title: Area denial weapon

text: Booby traps or improvised explosive devices in sufficient concentration also qualify as area denial weapons, though they are much easier to clear and usually pose less long-term danger. Temporary area denial can be achieved on a tactical level by artillery barrage.


title: Area denial weapon

text: During an armed conflict there are several methods of countering land mines. These include using armored vehicles to negate the effects of anti-personnel land mines. Land mines can also be cleared either by hand, or by using specialised equipment such as tanks equipped with flails. Explosives can also be used to clear mine fields, either by artillery bombardment, or with specialised charges such as Bangalore torpedoes, the Antipersonnel Obstacle Breaching System and the Python Minefield Breaching System.


title: Area denial weapon

text: 156 states are parties to the Ottawa Treaty under which they have agreed not to use, stockpile, produce or transfer anti-personnel mines.


title: Area denial weapon

text: Various CBRNE (Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and Explosive) weapons can be used for area denial, as long as the agent is long-lasting. Fallout from nuclear weapons might be used in such a role. While never actually employed in this form, its use had been suggested by Douglas MacArthur during the Korean War.


title: Area denial weapon

text: Anthrax spores can contaminate the ground for long periods of time, thus providing a form of area denial. However, the short-term (tactical) effects are likely to be low - the psychological effects on an opponent would likely be more significant.


title: Area denial weapon

text: The massive use of defoliants such as Agent Orange can be used as an interdiction measure because they leave areas empty of any form of vegetation cover. In the desert-like terrain that ensues, it is impossible for the enemy to travel without being seen, and there is little cover in case of an attack, especially from the air.


title: Area denial weapon

text: Many chemical weapons also produce toxic effects on any personnel in an affected area. However, this usually has no tactical value, as the effects of indirect exposure do not develop fast or substantially enough - though again, the psychological effect upon an enemy aware of the chemical usage may be considerable. There are however some chemical agents that are by design non-degrading, such as the nerve agent VX. Sulfur mustard (mustard gas) was extensively used by both German and allied forces on the west front in World War I as an effective area-denial weapon, usually through contaminating large land stripes by extensive shelling with HD/Gelbkreuz ordnance. Since sulfur mustard is very persistent, involatile, hard-to-decontaminate and highly effective in inflicting debilitating casualties at even low doses, this tactic proved to be very effective.


title: Area denial weapon

text: To address some of the problems with land-mines (see ), weapons manufacturers are now experimenting with area-denial weapons which need human command to operate. Such systems are usually envisioned as a combination of either explosives, pre-targeted artillery shelling or smartguns with remote sensing equipment (sound, vibration, sight/thermal). By not posing a long-term risk, and by having some level of IFF capability (automatic or human-decision-based), these systems aim to achieve compliance with the Ottawa Treaty, as for example the Metal Storm ADWS (Area Denial Weapons System).


title: Area denial weapon

text: As area denial weapons do not discriminate between friend, foe, or civilian, they make the affected zone hazardous for all trying to enter. Concepts for area denial weapons which do discriminate (by active sensing) have often been proposed, but have not yet reached a stage of general usefulness, due to their high complexity (and cost) and the risk of misidentification.


title: Area denial weapon

text: Explosive-based area-denial weapons (mines) may be intentionally equipped with detonators which degrade over time, either exploding them or rendering them relatively harmless. Even in these cases, unexploded munitions often pose significant risk.


title: Erick Thohir

text: Erick Thohir (born 30 May 1970) is an Indonesian businessman and politician who has served as Indonesia's Minister of State Owned Enterprises since 2019. He is the founder of Mahaka Group, a conglomeration that focuses on media, sports and entertainment. Globally known as the former owner and chairman of Italian football giant Inter Milan and US soccer club D.C. United, Thohir is currently co-owner alongside Anindya Bakrie of English League One team Oxford United and Liga 1 outfit Persis Solo along with Kaesang Pangarep, the youngest son of President Joko Widodo. He was also the president director of ANTV television station and the chief of the Indonesian Olympic Committee. In 2019, he became a member of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).


title: Erick Thohir

text: Erick Thohir was born on 30 May 1970. His father, Teddy Thohir, was a co-owner of the automotive group Astra International with William Soeryadjaya. His brother, Garibaldi Thohir, is an investment banker and entrepreneur in the energy sector. He also has a sister, Rika Thohir. As a child, the younger Thohir helped the family business.


title: Erick Thohir

text: Currently, Thohir's family holding company, TNT Group, has large investments in the Indonesian energy, foods, property and media industries. In 2015, the TNT group had a revenue of $1.1 billion.


title: Erick Thohir

text: In 2001, the Mahaka Group bought "Republika", the biggest Islamic newspaper in Indonesia. Because of Thohir's background in communications, he was chosen to lead the paper. He received support from his father, as well as founder of "Kompas" Jakob Oetama and founder of "Jawa Pos" Dahlan Iskan to run this newspaper. The Mahaka Group spread its potential by investing in the outdoor advertising company Mahaka Advertising due to the growth of the economic and the city size in 2002.


title: Erick Thohir

text: After launching the television station Jak TV, Mahaka introduced the radio stations 98.7 Gen FM and 101 Jak FM, and participated in PT Radionet Cipta Karya (Prambors FM, Delta FM and FeMale Radio), as well as numerous advertising, ticketing, entertainment and digital companies.


title: Erick Thohir

text: In 2011, together with Anindya Bakrie he co-owned the television stations tvOne, as well as the internet news site Viva News. In 2014, he was involved in a turnaround project and became the President Director of ANTV.


title: Erick Thohir

text: In 2018, incumbent president Joko Widodo picked Thohir as chief of his re-election campaign for the 2019 presidential election.


title: Erick Thohir

text: After negotiations started after the 2011 NBA All-Star Game with former basketball agent Jason Levien and managing owner Joshua Harris, Thohir became part of the consortia that bought the Philadelphia 76ers. The consortia included actor Will Smith, his wife Jada Pinkett Smith, David S. Blitzer, of the private equity firm Blackstone Group and Indonesian businessman Handy Soetedjo. Comcast-Spectacor and Harris began talks in the summer of 2011. The deal was announced on 13 July 2011.


title: Erick Thohir

text: In addition to his business, Thohir also owns the basketball team, Satria Muda, and served as an honorary board member of the Indonesian Basketball Association (PERBASI / Persatuan Bola Basket Seluruh Indonesia) from 2015 to 2019. He has been President of SEABA (Southeast Asian Basketball Association) since 2006. He was a FIBA board member, Chef De Mission of Indonesia Contingent for the Olympic Games London 2012, and Chairman of National Olympic Committee for 2015–2019.


title: Erick Thohir

text: In September 2013, Inter Milan chairman () and owner Massimo Moratti confirmed that he was in discussions to sell a majority 70% stake in the club to Thohir. On 15 October 2013, after a long negotiation, International Sports Capital HK Limited, led by Thohir (for 60% stake), Handy Soetedjo (20%) and Rosan Roeslani (20%), became the majority shareholder of Inter Milan, acquiring a 70% stake of the club by a subscription of new shares. On 15 November 2013, the club's general meeting appointed Thohir as new chairman of the board of directors of Inter Milan, replacing Moratti, who would remain with the club as honorary chairman. Moratti left the position in late October 2014. During Thohir's chairmanship, former Inter star Javier Zanetti was hired as vice president in 2014.


title: Erick Thohir

text: In June 2016, Thohir sold part of his stake in the club (via International Sports Capital) to Suning Holdings Group, chaired by Chinese billionaire entrepreneur Zhang Jindong. Thohir remained as the chairman of the club, as well as its second largest shareholder. On 26 October 2018, Zhang Jindong's son, Zhang Kangyang (Steven Zhang) became the new chairman, replacing Thohir.


title: Erick Thohir

text: On 25 January 2019, FC Internazionale Milano S.p.A. (the legal entity of Inter Milan) officially announced that LionRock Capital from Hong Kong reached an agreement with Thohir's International Sports Capital HK Limited, in order to acquire its 31.05% shares in Inter Milan and to become the new minority shareholder in the Milanese football club.


title: Era

text: An era is a span of time defined for the purposes of chronology or historiography, as in the regnal eras in the history of a given monarchy, a calendar era used for a given calendar, or the geological eras defined for the history of Earth.


title: Era

text: The word has been in use in English since 1615, and is derived from Late Latin "aera" "an era or epoch from which time is reckoned," probably identical to Latin "æra" "counters used for calculation," plural of "æs" "brass, money".


title: Era

text: The Latin word use in chronology seems to have begun in 5th century Visigothic Spain, where it appears in the "History" of Isidore of Seville, and in later texts. The Spanish era is calculated from 38 BC, Before Christ, perhaps because of a tax (cfr. indiction) levied in that year, or due to a miscalculation of the Battle of Actium, which occurred in 31 BC.


title: Era

text: Like epoch, "era" in English originally meant "the starting point of an age"; the meaning "system of chronological notation" is c. 1646; that of "historical period" is 1741.


title: Era

text: In chronology, an "era" is the highest level for the organization of the measurement of time. A "calendar era" indicates a span of many years which are numbered beginning at a specific reference date (epoch), which often marks the origin of a political state or cosmology, dynasty, ruler, the birth of a leader, or another significant historical or mythological event; it is generally called after its focus accordingly as in "Victorian era".


title: Era

text: In large-scale natural science, there is need for another time perspective, independent from human activity, and indeed spanning a far longer period (mainly prehistoric), where "geologic era" refers to well-defined time spans.


title: Era

text: The next-larger division of geologic time is the eon. The Phanerozoic Eon, for example, is subdivided into eras. There are currently three eras defined in the Phanerozoic; the following table lists them from youngest to oldest (BP is an abbreviation for "before present").


title: Era

text: For periods in the history of the universe, the term "epoch" is typically preferred, but "era" is used e.g. of the "Stelliferous Era".


title: Era

text: Calendar eras count the years since a particular date (epoch), often one with religious significance. "Anno mundi" (year of the world) refers to a group of calendar eras based on a calculation of the age of the world, assuming it was created as described in the Book of Genesis. In Jewish religious contexts one of the versions is still used, and many Eastern Orthodox religious calendars used another version until 1728. Hebrew year 5772 AM began at sunset on 28 September 2011 and ended on 16 September 2012. In the Western church, "Anno Domini" ("AD" also written "CE"), counting the years since the birth of Jesus on traditional calculations, was always dominant.


