title: Fred Zinnemann

text: Because he started his film career as a cameraman, his movies are strongly oriented toward the visual aspects. He also said that regardless of the size of an actor's part, he spends much time discussing the roles with each actor separately and in depth. "In this way we make sure long before the filming starts that we are on the same wavelength," he says.


title: Fred Zinnemann

text: Zinnemann's films are mostly dramas about lone and principled individuals tested by tragic events, including "High Noon" (1952), "From Here to Eternity" (1953); "The Nun's Story" (1959); "A Man For All Seasons" (1966); and "Julia" (1977). Regarded as a consummate craftsman, Zinnemann traditionally endowed his work with meticulous attention to detail to create realism, and had an intuitive gift for casting and a preoccupation with the moral dilemmas of his characters. His philosophy about directing influenced director Alan Parker:


title: Fred Zinnemann

text: In "From Here to Eternity", for example, he effectively added actual newsreel footage of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor, which enhanced and dramatized the story. Similarly, in "A Hatful of Rain", he used a documentary style to present real life drug addiction in New York. Zinnemann again incorporated newsreel footage in "Behold a Pale Horse", about the Spanish Civil War. "The Day of the Jackal", a political thriller about an attempt to assassinate Charles de Gaulle, was shot on location in newsreel style, while "Julia" placed the characters in authentic settings, as in a suspenseful train journey from Paris to Moscow during World War II. According to one historian, Zinnemann's style "demonstrates the director's sense of psychological realism and his apparent determination to make worthwhile pictures that are nevertheless highly entertaining."


title: Petroleum product

text: Petroleum products are materials derived from crude oil (petroleum) as it is processed in oil refineries. Unlike petrochemicals, which are a collection of well-defined usually pure organic compounds, petroleum products are complex mixtures. The majority of petroleum is converted to petroleum products, which includes several classes of fuels.


title: Petroleum product

text: According to the composition of the crude oil and depending on the demands of the market, refineries can produce different shares of petroleum products. The largest share of oil products is used as "energy carriers", i.e. various grades of fuel oil and gasoline. These fuels include or can be blended to give gasoline, jet fuel, diesel fuel, heating oil, and heavier fuel oils. Heavier (less volatile) fractions can also be used to produce asphalt, tar, paraffin wax, lubricating and other heavy oils. Refineries also produce other chemicals, some of which are used in chemical processes to produce plastics and other useful materials. Since petroleum often contains a few percent sulfur-containing molecules, elemental sulfur is also often produced as a petroleum product. Carbon, in the form of petroleum coke, and hydrogen may also be produced as petroleum products. The hydrogen produced is often used as an intermediate product for other oil refinery processes such as hydrocracking and hydrodesulfurization.


title: Petroleum product

text: Oil refineries will blend various feedstocks, mix appropriate additives, provide short-term storage, and prepare for bulk loading to trucks, barges, product ships, and railcars.


title: Petroleum product

text: Over 6,000 items are made from petroleum waste by-products, including: fertilizer, flooring (floor covering), perfume, insecticide, petroleum jelly, soap, vitamins and some essential amino acids.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2 is a 2002 racing video game, the sixth installment in the "Need for Speed" series and the sequel to 1998's "". It was developed by EA Black Box for the PlayStation 2, and by EA Seattle for GameCube, Xbox, and Windows. It features cars from various high-performance and exotic car manufacturers. Players can compete in races using these cars, or opt to play as a police officer and pursue speeders.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: The game features several popular recording artists from its time such as Uncle Kracker, The Humble Brothers and Hot Action Cop. "Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2" received "generally favorable" reviews on the PS2 and Xbox, while the PC and GameCube versions received "mixed or average" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. In 2002, the game was awarded Console Racing Game of the Year at the 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: "Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2" is a racing game with an emphasis on evading the police and over-the-top courses featuring lengthy shortcuts. It draws primarily from the gameplay and style of one of its predecessors, "". Two primary game modes are offered: World Racing Championship, in which the player competes against other drivers in a series of races, and Hot Pursuit Ultimate Racer, which adds police to the races. In the latter players must complete the races while also evading capture.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: There are several a la carte race types in "Hot Pursuit 2". Delivery is a timed point-to-point dash, with the police in pursuit. This is similar to the delivery mission in "" while the police pursuit makes it more challenging. Sprint is a point-to-point race where competitors try to get from one end to the other before their opponent. Time Trial gives players three laps on a level with the goal being to beat the required time to get the gold, silver, or bronze medal. Lap Knockout eliminates the last racer in each lap until one player remains the victor. Knockout follows a similar principle, but eliminations are made to the last racer at the end of each race. Races are usually restricted to a certain class of cars. Faster cars are used near the end of the Championship and Ultimate Racer modes.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: The player also has the option to play as a police officer trying to arrest speeders. The player must disable speeders by ramming the speeding vehicle multiple times to disable it, akin to a PIT maneuver. The player must turn on their lights and sirens while in pursuit. As a police officer, the player can call for a barricade, additional units, spike strips, and request help from a helicopter to assist in chasing the target vehicle. At the end of each event, the player is awarded for the number of arrests. In the PlayStation 2 version, this mode is called "You're the Cop" mode while in the Windows, GameCube, and Xbox versions, it is called "Be the Cop".


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: The game features cars from a variety of manufacturers. One or more cars are available from the following manufacturers: Aston Martin, BMW, Chevrolet, Dodge, Ferrari, Ford, HSV, Jaguar, Lamborghini, Lotus, McLaren, Mercedes-Benz, Opel, Porsche, and Vauxhall Motors. Many vehicles have an unlockable police variant for their respective mode. "Hot Pursuit 2" also contains Need for Speed Edition cars, which are upgraded versions of some of the stock vehicles.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: Races take place in four environments that differ in atmosphere, each with a few unique courses. The courses in an environment are formed by different roads being connected or separated by roadblocks. A fictional tropical island, reminiscent of Hawaii, is the most varied environment; the track traverses a city as well as near a volcano, waterfall, beach, rainforest, and two villages. The coastal forest environment is reminiscent of the Washington coast because of its forest and nature. The Mediterranean coast which resembles Greece because of the stadium and a building which resembles Parthenon. Lastly the so-called Alpine environments that resemble Alaska are more homogeneous, with little variation except for the occasional shortcut. The PlayStation 2 version also contains a Desert environment resembling the Sonoran Desert of Arizona that sometimes has thunderstorms in the North American Monsoon.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: The PlayStation 2 version did not feature a career mode. Instead, there is a point system where cars are purchased from winning races. Points are determined by laps led and finishing position. In the Championship and Hot Pursuit trees, extra points are awarded if a medal is won. If the tree is completed, extra bonus races are unlocked. These races include the hardest competitors and the hardest courses. For the multiplayer mode of the Windows version, players can host a game server for LAN or internet-based playing. In addition to this, the GameSpy internet matchmaking system can be used to publish and locate such servers.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: Different versions of the game were produced for each game platform; the Xbox, GameCube, and Microsoft Windows versions were developed in EA Seattle, a subsidiary of EA Canada, while the PlayStation 2 version was developed by EA Black Box in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. The PlayStation 2 was the lead console during development, and due to this several differences exist between it and other versions of the game. It is powered by EA Graphics Library (EAGL), which was used in several other "Need for Speed" games, as well as the driving sequences for "" and "". It was unveiled in October 2001. "Hot Pursuit 2" also was present at the Electronic Arts booth during E3 2002.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: Many of the cars featured in the game were not available to the world market until close to the game's release. Because of this cars were modeled by mapping photographs to a front, top, and side plane of the art program used. 3D artists then extrapolated the shape from those references. Consultants, such as stunt drivers, were brought in to help the team understand how drivers and vehicles would behave in given situations. This in turn allowed the team to more effectively set up the AI racers. Motion capture was used to animate characters during the arrest sequences. Near the end of development Electronics Arts revealed that only the PlayStation 2 version would receive features such as the desert courses and mirrored tracks, as these were added late in development and there was not enough time for EA Canada to prepare these assets on the other platforms.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: "Hot Pursuit 2" is the first "Need for Speed" game to feature licensed rock music, along with techno music composed by contract artists. The game features several popular recording artists from its time such as Uncle Kracker, The Humble Brothers, and Hot Action Cop. The game's soundtrack consists of eight vocal rock songs and seven instrumental rock and electronic songs, all fast-paced with elements of grunge, hip-hop, and rap. The vocal songs are also featured in a second, instrumental version. In the Be the Cop and Hot Pursuit game modes, the instrumental versions replace the vocal ones, which avoids obscuring the police radio messages by the song lyrics. In the PlayStation 2 version, there is the option to change whether or not certain songs are played in normal races, hot pursuit races, the game menus, or if they are not to be played at all. The Xbox version also allows custom soundtracks.


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: "Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2" received "generally favorable" reviews on the PlayStation 2 and Xbox, while the Windows and GameCube versions received "mixed or average" reviews, according to review aggregator Metacritic. In 2002, the game was awarded "Console Racing Game of the Year" at the 6th Annual Interactive Achievement Awards. It was a runner-up for "GameSpot"s annual "Best Driving Game on GameCube" award, which went to "".


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: The game received praise during its E3 debut and prior to its release. GameSpot's Jeff Gerstmann noted that "fans of the original Hot Pursuit will likely find a whole lot to like in Hot Pursuit 2 when it ships". David Smith of IGN lauded the return to the police chase action. He stated that Black Box "went right back to the best game in the Need for Speed series (c'mon, it was) and decided to create a sequel to it."


