2009, was passed by the United States Senate on February 26, 2009. However, the legislation stalled in the House and failed to pass prior to the end of the 111th Congress.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: The legislation proposed in 2009 did not grant Norton the right to vote in the 111th Congress, as she would have had to remain in her elected office of delegate for the duration of her two-year term.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: In September 2010, the national press criticized Norton after the release of a voice message in which she solicited campaign funds from a lobbyist representing a project that she oversaw. Norton countered that the message was typical of appeals made by all members of Congress and that the call was made from campaign offices not paid for by taxpayers. In March 2012, the public radio series "This American Life" featured the voicemail message at the start of a program on lobbying titled "Take the Money and Run for Office".


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: In May 2012, Norton was blocked from testifying on an anti-abortion bill in her district—the second time she has been blocked from speaking about abortion. She insisted that it was a denial of a common courtesy. Representative Jerrold Nadler supported Norton's protest, saying "Never in my 20 years as a member of Congress have I seen a colleague treated so contemptuously."


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: In August 2014, after the D.C. Board of Elections voted to put a question about marijuana legalization on the ballot in November 2014, Norton vowed to defend against any congressional attempt to stop the district from voting on the issue and to, if approved, fight any attempt to prevent implementation.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: On July 27, 2006, Norton appeared on the "Better Know a District" segment of Comedy Central's "The Colbert Report", in which she spiritedly defended the District of Columbia's claim to being a part of the United States. She also appeared on the joint "The Colbert Report"/"The Daily Show" "" special on November 7, 2006. Norton gave further interviews to Stephen Colbert on March 22, 2007, and April 24, 2007, on the subject of representation in the District of Columbia. On February 12, 2008, Colbert and Norton discussed her status as a superdelegate as well as her support of Barack Obama for president. She appeared once again on February 11, 2009, to discuss D.C. representation and promised Colbert that she would make him an honorary citizen of Washington, D.C., and give him a key to the city, if D.C. citizens were given representation. Colbert in turn gave Norton a "TV promise" that he would be there should that happen. Norton made a further appearance on Colbert's show on June 25, 2014, where she discussed the impact that African-American Democrats had on incumbent Thad Cochran's primary defeat of Chris McDaniel, a Tea Party candidate, as well as Colbert's final episode among a cadre of past guests.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: On June 27, 2008, Norton appeared on "Democracy Now!" to discuss the Supreme Court's ruling in "District of Columbia v. Heller", which she strongly opposed. On December 5, 2014, Norton appeared on "Hannity" to discuss the shooting death of Michael Brown in Ferguson, Missouri, on which she admitted she did not read the evidence of the case, but criticized the racial profiling of young African Americans.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: On October 2, 2014, ABC News reported that Holmes Norton, discussing her co-sponsorship of a bill aimed at changing the National Football League's tax-exempt status, stated: "The NFL greed is so widespread that they've chosen to operate as a tax-exempt organization. So we want to take that choice away from them unless, and until, they decide not to profit from a name that has now officially been declared a racial slur." In essence, Holmes Norton's position was that until the NFL forced the Washington Redskins owner (Daniel Marc Snyder) to change the team name she would support legislation that would change the NFL's tax status thereby costing the league money.


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: Eleanor Holmes Norton is portrayed by Joy Bryant in Amazon Video's original series "Good Girls Revolt" and by Donna Biscoe in the HBO original movie "Confirmation".


title: Eleanor Holmes Norton

text: Norton was married to Edward Norton, who died in 2014. She has two children; John, and Katherine who has Down syndrome. Norton is Episcopalian.


title: Clinodactyly

text: Clinodactyly is a medical term describing the curvature of a digit (a finger or toe) in the plane of the palm, most commonly the fifth finger (the "little finger") towards the adjacent fourth finger (the "ring finger").


title: Clinodactyly

text: It is a fairly common isolated anomaly which often goes unnoticed, but also occurs in combination with other abnormalities in certain genetic syndromes. The term is from the Ancient Greek κλίνειν ' 'to bend' and δάκτυλος ' 'digit'.