title: Era

text: The Islamic calendar, which also has variants, counts years from the Hijra or emigration of the Islamic prophet Muhammad from Mecca to Medina, which occurred in 622 AD. The Islamic year is some days shorter than 365; January 2012 fell in 1433 AH ("After Hijra").


title: Era

text: For a time ranging from 1872 to the Second World War, the Japanese used the imperial year system ("kōki"), counting from the year when the legendary Emperor Jimmu founded Japan, which occurred in 660 BC.


title: Era

text: Many Buddhist calendars count from the death of the Buddha, which according to the most commonly used calculations was in 545–543 BCE or 483 BCE. Dates are given as "BE" for "Buddhist Era"; 2000 AD was 2543 BE in the Thai solar calendar.


title: Era

text: Other calendar eras of the past counted from political events, such as the Seleucid era and the Ancient Roman "ab urbe condita" ("AUC"), counting from the foundation of the city.


title: Era

text: The word era also denotes the units used under a different, more arbitrary system where time is not represented as an endless continuum with a single reference year, but each unit starts counting from one again as if time starts again. The use of regnal years is a rather impractical system, and a challenge for historians if a single piece of the historical chronology is missing, and often reflects the preponderance in public life of an absolute ruler in many ancient cultures. Such traditions sometimes outlive the political power of the throne, and may even be based on mythological events or rulers who may not have existed (for example Rome numbering from the rule of Romulus and Remus). In a manner of speaking the use of the supposed date of the birth of Christ as a base year is a form of an era.


title: Era

text: In East Asia, each emperor's reign may be subdivided into several reign periods, each being treated as a new era. The name of each was a motto or slogan chosen by the emperor. Different East Asian countries utilized slightly different systems, notably:


title: Era

text: A similar practice survived in the United Kingdom until quite recently, but only for formal official writings: in daily life the ordinary year A.D. has been used for a long time, but Acts of Parliament were dated according to the years of the reign of the current monarch, so that "61 & 62 Vict c. 37" refers to the Local Government (Ireland) Act 1898 passed in the session of Parliament in the 61st/62nd year of the reign of Queen Victoria.


title: Era

text: "Era" can be used to refer to well-defined periods in historiography, such as the Roman era, Elizabethan era, Victorian era, etc.


title: Era

text: Use of the term for more recent periods or topical history might include Soviet era, and "musical eras" in the history of modern popular music, such as the "big band era", "disco era", etc.


title: Men of Harlech

text: "Men of Harlech" or "The March of the Men of Harlech" (Welsh: ) is a song and military march which is traditionally said to describe events during the seven-year siege of Harlech Castle between 1461 and 1468, when the castle was held by the Lancastrians against the Yorkists as part of the Wars of the Roses. Commanded by Constable Dafydd ap Ieuan, the garrison withstood the longest known siege in the history of the British Isles. ("Through Seven Years" is an alternative name for the song.) The song has also been associated with the earlier, briefer siege of Harlech Castle about 1408, which pitted the forces of Owain Glyndŵr against the future Henry V of England.


title: Men of Harlech

text: "Men of Harlech" is important for Welsh national culture. The song gained international recognition when it was featured in the 1941 movie "How Green Was My Valley" and the 1964 film "Zulu".


title: Men of Harlech

text: The music was first published without words during 1794 as "Gorhoffedd Gwŷr Harlech—March of the Men of Harlech" in the second edition of "The Musical and Poetical Relicks of the Welsh Bards", but it is said to be a much earlier folk song. The earliest version of the tune to appear with lyrics, found thus far, comes from a broadside printed c. 1830. Since then, many different versions of the English lyrics have been published. It was published first with Welsh lyrics in "Gems of Welsh Melody", edited by the Welsh poet, John Owen (Owain Alaw), published in London, England and Wrexham, Wales, during 1860. An edition containing Welsh and English lyrics was published in Ruthin, Wales, during 1862. The song was published in Volume II of the 1862 collection "Welsh Melodies" with the Welsh lyrics by the Welsh poet John Jones (Talhaiarn) and the English lyrics by Thomas Oliphant, President of the Madrigal Society. Another source attributes the Welsh words to the poet John Ceiriog Hughes, first published during 1890, and says that English words were first published during 1893, but this is clearly predated by the earlier publications.


title: Men of Harlech

text: "Men of Harlech" is widely used as a regimental march, especially by British Army and Commonwealth regiments historically associated with Wales. Notably, it is the slow march of the Welsh Guards, the quick march of the Royal Welsh, and the march of the Royal Canadian Hussars (Montreal), The Governor General's Horse Guards, and The Ontario Regiment, for which it is the slow march.


title: Men of Harlech

text: It was first used for cinema during the titles of "How Green Was My Valley" (1941) and has featured in a number of other films. It is best known for its prominent role in the 1964 film "Zulu", although the version of lyrics sung in it were written specially for the film. It is sung twice (once completely) in the film (the British open fire on the charging Zulus before the start of the final couplet), in counterpoint to the Zulu war chants and the pounding of their shields. Film editor John Jympson cut the scene to the song so that on either side of cuts where the British soldiers cannot be heard, the song is in the correct relative position. The song is also heard in the film "Zulu Dawn", which is about the Battle of Isandlwana.


title: Men of Harlech

text: Rick Rescorla, Chief of Security for Morgan Stanley's World Trade Center office, sang a Cornish adaptation of "Men of Harlech" with a bullhorn, along with other anthems, to keep employee spirits high while they evacuated during the September 11 attacks. After helping save more than 2,700 employees he returned to the towers to evacuate others until the towers collapsed on him.


title: Men of Harlech

text: "Men of Harlech" was used as part of the startup music for ITV television station Teledu Cymru during the early 1960s and, until April 2006, in Fritz Spiegl's "BBC Radio 4 UK Theme".


title: Men of Harlech

text: Adapted versions are sung by fans of several Welsh football clubs and as school or college songs around the world. There is a humorous parody known variously as "National Anthem of the Ancient Britons" and "Woad", written some time before 1914 by William Hope-Jones.


title: Men of Harlech

text: There are many versions of "Men of Harlech", and there is no single accepted English version. The version below was published in 1873.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Ryan Mallett (born June 5, 1988) is a former American football quarterback who is currently the head football coach at White Hall High School in White Hall, Arkansas. He played college football at Arkansas, and was drafted by the New England Patriots in the third round of the 2011 NFL Draft. He also played for the Houston Texans and Baltimore Ravens.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett graduated from Texas High School in Texarkana, Texas, and was ranked as the #2 quarterback and #4 overall player in the nation by Rivals.com. He was also the Gatorade Player of the Year in Texas in 2006. Mallett participated in the U.S. Army All-American Bowl in 2007 and won the Glenn Davis Army Award as the best player on the West team. He chose to play at Michigan over Alabama, Arkansas, Florida State, Nebraska, and Texas.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett made his first appearance at Michigan in the second game of the 2007 season against Oregon. He entered the game for the injured Chad Henne in the third quarter and completed 6 of 17 passes for 49 yards and one interception. Mallett started the next week against Notre Dame and led the Wolverines to a 38–0 victory by throwing 3 touchdown passes, going 7/15 (46.7%) for 90 yards. Mallett started his first Big Ten conference game against Penn State the following week. He went 16/29 (55.2%) with 170 yards and one interception. He also scored on a 10-yard rush in the first quarter. Henne returned to start the Wolverines' next three games. In those games, Mallett had limited playing time completing 4/10 for 30 yards.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett's next start was against Minnesota. He threw a touchdown pass and went 11/20 (55.0%) with 233 yards and no interceptions. Mallett did not start, but played extensively the next week in a loss against Wisconsin. He threw 3 touchdown passes and went 11/36 (30.6%) with 245 yards and two interceptions. In the fourth quarter, Mallett threw a 97-yard touchdown pass to Mario Manningham, the longest pass completion in Michigan history. Mallett played very little in the next week's game against Ohio State. He threw three passes and completed one of them for eight yards. Overall, he finished the 2007 season with 892 passing yards, seven passing touchdowns, and five interceptions.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett's place at Michigan was in question after new head coach Rich Rodriguez was hired to replace retiring coach Lloyd Carr because of the style of offense Rodriguez ran at West Virginia. Rodriguez chose to overhaul Michigan's offense and installed a "spread" read option offensive scheme, which did not fit Mallett's skills as a drop-back, pocket quarterback. Rodriguez unsuccessfully courted Terrelle Pryor to run Michigan's offense. Mallett and his family maintain he was open to staying at Michigan had Rodriguez been open to utilizing his skill set as a pro style passer.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: On January 14, 2008, Mallett enrolled at the University of Arkansas, where he was ineligible to play during the 2008 season due to NCAA transfer policies.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: In 2009 as a redshirt sophomore, Mallett began his career as an Arkansas Razorback, under the direction of head coach Bobby Petrino. Prior to the 2009 season, Mallett was named by ESPN's Bruce Feldman as one of college football's top 10 newcomers of the year, citing his arm strength as a major determining factor. In subsequent interviews, when Mallett was questioned about how far he could throw the football, he said farther than 80 yards.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: On March 1, 2009, he was arrested on charges of public intoxication. He pleaded guilty to the misdemeanor charge on April 3, 2009 and paid $155 in court costs, fines, and fees. Mallett was also punished by Coach Petrino with early wake-up calls, extra running, and early curfews.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett earned the starting job in the Razorbacks' first game against Missouri State, going 17-of-22 for 309 yards and a touchdown. Two weeks later, Mallett passed for 408 yards and five touchdowns against Georgia in a losing effort. The passing yardage and touchdowns were single-game school records. Ryan threw for more than 250 yards in three of Arkansas' next five games, with nine touchdowns against three interceptions. Impressive victories over Texas A&M and Auburn were coupled with tough losses to Alabama and Ole Miss, and a loss to Florida. After a dismal 3–4 start, Mallett led Arkansas to three consecutive victories over Eastern Michigan (14-of-16 for 248 yards and three touchdowns), South Carolina (23-of-27 for 329 yards and one rushing touchdown), and Troy (23-of-30 for 405 yards, five touchdowns and one interception). Over those three games, he completed 83.1% of his passes, and had a quarterback rating of 165.05, which was third-best in the nation. The victory over Troy pushed Arkansas' record to 6–4 and secured the Hogs' bowl eligibility, with games against Mississippi State and LSU remaining. Mallett went on to throw for 313 yards and matched his career high of five touchdown passes in a 42–21 victory over Mississippi State. The following week, he threw for 227 yards and a touchdown in a 33–30 overtime loss to LSU in Baton Rouge. Ryan was named to the All-SEC 2nd Team squad by the coaches and the AP for his performance during the season, behind Florida QB Tim Tebow despite superior passing statistics. The Razorbacks finished the 2009 season with an 8–5 record and won the 2010 Liberty Bowl against East Carolina, 20–17 in overtime. Mallett was named the bowl game's Offensive MVP.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett currently owns sixteen school records, including most passing yards in a season (3,627), most consecutive passes without an INT, most passing yards in a game (408), most passing touchdowns in a game (5, three times), only quarterback to pass for over 400 yards in a game (two times), most pass plays of 25 or more yards in a season, and most passing TDs in a single season (30).