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: "Maxim" gave the PlayStation 2 version a perfect five out of five stars and stated that it "not only gives you the keys to more than 20 exotic cars, it also gives you the unsurpassed joy of leaving traffic cops in the dust." "Entertainment Weekly" gave the game a B+ and stated, "Killer aerial shots, intense chases, and a rock-infused soundtrack make for a heart-pounding ride." BBC Sport gave the GameCube version a score of 80% and stated that "With plenty of racing challenges it should have a decent amount of longevity but their repetitive nature might grate for some." AllGame also gave the PlayStation 2 version a score of four stars out of five and said that it "offers an impressive amount of arcade-style fun bolstered by the number and variety of courses, challenging Hot Pursuit mode, and excellent lineup of vehicles."


title: Need for Speed: Hot Pursuit 2

text: A reboot of "Hot Pursuit" sub-series, "", was developed by Criterion Games, the developers of the "Burnout" franchise. The game was released in November 2010.


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine, sold under the brand name Qelbree and formerly as Vivalan among others, is a noradrenergic medication which is used in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adults. It was marketed for almost 30years as an antidepressant for the treatment of depression before being discontinued and subsequently repurposed as a treatment for ADHD. Viloxazine is taken by mouth. It was used as an antidepressant in an immediate-release form and is used in ADHD in an extended-release form.


title: Viloxazine

text: Side effects of viloxazine include insomnia, headache, somnolence, fatigue, nausea, vomiting, decreased appetite, dry mouth, constipation, irritability, increased heart rate, and increased blood pressure. Rarely, the medication may cause suicidal thoughts and behaviors. It can also activate mania or hypomania in people with bipolar disorder. Viloxazine acts as a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor (NRI). The immediate-release form has an elimination half-life of 2.5hours while the half-life of the extended-release form is 7hours.


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine was first described by 1972 and was marketed as an antidepressant in Europe in 1974. It was not marketed in the United States at this time. The medication was discontinued in 2002 due to commercial reasons. However, it was repurposed for the treatment of ADHD and was reintroduced, in the United States, in April 2021. Viloxazine is a non-stimulant medication; it has no known misuse liability and is not a controlled substance.


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine is indicated to treat attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children age 6 to 12years, adolescents age 13 to 17years, and adults.


title: Viloxazine

text: In a phase 3 regulatory randomized controlled trial of viloxazine for ADHD in adults, scores on the Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Investigator Symptom Rating Scale (AISRS) with viloxazine therapy decreased from 38.5 points at baseline to 23.0 points following treatment (–40%) and with placebo decreased from 37.6 points at baseline to 25.9 points (–31%). This gave a placebo-subtracted score difference (drug minus placebo), or improvement in scores attributable to the effects of viloxazine, of –3.7 points (–9%).


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine was previously marketed as an antidepressant for the treatment of major depressive disorder. It was considered to be effective in mild to moderate as well as severe depression with or without co-morbid symptoms. The typical dose range for depression was 100 to 400mg per day in divided doses administered generally two to three times per day.


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine is available for ADHD in the form of 100, 150, and 200 mg extended-release capsules. These capsules can be opened and sprinkled into food for easier administration.


title: Viloxazine

text: Side effects included nausea, vomiting, insomnia, loss of appetite, increased erythrocyte sedimentation, EKG and EEG anomalies, epigastric pain, diarrhea, constipation, vertigo, orthostatic hypotension, edema of the lower extremities, dysarthria, tremor, psychomotor agitation, mental confusion, inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone, increased transaminases, seizure, (there were three cases worldwide, and most animal studies [and clinical trials that included epilepsy patients] indicated the presence of anticonvulsant properties, so was not completely contraindicated in epilepsy) and increased libido.


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine increased plasma levels of phenytoin by an average of 37%. It also was known to significantly increase plasma levels of theophylline and decrease its clearance from the body, sometimes resulting in accidental overdose of theophylline.


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine acts as a selective norepinephrine reuptake inhibitor and this is believed to be responsible for its therapeutic effectiveness in the treatment of conditions like ADHD and depression. The affinities (K) of viloxazine at the human monoamine transporters are 155 to 630 nM for the norepinephrine transporter (NET), 17,300 nM for the serotonin transporter (SERT), and >100,000 nM for the dopamine transporter (DAT). Viloxazine has negligible affinity for a variety of assessed receptors, including the serotonin 5-HT and 5-HT receptors, the dopamine D receptor, the α- and α-adrenergic receptors, the histamine H receptor, and the muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (all >10,000 nM).


title: Viloxazine

text: More recent research has found that the pharmacodynamics of viloxazine may be more complex than previously assumed. In 2020, viloxazine was reported to have significant affinity for the serotonin 5-HT and 5-HT receptors (K = 3,900 nM and 6,400 nM) and to act as an antagonist and agonist of these receptors, respectively. It also showed weak antagonistic activity at the serotonin 5-HT receptor and the α- and β-adrenergic receptors. These actions, although relatively weak, might be involved in its effects and possibly its therapeutic effectiveness in the treatment of ADHD.


title: Viloxazine

text: The bioavailability of extended-release viloxazine relative to an instant-release formulation was about 88%. Peak and levels of extended-release viloxazine are proportional over a dosage range of 100 to 400 mg once daily. The time to peak levels is 5 hours with a range of 3 to 9 hours after a single 200 mg dose. A high-fat meal modestly decreases levels of viloxazine and delays the time to peak by about 2 hours. Steady-state levels of viloxazine are reached after 2 days of once-daily administration and no accumulation occurs. Levels of viloxazine are approximately 40 to 50% higher in children age 6 to 11 years compared to children age 12 to 17 years.


title: Viloxazine

text: The metabolism of viloxazine is primarily via the cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP2D6 and the UDP-glucuronosyltransferases UGT1A9 and UGT2B15. The major metabolite of viloxazine is 5-hydroxyviloxazine glucuronide. Viloxazine levels are slightly higher in CYP2D6 poor metabolizers relative to CYP2D6 extensive metabolizers.


title: Viloxazine

text: The elimination of viloxazine is mainly renal. Approximately 90% of the dose is excreted in urine within 24 hours and less than 1% of the dose is recovered in feces.


title: Viloxazine

text: The elimination half-life of instant-release viloxazine is 2 to 5 hours (2–3 hours in the most reliable studies) and the half-life of extended-release viloxazine is 7.02 ± 4.74 hours.


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine is a racemic compound with two stereoisomers, the ("S")-(–)-isomer being five times as pharmacologically active as the ("R")-(+)-isomer.


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine was discovered by scientists at Imperial Chemical Industries when they recognized that some beta blockers inhibited serotonin reuptake inhibitor activity in the brain at high doses. To improve the ability of their compounds to cross the blood brain barrier, they changed the ethanolamine side chain of beta blockers to a morpholine ring, leading to the synthesis of viloxazine. It was first described in the scientific literature as early as 1972.


title: Viloxazine

text: The medication was first marketed in 1974. Viloxazine was not approved for medical use by the FDA. In 1984, the FDA granted the medication an orphan designation for treatment of cataplexy and narcolepsy with the tentative brand name Catatrol. For unknown reasons however, it was never approved or introduced for these uses in the United States. Viloxazine was withdrawn from markets worldwide in 2002 for commercial reasons unrelated to efficacy or safety.


title: Viloxazine

text: As of 2015, Supernus Pharmaceuticals was developing extended release formulations of viloxazine as a treatment for ADHD and major depressive disorder under the names SPN-809 and SPN-812. Viloxazine was approved for the treatment of ADHD in the United States in April 2021.


title: Viloxazine

text: Viloxazine has undergone two randomized controlled trials for nocturnal enuresis (bedwetting) in children, both of those times versus imipramine. By 1990, it was seen as a less cardiotoxic alternative to imipramine, and to be especially effective in heavy sleepers.


title: Viloxazine

text: In narcolepsy, viloxazine has been shown to suppress auxiliary symptoms such as cataplexy and also abnormal sleep-onset REM without really improving daytime somnolence. In a cross-over trial (56 participants) viloxazine significantly reduced EDS and cataplexy.


title: Viloxazine

text: While viloxazine may have been effective in clinical depression, it did relatively poorly in a double-blind randomized controlled trial versus amisulpride in the treatment of dysthymia.


title: Trade association

text: A trade association, also known as an industry trade group, business association, sector association or industry body, is an organization founded and funded by businesses that operate in a specific industry. An industry trade association participates in public relations activities such as advertising, education, publishing, lobbying, and political donations, but its focus is collaboration between companies. Associations may offer other services, such as producing conferences, holding networking or charitable events, or offering classes or educational materials. Many associations are non-profit organizations governed by bylaws and directed by officers who are also members.


title: Trade association

text: In countries with a social market economy, the role of trade associations is often taken by employers' organizations, which also take a role in social dialogue.


title: Trade association

text: One of the primary purposes of trade groups, particularly in the United States, is to attempt to influence public policy in a direction favorable to the group's members. It can take the form of contributions to the campaigns of political candidates and parties through political action committees (PACs); contributions to "issue" campaigns not tied to a candidate or party; and lobbying legislators to support or oppose particular legislation. In addition, trade groups attempt to influence the activities of regulatory bodies.


title: Trade association

text: In the United States, direct contributions by PACs to candidates are required to be disclosed to the Federal Election Commission or state and local election overseers; are considered public information; and have registration requirements for lobbyists. Even so, it can sometimes be difficult to trace the funding for issue and non-electoral campaigns.