title: Clinodactyly

text: Clinodactyly is an autosomal dominant trait that has variable expressiveness and incomplete penetrance.


title: Clinodactyly

text: Clinodactyly can be passed through inheritance and presents as either an isolated anomaly or a component manifestation of a genetic syndrome. Many syndromes are associated with clinodactyly, including those listed below. But the phenotype, by itself, is not a sensitive or specific diagnostic test for these syndromes (it is present in up to 18% of the normal population).


title: Clinodactyly

text: When identified prenatally, "in conjunction with other features" of Down syndrome, for example during obstetric ultrasonography, it may be an indication for intrauterine sampling for fetal chromosome analysis.


title: Clinodactyly

text: Due to a developmental arrest, there is an abnormal alignment of the joint surfaces at either interphalangeal joint causing angulation in the plane of the palm. The finger may be slightly bent or have a very prominent bend.


title: Clinodactyly

text: There is no consensus on what degree of angulation justifies a diagnosis; an incline between 15° and 30° is typical. A similar-sounding term, camptodactyly, is a fixed flexion deformity of a digit.


title: Clinodactyly

text: Treatment is only necessary if the degree of curvature is sufficient to cause disability or if it causes emotional distress. Splinting does not routinely correct the deformity. Surgical treatments are closing wedge osteotomy, opening wedge osteotomy, and reversed wedge osteotomy. Radiographs of the fingers are useful in planning the surgical procedure. Severe clinodactyly may require soft tissue alterations to the digit such as release of skin, extensor tendon relocation, and collateral ligament advancement.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: Generation Z (or Gen Z for short), colloquially also known as zoomers, is the demographic cohort succeeding Millennials and preceding Generation Alpha. Researchers and popular media use the mid-to-late 1990s as starting birth years and the early 2010s as ending birth years. This article focuses specifically on the political views of Generation Z.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: Generation Z is generally alike to Millennials on political and social issues. Generation Z has been reported to be "progressive and pro-government", though this narrative has been challenged, particularly in Europe. The generation is largely in favor of LGBT rights, gender equality, and access to abortion. Economically, Generation Z has a more favorable outlook on socialism than previous generations. Gen Z varies largely by country on whether to make it easier for legal migrants to live and work in their home countries.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: Movements associated with Generation Z so far include School Strike for Climate and March for Our Lives, though the generation's influence on such movements is disputed. In contrast with older generations who mainly receive news from television news, Generation Z receives their information primarily from social media.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: A consistent trend in much of the Western world since after World War II is that older people are more likely to vote than their younger countrymen, and they tend to vote for more right-leaning or conservative candidates. According to Sean Simpsons of Ipsos, people are more likely to vote when they have more at stake, such as children to raise, homes to maintain, and income taxes to pay. The generational gap of political positions could be due to the fact that today's youths grew up in different sociopolitical environments from their parents and grandparents that make them more likely to go to university, correlating with socially liberal views on certain issues. Millennials are also the first generation to own less than their predecessors at the same age, and with Gen Z exhibiting similar trends, economically redistributive policies tend to be popular with this generation.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: However, in recent years, in tandem with more members of Generation Z being able to vote in elections, the youth vote has increased. Additionally, Generation Z challenges the left-ward trend in many countries, especially in Europe. GenZers are typically left sided and lean more towards socialistic support when it comes to political stance in America.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: In the 2019 European Parliament election in France, the support of the far-right National Rally (formerly the National Front) among those 35 and under nearly halved as compared to the 2014 election, where the Front won the plurality of votes in that age group. It is important to note that (depending on how the generation is defined) the 2014 election either had one year or no years of Generation Z voters, while the 2019 election had four to six years. In the first round of the 2017 Presidential election, National Front candidate Marine Le Pen won more votes from people between the ages of 18 and 35 during than any other candidate. Moreover, the share of women aged 18 to 26 who backed the Le Pen political family rose from 9% in 1988 to 32% in 2017, closing the gender gap in the process.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: In Austria, more than one in two men between the ages of 18 and 29 voted for the nationalist Freedom Party in the 2016 presidential election, and 30% of those ages 18 to 29 voted for the Freedom Party in the 2017 parliamentary elections. However, in the 2019 European Parliament election, the Freedom Party came in third with the same age group (17%), behind both the Greens (28%) and the Social Democratic Party (22%).