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett chose to forgo entering the 2010 NFL Draft, and returned for his junior season at Arkansas. Mallett was considered among the top five quarterbacks if he had entered the draft.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: It was announced on February 17 that Mallett had suffered a left foot injury in a change of direction conditioning drill. The junior had successful surgery later that day, and a planned second surgery was announced on June 9. Mallett missed the Razorback spring game and spring drills, but he did not miss fall camp. During the off season, Mallett was named one of college football's most irreplaceable players by ESPN.com, and he appeared on "College Football Live". At the SEC's 2010 Media Days conference, Mallett became the first Arkansas quarterback to be named preseason first-team All-SEC by the SEC coaches. He was listed as the frontrunner for the Davey O'Brien Award by "The Sporting News" and a potential Heisman Trophy candidate. He was also named a preseason All-SEC quarterback and preseason All-American quarterback by numerous organizations.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett's performance in 2009 led to higher expectations in 2010. The junior stated that he wished to change the mindset of Arkansas fans into that of a winning program. The confident Mallett was quoted saying, "I'm looking for 14," when asked about how many wins the 2010 Razorbacks could achieve.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: On September 4, 2010, in a 44–3 victory over Tennessee Tech, Mallett completed 21-of-24 passes (87.5%), setting an Arkansas school record for completion percentage in a game. The completion percentage also ranks second all-time in SEC football history. Mallett contributed 301 passing yards, as well, with a total of 8 receivers recording catches. In the next game against Louisiana–Monroe, he finished with 400 passing yards, three touchdowns, and one interception. In the next game, against Georgia, he had his third consecutive game with three touchdown passes in the conference victory. Arkansas played Alabama in the next game and suffered their first setback of the season as Mallett had 357 passing yards, one touchdown, and three interceptions. The Razorbacks bounced back in the next game against Texas A&M as Mallett had 310 passing yards, three touchdowns, and one interception. After a loss to Auburn and a victory over Ole Miss, Mallett had 409 passing yards and three touchdowns in a victory over Vanderbilt. After a win over South Carolina, he had 215 passing yards and five touchdowns in a win over UTEP. After closing out the season with victories over Mississippi State and LSU, the Razorbacks faced off against Ohio State in the Sugar Bowl. In his final collegiate game, Mallett had 277 passing yards, two touchdowns, and one interception as the Razorbacks fell 31–26.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: On January 6, 2011, Mallett decided to forgo his senior year at Arkansas and declare for the 2011 NFL Draft where he was drafted in the 3rd round after sliding out of the first day's picks.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett, who was often projected prior to the draft as a first-round talent, fell to the third round of the 2011 NFL Draft, where he was selected 74th overall by the New England Patriots (using the pick they received when they traded Randy Moss to the Minnesota Vikings); that pick was the highest pick the Patriots had used on a quarterback since taking Drew Bledsoe number one overall in 1993, until they drafted Jimmy Garoppolo in the second round of the 2014 NFL Draft 62nd overall. According to Michael Lombardi of the NFL Network, the Patriots rated Mallett as the best quarterback available in the 2011 draft; nevertheless, six other quarterbacks were taken before the Patriots drafted him, drawing comparisons to Tom Brady, who was the seventh quarterback chosen in 2000, though with the 199th pick.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett made his preseason debut in the Patriots' first preseason game, a 47–12 rout of the Jacksonville Jaguars on August 11. He played the entire second half, completing 12 of 19 passes for 164 yards, one touchdown, and no interceptions. The Patriots scored touchdowns on each of the first four drives Mallett led, and ran out the clock on his fifth and final drive. Mallett struggled in his next preseason games throwing an interception which was returned for a touchdown in his second game. At his fourth preseason game against the Giants he was 6 for 16 for 57 yards. Mallett spent 2011 as the Patriots' third-string QB, behind Tom Brady and Brian Hoyer. Mallett was inactive for 15 out of 16 regular season games and was inactive for every post season game for the Patriots' Super Bowl run.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Following the Patriots' decision to release incumbent back-up quarterback Brian Hoyer prior to the season, Mallett was promoted to second-string signal caller behind Tom Brady. Mallett dressed in each of the first eight games of the season, and in their blowout 45–7 rout over the St. Louis Rams in London on October 28, 2012, Mallett took his first snaps in the NFL, completing 1/3 passes for 17 yards (his one completion to Shane Vereen) and a passer rating of 53.5. In the Patriots' blowout victory against the Houston Texans in December 2012, Mallett came into the game late in the fourth quarter and threw his first interception in the NFL on a pass deflected by intended receiver Visanthe Shiancoe.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett was listed as the #2 quarterback on the Patriots' depth chart behind Tom Brady and ahead of 3rd-string quarterback Tim Tebow; Tebow would later be released by the Patriots, leaving Mallett as the Patriots' only backup quarterback.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: On August 31, 2014 Mallett was traded to the Houston Texans for a conditional sixth-round pick. He would be the Texans' primary backup until November 5, 2014, when he was named the starting quarterback for the Texans by head coach Bill O'Brien, replacing Ryan Fitzpatrick, who was moved down one slot to 2nd on the depth chart.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: During Week 11 of the 2014 season, Mallett started his first game, against the Cleveland Browns where he threw his first touchdown pass to J. J. Watt. He went 20 of 30 with 2 passing touchdowns and a 95.3 passer rating in the 23–7 win over the Browns. On November 23, Mallett tore his pectoral muscle against the Cincinnati Bengals, ending his season.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett returned in 2015, battling for the starting quarterback position against former teammate Brian Hoyer. He ended up losing the competition to Hoyer. The day after the announcement, Mallett missed the following day's practice, leading some to believe he disagreed with the decision. Mallett apologized and told head coach Bill O'Brien that he missed practice due to oversleeping.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett replaced Hoyer in the fourth quarter against the Kansas City Chiefs in Week 1. Head coach Bill O'Brien announced afterward that Mallett would replace Hoyer as the starting quarterback. In Week 2, he completed 27 of his 58 passes for 244 yards, 1 touchdown and 1 interception, and a rushing touchdown in a 24–17 loss to the Carolina Panthers.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: In Week 4 against Atlanta, Mallett was benched for Hoyer with the Texans trailing 42–0, and Hoyer would lead the team to 21 points in a 48–21 loss. Despite Hoyer's success in the game, Mallett was named the starter for Week 5 against the Colts. During the Colts game, Mallett was hit hard, forcing him to leave for a play. Mallett appeared able and willing to return but was replaced by Hoyer for the remainder of the game. Hoyer threw for 2 touchdowns but also threw a costly interception to give the Colts a 27–20 victory. Before the Texans' game against the Dolphins on October 25, Mallett missed the team flight and was forced to fly commercial to join the team in Miami. Two days later, the Texans officially released him.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: On December 15, 2015, in the wake of Baltimore Ravens quarterback Matt Schaub suffering an injury following Joe Flacco's own season-ending injury, Mallett signed with the Ravens. On December 27, 2015, Mallett threw for a career-high 274 yards, leading the Ravens to a 20–17 upset victory over the Pittsburgh Steelers in his seventh career start, after Jimmy Clausen was benched. He would promptly get a new career high the following week with 292 passing yards in the Ravens' 24–16 loss to the Cincinnati Bengals.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Following Schaub returning to the Atlanta Falcons to be Matt Ryan's backup and Clausen retiring from the NFL, Mallett became Flacco's primary backup in 2016, appearing in four games. He completed three of his six passes and also threw an interception.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: On March 9, 2017, Mallett signed a one-year contract extension with the Ravens. After Flacco suffered a concussion late in the second quarter of the Week 8 game against the Miami Dolphins, Mallet entered the game and completed 3 of 7 passes for 20 yards and 1 touchdown as the Ravens won by a score of 40–0.


title: Ryan Mallett

text: Mallett worked out for the Washington Redskins on December 4, 2018, but was not signed. He worked out for the XFL in Tampa Bay, Florida, on June 29, 2019. After a car accident, Mallett was arrested for suspicion of driving while intoxicated in Arkansas on September 10, 2019. On April 16, 2020, Mallet was announced as an assistant coach at Mountain Home High School in Mountain Home, Arkansas. As of February 24, 2022 The White Hall School Board has voted to name Ryan Mallett as their next head football coach of the White Hall Bulldogs.


title: Veneration of Mary in the Catholic Church

text: The veneration of Mary, mother of Jesus, in the Catholic Church encompasses various devotions which include prayer, pious acts, visual arts, poetry, and music devoted to her. Popes have encouraged it, while also taking steps to reform some manifestations of it. The Holy See has insisted on the importance of distinguishing "true from false devotion, and authentic doctrine from its deformations by excess or defect". There are significantly more titles, feasts, and venerative Marian practices among Roman Catholics than in other Western Christian traditions. The term "hyperdulia" indicates the special veneration due to Mary, greater than the ordinary "dulia" for other saints, but utterly unlike the "latria" due only to God.


text: Belief in the incarnation of God the Son through Mary is the basis for calling her the Mother of God, which was declared a dogma at the Council of Ephesus in 431. At the Second Vatican Council and in Pope John Paul II's encyclical "Redemptoris mater", she is spoken of also as Mother of the Church.


text: Growth of Roman Catholic veneration of Mary and Mariology has often come not from official declarations, but from Marian writings of the saints, popular devotion, and at times reported Marian apparitions. The Holy See approves only a select few as worthy of belief, the most recent being the 2008 approval of certain apparitions from 1665.


text: Further pious veneration of Mary encouraged by Popes are exhibited in the canonical coronations granted to popular Marian images venerated in a particular locality all over the world, while Marian movements and societies with millions of members have arisen from belief in events such as Guadalupe, Lourdes, Fátima, Akita, and other reasons.


text: In Roman Catholic teachings, the veneration of Mary is a natural consequence of Christology: Jesus and Mary are son and mother, redeemer and redeemed.