title: Trade association

text: Almost all trade associations are heavily involved in publishing activities in print and online. The main media published by trade associations are as follows:


title: Trade association

text: The opportunity to be promoted in such media (whether by editorial or advertising) is often an important reason why companies join a trade association in the first place.


title: Trade association

text: Examples of larger trade associations that publish a comprehensive range of media include European Wind Energy Association (EWEA), Association of British Travel Agents (ABTA) and the Confederation of British Industry (CBI).


title: Trade association

text: Industry trade groups sometimes produce advertisements, just as normal corporations do. However, whereas typical advertisements are for a specific corporate product, such as a specific brand of cheese or toilet paper, industry trade groups advertisements generally are targeted to promote the views of an entire industry.


title: Trade association

text: These ads mention only the industry's products as a whole, painting them in a positive light in order to have the public form positive associations with that industry and its products. For example, in the USA the advertising campaign "Beef. It's what's for dinner" is used by the National Cattlemen's Beef Association to promote a positive image of beef in the public consciousness.


title: Trade association

text: These are adverts targeted at specific issues. For example, in the US in the early 2000s the Motion Picture Association of America (MPAA) began running advertisements before films that advocate against movie piracy over the Internet.


title: Trade association

text: A frequent criticism of trade associations is that, they are not per se "profit-making" organizations, but they are in reality fronts for cartels engaged in price-fixing, creating and maintaining barriers to entry of industry, and other subtle self-serving anti-competitive activities not in the public interest.


title: Trade association

text: Jon Leibowitz, a commissioner at the Federal Trade Commission in the United States, outlined the potentially anti-competitive nature of some trade association activity in a speech to the American Bar Association in Washington, DC, in March 2005 called "The Good, the Bad and the Ugly: Trade Associations and Antitrust". For instance, he said that under the guise of "standard setting," trade associations representing the established players in an industry can set rules that make it harder for new companies to enter a market.


title: Trade association

text: In September 2007, the German trade association for Fachverband Verbindungs- und Befestigungstechnik (VBT) and five fastener companies were fined 303 million euros by the European Commission for operating cartels in the markets for fasteners and attaching machines in Europe and worldwide. In one of the cartels, the YKK Group, Coats plc, the Prym group, the Scovill group, A. Raymond, and Berning & Söhne "agreed [...] on coordinated price increases in annual 'price rounds' with respect to 'other fasteners' and their attaching machines, in the framework of work circles organised by VBT".


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Los Angeles Union Station is the main railway station in Los Angeles, California, and the largest railroad passenger terminal in the Western United States. It opened in May 1939 as the Los Angeles Union Passenger Terminal, replacing La Grande Station and Central Station.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Approved in a controversial ballot measure in 1926 and built in the 1930s, it served to consolidate rail services from the Union Pacific, Santa Fe, and Southern Pacific Railroads into one terminal station. Conceived on a grand scale, Union Station became known as the "Last of the Great Railway Stations" built in the United States. The structure combines Art Deco, Mission Revival, and Streamline Moderne style. It was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Today, the station is a major transportation hub for Southern California, serving almost 110,000 passengers a day. It is by far the busiest train station in the Western United States; it is Amtrak's fifth-busiest station, and is the twelfth-busiest train station in North America.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Four of Amtrak's long-distance trains originate and terminate here: the "Coast Starlight" to Seattle, the "Southwest Chief" and "Texas Eagle" to Chicago, and the "Sunset Limited" to New Orleans. The state-supported Amtrak "Pacific Surfliner" regional trains run frequently to San Diego and also to Santa Barbara and San Luis Obispo. The station is the hub of the Metrolink commuter rail system and is a major transfer point for several Metro Rail subway and light rail lines. The Patsaouras Transit Plaza, on the east side of the station, serves dozens of bus lines operated by Metro and several other municipal carriers.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: In 1926, a measure was placed on the ballot giving Los Angeles voters the choice between the construction of a vast network of elevated railways or the construction of a Union station to consolidate the city's two mainline railroad stations (Central Station and La Grande Station). The election took on racial connotations and became a defining moment in the development of Los Angeles. One proposed location for Union Station was located in the heart of what was Los Angeles' original Chinatown. Reflecting the racial prejudice of the time, "Los Angeles Times", a lead opponent of elevated railways, argued in editorials that Union Station would not be built in the "midst of Chinatown" but rather would "forever do away with Chinatown and its environs." The "Times" also attacked the elevated railways for blocking out the California sun and in general being antithetical to the ethos of Los Angeles.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Two questions were put to vote in 1926. First, the voters approved Union Station instead of elevated railways by 61.3 to 38.7 percent margin. Second, the electorate voted in favor of "Los Angeles Plaza", not Chinatown, as the site of the new station, but by a much smaller 51.1 to 48.9 percent margin. However, largely due to the efforts of preservationist Christine Sterling and "Los Angeles Times" publisher Harry Chandler, Union Station would not replace the Plaza, but be built across the street in Chinatown, which was demolished for the project. During the construction process of Union Station, archaeological remains from the Tongva village of Yaanga were uncovered. Researcher Joan Brown summarized this in 1992:Previous archaeological studies conducted at and near Union Station indicate that buried intact prehistoric and historic deposits exist in-situ beneath and in the vicinity of Union Station. The extent of the archaeological deposits is unknown at this time. Union Station was constructed on three to twenty feet of fill dirt placed over the original Los Angeles Chinatown. Chinatown, in turn, had been built over the remains of an Indian village, tentatively identified as the village of Yangna.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The glamorous new $11 million station (in 1939 dollars) took over from La Grande Station which had suffered major damage in the 1933 Long Beach earthquake and Central Station, which had itself replaced the Arcade Depot in 1914.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Passenger service was provided by the Santa Fe, Southern Pacific, and Union Pacific, as well as local lines of the Pacific Electric Railway and Los Angeles Railway (LARy). The famed "Super Chief" luxury train carried Hollywood stars and others to Chicago and thence the East Coast. Union Station saw heavy use during World War II, but later saw declining patronage due to the growing popularity of air travel and automobiles.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: In 1948, the Santa Fe's "Super Chief" lost its brakes coming into the station, smashed through a steel bumper and concrete wall, and stopped with one third of the front of the locomotive dangling over Aliso St. No one was killed or injured, but the engineer lost his job.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The station was designated as a Los Angeles Historic–Cultural Monument No. 101 on August 2, 1972, and placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1980.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The first commuter rail service to Union Station was the short-lived CalTrain that began operating on October 18, 1982, between Los Angeles and Oxnard. The service faced economic and political problems from the start and was suspended in March 1983. The next attempt at commuter rail came in 1990 with the launch of the Amtrak-operated "Orange County Commuter". The once-daily round-trip served stations between Los Angeles and San Juan Capistrano.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: In December 1989, the Santa Fe Pacific Realty Co purchased Southern Pacific's shareholding in the station, followed in January 1990 by Union Pacific's 22% and Santa Fe's 34%.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Metrolink commuter rail service began on October 26, 1992, with Union Station as the terminus for the San Bernardino Line, the Santa Clarita Line (later renamed the Antelope Valley Line) and the Ventura County Line. In January 1993, Metro's Red Line subway began service to the station, followed by Metrolink's Riverside Line in June. The "Orange County Commuter" train was discontinued on March 28, 1994, and replaced by Metrolink's Orange County Line. In May 2002, Metrolink added additional service to stations in Orange and Riverside counties with the opening of the 91 Line.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Light rail service arrived at Union Station on July 26, 2003, when Metro's Gold Line began operating to Pasadena from tracks 1 and 2. The line was expanded south over US 101 in November 2009 with the opening of the Gold Line Eastside Extension.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: In February 2011, the board of the Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority (Metro) approved the purchase of Union Station from Prologis and Catellus Development (a descendant of the Santa Fe and Southern Pacific railroads) for $75 million. The deal was closed on April 14, 2011. Since taking over ownership of the station, Metro has focused on increasing services for passengers at the station. One of the most noticeable changes is the addition of several retail and dining businesses to the concourse.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Amtrak opened a Metropolitan Lounge at Union Station on September 23, 2013. The lounge is open to Amtrak passengers traveling in sleeping car accommodations or business class as well as some Amtrak Guest Rewards members (Select Plus and Select Executive levels only). The lounge features a staffed ticket counter, complimentary refreshments, complimentary Wi-Fi, and a conference room. Passengers using the Metropolitan Lounge receive priority boarding.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Metro plans to install Bluetooth beacons in Union Station to enable sending text messages to travelers' smartphones.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: On March 15, 2021, it was announced that the station would serve as a joint venue of the 93rd Academy Awards along with the Dolby Theatre due to the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on cinema. The ceremony was criticized for limiting access to the station and its COVID-19 testing site due to security measures mandated by the Academy.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: On October 19, 2022, Greyhound moved its primary Los Angeles station to the Patsaouras Transit Plaza at Union Station.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Union Station was partially designed by John and Donald Parkinson, the father-and-son architectural firm who had also designed Los Angeles City Hall and other landmark Los Angeles buildings. They were assisted by a group of supporting architects, including Jan van der Linden. The structure combines Art Deco, Mission Revival, and Streamline Moderne style, with architectural details such as eight-pointed stars, and even elements of Dutch Colonial Revival architecture (at the suggestion of the Dutch-born Jan von der Linden).