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: In the 2019 European Parliament election in Germany, 30% of voters aged 18 to 30 voted for the Green Party, beating every other political party by wide margins in that particular age group.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: In Italy, the populist party Five Star Movement won the youth vote overwhelmingly in the 2018 national election. But in the 2019 European Parliament election, the right-wing party Lega Nord won the largest vote-share among both millennials and Gen Z.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: In the 2019 European Parliament election in Poland, the national-conservative Law and Justice party came first among those aged 18 to 29.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: Political scientist George Tilley notes that in the United Kingdom, while older people tend to vote for the Conservative Party, young people tend to choose the Labour Party, the Liberal Democratic Party, or the Green Party. In the 2019 UK general election, the Labour Party had a 43-point lead over the Conservative Party among voters aged 18 to 24. Winning the support of young people does not necessarily translate to increasing young voters' turnouts in the UK, and positive reactions on social media may not lead to success at the ballot box. Despite reports of a surge in turnouts among young voters in the 2015 and 2017 United Kingdom general elections, statistical scrutiny by the British Elections Study revealed that the margin of error was too large to determine whether or not there was a significant increase or decrease in the number of young participants. In both cases, turnouts among those aged 18 to 24 was between 40% and 50%.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: In 2022, a largely Generation-Z electorate voted for Gustavo Petro in the Colombian presidential elections, marking the first time in more than 30 years that a left-wing politician reached the presidency.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: In a 2016 poll of Gen Z-aged students by the Hispanic Heritage Foundation, 32% of participants supported Donald Trump, while 22% supported Hillary Clinton with 31% declining to choose. By contrast, in a 2016 mock election of upper elementary, middle, and high school students conducted by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt, Hillary Clinton beat Donald Trump among the students, with Clinton receiving 46% of the vote, Donald Trump receiving 41%, and other candidates receiving 12%. A 2017 survey produced by MTV and the Public Religion Research Institute found that 72% of Americans aged 15 to 24 held unfavorable views of President Donald Trump. A 2018 Pew Research Center poll found that among those aged 13 to 21, only 30% approved of Trump's job performance, and in a 2020 Politico poll, only about 28% of those aged 18 to 23 approved of Donald Trump's job performance.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: In the 2018 midterm elections, voter turnout among 18 to 29-year-olds went up to 36% from 20% in 2014, the largest percentage point increase for any age group. This increase in youth turnout has been attributed to a rebuttal of Trump among young millennials and older members of Generation Z, as well as to the get out the vote initiatives that were part of the student-led gun violence protest March for Our Lives, which was described as "Generation Z's first social movement." However, according to a field survey by "The" "Washington Post" interviewing every fifth person at the protest, only ten percent of the participants were 18 years of age or younger. Meanwhile, the adult participants of the protest had an average age of just under 49.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: According to a Politico survey, a 2020 Presidential election with only Generation Z voters would see Joe Biden win 51% of the popular vote, compared to Donald Trump's 25%. However, almost half of Biden voters said they were voting "against" Trump rather than "for" Biden, reflected in lower approval ratings for both Joe Biden and Congressional Democrats than the general public. In the 2020 Presidential election, 50% of those aged 18 to 29 voted, compared to 39% in the 2016 election. In addition, voter turnout among newly eligible voters (ages 18 and 19) was 46%, stronger than previous years. The increase has also been attributed to the expansion of postal voting due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: Political views of Generation Z

text: Maxwell Frost (born in 1997) has become the first and only member of Generation Z so far to be elected into the United States Congress. He ran for Florida's 10th congressional district representing the Democrats.