text: This sentiment was expressed by Pope John Paul II in his encyclical "Redemptoris mater": "At the centre of this mystery, in the midst of this wonderment of faith, stands Mary. As the loving Mother of the Redeemer, she was the first to experience it: 'To the wonderment of nature you bore your Creator'!"


text: In the Roman Catholic tradition Mariology is seen as Christology developed to its full potential. Mary is seen as contributing to a fuller understanding of the life of Jesus. In this view, a Christology without Mary is not based on the total revelation of the Bible. Traces of this parallel interpretation go back to the early days of Christianity and numerous saints have since focused on it.


text: The development of this approach continued into the 20th century. In his 1946 publication "Compendium Mariologiae", Mariologist Gabriel Roschini explained that Mary not only participated in the birth of the physical Jesus, but, with conception, she entered with him into a spiritual union. The divine salvation plan, being not only material, includes a permanent spiritual unity with Christ. Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger (later Pope Benedict XVI) wrote: "It is necessary to go back to Mary if we want to return to that 'truth about Jesus Christ,' 'truth about the Church' and 'truth about man' that John Paul II proposed as a program to all of Christianity," in order to ensure an authentic approach to Christology via a return to the "whole truth about Mary".


text: It is possible that the practice of invoking the aid of the Mother of Christ had become more familiar to the faithful some time before any expression of it in the writings of the Early Church Fathers. Christians' love for Mary intuited, frequently in anticipation, certain aspects of the mystery of the Blessed Virgin, calling the attention of theologians and pastors to them. Venerative and devotional practices have often preceded formal theological declarations by the Magisterium.


text: The veneration of the Blessed Virgin takes place in various ways. Marian prayers and hymns usually begin with veneration (honor) of her, followed by petitions. The number of Marian titles continued to grow as of the 3rd century, and many titles existed by the 5th century, growing especially during the Middle Ages.


text: Veneration for Mary is based on the reference in the Gospel of Luke to Mary as the selected handmaid of the Lord who is greeted and praised by both Elizabeth and the angel Gabriel. God's work is further illuminated in the Marian dogmas of the Roman Catholic Church such as the Immaculate Conception and the Assumption, and are, in the Roman Catholic view, part of the apostolic tradition and divine revelation. Catholics distinguish veneration from worship.


text: One of the components of the Catholic veneration of Mary is the focus on her participation in the processes of salvation and redemption. This has been explored by such writers as Edward Schillebeeckx and Adrienne von Speyr.


text: John's Gospel records her presence at the beginning and end of Jesus' public life. Particularly significant is Mary's presence at the Cross, when she received from her dying Son the charge to be mother to the beloved disciple. Catholics interpret that through the disciple, Christ is giving care of Mary to all Christians. The Acts of the Apostles expressly numbers the Mother of Jesus among the women of the first community awaiting Pentecost. John Eudes wrote that: "The Virgin Mary began to cooperate in the plan of salvation, from the moment she gave her consent to the Incarnation of the Son of God".


text: "Lumen gentium", the 1964 Dogmatic Constitution of the Church recognized, "all the salvific influence of the Blessed Virgin on men originates, not from some inner necessity, but from the divine pleasure. It flows forth from the superabundance of the merits of Christ, rests on His mediation, depends entirely on it and draws all its power from it." In a singular way she cooperated by her obedience, faith, hope, and burning charity in the work of the Savior in giving back supernatural life to souls. "Wherefore she is our mother in the order of grace."


text: One of the first scholars to offer theological foundations on the subject of the Immaculate Conception was the Franciscan Duns Scotus who developed the concept that Mary was preserved from sin by the redemptive virtue of Jesus. Devotions to and the veneration of the Virgin Mary continued to spread, as she came to be seen as the helpful mother of Christians, and by the 15th century these practices had oriented many Catholic devotions.


text: Veronica Giuliani expressed how Mary's suffering in Calvary united her heart with that of Jesus as she suffered each torment along with him. The joint devotion to the hearts was formalized by Jean Eudes who organized the scriptural and theological foundations and developed its liturgical themes. The venerative aspects of the united nature of the two hearts continued through the centuries and in 1985 Pope John Paul II coined the term "Alliance of the Hearts of Jesus and Mary", and in 1986 addressed the international conference on that topic held at Fátima, Portugal.


text: By the 18th century, the continued growth of Marian veneration had emphasized the role of the Virgin Mary in salvation. The Catholic focus on the role of Mary in salvation and redemption continued with Pope John Paul II's 1987 encyclical "Redemptoris mater"


text: The Catechism of the Catholic Church, in paragraphs 721–726, claims that Mary is the first dwelling-place of God in salvation history. As such, she is the masterwork of God and the start of God bringing mankind into communion with Jesus. In Mary's womb, Jesus is the manifestation of God's wonders, the fulfillment of God's plan of loving goodness, and the definitive theophany. As such, Mary is typified by the Burning Bush in the Book of Exodus and by wisdom in the Book of Proverbs.


text: It was through Mary's intercession, through compassion for the hosts, at the marriage feast of Cana, that Jesus worked his first miracle.


text: The "Catechism of the Catholic Church" states: "From the most ancient times the Blessed Virgin has been honored with the title of 'Mother of God,' to whose protection the faithful fly in all their dangers and needs." The Eastern Catholic Churches observe the feast of the Intercession of the Theotokos in October.


text: Roman Catholic views of the Virgin Mary as refuge and advocate of sinners, protector from dangers and powerful intercessor with her Son, Jesus are expressed in prayers, artistic depictions, theology, and popular and devotional writings, as well as in the use of religious articles and images. The earliest known prayer to Mary, the "Sub tuum praesidium", ("Under your protection") dates from about the 3rd century.


text: The artistic depictions of the Virgin of Mercy portray the role of Mary as the protector of Christians, as she shelters them under her mantle. The Virgin of Mercy depictions sometimes include arrows raining from above, with the Virgin's cloak protecting the people.


text: Catholics have continued to seek the protection of Mary as the Mother of Sorrows and relied on her intercession as the Queen of Heaven since the Middle Ages. Building on that sentiment, popes have entrusted specific causes to the protection of the Virgin Mary. Pope Benedict XV entrusted the protection of the world through the intercession of Mary Queen of Peace during the First World War .


text: The Order of the Blessed Virgin Mary of Mercy, also known as the order of "Our Lady of Ransom" or "Order of Captives" began in the 13th century in the Kingdom of Aragon (Spain) to ransom captive Christians (slaves) held in Muslim hands. The order now focuses on the role of the Virgin Mary as the protector of captives and prisoners.


text: The depictions of Our Lady of Navigators arose from the prayers and devotions of Portuguese navigators, who saw the Virgin Mary as their protector during storms and other hazards. Prayers to Our Lady of Navigators are well known in South America, specially Brazil, where its February 2 feast is an official holiday. The Virgin of the Navigators, depicting ships under her mantle, is the earliest known painting whose subject is the discovery of the Americas.


text: Both Miguel Hidalgo and Emiliano Zapata flew flags of Our Lady of Guadalupe as their protector, and Zapata's men wore the Guadalupan image around their necks and on their sombreros. In 1979 ceremony Pope John Paul II placed Mexico under the protection of the Virgin of Guadalupe.


text: The prayer, the "Memorare" begins: "Remember O most gracious Virgin Mary, that never was it known that anyone who fled to Thy protection, implored Thy help or sought Thy intercession, was left unaided."


text: Louis de Montfort taught that God appointed Mary as "the dispenser of grace", and to receive grace from God, one can receive it through the hands of the Blessed Virgin, as a child receives from a mother. "Lumen gentium" states: "This, however, is to be so understood that it neither takes away from nor adds anything to the dignity and efficaciousness of Christ the one Mediator."


text: Pope Francis has said that her "entire life was contained in her song of praise" of the greatness of the Lord. Francis goes on to confide that at Marian shrines he likes to spend time looking at the Blessed Mother and letting her look at me. I pray for a childlike trust, the trust of the poor and simple who know that their mother is there, and that they have a place in her heart. And in looking at her, to hear once more, like the Indian Juan Diego: “My youngest son, what is the matter? Do not let it disturb your heart. Am I not here, I who have the honour to be your mother?"


text: The theological development of devotion to Mary begins with Justin Martyr (100–165) who articulated Mary's role in salvation history as the Second Eve. This was followed up by Irenæus, whom Herbert Thurston calls "the first theologian of the Virgin Mother".


text: The Catholic Church's magisterium has identified four teachings about Mary as dogmas of faith. These include belief in her virginal conception of Jesus, taught by the First Council of Nicaea in 325. The Council of Ephesus in 431 applied to her the description "Mother of God", ("Theotokos"). The perpetual virginity of Mary was taught by the ecumenical Second Council of Constantinople in 553, which described her as "ever virgin", and was expressed also, by the Lateran synod of October 649, The doctrine of the Immaculate Conception states that from the first moment of her existence Mary was without original sin. This doctrine was proclaimed a dogma "ex cathedra" by Pope Pius IX in 1854. The dogma of the Assumption of Mary, defined by Pope Pius XII in 1950, states that, at the end of her earthly life, her body did not suffer corruption but was assumed into heaven and became a heavenly body,


text: In the first three centuries the emphasis was on the veneration of martyrs, as a continuation of the yearly celebrations of their death, e.g. as noted in the early Christian text on the Martyrdom of Polycarp.


text: In the Eastern traditions Mariology developed through liturgical veneration within the framework of the feasts relative to the Incarnation. In the early part of the 3rd century, Hippolytus of Rome recorded the first liturgical reference to the Virgin Mary, as part of the ordination rite of a bishop. Marian feasts appeared in the 4th century, and the feast of the "Memory of Mary, Mother of God" was celebrated on August 15 in Jerusalem by the year 350.


text: The Roman Catholic liturgy is one of the most important elements of Marian devotions. Many Marian feasts are superior to the feast days of the saints. The liturgical texts of the Marian feast days all link Mary to Jesus Christ.


text: Mary, as the mother of Jesus, is documented in Roman catacombs: paintings from the first half of the 2nd century show her holding the Christ Child. Excavations in the crypt of St Peter's Basilica uncovered a very early fresco of Mary together with Saint Peter.


text: The Roman Priscilla catacombs depict the oldest Marian paintings from the middle of the 2nd century: Mary is shown with Jesus on her lap; they are next to a man in a tunic, his left hand holding a book and his right hand pointing to a star over his head, the latter being an Old Testament symbol of messiahs and/or "the" Messiah. These catacombs also have a depiction of the Annunciation.