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Enclosed garden patios are on either side of the waiting room, and passengers exiting the trains were originally directed through the southern garden. The lower parts of the interior walls are covered in travertine marble; the upper parts have an early form of acoustical tile. The floor in the large rooms is terra cotta with a central strip of inlaid marble (including travertine, somewhat unusual in floors since it is soft). The ceiling in the grand waiting room has the appearance of wood, but is actually made of steel.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The original ticket lobby has high ceilings and a counter. It is closed to the public, but occasionally rented out for film shoots or special events. Public art has been added to the station including an aquarium with a wall featuring etchings of Gabrielino Indians and Latino settlers such as Pío Pico.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Inside the grand waiting room is the Traxx restaurant and bar, which is Art Deco-themed, reflecting the history and architectural grandeur of its home. The restaurant opened in the late 1990s, and became a "top draw" at Union Station, according to the Los Angeles Times. Traxx closed between May and September 2019 as ownership of the restaurant changed.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Attached to the main building to the south is the station restaurant designed by the famed Southwestern architect Mary Colter. It was the last of the "Harvey House" restaurants to be constructed as a part of a passenger terminal. The vast rectangular dining room has a rounded central counter, streamlined booths and spectacular inlaid cement tile floor reproduces the pattern of a Navajo blanket.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Colter also designed a sleek, Streamline Moderne cocktail lounge. The restaurant closed in 1967 and for decades remained largely empty, used only for the occasional film shoot or special event. In October 2018, following a four-year renovation process, the dining room re-opened as the "Imperial Western Beer Co.," a restaurant and bar with its own attached brewery, and the cocktail lounge re-opened as "The Streamliner," a smaller craft cocktail bar.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Even with its grand scale, Union Station is still considered small in comparison to other union stations.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Although Union Station contains no distinct sculptures or artworks from its early years, Metro rail development in the 1990s funded the installation of a variety of notable public art murals and sculptural installations for the station's new subterranean lobbies, portals and subway platforms. The following Union Station public artworks include murals, granite seating sculptures, electronic wall-mounted art, glass mosaics, and a river-themed sculptural installation incorporating found objects from the subway excavation and an aquarium of native sea life.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Union Station is located in the northeastern corner of Downtown Los Angeles, on the property bounded by Alameda Street, Cesar Chavez Avenue, Vignes Street, and the Hollywood Freeway. It is across Alameda Street from L.A.'s historic Olvera Street and El Pueblo de Los Angeles State Historic Park. The historic Terminal Annex building is on the opposite side of the Chavez Avenue underpass. Chinatown and Civic Center are a short distance away.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The site of the Tongva village of Yaanga, which was "believed to have been the largest of the Tongva villages," was in the vicinity.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The Patsaouras Transit Plaza on the east side of Union Station hosts several connecting bus lines, including Metro Local, Metro Rapid and Metro Express lines, as well as downtown DASH shuttles, many municipal bus lines, FlyAway express bus service to Los Angeles International Airport, and University of Southern California campus shuttles. The Transit Plaza is named after Nick Patsaouras, former RTD board member and advocate for public transportation.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The Gateway Transit Center includes the station itself and the Patsaouras Transit Plaza, both of which were designed by Ehrenkrantz & Eckstut, along with the western terminus of the El Monte Busway, as well as Metro's headquarters building.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: , Amtrak and Metrolink share 12 of Union Station's 14 outdoor tracks, with 94 trains departing on most weekdays (95 on Wednesday, 96 on Friday).


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Three Metro Rail lines (the B (Red), D (Purple), and L (Gold) Lines) serve the station with about 300 Metro Rail trains departing every weekday.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The Metro B and Metro D subway lines have their eastern terminus at Union Station and share two tracks below Union Station. There are two entrances to the platform: one is located inside Union Station's main concourse on the west side of the complex, near Alameda Street, and the other is located near the Patsaouras Transit Plaza on the east side of the complex.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The Metro L Line (Gold) is a light rail line that passes through Union Station as it travels between Azusa and East Los Angeles. Trains use Tracks 1 and 2 of Union Station's 14 outdoor tracks. The platform is accessible via staircase and elevator from the main passenger tunnel. From the Gold line's opening on July 26, 2003, until the segment to East Los Angeles opened on November 15, 2009, this station was the southern terminus. The platform features an art installation, entitled "Images of Commonality/Nature and Movement", created by Beth Thielen.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The platform station will be served by the A Line, which will run from Long Beach to Azusa, once the Regional Connector is complete in 2023.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: One Metro Busway bus rapid transit line makes a stop at the Patsaouras Transit Plaza. The Metro J Line operates between El Monte Bus Station, Downtown Los Angeles, Harbor Gateway Transit Center and select trips to San Pedro using the El Monte Busway and Harbor Transitway.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Amtrak California operates several motorcoach routes under the Amtrak Thruway brand from Union Station using dedicated bus bays at the north side of the station.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Connections to San Joaquins trains are provided through bus route 1 that travel to and from the Bakersfield Amtrak Station. Direct rail service to Bakersfield is not possible because passenger trains are not normally allowed on the Tehachapi Loop near Bakersfield. When trains are not running during the overnight hours several bus routes provide service along the Pacific Surfliner route (to Santa Barbara, San Diego and select intermediate stations) and the San Joaquin route (to Fresno and select intermediate stations.):


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: While it does not stop on the Union Station property, Flixbus provides intercity service to destinations across the Western United States from a parking lot across the street from the station on the northwest corner of Cesar Chavez Avenue and Vignes Street.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Bus services using the Union Station Patsaouras Bus Plaza Station, which is located in the median of the El Monte Busway next to US-101:


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Bus services using the bus stop on Cesar Chavez Avenue & Vignes Street (northeast corner of station):


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Bus service using the bus stop on the west side of Union Station (near the taxi stand and the Mozaic Apartments):


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: With the number of trains using Union Station expanding, the stub-end layout of trackage is limiting the station's capacity. Trains can only enter or exit from the north side of the station. The configuration forces trains without cab-cars to slowly reverse in or out of the station and trains heading to or from the south to make a near-180 degree turn. Compounding the problem, is that while the station has 14 boarding tracks, multiple trains must squeeze onto just 5 tracks.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Originally, there were more tracks at "the throat", but Metrolink had some removed to allow for faster speeds along the curves in and out of the station to improve efficiency as they enter or exit the station. This choke-point can delay arriving trains as they are forced to wait outside of the station to allow a departing train to exit the station. Departures are usually given priority, to free up platforms and to keep them from experiencing delays along their route.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Therefore, Metro has proposed the Link Union Station (Link US, formerly named Southern California Regional Interconnector) Project, which would extend tracks 3–10 as run-through tracks, which will exit Union Station and cross over the El Monte Busway and US Route 101/Santa Ana Fwy on a long, elevated "S-curve" that will tie into the existing tracks along the Los Angeles River. The plan also includes tracks along the river that would create a "loop" around the station allowing all trains (including those to/from the north or west) to use the run-though tracks.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Metro authorized preliminary engineering for the project in July 2012. A Request For Proposals (RFP) for Link Union Station was being prepared as of June 2013. The $31-million contract for the engineering work on the project was approved on April 24, 2014. The project's estimated value is $350 million. A draft environmental impact report on Link Union Station is expected in 2017


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: During construction, several tracks may be taken out of service due to their extension. To make up for the temporary loss of those platforms, track 13 was revitalized for use and tracks 14 & 15 were re-constructed. The project was completed on October 17, 2012. Once the Link US project is finished, the run-through tracks and tracks 13–14 will be in regular use (track 15 will be used for storage), resulting in a 40% increase in track capacity.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: On July 27, 2019, the Metro board officially approved and certified the Final Environmental Impact Report (FEIR) for the Link US Union Station run-through tracks project. The FIER has an expanded central concourse hallway to replace the new elevated concourse proposed in the Draft EIR, and also eliminated the loop tracks. These modifications reduced project costs while prioritizing rider convenience while transferring between trains. A funding plan for the project was approved on April 21, 2020, with the project's completion targeted for 2026.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) and the Federal Railroad Administration previously drafted a plan to create run-through tracks at Union Station, but the project involved just four tracks and lacked the station "loop" limiting usage of the tracks just to trains heading to or from the south.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The final environmental impact report for the "Los Angeles Union Station Run-Through Tracks Project" was published by the FRA in November 2005.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Union Station is planned to be a major hub for the future California High-Speed Rail System. Upon completion, it is projected that passengers will be able to get from Union Station to the Transbay Transit Center in the city of San Francisco in 2 hours and 40 minutes.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: As a part of its Master Plan, Metro studied how to best integrate tracks and platforms for high-speed trains arrival into Union Station. Options included an aerial structure above the existing platforms, an underground structure under Alameda Street, an underground structure under Vignes Street and an aerial structure east of Vignes. All plans include a new concourse for high-speed rail passengers and three platforms with six tracks.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Since that time, the Link US project has resulted in changes to how High-Speed Rail (HSR) will be brought into Union Station. That project's Final Environmental Report (FEIR) released in June 2019 indicates that HSR will approach the station from the north, on tracks 3 thru 6, use rebuilt station platforms 2 and 3, then exit to the south onto a new viaduct over the El Monte Busway and Santa Ana Freeway, which curves east (over a rebuilt and relocated Commercial Street) to return to the existing rail corridor along the west bank of the Los Angeles River. Thus, only four tracks and two platforms at Union Station will be used for HSR, with the remaining six tracks being converted to thru status and using the new viaduct to be shared by Metrolink and Amtrak lines. Tracks 13 thru 15 will remain stubs, ending at the south side of the station.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Metro selected Union Station as the eventual northern terminus of the planned West Santa Ana Branch Transit Corridor in 2022. The new light rail line will serve new platforms either at the Forecourt or behind the Metropolitan Water District Building and may open as early as 2043.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The facility served as a backdrop for the 1950 film "Union Station", which starred William Holden and Nancy Olson. It has since been used in numerous films as a filming location, including:


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: Union Station has been featured in numerous television shows, such as "Adam-12", "24", "Agents of S.H.I.E.L.D.", and "Euphoria".


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: It has also been featured in video games; Union Station, as it was in the late 1940s, appears in "L.A. Noire", while a smaller fictionalized version of the station appears in "" as Unity Station.


title: Union Station (Los Angeles)

text: The music videos of "Drops of Jupiter" by American band Train, directed by Nigel Dick; and "Last Train Home" by John Mayer, directed by Cameron Duddy; were filmed in Union Station. A significant portion of the music video for "Vermilion" by the band Slipknot was filmed within Union Station.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Filippo Tommaso Emilio Marinetti (; 22 December 1876 – 2 December 1944) was an Italian poet, editor, art theorist, and founder of the Futurist movement. He was associated with the utopian and Symbolist artistic and literary community Abbaye de Créteil between 1907 and 1908. Marinetti is best known as the author of the first "Futurist Manifesto", which was written and published in 1909, and as a co-author of the Fascist Manifesto, in 1919.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Emilio Angelo Carlo Marinetti (some documents give his name as "Filippo Achille Emilio Marinetti") spent the first years of his life in Alexandria, Egypt, where his father (Enrico Marinetti) and his mother (Amalia Grolli) lived together "more uxorio" (as if married). Enrico was a lawyer from Piedmont, and his mother was the daughter of a literary professor from Milan. They had come to Egypt in 1865, at the invitation of Khedive Isma'il Pasha, to act as legal advisers for foreign companies that were taking part in his modernization program.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: His love for literature developed during the school years. His mother was an avid reader of poetry, and introduced the young Marinetti to the Italian and European classics. At age seventeen he started his first school magazine, "Papyrus"; the Jesuits threatened to expel him for publicizing Émile Zola's scandalous novels in the school.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: He first studied in Egypt then in Paris, obtaining a "baccalauréat" degree in 1894 at the Sorbonne, and in Italy, graduating in law at the University of Pavia in 1899.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: He decided not to be a lawyer but to develop a literary career. He experimented with every type of literature (poetry, narrative, theatre, "words in liberty"), signing everything "Filippo Tommaso Marinetti".


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Marinetti and Constantin Brâncuși were visitors of the Abbaye de Créteil c. 1908 along with young writers like Roger Allard (one of the first to defend Cubism), Pierre Jean Jouve, and Paul Castiaux, who wanted to publish their works through the Abbaye. The Abbaye de Créteil was a "phalanstère" community founded in the autumn of 1906 by the painter Albert Gleizes, and the poets , , Alexandre Mercereau and Charles Vildrac. The movement drew its inspiration from the "Abbaye de Thélème," a fictional creation by Rabelais in his novel "Gargantua". It was closed down by its members early in 1908.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Marinetti is known best as the author of the "Futurist Manifesto", which he wrote in 1909. It was published in French on the front page of the most prestigious French daily newspaper, "Le Figaro", on 20 February 1909. In "The Founding and Manifesto of Futurism", Marinetti declared that "Art, in fact, can be nothing but violence, cruelty, and injustice." Georges Sorel, who influenced the entire political spectrum from anarchism to Fascism, also argued for the importance of violence. Futurism had both anarchist and Fascist elements; Marinetti later became an active supporter of Benito Mussolini.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Marinetti, who admired speed, had a minor car accident outside Milan in 1908 when he veered into a ditch to avoid two cyclists. He referred to the accident in the Futurist Manifesto: the Marinetti who was helped out of the ditch was a new man, determined to end the pretense and decadence of the prevailing Liberty style. He discussed a new and strongly revolutionary programme with his friends, in which they should end every artistic relationship with the past, "destroy the museums, the libraries, every type of academy". Together, he wrote, "We will glorify war—the world's only hygiene—militarism, patriotism, the destructive gesture of freedom-bringers, beautiful ideas worth dying for, and scorn for woman".


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: The Futurist Manifesto was read and debated all across Europe, but Marinetti's first 'Futurist' works were not as successful. In April, the opening night of his drama "Le Roi bombance" (The Feasting King), written in 1905, was interrupted by loud, derisive whistling by the audience... and by Marinetti himself, who thus introduced another element of Futurism, "the desire to be heckled." Marinetti did, however, fight a duel with a critic he considered too harsh.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: His drama "La donna è mobile" (Poupées électriques), first presented in Turin, was not successful either. Nowadays, the play is remembered through a later version, named "Elettricità sessuale" (Sexual Electricity), and mainly for the appearance onstage of humanoid automatons, ten years before the Czech writer Karel Čapek invented the term "robot".


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: In 1910 his first novel, "Mafarka il futurista", was cleared of all charges by an obscenity trial. That year, Marinetti discovered some allies in three young painters (Umberto Boccioni, Carlo Carrà, Luigi Russolo), who adopted the Futurist philosophy. Together with them (and with poets such as Aldo Palazzeschi), Marinetti began a series of Futurist Evenings, theatrical spectacles in which Futurists declaimed their manifestos in front of a crowd that in part attended the performances to throw vegetables at them.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: The most successful "happening" of that period was the publicization of the "Manifesto Against Past-Loving Venice" in Venice. In the flier, Marinetti demands "fill(ing) the small, stinking canals with the rubble from the old, collapsing and leprous palaces" to "prepare for the birth of an industrial and militarized Venice, capable of dominating the great Adriatic, a great Italian lake."


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: In 1911, the Italo-Turkish War began and Marinetti departed for Libya as war correspondent for a French newspaper. His articles were eventually collected and published in "The Battle of Tripoli". He then covered the First Balkan War of 1912–13, witnessing the surprise success of Bulgarian troops against the Ottoman Empire in the Siege of Adrianople. In this period he also made a number of visits to London, which he considered 'the Futurist city par excellence', and where a number of exhibitions, lectures and demonstrations of Futurist music were staged. However, although a number of artists, including Wyndham Lewis, were interested in the new movement, only one British convert was made, the young artist C.R.W. Nevinson. Nevertheless, Futurism was an important influence upon Lewis's Vorticist philosophy.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: About the same time Marinetti worked on a very anti-Roman Catholic and anti-Austrian verse-novel, "Le monoplan du Pape" ("The Pope's Aeroplane", 1912) and edited an anthology of futurist poets. But his attempts to renew the style of poetry did not satisfy him. So much so that, in his foreword to the anthology, he declared a new revolution: it was time to be done with traditional syntax and to use "words in freedom" ("parole in libertà"). His sound-poem "Zang Tumb Tumb", an account of the Battle of Adrianople, exemplifies words in freedom. Recordings can be heard of Marinetti reading some of his sound poems: "Battaglia, Peso + Odore" (1912); "Dune, parole in libertà" (1914); "La Battaglia di Adrianopoli" (1926) (recorded 1935).


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Marinetti agitated for Italian involvement in World War I, and once Italy was engaged, promptly volunteered for service. In the fall of 1915 he and several other Futurists who were members of the Lombard Volunteer Cyclists were stationed at Lake Garda, in Trentino province, high in the mountains along the Italo-Austrian border. They endured several weeks of fighting in harsh conditions before the cyclists units, deemed inappropriate for mountain warfare, were disbanded.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Marinetti spent most of 1916 supporting Italy's war effort with speeches, journalism, and theatrical work, then returned to military service as a regular army officer in 1917. In May of that year he was seriously wounded while serving with an artillery battalion on the Isonzo front; he returned to service after a long recovery, and participated in the decisive Italian victory at Vittorio Veneto in October 1918.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: After an extended courtship, in 1923 Marinetti married Benedetta Cappa (1897–1977), a writer and painter and a pupil of Giacomo Balla. Born in Rome, she had joined the Futurists in 1917. They'd met in 1918, moved in together in Rome, and chose to marry only to avoid legal complications on a lecture tour of Brazil. They had three daughters: Vittoria, Ala, and Luce.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Cappa and Marinetti collaborated on a genre of mixed-media assemblages in the mid-1920s they called "tattilismo" ("Tactilism"), and she was a strong proponent and practitioner of the aeropittura movement after its inception in 1929. She also produced three experimental novels. Cappa's major public work is likely a series of five murals at the Palermo Post Office (1926–1935) for the Fascist public-works architect Angiolo Mazzoni.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: In early 1918 he founded the "Partito Politico Futurista" or Futurist Political Party, which only a year later merged with Benito Mussolini's "Fasci Italiani di Combattimento". Marinetti was one of the first affiliates of the Italian Fascist Party. In 1919 he co-wrote with Alceste De Ambris the Fascist Manifesto, the original manifesto of Italian Fascism. He opposed Fascism's later exaltation of existing institutions, terming them "reactionary," and, after walking out of the 1920 Fascist party congress in disgust, withdrew from politics for three years. However, he remained a notable force in developing the party philosophy throughout the regime's existence. For example, at the end of the "Congress of Fascist Culture" that was held in Bologna on 30 March 1925, Giovanni Gentile addressed Sergio Panunzio on the need to define Fascism more purposefully by way of Marinetti's opinion, stating, "Great spiritual movements make recourse to precision when their primitive inspirations—what F. T. Marinetti identified this morning as artistic, that is to say, the creative and truly innovative ideas, from which the movement derived its first and most potent impulse—have lost their force. We today find ourselves at the very beginning of a new life and we experience with joy this obscure need that fills our hearts—this need that is our inspiration, the genius that governs us and carries us with it."