text: The Edict of Milan (AD 313) allowed Christians to worship openly. This new freedom also permitted literary development of the veneration of Mary, Hippolytus of Rome being an early example. Ambrose, who lived in Rome before going to Milan as its bishop, venerated Mary as an example of Christian life and is credited with starting a Marian cult of virginity in the 4th century.


text: Marian veneration was theologically sanctioned with the adoption of the title "Theotokos" at the Council of Ephesus in 431. The earliest known churches dedicated to Mary were built shortly after that date, among these the Church of the Seat of Mary ("Kathisma") near Mar Elias Monastery, between Jerusalem and Bethlehem.


text: The first Marian churches in Rome date from the 5th and 6th centuries: Santa Maria in Trastevere, Santa Maria Antiqua and Santa Maria Maggiore.


text: However, the very earliest church dedicated to the Virgin Mary still dates to the late 4th century in Syria, where an inscription dedicating it to the Theotokos (Mother of God) was found among the ruins.


text: In the early Middle Ages, veneration of Mary was particularly expressed in monasteries, especially those of the Benedictines. Chants such as Ave Maris Stella and the Salve Regina emerged and became staples of monastic plainsong. In the 8th century, The Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary developed from the monks' practice of praying the Canonical hours. The Carolingians encouraged Marian piety by the celebration of Marian feast days and the dedication of churches in her honor. Devotional practices grew in number.


text: The Romanesque period saw the construction of major Marian churches, such as Speyer Cathedral (also known as the Mariendom) in Speyer, Germany, and Our Lady of Flanders Cathedral in Tournai, Belgium. From the year 1000 onward more and more churches, including many of Europe's greatest cathedrals were dedicated to Mary. Gothic cathedrals, such as Notre Dame de Paris as well as Our Lady of Chartres near Paris, were major masterworks of the time. Construction of Santa Maria Assunta Cathedral in Siena, Italy and Notre-Dame Cathedral, Luxembourg increased the number of churches devoted to the Virgin Mary.


text: The 12th and 13th centuries saw an extraordinary growth of the cult of the Virgin in Western Europe, inspired in part by the writings of theologians such as Bernard of Clairvaux. The movement found its grandest expression in the French cathedrals, often dedicated to “Our Lady", such as Notre-Dame de Paris and Notre-Dame de Bayeux among others. Walsingham and other places of Marian pilgrimage developed large popular followings. At the height of the pilgrimage movement in the 11th and 12th centuries, hundreds of people were traveling almost constantly from one Marian shrine to the next.


text: By the 14th century, Mary had become greatly popular as a compassionate intercessor and protector of humanity, and during the great plagues (such as the Black Death) her help was sought against the just judgment of God. The Renaissance witnessed a dramatic growth in venerative Marian art.


text: By the 16th century, the Protestant Reformation had introduced a tide against Marian venerations in Europe. However, at the same time new Marian devotions were starting in Latin America based on Juan Diego's 1531 reported vision of Our Lady of Guadalupe. The ensuing Marian pilgrimages have continued to date and the Marian Basilica on Tepeyac Hill remains the most visited Catholic shrine in the world. In the 17th and 18th centuries writings by the saints, coupled with papal encouragements, increased the growth of Marian devotions, and gave rise to the definition and declaration of new Marian doctrines.


text: Marian culture continues to develop within the Catholic Church. In 1974, after 4 years of preparation, Pope Paul VI issued the Apostolic Letter "Marialis Cultus". In this document, (which was subtitled "For the Right Ordering and Development of Devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary") Paul VI not only discussed the history of Marian devotions but also overviewed their rationale and provided suggestions for their future direction, their theological and pastoral value. He called for "preventing any tendency (as has happened at times in certain forms of popular piety) to separate devotion to the Blessed Virgin from its necessary point of reference-Christ"("MC", 4). This followed the turn of events at the Second Vatican Council, which followed a century of increased emphasis on devotion to Mary. The Council document "Sacrosanctum Concilium", sought to give guidance on the place of devotions in Christian piety: It decreed that "Devotions should be so drawn up that they harmonize with the liturgical seasons, accord with the sacred liturgy, are in some fashion derived from it, and lead the people to it, since, in fact, the liturgy by its very nature far surpasses any of them" ("SC", 13).


text: Roman Catholic devotions have relied on the writings of numerous saints throughout history who have attested to the central role of Mary in God's plan of salvation.


text: Early saints included Irenaeus of Lyons in the 2nd century who was perhaps the earliest of the Church Fathers to write systematically about the Virgin Mary, and he set out a forthright account of her role in the economy of salvation.Ambrose of Milan (339–397) based the veneration of Mary not only on her virginity but also on her extraordinary courage.


text: In the Middle Ages, Bernhard of Clairvaux highlighted her virginity and humility as the basis for her veneration. A particularly significant contribution to Mariology came from John Duns Scotus who in the 13th century defended the doctrine of the Immaculate Conception. Scotus identified the key theological foundations which led to the declaration of the dogma of Immaculate Conception centuries later.


text: In the 16th century, Ignatius of Loyola instructed the Jesuits to preserve "Madonna della Strada", which was later enshrined in the Church of the Gesu in Rome. Filippo Neri, a contemporary of Ignatius, is credited with the innovation of daily Marian devotions during the month of May.


text: In his classic book "The Glories of Mary", Alphonsus Liguori explained how God gave Mary to mankind as the "Gate of Heaven", quoting Bonaventure, "No one can enter Heaven unless by Mary, as though through a door." Louis de Montfort's book "True Devotion to Mary" synthesized many of the writings of earlier saints. His approach of "total consecration to Jesus Christ through Mary" had a strong impact on Marian devotion both in popular piety and in the spirituality of religious institutes.


text: The earliest Christian feasts that relate to Mary grew out of the cycle of feasts that celebrated the Nativity of Jesus. By the 7th century a feast dedicated to Mary was celebrated just before Christmas in the churches of Milan and Ravenna in Italy. Over time, the number of feasts (and the associated titles of Mary) and the venerative practices that accompany them increased and today the Catholic Church has more Marian feasts, titles, and venerative practices than any other Christian body. Marian feasts have continued to be developed in the Catholic Church, e.g. the feast of the Queenship of Mary was declared in the 1954 in the papal encyclical "Ad Caeli Reginam" by pope Pius XII.


text: Catherine of Siena, adopted the custom of dedicating Saturday to Mary. The month of October was established as the "month of the Rosary" by Pope Leo XIII, who recommended daily Rosary devotions in October.


text: During the month of May, May devotions to the Blessed Virgin Mary take place in many Catholic regions. These may include the singing of Marian anthems, crowning of statues of Mary with floral wreaths, readings from scriptures, a sermon, and or presentation by local choirs. The month is also associated with reflection on the Virgin Mary's role as the ideal disciple who sheds light on the Christian way of life, and theologian Karl Rahner stated: "When we are involved in our May Devotions, we are engaged in a Christian understanding of the human situation."


text: The Roman Catholic Church celebrates three Marian solemnities which are also holy days of obligation in many countries during the liturgical year (in liturgical order):


text: Among the other prominent Marian feast days and memorials in the General Roman Calendar of the Catholic Church are:


text: A large number of titles to honor Mary or ask for her intercession are used by Roman Catholics. While "Mater Dei" (i.e. "Mother of God" as confirmed by the First Council of Ephesus, 431) is common in Latin, a large number of other titles have been used by Roman Catholics – far more than any other Christians.


text: Titles used to refer to the Virgin Mary throughout history, at times reflect the changing attitudes towards her. "Domina" (lady), "Regina" (queen) and "Stella Maris" (star of the sea) are some of the early titles of Mary, of which Regina is the earliest. "Domina" and "Sella Maris" are found in Jerome who perhaps originated the etymology of Mary as "Stella Maris" in the 5th century. While the early emphasis in Stella Maris was on Mary as the Star that bore Christ, by the 9th century, the attention had focused on Mary herself, as indicated in the hymn Ave Maris Stella. By the 11th century, Mary herself had emerged as the star that acted as a guiding light. By the 13th century, as Mariology was growing, Anthony of Padua had composed Mary Our Queen. Titles continue to be interpreted, e.g. Queen of Heaven was further elaborated in 1954 in the papal encyclical "Ad Caeli Reginam" by pope Pius XII.


text: The Liturgy of the Hours includes several offices to be sung, including Compline. At the close of this office, one of four "Marian antiphons" is sung. These songs, "Alma redemptoris mater, "Ave Regina caelorum", "Regina caeli", and "Salve Regina", have been described as "among the most beautiful creations of the late Middle Ages".


text: One of the earliest Marian compositions is the popular Salve Regina in Latin from a Benedictine monk, which exists in several Gregorian versions. Hermann of Reichenau (July 18, 1013 – September 24, 1054), composed the Alma redemptoris mater and hymns to Mary became part of daily life at monasteries such as the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny in France.


text: While the date of the composition of "Ave Regina caelorum" is uncertain, conjecture that it antedates the fourth century seems to be without any warrant of external or internal evidence. It is found in the St. Alban's Book of the twelfth century. The Regina Caeli has been traced back to the twelfth century.


text: It is difficult to trace the beginning of non-Gregorian Marian liturgical music. In 1277 Pope Nicholas III prescribed rules for liturgy in Roman churches. In the Graduale Romanum, Kyriale IX and X are both for Marian feasts. Over the centuries, Marian master pieces have continued to appear, e.g. Mozart's Coronation Mass. The list of compositions by Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina includes numerous Marian masses: "Salve Regina", "Alma Redemptoris", "Assumpta est Maria", "Regina caeli", "de beata Virgine", "Ave Regina caelorum", "Descendit Angelus Domini", and "O Virgo simul et Mater". Joseph Haydn wrote several Marian compositions including two famous Marian Masses.


text: Marian hymns include "O Mary, we Crown Thee With Blossoms Today", "Hail Queen of Heaven", the "Regina Caeli", and the "Ave Maria".


text: Author Emily Shapcote lists 150 Marian poems and hymns in her book "Mary the Perfect Woman". Such prayers and poems go as far back as the 3rd century, but enjoyed a rapid growth during the 11th and 12th centuries. Some of the best poetry written in honor of the Blessed virgin comes from this period of the Middle Ages.


text: "Because of Mary's singular cooperation with the action of the Holy Spirit, the Church loves to pray in communion with the Virgin Mary, to magnify with her the great things the Lord has done for her, and to entrust supplications and praises to her.