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: As part of his campaign to overturn tradition, Marinetti also attacked traditional Italian food. His "Manifesto of Futurist Cooking" was published in the Turin "Gazzetta del Popolo" on 28 December 1930. Arguing that "People think, dress and act in accordance with what they drink and eat", Marinetti proposed wide-ranging changes to diet. He condemned pasta, blaming it for lassitude, pessimism and lack of virility, and promoted the eating of Italian-grown rice. In this, as in other ways, his proposed Futurist cooking was nationalistic, rejecting foreign foods and food names. It was also militaristic, seeking to stimulate men to be fighters.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Marinetti also sought to increase creativity. His attraction to whatever was new made scientific discoveries appealing to him, but his views on diet were not scientifically based. He was fascinated with the idea of processed food, predicting that someday pills would replace food as a source of energy, and calling for the creation of "plastic complexes" to replace natural foods. Food, in turn, would become a matter of artistic expression. Many of the meals Marinetti described and ate resemble performance art, such as the "Tactile Dinner", recreated in 2014 for an exhibit at the Guggenheim Museum. Participants wore pajamas decorated with sponge, sandpaper, and aluminum, and ate salads without using cutlery.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: During the Fascist regime Marinetti sought to make Futurism the official state art of Italy but failed to do so. Mussolini was personally uninterested in art and chose to give patronage to numerous styles to keep artists loyal to the regime. Opening the exhibition of art by the Novecento Italiano group in 1923, he said: "I declare that it is far from my idea to encourage anything like a state art. Art belongs to the domain of the individual. The state has only one duty: not to undermine art, to provide humane conditions for artists, to encourage them from the artistic and national point of view." Mussolini's mistress, Margherita Sarfatti, successfully promoted the rival Novecento Group, and even persuaded Marinetti to be part of its board.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: In Fascist Italy, modern art was tolerated and even approved by the Fascist hierarchy. Towards the end of the 1930s, some Fascist ideologues (for example, the ex-Futurist Ardengo Soffici) wished to import the concept of "degenerate art" from Germany to Italy and condemned modernism, although their demands were ignored by the regime. In 1938, hearing that Adolf Hitler wanted to include Futurism in a traveling exhibition of degenerate art, Marinetti persuaded Mussolini to refuse to let it enter Italy.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: On 17 November 1938, Italy passed The Racial Laws, discriminating against Italian Jews, much as the discrimination pronounced in the Nuremberg Laws. The antisemitic trend in Italy resulted in attacks against modern art, judged too foreign, too radical and anti-nationalist. In the 11 January 1939 issue of the Futurist journal, "Artecrazia" Marinetti expressed his condemnation of such attacks on modern art, noting Futurism is both Italian and nationalist, not foreign, and stating that there were no Jews in Futurism. Furthermore, he claimed Jews were not active in the development of modern art. Regardless, the Italian state shut down "Artecrazia".


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Marinetti made numerous attempts to ingratiate himself with the regime, becoming less radical and avant garde with each attempt. He relocated from Milan to Rome. He became an academician despite his condemnation of academies, saying, "It is important that Futurism be represented in the Academy."


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: He was an atheist, but by the mid 1930s he had come to accept the influence of the Catholic Church on Italian society. In "Gazzetta del Popolo", 21 June 1931, Marinetti proclaimed that "Only Futurist artists...are able to express clearly...the simultaneous dogmas of the Catholic faith, such as the Holy Trinity, the Immaculate Conception and Christ's Calvary." In his last works, written just before his death in 1944 "L'aeropoema di Gesù" ("The Aeropoem of Jesus") and "Quarto d'ora di poesia per the X Mas" ("A Fifteen Minutes' Poem of the tenth MAS"), Marinetti sought to reconcile his newfound love for God and his passion for the action that accompanied him throughout his life.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: There were other contradictions in his character: despite his nationalism, he was international, educated in Egypt and France, writing his first poems in French, publishing the Futurist Manifesto in a French newspaper and traveling to promote his ideas.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: Marinetti volunteered for active service in the Second Italo-Abyssinian War and the Second World War, serving on the Eastern Front for a few weeks in the Summer and Autumn of 1942 at the age of 65.


title: Filippo Tommaso Marinetti

text: He died of cardiac arrest in Bellagio on 2 December 1944 while working on a collection of poems praising the wartime achievements of the Decima Flottiglia MAS.


title: Civil flag

text: A civil flag is a version of the national flag that is flown by civilians on nongovernmental installations or craft. The use of civil flags was more common in the past to denote buildings or ships not crewed by the military.


title: Civil flag

text: In some countries, the civil flag is the same as the state flag but without the coat of arms, such as in the case of flags from Peru, Serbia, and Spain. In others, it is an alteration of the war flag.


title: Civil flag

text: In Scandinavia, state and war flags can be double and triple-tailed variants of the Nordic Cross flag. Many countries, particularly those with a British heritage, still have distinctive civil flags (technically civil ensigns) for use at sea, many based on the Red Ensign.


title: GRAU

text: The Main Missile and Artillery Directorate of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation (), commonly referred to by its transliterated Russian acronym GRAU (), is a department of the Russian Ministry of Defense. It is subordinate to the Chief of Armament and Munition of the Russian Armed Forces, a vice-minister of defense.


title: GRAU

text: The organization dates back to 1862 when it was established under the name Главное артиллерийское управление (ГАУ – GAU). The "R" from "rockets" was added to the title in 1960.


title: GRAU

text: In particular, the GRAU is responsible for assigning GRAU indices to Russian army munitions and equipment.


title: GRAU

text: Arsenals of the GRAU, according to Kommersant-Vlast in 2005, include the 60th at Kaluga, the 55th at Rzhev, the 75th at Serpukhov south of Moscow, (all three in the Moscow Military District) and the 80th at Gagarskiy, the 116th at Krasno-Oktyabrskiy and the 5th, all in the Volga–Urals Military District.


title: GRAU

text: GRAU indices are of the form " ", sometimes with a further suffix " ". They may be followed by a specially assigned codename. For example "2 S 19  "Msta-S"", the 2S19 Msta self-propelled howitzer, has the index "2S19", without suffix; "Msta-S" is the codename.


title: GRAU

text: Several common misconceptions surround the scope and originating body of these indices. The GRAU designation is not an industrial designation, nor is it assigned by the design bureau. In addition to its GRAU designation, a given piece of equipment could have a design name, an industrial name and a service designation.


title: GRAU

text: For example, one of the surface-to-air missiles in the S-25 Berkut air defense system had at least four domestic designations:


title: GRAU

text: The first part of a GRAU index is a number indicating which of the several main categories of equipment a given item belongs to. The second part, a Cyrillic character, indicates the subcategory. The third part, a number, indicates the specific model. The optional suffix can be used to differentiate variants of the same model.


title: Parental alienation

text: Parental alienation is a theorized process through which a child becomes estranged from one parent as the result of the psychological manipulation of another parent. The child's estrangement may manifest itself as fear, disrespect or hostility toward the distant parent, and may extend to additional relatives or parties. The child's estrangement is disproportionate to any acts or conduct attributable to the alienated parent. Parental alienation can occur in any family unit, but is claimed to occur most often within the context of family separation, particularly when legal proceedings are involved, although the participation of professionals such as lawyers, judges and psychologists may also contribute to conflict.


title: Parental alienation

text: Proponents of the concept of parental alienation assert that it is primarily motivated by one parent's desire to exclude the other parent from their child's life. Some assert that parental alienation should be diagnosable in children as a mental disorder. Some propose that parental alienation be recognized as a form of child abuse or family violence. They assert that parental alienation creates stress on the alienated parent and the child, and significantly increases the child's lifetime risk of mental illness.


title: Parental alienation

text: Parental alienation remains controversial both within the psychological community and the legal system. The psychological community has not accepted parental alienation as a diagnosable mental condition. Critics note that alienating behaviors are common in high-conflict family situations such as child custody proceedings, but that the estrangement of a child from a parent remains rare. They assert that the research performed to date does not support the theory that parental alienation results in the harm described by proponents of the concept. They also express concern that a parent who has caused a child to become alienated, for example through acts of domestic violence or child abuse, may claim to be the victim of parental alienation to convince a court that the child's justified response to the abuse is the result of the other parent's misconduct and to potentially gain custody of the child. No diagnostic criteria have been established for parental alienation, and proposals made to date have not been established as reliable. No program of treatment has been demonstrated to be safe or valid, and proponents of parental alienation theory agree that more research into treatment is necessary.


title: Parental alienation

text: The theory of parental alienation has been asserted within legal proceedings as a basis for awarding custody to a parent who alleges estrangement, or to modify custody in favor of that parent. Courts have generally rejected parental alienation as a valid scientific theory, but some courts have allowed the concept to be argued as relevant to the determination of the child's best interests when making a custody determination. Legal professionals recognize that alienating behaviors are common in child custody cases, but are cautious about accepting the concept of parental alienation.


title: Parental alienation

text: Parental alienation describes the breakdown of the relationship between a child and one of the child's parents, when there is no valid justification for that breakdown. When parental alienation is found to exist between a parent and child, the alienation is attributed to inappropriate actions and behavior by the other parent.


title: Parental alienation

text: Parental alienation falls within the spectrum of family estrangement, a term that describes when family members become alienated from each other without regard to cause. As estrangement may occur between a parent and child for other reasons, it is possible to discuss alienation in terms of a child's having a preferred and a nonpreferred parent without implying that a child's avoidance of one parent is due to parental alienation.


title: Parental alienation

text: The concept of parental alienation is normally raised only in contexts in which the child's alienation from the parent is alleged to be unwarranted. Under that conception, estrangement from a parent falls into one of two broad categories:


title: Parental alienation

text: Justified parental estrangement is an understandable refusal by a child to see a parent, while parental alienation lacks justifiable reason, although there is no consensus regarding how to differentiate one from the other. There is no established means of assessing whether a child's feelings toward a parent are "irrational" or "without legitimate basis", complicating any effort to attribute a child's attitudes toward a parent to parental alienation.


title: Parental alienation

text: Alienating behaviors are often demonstrated by both parents in high-conflict divorce and child custody cases, but do not ordinarily result in alienation of a child from a parent and may backfire against the parent who engages in alienating behavior. Theories of parental alienation should explain how the relationship between the child and the rejected parent deteriorates, why under similar circumstances alienation may occur in one family but not another, and the relationship between alienating behaviors and the severity of a child’s alienation from a parent.


title: Parental alienation

text: In situations where a child avoids one parent and strongly prefers the other, the only behaviors that can be observed are avoidance and preference. Alienation by one parent thus cannot be directly measured, and is instead inferred from the child's behavior. Some researchers thus use "preferred" rather than "alienating" parent and "non-preferred" rather than "alienated", "rejected", or "targeted" parent.


title: Parental alienation

text: Although a number of theories have been proposed, there is no generally accepted theory of parental alienation, either as to its cause or to the motivation of the allegedly alienating parent. One theory of motivation suggests that parental alienation may occur when divorce triggers reenactment of a parent's childhood feelings of inadequacy or abandonment, and causes alienating parents to reenact psychological processes experienced during their own childhood. However, that theory does not explain alleged parental alienation that may occur in other contexts, nor in cases where there is no evidence of a parent's childhood trauma. Another theory of motivation posits that alienation is a form of harmful parenting by a parent who suffers from a personality disorder, specifically borderline personality disorder or narcissistic personality disorder. A divorce, breakup of a relationship or similarly difficult experience triggers feelings of inadequacy or abandonment that cause that parent to decompensate into persecutorial delusions, and to project their fears onto the other parent. However, parental alienation is frequently alleged in cases where neither parent has been diagnosed with a personality disorder.


title: Parental alienation

text: Studies suggest that independent of other marital issues, acts of parental alienation may be harmful to children. While not all adults who experience acts of parental alienation during childhood report negative consequences, many report outcomes that they attribute to parental alienation, including low self-esteem, addiction and substance abuse, trust issues, and relationship problems. For example, a retrospective study of adults found that independent of damage of a child's relationship with the other parent, perceived experiences with parental alienation during childhood correlate in adulthood with lower self-sufficiency, lower self-esteem, higher rates of major depressive disorder, and insecure attachment styles. A survey of self-reported childhood experiences of three hundred and sixty-one adults in Italy found that 42.1% of participants reported acts of parental alienation by their mothers, and 54.3% reported acts of parental alienation by their fathers. Reports of parental alienation were found to correlate with reports of psychological maltreatment.


title: Parental alienation

text: Assessment of the impact of parental alienation within the context of legal proceedings, such as child custody litigation, is complicated by the participation of other professionals, including psychologists, lawyers and judges, whose actions and decisions may negatively affect family relationships. Although alienating behaviors by parents are common in high-conflict divorces, most children do not become alienated from a parent as a result of that behavior.


title: Parental alienation

text: Some mental health professionals argue that severe parental alienation should be established as a form of emotional abuse and domestic violence. However, controversy persists as to whether parental alienation should be treated as a form of child abuse or family violence.


title: Parental alienation

text: No instrument or measure has been demonstrated to be valid or reliable in the assessment of parental alienation, or to diagnose parental alienation from any list of child behaviors. The claim that any individual behavior or cluster of behaviors demonstrates that the preferred parent has caused the child's avoidance is not based on empirical work and as an inference is the result of a problem of critical thinking called affirming the consequent. No diagnostic criteria have been proposed that can be applied to determine if a child's feelings toward a parent are irrational or disproportionate to the actions or behavior of the alienated parent. The absence of a valid and reliable assessment measure also means that it is difficult to evaluate whether parental alienation treatments are effective


title: Parental alienation

text: Although it has been proposed that parental alienation can be diagnosed in a child who displays some or all of a set of behaviors, the proposed criteria have not been studied empirically, and have not been demonstrated to occur more often in children who avoid one parent after high-conflict divorce than they do in children matched for age who are experiencing different stressors and do not have a strong preference for one parent. It is also necessary to diagnose the whole family system in order to avoid misattributing a child's estrangement to the actions of a parent. Further, symptoms that are claimed to suggest parental alienation may occur in a high-conflict divorce even without indoctrination by the favored parent, rendering them problematic for identification of improper parenting.


title: Parental alienation

text: Critics of this approach to diagnosis assert that if the behaviors can occur without an alienating parent, they cannot of themselves be used to determine if a child is demonstrating symptoms from parental alienation. The proposed list of behaviors has also been criticized as vague and subjective. For example, a child's claim to have independently formulated opinions of a rejected parent may be interpreted as "independent-thinker phenomenon", which is proposed as evidence of parental alienation, such that any statement a child makes about parental influence or lack thereof can be interpreted as confirmation of parental alienation.


title: Parental alienation

text: There is no generally recognized treatment protocol for parental alienation. A number of treatment models have been created for children deemed to show parental alienation, with some intensive models carried out after custody of the children has been transferred to the targeted parent. Five treatment programs were evaluated in terms of the levels of evidence provided by the empirical research said to support them. None were supported by research that met standards required for evidence-based treatments. Instead, they were at the third level of evidence, often called “promising”, as they involved before-and-after assessment of nonpreferred parents’ opinions rather than randomized controlled trials or clinical controlled trials using standardized assessments. Reports of some young adults who have been through one of these treatments suggest that as well as lacking an adequate evidence basis, the treatments may be either directly or indirectly harmful to children and adolescents.


title: Parental alienation

text: One form of reconciliation therapy, described by its proponents as family reunification therapy, involves court-ordered removal of children from their preferred parent and the requirement that they engage in intensive programs with the rejected parent. The safety and effectiveness of family reconciliation therapy, the scientific validity of that therapy, and the question of whether it may properly be considered by a court, are in dispute. Due to its unproven nature, this form of therapy has been criticized as "quack therapy". In order to avoid regulations and oversight that apply to psychological and medical treatment, these programs are often billed as educational or psycho-educational. These programs tend also to be very expensive. Some children who have been compelled to participate in family reunification therapy have reported that they were forced to deny their truthful complaints about the parent that was alleged to be alienated. A recent program evaluation of a four-day intervention called "Turning Point for Families" found preliminary evidence that the program could improve family relationships in situations where a court finds alienation.


title: Parental alienation

text: Parental alienation concepts have been used to argue for child custody changes when children resist contact with a non-preferred parent. The argument generally involves the request for a court order giving full custody to the nonpreferred parent and denying contact to the preferred parent. The child may also be ordered into a treatment program to facilitate reunification with the nonpreferred parent. The rationale of this argument is that the attitude and actions of children who reject a parent without clear evidence of abuse reflects mental illness. If that belief is correct then the child's mental disorder may be attributed to the actions of the preferred parent and, as the actions have harmed the child, those actions can be defined as abusive. Once an allegation of parental alienation is interpreted as abuse by a parent, that interpretation provides a strong argument against custody of or even contact with that parent. This line of argument, however, ignores other possible factors, such as the effect on a child of poor parenting skills of the nonpreferred parent or the influence of one or both parents’ new romantic partners, and depends on inferences about the behavior of the preferred parent rather than direct evidence of inappropriate parenting.


title: Parental alienation

text: A number of articles in professional journals have presented critiques of the manner in which parental alienation advocates have construed children's avoidance of one divorced or separated parent and strong preference for the other parent. Key among their concerns is that advocates of parental alienation concepts have presented a highly simplified explanation of visitation and contact resistance or refusal by children of couples in high-conflict divorces. As multiple factors are generally involved in human behavior, they assert that without direct evidence it is not appropriate to infer manipulation or exploitation by one parent as the cause of a child's preference for one parent over the other. Another concern is that there is a lack of evidentiary support for the concept of parental alienation, as proponents of this theory have failed to meet standards for evidence-based treatment and have never produced empirical support for claimed symptoms of alienation such as "black and white thinking".


title: Parental alienation

text: A particularly problematic aspect of the use of parental alienation concepts in child custody decisions is the possible association of allegations of alienating behavior by the preferred parent with allegations of domestic violence by the nonpreferred parent. As allegations of parental alienation can lead to court-ordered custody changes giving the nonpreferred parent full custody, and often including restraining orders against contact with the preferred parent, it becomes possible for a finding of parental alienation to cause children to be placed in the custody of a physically or sexually abusive parent.