text: The earliest known Marian prayer is the Sub tuum praesidium, or "Beneath Thy Protection", a text for which was rediscovered in 1917 on a papyrus in Egypt dated to c. 250. The papyrus contains the prayer in Greek and is the earliest known reference to the title Theotokos (confirmed by the Council of Ephesus in 431):


text: Beneath your compassion, We take refuge, O Mother of God: do not despise our petitions in time of trouble: but rescue us from dangers, only pure, only blessed one.


text: The "Little Office of the Blessed Virgin Mary" probably originated as a monastic devotion around the middle of the eighth century. It is a variation of the Common of the Blessed Virgin Mary in the Liturgy of the Hours (Divine Office). It may have originally been put together to be prayed in connection with the Votive Masses of Our Lady on Saturday, which were written by Alcuin, the liturgical master of Charlemagne’s court. The Little Office did not come into general use before the tenth century.


text: During the 11th century, as the number of monasteries grew, so did Marian prayers. There is little or no trace of the Hail Mary as an accepted devotional formula before about 1050. All the evidence suggests that it took its rise from certain versicles and responsories occurring in the Little Office or Cursus of the Blessed Virgin which just at that time was coming into favour among the monastic orders. Two Anglo-Saxon manuscripts at the British Museum, one of which may be as old as the year 1030, show that the words "Ave Maria" etc. and "benedicta tu in mulieribus et benedictus fructus ventris tui" occurred in almost every part of the Cursus, and though it is not clear that these clauses were at first joined together so as to make one prayer, there is conclusive evidence that this had come to pass only a very little later. As regards the addition of the word "Jesus," it is commonly said that this was due to the initiative of Pope Urban IV (1261) although the evidence does not seem sufficiently clear to warrant positive statement on the point. This was the prayer as known to Thomas Aquinas when he gave a Lenten sermon on the "Salutation of the Blessed Virgin" in 1273. By the fourteenth century it was not uncommon to conclude with an appeal for sinners and especially for help at the hour of death. Official recognition of the Ave Maria in its complete form was finally given in the Roman Breviary of 1568.


text: Three Hail Marys is a traditional Roman Catholic devotional practice of reciting three Hail Marys as a petition for purity and other virtues. The practice of saying three Hail Marys in the evening somewhere about sunset had become general throughout Europe in the first half of the fourteenth century and it was recommended by Pope John XXII in 1318. The practice was observed by Franciscans and eventually developed into the Angelus prayer.


text: The Angelus is a prayer commemorating the Incarnation. It originated with the 11th-century monastic custom of reciting three Hail Marys during the evening, or Compline bell. It was traditionally recited in Roman Catholic churches, convents, and monasteries three times daily: 6:00 am, noon, and 6:00 pm and is usually accompanied by the ringing of the Angelus bell, which is a call to prayer.


text: In the 12th century Bernard of Clairvaux gave sermons (De duodecim stellis), from which an extract has been taken by the Roman Catholic Church and used in the "Offices of the Compassion" and of the "Seven Dolours". Saint Bernard wrote: "Take away Mary, this star of the sea, the sea truly great and wide: what is left but enveloping darkness and the shadow of death and the densest blackness?" There are pious meditations on the "Ave Maria" and the "Salve Regina", usually attributed either to St. Anselm of Lucca (d. 1080) or St. Bernard; and also in the large book "De laudibus B. Mariae Virginis" (Douai, 1625) by Richard de Saint-Laurent.


text: The mostly anonymous Middle English Lyrics of the Later Middle Ages show passionate forms of personal worship, known as affective devotion. The lyrics, reflecting the theology, depict Mary as not just the woman but also the ideal that all humanity should strive for.


text: The lyric “Gabriel, from hevenë king/ sent to the maidë swetë” is an excellent example of Mary's humility. The lyric's author builds upon this theme throughout the lyric. The second stanza “Mildëliche him gan answere/ The midlë maiden thannë." The theme of humity is fully developed in the third stanza;


text: The term "devotions" is commonly understood to refer to those external practices of piety by which the faith of an individual finds expression. Such prayers or acts may be accompanied by specific requests for Mary's intercession with God. Devotion to the Virgin Mary does not, however, amount to worship – which is reserved for God.


text: A wide range of Marian devotions are followed by Catholics ranging from simple Rosary recitations to formalized Novenas to activities which do not involve any prayers, such the wearing of scapulars or maintaining a Mary garden. Two well known Marian devotions are the Rosary recitation and the wearing of the Brown Scapular. Following their joint growth in the 18th and 19th centuries, by the early 20th century the Rosary and the devotional Scapular had gained such a strong following among Catholics worldwide that the Catholic Encyclopedia of 1914 stated: ""Like the Rosary, the Brown Scapular has become the badge of the devout Catholic"." In his encyclical "Rosarium Virginis Mariae" Pope John Paul II emphasized the importance of the Rosary. The Mariological basis of the Scapular devotion is effectively the same as Marian consecration, as discussed in the dogmatic constitution "Lumen gentium" of the Second Vatican Council, namely the role of the Virgin Mary as ""the mother to us in the order of grace"" which allows her to intercede for ""the gift of eternal salvation"". The same Council decree clarified that the many ways in which Mary can encourage and assist us "neither takes away from nor adds anything to the dignity and efficaciousness of Christ the one Mediator."


text: Roman Catholic tradition includes specific prayers and devotions as "Acts of Reparation to the Virgin Mary" for insults that she suffers. The Raccolta Roman Catholic prayer book (approved by a Decree of 1854, and published by the Holy See in 1898) includes a number of such prayers. These prayers do not involve a petition for a living or deceased beneficiary, but aim to "repair the sins of others" against the Virgin Mary.


text: For centuries, Marian devotions among Roman Catholics have included many examples of personal or collective acts of consecration and entrustment to the Virgin Mary; the Latin terms "oblatio", "servitus", "commendatio", and "dedicatio" were used in this context. Consecration is an act by which a person is dedicated to a sacred service, or an act which separates an object, location or region from a common and profane mode to one for sacred use.


text: The Catholic Church makes it clear that "the faithful should be carefully instructed about the practice of consecration to the Blessed Virgin Mary … it is, in reality, only analogously a 'consecration to God,' and should be expressed in a correct liturgical manner: to the Father, through Christ in the Holy Spirit, imploring the intercession of the Blessed Virgin Mary, to whom we entrust ourselves completely, so as to keep our baptismal commitments and live as her children."


text: Individuals declaring their "entrustment" to Mary seek her intercession before God through her son Jesus Christ, for she herself has no divine power. In Catholic teachings, consecration to Mary does not diminish or substitute the love of God, but enhances it, for all consecration is ultimately made to God.


text: In modern times, Pope John Paul II clarified consecration to Mary in his 1987 encyclical, "Redemptoris mater", in which he stated, "Mary's motherhood … is a gift which Christ himself makes personally to every individual."


text: Many "Marian apparitions" have been reported by believers, including Our Lady of Lourdes, Our Lady of Guadalupe, and Our Lady of Fátima. In some cases (e.g. Alexandrina of Balazar, Padre Pio or Maria Pierina De Micheli) these have involved visions of Jesus and Mary and sometimes include a spoken element.


text: The official position of the Holy See is that while the Holy Office has approved a few apparitions of the Virgin Mary, Roman Catholics at large are not required to believe them. However, many Catholics express belief in Marian apparitions. This has included popes, e.g. four popes, i.e. Pope Pius XII, Pope John XXIII, Pope Paul VI, Pope John Paul II, Pope Benedict XVI and Pope Francis have supported the Our Lady of Fátima apparitions as supernatural. Pope John Paul II was particularly attached to Fátima and credited the Blessed Virgin of Fátima with saving his life after he was shot in Rome on the Feast Day of Our Lady of Fátima in May 1981. He donated the bullet that wounded him on that day to the Roman Catholic sanctuary at Fátima, Portugal.


text: As a historical pattern, Vatican approval seems to have followed general acceptance of a vision by well over a century in most cases. According to Salvatore M. Perrella of the Mariunum Pontifical Institute in Rome, of the 295 reported apparitions studied by the Holy See through the centuries only 12 have been approved, the latest being in May 2008.


text: The tradition of honoring Mary by venerating images of her goes back to 3rd-century Christianity. Following the period of iconoclasm, the position of the church with respect to the veneration of images was formalized at the Second Council of Nicaea in 787. A summary of the doctrine is included in the current "Catechism of the Catholic Church".


text: The Christian veneration of images is not contrary to the first commandment which proscribes idols. Indeed, "the honour rendered to an image passes to its prototype," and "whoever venerates an image venerates the person portrayed in it." The honour paid to sacred images is a "respectful veneration," not the adoration due to God alone: Religious worship is not directed to images in themselves, considered as mere things, but under their distinctive aspect as images leading us on to God Incarnate. The movement toward the image does not terminate in it as image, but tends towards that whose image it is.


text: No other image (in either the Western or the Eastern Church) permeates Christian art as much as the image of Madonna and Child. The images of the Virgin Mary have become central icons of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodox Christianity where Mary remains a central artistic topic. Byzantine images of the "Theotokos" were adopted in the West, where Byzantine models became widely distributed in by the 7th century. The Virgin Mary has been one of the major subjects of Christian Art, Catholic Art and Western Art since Early Christian art and she has been very widely portrayed in iconic "portraits", often known as Madonnas, with the infant Jesus in the "Madonna and Child", and in a number of narrative scenes from her life known as the "Life of the Virgin", as well as scenes illustrating particular doctrines or beliefs: from masters such as Michelangelo, Raphael, Murillo and Botticelli to folk art.


text: Marian art enjoys a significant level of diversity, e.g. with distinct styles of statues of the Virgin Mary present on different continents (as depicted in the galleries in Roman Catholic Marian art). These depictions are not restricted to European art, and also appear in South American paintings. The South American tradition of Marian veneration through art dates back to the 16th century, with the Virgin of Copacabana gaining fame in 1582.


text: Throughout the centuries the devotion to and the veneration of the Virgin Mary by Roman Catholics has both led to, and been influenced by a number of Roman Catholic Marian Movements and Societies. These societies form part of the fabric of Roman Catholic Mariology. As early as the 16th century, the Holy See endorsed the Sodality of Our Lady and Pope Gregory XIII issued a papal bull commending it and granting it indulgences and establishing it as the "mother sodality", and other sodalities were formed thereafter.