title: Parental alienation

text: Although courts have long been concerned with the issue of parental estrangement, and how to safely reunite children with their estranged parents, research into the cause of parental estrangement frequently involves issues of selection bias, lack of operationalization, small sample size, misclassification, and other methodological concerns. There remain significant questions about whether there is sufficient evidence to accurately support claims about the cause, prevalence and consequence of parental estrangement, or appropriate interventions in cases where estrangement exists. Sound research in this area remains in its early stages, and further research is required that is designed to reduce the risk of misclassificaiton, produce findings that are reliable, and to identify appropriate interventions.


title: Parental alienation

text: In August 2010 Brazil passed the first national legislation prohibiting parental alienation. "Lei No. 12.318" which it defines "as the interference with the psychological formation of a child or adolescent that promotes repudiation of a parent or damage to the establishment or maintenance of ties with a parent, when such an act is practiced by a parent, grandparent, those who have the child or adolescent under their authority, custody, or supervision." A judge who finds that parental alienation has occurred may issue a warning, may modify the custody arrangement in favor of the alienated parent, may order counseling, or may place the alienated child in an interim residence.


title: Parental alienation

text: In England, the Children and Family Court Advisory and Support Service (Cafcass) was formed to promote the welfare of children and families involved family court cases. Cafcass recognizes the possibility of parental alienation in family separation cases. Cafcass has developed a Child Impact Assessment Framework (CIAF) that is focused on understanding the child's personal experience of parental separation as a tool to help courts make more informed decisions about the best interests of the children. Alienation is specifically identified and assessed within that framework.


title: Parental alienation

text: In Israel, parental alienation is known as ""nikor horim"", and some courts are receptive to efforts to attempt to reunify children who have been estranged or alienated from a parent, although concerns remain that there is little empirical evidence to support the concept of parental alienation. In order to expedite the resolution of custody cases and disputes, some jurisdictions in Israel have implemented pilot projects for cases involving child custody and enforcement of visitation orders.


title: Parental alienation

text: In the former Federal District of Mexico, an area that is officially equivalent to Mexico City, 323 "Septimus" of the Civil Code prohibited a family member from transforming the conscience of a minor so as to prevent, hinder or interfere with the minor's relationship with one of the minor's parents. If a court found that such acts had occurred and were of mild or moderate nature, and that the person responsible for the alienation was the father, the court was required to transfer custody to the other parent. If the court found that the degree of parental alienation attributable to the father was severe, all contact with the father of the child was required to be suspended, and the child was required to receive counseling. This provision was repealed by the Legislative Assembly of Mexico City in 2007 and again, after its reenactment, in 2017.


title: Parental alienation

text: Although Ireland does not have legislation on parental alienation, in 2020, for the first time in a child access case a judge described a parent's actions as "parental alienation". During 2019 to 2021 thirty of the thirty-one Irish councils have asked the government to recognise and address parental alienation. In 2021 the Irish Government included international parental alienation research and public consultation in its Justice Action Plan.


title: Parental alienation

text: Although all states have custody laws that require courts to consider how parents' actions affect the best interests of their children, no federal or state laws that incorporate the concept of parental alienation have been passed. Some courts recognize parental alienation as a serious issue with potential long-term effects and serious outcomes for the child. Other jurisdictions may suspend child support in cases where parental alienation occurs. For example, in a New York case in which the father was prevented from seeing his son by the child's mother through a "pattern of alienation", child support was suspended. Some United States courts have tried to address the issue through mandated reunification therapy.


title: Parental alienation

text: Due to the nature of allegations of parental alienation, many courts require that a qualified expert witness testify in support of allegations of parental alienation or in association with any allegation that a parent has a mental health disorder.


title: Parental alienation

text: An examination of parental alienation U.S. custody decisions, based upon a review of appellate cases, found that courts are significantly more skeptical of child physical and sexual abuse allegations made by mothers as compared to similar claims made by fathers, rendering parental alienation a powerful defense for fathers accused of abuse but not for mothers. A subsequent, smaller study disputed that conclusion.


title: Parental alienation

text: The term parental alienation is derived from parental alienation syndrome, a term introduced by Richard Gardner in 1985 to describe a set of behaviors that he had observed in children exposed to family separation or divorce whereby children rejected or showed what he interpreted as unwarranted negative feelings towards one of their parents.


title: Parental alienation

text: The idea that children may be turned against one of their parents, or may reject a parent unjustifiably during family breakdown, has been recognized for centuries. The position that many family estrangements result from such a process of psychological manipulation, undue influence or interference by a third party (rather than from genuine interactions between the estranged parties themselves) is less well-recognized.


title: Parental alienation

text: Parental alienation syndrome (PAS) was proposed by child psychiatrist Richard Gardner as a means of diagnosing parental alienation within a family by virtue of identifying a cluster of symptoms that he hypothesized would only co-exist if a parent were engaged in alienating behavior. This theory involved looking for a set of psychological symptoms in a child and proposing PAS as a basis for concluding that those symptoms were caused by harmful parenting practices. One psychologist disputes the characterization of PAS as a new syndrome, proposing instead that the phenomenon is best viewed as a combination of psychological problems, with the issue being how to develop effective treatment.


title: Parental alienation

text: No mental health organizations recognized parental alienation syndrome. In 2008, the American Psychological Association noted that there is a lack of data to support the concept of parental alienation syndrome, but took no official position on the syndrome. A 2009 survey of mental health and legal professionals found broad skepticism of the concept of parental alienation syndrome, and caution in relation to the concept of parental alienation.


title: Parental alienation

text: In 2012, in anticipation of the release of the DSM-5, the fifth version of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, an argument was made for the inclusion of PAS in the DSM-5 as a diagnosis related to parental alienation. The argument was based upon the position that parental alienation and a variety of other descriptions of behaviors represent the underlying concept of parental alienation disorder. Despite lobbying by proponents, the proposal was rejected in December 2012.


title: Parental alienation

text: With the exclusion of PAS from the DSM-V, some advocates for the recognition of parental alienation as a diagnosable condition have argued that elements of parental alienation are covered in the DSM-5 under the concept of "Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of Clinical Attention", specifically, "Child Affected by Parental Relationship Distress". Those advocates assert that children who are exposed to intimate partner distress between their parents may develop psychological symptoms as a result of that exposure. However, relational issues are not mental disorders or diagnoses, but are instead considered to be problems that may be relevant for diagnosis or treatment of a diagnosable disorder. While parent-child estrangement can serve as an example of a relational problem such as "Child Affected by Parental Relationship Distress", the observation of a relational issue is not a diagnosis.


title: Parental alienation

text: As the psychological and psychiatric communities did not accept the concept of a "syndrome", the term "parental alienation" was advanced in the 1990s as a possible explanation of a child's behavior independent of a psychological or psychiatric diagnosis. Among theories of parental alienation that have been proposed, psychologists have argued that the term parental alienation may be used in a manner synonymous with the original formulation of parental alienation syndrome, with diagnosis based upon signs observable in children, that it may be used to describe the process or tactics by which a child becomes alienated from a parent, or to describe the outcomes for parents and others who have experienced unwarranted rejection by a child.


title: Parental alienation

text: Some empirical research has been performed, though the quality of the studies vary widely and research in the area is still developing. One complicating factor for research is that high numbers of parents involved in high conflict custody disputes engage in alienating or indoctrinating behaviors, but only a small proportion children become alienated.


title: Parental alienation

text: In an informal survey at the Association of Family and Conciliation Courts in 2010, 98% of the 300 respondents agreed with the question, "Do you think that some children are manipulated by one parent to irrationally and unjustifiably reject the other parent?". Survey participants were divided as to whether a rejected parent partially blame when a child becomes alienated from a parent and the other parent is exhibiting alienating behaviors, and by a significant margin rejected the inclusion of parental alienation in the DSM. However, parental alienation refers not to the acts of manipulation, but rather to the child's rejection of a parent that results from alienating behavior.


title: Parental alienation

text: United States courts have broadly rejected parental alienation syndrome as a concept that may be presented in a child custody case, but it remains possible to argue within child custody litigation that parental alienation has occurred and to demonstrate how a parent's alienating behaviors should be considered by a court when evaluating a custody case. Behaviors that result in parental alienation may reflect other mental health disorders, both on the part of the alienating parent and the rejected parent that, if proved, remain relevant to a custody determination. The behavior of the alienated child may also be a relevant factor. However, single-factor explanations for a child's estrangement from a parent have not proved valid, and multi-factor models are more complex and difficult to argue in a court setting.


title: Parental alienation

text: In late 2005, a Canadian activist named Sarvy Emo proposed that March 28 be designated Parental Alienation Awareness Day. The proposed date was later modified to April 25. The date has received some level of recognition, such as a 2006 proclamation by the Governor of Georgia recognizing April 25 as Parental Alienation Awareness Day, and its unofficial recognition by the Governor of Nevada in 2007.


title: Parental alienation

text: There are also organizations that actively oppose the use of the concept of parental alienation and the making of custody decisions based on this belief system. For example, the Center for Judicial Excellence argues against the use of the parental alienation argument in custody cases. In 2019 the American Professional Society on Abuse of Children (APSAC) posted on its website a recommendation against using the parental alienation concept or claiming that when a child rejects a parent, emotional abuse by the preferred parent has taken place. The Institute on Violence, Abuse, and Trauma (IVAT) devoted a three-hour session at its September 2019 meeting to arguments opposing the use of parental alienation concepts and related claims.