text: The 18th and 19th centuries saw a number of missionary Marian organizations such as Company of Mary, the Marianists, the Marist Fathers, and the Marist Brothers. Some of these missionaries, e.g. Peter Chanel, were martyred as they travelled to new lands. The 20th century witnessed the formation of Marian organizations with millions of members, e.g. the Legion of Mary and Blue Army of Our Lady of Fatima.


text: In the Roman Catholic Church a shrine is a church or sacred place which receives many faithful pilgrims for a specific pious reason. The local ordinary must approve the shrine.


text: Marian shrines account for major veneration centers and pilgrimage sites for Roman Catholics. According to Bishop Francesco Giogia, at the end of the 20th century, the most visited Catholic shrine in the world was that of the Virgin of Guadalupe in Mexico City. In third place was Our Lady of Aparecida in Brazil, with the non-Marian shrine of San Giovanni Rotondo in second place. The visual effect of Marian pilgrimages can be dramatic, e.g. on May 13 and October 13 of each year close to one million Catholic pilgrims walk the country road that leads to the Sanctuary of Our Lady of Fátima. Around 2 million pilgrims journey up Tepeyac hill on December 12 each year to visit the Basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe. While in 1968 Aparecida had about four million pilgrims, the number has since reached eight million pilgrims per year.


text: There are other Marian pilgrimage sites such as Medjugorje, which is not considered a shrine by the Holy See, but yet receives a large number of pilgrims every year. The number of pilgrims who visit some of the approved shrines every year can be significant. E.g. Lourdes with a population of around 15,000 people, receives about 5,000,000 pilgrims every year. In 1881 a French priest, Julien Gouyet, led by the visions of Jesus and Mary of Anne Catherine Emmerich (Klemens Brentano, 1852) discovered the House of the Virgin Mary near Ephesus in Turkey.


text: A number of countries, cities, and professions consider the Blessed Virgin their patron saint. For a list, see Patronage of the Blessed Virgin Mary.


text: Echoing the Byzantine depiction of Christ Pantocrator, the Eastern Church portrayed Mary as the regal Queen of Heaven. As this theme spread to the West, prayers such as the "Regina caeli", "Ave Regina caelorum", and "Salve Regina" were composed.


text: An example of the cultural adaptation of perspective includes the view of the Virgin Mary as a mother with humility (rather than a heavenly queen) as the Franciscans began to preach in China, and its similarity to the local Chinese motherly and merciful figure of Kuanyin, which was much admired in south China. Another example is the Juan Diego's account of the appearance of the Virgin of Guadalupe in 1531 as a tanned Aztec princess who spoke in his local Nahuatl language. The clothing of the Virgin of Guadalupe image has been identified as that of an Aztec princess.


text: Other views, such as the Virgin Mary as a "miracle worker" have existed for centuries and are still held by many Catholics . Instances include the Black Madonna of Częstochowa which continues to be venerated today as the Patron of Poland, and Our Lady of Lourdes – Lourdes receives millions of pilgrims per year. However, the Vatican has generally been reluctant to approve of modern miracles, unless they have been subject to extensive analysis and scrutiny.


title: Sampling distribution

text: In statistics, a sampling distribution or finite-sample distribution is the probability distribution of a given random-sample-based statistic. If an arbitrarily large number of samples, each involving multiple observations (data points), were separately used in order to compute one value of a statistic (such as, for example, the sample mean or sample variance) for each sample, then the sampling distribution is the probability distribution of the values that the statistic takes on. In many contexts, only one sample is observed, but the sampling distribution can be found theoretically.


title: Sampling distribution

text: Sampling distributions are important in statistics because they provide a major simplification en route to statistical inference. More specifically, they allow analytical considerations to be based on the probability distribution of a statistic, rather than on the joint probability distribution of all the individual sample values.


title: Sampling distribution

text: The sampling distribution of a statistic is the distribution of that statistic, considered as a random variable, when derived from a random sample of size formula_1. It may be considered as the distribution of the statistic for "all possible samples from the same population" of a given sample size. The sampling distribution depends on the underlying distribution of the population, the statistic being considered, the sampling procedure employed, and the sample size used. There is often considerable interest in whether the sampling distribution can be approximated by an asymptotic distribution, which corresponds to the limiting case either as the number of random samples of finite size, taken from an infinite population and used to produce the distribution, tends to infinity, or when just one equally-infinite-size "sample" is taken of that same population.


title: Sampling distribution

text: For example, consider a normal population with mean formula_2 and variance formula_3. Assume we repeatedly take samples of a given size from this population and calculate the arithmetic mean formula_4 for each sample – this statistic is called the sample mean. The distribution of these means, or averages, is called the "sampling distribution of the sample mean". This distribution is normal formula_5 ("n" is the sample size) since the underlying population is normal, although sampling distributions may also often be close to normal even when the population distribution is not (see central limit theorem). An alternative to the sample mean is the sample median. When calculated from the same population, it has a different sampling distribution to that of the mean and is generally not normal (but it may be close for large sample sizes).


title: Sampling distribution

text: The mean of a sample from a population having a normal distribution is an example of a simple statistic taken from one of the simplest statistical populations. For other statistics and other populations the formulas are more complicated, and often they do not exist in closed-form. In such cases the sampling distributions may be approximated through Monte-Carlo simulations, bootstrap methods, or asymptotic distribution theory.


title: Sampling distribution

text: standard error of that quantity. For the case where the statistic is the sample mean, and samples are uncorrelated, the standard error is:


title: Sampling distribution

text: where formula_7 is the standard deviation of the population distribution of that quantity and formula_1 is the sample size (number of items in the sample).


title: Sampling distribution

text: An important implication of this formula is that the sample size must be quadrupled (multiplied by 4) to achieve half (1/2) the measurement error. When designing statistical studies where cost is a factor, this may have a role in understanding cost–benefit tradeoffs.


title: Sampling distribution

text: For the case where the statistic is the sample total, and samples are uncorrelated, the standard error is:


title: Sampling distribution

text: where, again, formula_7 is the standard deviation of the population distribution of that quantity and formula_1 is the sample size (number of items in the sample).


title: Coca tea

text: Coca tea, also called mate de coca, is an herbal tea (infusion) made using the raw or dried leaves of the coca plant, which is native to South America. It is made either by submerging the coca leaf or dipping a tea bag in hot water. The tea is most commonly consumed in the Andes mountain range, particularly Argentina, Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador and especially in Peru, where it is consumed all around the country. It is greenish yellow in color and has a mild bitter flavor similar to green tea with a more organic sweetness.


title: Coca tea

text: Though also known as "mate", "mate de coca" has very little in common with the "yerba mate" drink in Southeastern South America.


title: Coca tea

text: The leaves of the coca plant contain alkaloids that—when extracted chemically—are the source for cocaine base. The amount of coca alkaloid in the raw leaves is small, however. A cup of coca tea prepared from one gram of coca leaves (the typical contents of a tea bag) contains approximately 4.2 mg of organic coca alkaloid. (In comparison, a typical dose (a "line") of cocaine contains between 20 and 30 milligrams.) Owing to the presence of these alkaloids, coca tea is a mild stimulant; its consumption may be compared to consumption of a moderately strong cup of coffee or tea. The coca alkaloid content of coca tea is such that the consumption of one cup of coca tea can cause a positive result on a drug test for cocaine, however.


title: Coca tea

text: Similar to decaffeination in coffee, coca tea can be decocainized. Just as decaffeinated coffee retains a small quantity of caffeine, decocainized coca tea will still contain a small quantity of organic coca alkaloids.


title: Coca tea

text: Coca tea is legal in Colombia, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina, and Ecuador. Its use is being discouraged in part by the Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs. Coca tea is illegal in the United States unless it is decocainized.


title: Coca tea

text: Coca tea may be recommended for travelers in the Andes to prevent altitude sickness, although its actual effectiveness has never been systematically studied.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: Operation Petticoat is a 1959 American World War II submarine comedy film in Eastmancolor from Universal-International, produced by Robert Arthur, directed by Blake Edwards, that stars Cary Grant and Tony Curtis.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: The film tells in flashback the misadventures of a fictional U.S. Navy submarine, USS "Sea Tiger", during the Battle of the Philippines in the opening days of the United States involvement in World War II. Some elements of the screenplay were taken from actual incidents that happened with some of the Pacific Fleet's submarines during the war. Other members of the cast include several actors who went on to become television stars in the 1960s and 1970s: Gavin MacLeod of "The Love Boat" and "McHale's Navy", Marion Ross of "Happy Days", and Dick Sargent of "Bewitched".


title: Operation Petticoat

text: Paul King, Joseph Stone, Stanley Shapiro, and Maurice Richlin were nominated for the Academy Award for Best Writing for their work on "Operation Petticoat". The film was the basis for a TV series in 1977 starring John Astin in Grant's role.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: In 1959, U. S. Navy Rear Admiral Matt Sherman, ComSubPac, boards the obsolete submarine USS "Sea Tiger", prior to her departure for the scrapyard. Sherman, her first commanding officer, begins reading his wartime personal logbook, and a flashback begins.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: On December 10, 1941, a Japanese air raid sinks "Sea Tiger" while she is docked at the Cavite Navy Yard in the Philippines. Lieutenant Commander Sherman and his crew begin repairs, hoping to sail for Darwin, Australia before the Japanese overrun the port. Believing there is no chance of repairing the submarine, the squadron commodore transfers most of Sherman's crew to other boats, but promises Sherman that he will have first call on any available replacements. Lieutenant (junior grade) Nick Holden, an admiral's aide, is reassigned to "Sea Tiger" despite a total lack of submarine training or experience.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: Holden demonstrates great skill as a scrounger after Sherman makes him the supply officer. He teams up with Marine Sergeant Ramon Gallardo, an escaped prisoner (caught misappropriating Navy property to run his own restaurant), to obtain materials desperately needed for repairs. What Holden and his men cannot acquire from base warehouses, they steal. Chief Tosten, the senior Motor Machinist Mate, is forced to cannibalize the Nos. 3 and 4 diesels to keep Nos. 1 and 2 running. No. 1 especially is a problem, constantly backfiring and belching black smoke.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: Refloated and restored to barely seaworthy condition, "Sea Tiger" puts to sea after a native witch doctor casts a protection spell on her. "Sea Tiger" reaches Marinduque, where Sherman reluctantly agrees to evacuate five stranded Army nurses. Holden is attracted to Second Lieutenant Barbara Duran, while Sherman has a series of embarrassing encounters with the well-endowed and clumsy Second Lieutenant Dolores Crandall. Later, when Sherman prepares to attack an enemy oiler moored to a pier, Crandall accidentally fires a torpedo before the Torpedo Data Computer finishes transmitting its settings to the "tin fish." The torpedo misses the tanker and instead "sinks" a truck ashore. "Sea Tiger" flees amidst a hail of enemy cannon fire.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: Sherman tries to put the nurses ashore at Cebu, but the Army refuses to accept them without the proper orders, as the Japanese are closing in. Unable to obtain needed supplies from official sources, Sherman allows Holden to set up a casino in order to acquire them from the Army soldiers. Chief Torpedoman Molumphry, the Chief of the Boat, has been asking for paint. Holden manages to get some red and white lead primer paint, but does not have enough of either to prime the entire hull. Sherman reluctantly has the two mixed together, resulting in a pale pink primer that is applied. A Japanese air raid forces a hasty departure before the crew can apply a top coat of navy gray.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: Tokyo Rose mocks the mysterious pink submarine, while the U.S. Navy believes it to be a Japanese deception, ordering that it be sunk on sight. An American destroyer spots "Sea Tiger" and opens fire, then launches depth charges when the submarine crash dives. Sherman tries an oil slick and then launches blankets, pillows, and life jackets from his one working torpedo tube, but the deception fails. At Holden's suggestion, Sherman ejects the nurses' lingerie. Crandall's bra convinces the destroyer's captain that "the Japanese have nothing like this", and he ceases fire. "Sea Tiger", still painted pink, arrives at Darwin battered but under her own power.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: Sherman's reminiscence ends with the arrival of Commander Nick Holden, his wife (the former Lieutenant Duran), and their two sons. Sherman promises Holden command of a new nuclear-powered submarine, also named "Sea Tiger". Sherman's wife (the former Lieutenant Crandall) arrives late with their four daughters and rear-ends her husband's staff car, causing it to lock bumpers with a Navy bus. When it drives away, dragging his car with it, Sherman reassures his wife that it will be stopped at the main gate. Commander Holden takes "Sea Tiger" out on her final voyage, her departure punctuated by a backfire from the No. 1 diesel, still troublesome after all these years.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: Curtis took credit for the inception of "Operation Petticoat". He had joined the U.S. Navy during World War II intending to enter the submarine service in part because his hero, Cary Grant, had appeared in "Destination Tokyo" (1943). After he became a star, Curtis suggested making a film in which Grant would stare into a periscope as he did in "Destination Tokyo". Curtis very much enjoyed working with Grant.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: Former Universal-International contract star Jeff Chandler was originally set to have played Matt Sherman, but pulled out to film "The Jayhawkers" (1959) instead. Tina Louise turned down the role of one of the nurses as she felt the film had too many sex jokes.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: "Operation Petticoat" was produced with extensive support of the Department of Defense and the US Navy. Most of the filming was done in and around Naval Station Key West, now the Truman Annex of Naval Air Station Key West, Florida, which substituted for the Philippines and Australia. Filming for the period suggesting postwar 1959 was done at Naval Station San Diego, California.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: The attacking destroyer and, during the arrival at Darwin, the destroyer visible in the background was the "Fletcher"-class destroyer USS "Wren" .


title: Operation Petticoat

text: A plot error says that "Sea Tiger" is heading to Darwin to meet up with the sub tender USS "Bushnell" in December 1941; "Bushnell" was not commissioned until 1943.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: As noted above, the fictional "Sea Tiger" is played by three different Balao-class submarines. The action of the film begins on December 10, 1941, with the "Sea Tiger" obviously already in-service; however, the first Balao-class submarine would not be launched until late October 1942. (Based on her name, the "Sea Tiger" probably would have been a prewar, "Sargo"-class submarine.)


title: Operation Petticoat

text: "Operation Petticoat" was a hit with audiences and critics. On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 81% based on 21 reviews, with an average score of 6.60/10.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: The review in "Variety" was typical: "Operation Petticoat has no more weight than a sackful of feathers, but it has a lot of laughs. Cary Grant and Tony Curtis are excellent, and the film is directed by Blake Edwards with a slam-bang pace".


title: Operation Petticoat

text: A much more restrained commentary came from Bosley Crowther of "The New York Times", who noted in his December 8, 1959 review that the plot device of women aboard a wartime submarine was strained. "And that is the obvious complication upon which are pointedly based at least 60 per cent of the witticisms and sight gags in the film. How to berth the nurses in the exceedingly limited space, how to explain to them the functioning of the bathroom facilities, how to compel the sailors to keep their well-diverted minds on their work — these are the endless petty problems that vex Commander Grant".


title: Operation Petticoat

text: "Operation Petticoat" was a huge box office hit, earning over $9.3 million in theatrical rentals in the United States and Canada, which made it the third highest-grossing film of 1959, the highest-grossing comedy of all-time, as well as the most financially successful film of Cary Grant's career. For Grant, through his contract, his residuals topped $3 million, making "Operation Petticoat" his most profitable film to date.


title: Operation Petticoat

text: "Operation Petticoat" was adapted as an ABC-TV series which ran from September 17, 1977 to August 10, 1979. Initially starring John Astin in Grant's role of Lieutenant Commander Sherman, the TV series cast Tony Curtis' daughter, Jamie Lee Curtis, as Lieutenant Duran. Most of the cast was replaced for the show's second season, a decision that led to low ratings and cancellation. Only 32 episodes of the series (22 in season 1, 10 in season 2) were produced in total.


title: Osun State

text: Osun State (; ), occasionally known as the State of Osun by the state government, is a state in southwestern Nigeria; bounded to the east by Ekiti and Ondo states, to the north by Kwara State, to the south by Ogun State and to the west by Oyo State. Named for the River Osun—a vital river which flows through the state—the state was formed from the southeast of Oyo State on 27 August 1991 and has its capital as the city of Osogbo.


title: Osun State

text: Of the 36 states of Nigeria, Osun is the ninth smallest in area and nineteenth most populous with an estimated population of about 4.7 million as of 2016. Geographically, the state is divided between the Nigerian lowland forests in most of the state and the drier Guinean forest–savanna mosaic in the north. The major geographical features are rivers including the state's namesake, the River Osun which bisects the state's interior before forming much of the state's southwestern border with Oyo State and flowing south. Other important rivers are the Erinle and Oba rivers, both Osun tributaries which flow from the north before meeting the Osun along the southwestern border. Among the state's fauna are mona monkey, common kestrel, purple heron, and royal antelope, along with some of Nigeria's last remaining Nigeria-Cameroon chimpanzee and African forest elephant which inhabit the heavily threatened forests along the southern borders with Ondo and Ogun states.


title: Osun State

text: Osun State is primarily inhabited by the Yoruba people, mainly of the Ibolo, Ifẹ, Igbomina, Ijesha, and Oyo subgroups.


title: Osun State

text: In the pre-colonial period, the area that is now Osun State was split up between various Western Yoruba states with some states being town-based as others were part of larger empires like the Oyo Empire. From 1877 to 1893, Western Yoruba states fought the Kiriji War alongside other Eastern Yoruba groups against Eastern Yoruba groups; the war ended in a British-brokered stalemate before the area was colonized and incorporated into the British Southern Nigeria Protectorate which later merged into British Nigeria in 1914. After independence in 1960, the area of now-Osun was a part of the post-independence Western Region until 1967 when the region was split and the area became part of the Western State. In 1976, the Western State was split and the state's west became Oyo State. Fifteen years later, Oyo State's east was broken off to form Osun State.


title: Osun State

text: Economically, Osun State is largely based around agriculture, mainly of cocoa, cassava, millet, maize, potato and yam crops. Other key industries are services, especially in urban areas, along with artisanal mining and ivestock herding. Osun is home to several of Nigeria's most famous landmarks, including the campus of Obafemi Awolowo University, one of Nigeria's pre-eminent institutions of higher learning. The university is located in the ancient town of Ile-Ifẹ, an important early center of political and religious development for Yoruba culture. Other important cities and towns include the ancient kingdom-capitals of Ila Orangun, Iragbiji, Ikirun, Oke-Ila Orangun, Ijebu-Jesa, Ipetumodu, Ede, Iwo, Ejigbo, Ibokun, Ode-Omu, Otan Ayegbaju, Ifetedo, Esa-Oke, Ilesa, Okuku, Otan-Ile and Igbajo. Osun State is additionally noted for having the second highest literacy rate in the country.


title: Osun State

text: The modern State of Osun was created on 27 August 1991 from part of the old Oyo State. The state's name is derived from the River Osun, the venerated natural spring that is the manifestation of the Yoruba goddess of the same name.


title: Osun State

text: The former Governor Olagunsoye Oyinlola launched and laid the foundation for the groundbreaking of Osun State University with six campuses (Osogbo, Okuku, Ikire, Ejigbo, Ifetedo, and Ipetu-Ijesha) strategically located across the state.


title: Osun State

text: Important cultural events in the state include the Ori Oke and Egungun festival (masquerade festival) in Iragbiji, Olojo in Ife and the Osun Osogbo festival.


title: Osun State

text: Every year, adherents and non-adherents of Osun, one of the Orisa (the traditional deities of the Yoruba people), travel from all over the world to attend the annual Osun-Osogbo festival in August. Visitors include nationals of Brazil, Cuba, Trinidad, Grenada, and other nations in the Americas with a significant Yoruba cultural heritage. Annual traditional festivities and invocations of the Osun goddess are held along the banks of the river bearing her name into which – according to Yoruba Oratory traditions – she transformed.


title: Osun State

text: Ọsun-Ọsogbo Grove, the shrine of the annual rites of the deity and an important artistic center, was declared a World Heritage Site in 2005.


title: Osun State

text: The major sub-ethnic groups in Ọsun State are Ife, Ijesha, Oyo, Ibolo and Igbomina of the Yoruba people, although there are also people from other parts of Nigeria. Yoruba and English are the official languages. People of Osun State practice Islam, Christianity and the traditional faith.


title: Osun State

text: The climate of Osun is tropical savanna usually warm, with a wet and dry season. It has a  yearly average temperature of 64°F and receives approximately 596 inches of rainfall. It is dry for 59 days throughout the year, with an average moisture in the air of 77% and a UV index of 7.


title: Osun State

text: The State of Osun is home to a lot of tourist attractions based on its rich history and the cultural base of the Yoruba.


title: Osun State

text: This place is considered as an heritage site. It is located along the Osun river and it is home to the goddess of fertility, Yemoja.


title: Osun State

text: Erin-Ijesha Waterfalls is located in Erin-Ijesha. It is a tourist attraction located in Oriade local. The fall features seven floors.