title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The financing of the church was accompanied by many problems. During the initial building phase 1935 to 1941 financing was secured through a public association and donations from the king. From 1985 to 1999 public donations and collections were the only available resources. In 2001 Zoran Đinđić reinstalled the association for the construction of the church which worked from 2002 on. In 2004 the exterior of the church would be completed. Greek donations financed the facade, for which marble slabs from the same country were installed. In 2004 Boris Tadiċ took the chair of the association, and at the end of 2004 help from the Russian Orthodox Church was asked for the finalization of the interior. A fundraising event was held at the Cathedral of Christ the Savior in Moscow, where the Russian Patriarch Alesej II welcomed Yugoslav president Tadić and Patriarch Pavle. The concretization of the interior works were discussed with Zurab Tseretelli 2009, In 2009, Russian president Dmitri Medvedev visited the church, asked if Russia was willing to finance part of the interior decoration he replied: "why only a part, when we could do all"?. Vladimir Putin's first visit to the church in March 2011 secured his personal patronage for mosaic works. Patriarch Irenj, asked by Putin's who would decorate the interior, answered "with God's help, we will do it and with Your support" - Putin replied "budet" ("it will be"). State agreement was signed in Moscow 19 March 2012, a presidential decree Pr-1197 from 9 April 2011 enabled holding of a competition for the mosaics. From 2005 the Pošta Srbije collected funds through charity stamps worth 10 Dinar with every item of correspondence. The Serbian government also financed works with budgetary funds. As for 2019, approximately 100 million Euros had been spent on the church: for mosaics 40 million Euros, for other works in the interior 10 million, for the exterior construction approximately 50 million. This totalled roughly 100 million. Of these, 40 million came from government funds, Russia donated 10 million, and the rest was paid through private donations.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The church is centrally planned edifice, having the form of a Greek Cross. It has a large central dome supported on four pendentives and buttressed on each side by a lower semi-dome over an apse. Beneath each semi-dome is a gallery supported on an arcade. The general concept is heavily based on the Hagia Sophia. Its main construction idea stems from the central square beneath the dome, it is closely related to the geometry used by Isidore of Miletus and Anthemius of Tralles. The central square in both churches has sidelines of 31 m, resulting in domes with approximately the same diameter (the dome of Hagia Sophia is slightly larger as it extends by approximately 0,5 the central square). The main differences in the dome structure is the high tambour in Saint Sava and that it is double-shelled. The low dome of Haghia Sophia was designed as calotte in which base 40 windows were set. As thus, both domes are built on pendentives at 40 m height, the dome of Saint Sava is approximately 10 m higher (54 to 67 m). The naos of the church is 46 m wide and 46 m long. The space behind the iconostasis will not be public, it is 21,80 wide and 17 m long. The church interior has on three sides narthexes of which two have 9 m depth and 31,70 m width. Within the north and south narthex two small chapels will be created. The narthex to the main entrance in the west is 2 m longer and has four more columns than the other two. Above the narthexes are three galleries with the one of the west side assigned to the church choir. As of 2019 the marble iconostasis is in work and will have six main icons and three doors. On the left and right sides of the iconostasis are bishopric seats.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The dome is high, while the main gold-plated cross is another high, which gives a total of to the height Church of Saint Sava. The peak is above the sea level ( above the Sava River); therefore the church holds a dominant position in Belgrade's cityscape and is visible from all approaches to the city.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The church is long from east to west, and from north to south. It is tall, with the main gold-plated cross extending for more. Its domes have 18 more gold-plated crosses of various sizes, while the bell towers have 49 bells of the Austrian Bell Foundry "Grassmayr".


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The church has a bigger floor area than Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, which covers 3980 m, compared to 4500 m of Saint Sava. Saint Sava is also longer 91 m vs 77,7 m and wider 81 m vs 72,42 m, it also has a bigger diameter of its dome 30,5 m vs 25 m. The dome of the Moscow cathedral is higher so, 77,37 m vs 103,4 m. Interestingly, both cathedrals resemble the Haghia Sophia in its structural design, they've been designed based on the arrangement of the central square in the Haghia Sophia. Thus they exemplify the importance of the imperial Byzantine church for main edifices in Orthodox sacral architecture.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: On the inspiration that was drawn from Haghia Sophia, Deroko noted that two guiding principles were followed in designs for the Church of Saint Sava – the imperative of functionality of planning, and the monumentality of space and form. Looking back at the start of construction, Deroko commented on the challenges of designing a functional space for 10.000 people, which was done with reference to the architects' data, the seminal handbook by Ernst Neufert. He also noted information about the thirty-metre diameter of the dome, making an obviously important comparison with the dome of Haghia Sophia. Although the size of Saint Sava is not necessarily associated with monumentality in Deroko's opinion, the appearance and size of the St. Sava's church greatly mattered as it was to be a monument of national importance.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The dome of Saint Sava is built in the classical style as a compound dome with four pendentives from a sphere of greater radius than the dome. It has an inner diameter of 30,50 m and an outer of 35,15 m, resembling the dimensions of the Hagia Sophia (it had initially a realized diameter of 33 m). The dome rests on four 40 m-high vaults, the square of the central space below the dome is 39,72 m wide and occupies 1.578 m. The double-shelled dome is 27 m high and reaches to 67 m on the outside and on its inner side to 64,56 m height. Thus the dome of Saint Sava is slightly higher than its archetype of the Hagia Sophia (56 m). The dome supports a cross weighing four metric tonnes and 12 m height (including its not visible base). Its visible part is 10 m.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: After the Hagia Sophia, the dome of Saint Sava is the biggest in any Orthodox church. The celebrated dome of the Hagia Sophia, built by Isidore of Miletus and mathematician Anthemius of Tralles, was initially at 33 m which was reconstructed from the mathematical formulas used by its Byzantine architects. Today, after having been rebuilt three times, it has an elliptic form with the diameters 31,24 m and 30,86 m.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Among all Christian religious buildings, the pendentive domes of Hagia Sophia (33 m, initially realized diameter), St Paul's Cathedral (30,8 m), Florence Cathedral (43 m), St. Peter's Basilica (42 m), Berlin Cathedral (30,7 m), and Primatial Basilica of the Blessed Virgin Mary (33 m) have larger or approximately the same inner diameters to Saint Sava's. Other than Hagia Sophia, none of them were built on four piers and with four vaults. Among the mentioned domes, Saint Sava's has 24 m-wide vaults, only surpassed by Hagia Sophia's (31 m). The much bigger dome of St. Peter's Basilica has main vaults of only 23 m.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: If compared to the biggest domes realised in Orthodoxy, Saint Sava surpasses by large the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, whose dome has 29,8 m (outer) and 25 m (inner) diameters, the Kronstadt Naval Cathedral with 29,8 m (outer) and 26,7 m (inner) diameters and the Saint Isaac's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg with 25,8 m (outer) and 21,8 m (inner) diameters.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: In addition to its big diameter, the dome of Saint Sava has significant interior height as well. With 65 m (from the floor to the ceiling) it is the fourth-tallest dome (by interior height) of Orthodox Christianity, surpassed only by the domes of People's Salvation Cathedral in Bucharest (104 m), Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow (69.5 m) and Saint Isaac's Cathedral in Saint Petersburg (69 m).


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The design of the cross is a blend of the conception of the sculptural ideas of Nebojša Mitrić, who was of Jewish descent and a survivor of the Holocaust, and the architectural ideas of Branko Pešić. The 12 m high, 5 m wide and 4 tonnes weighing cross was worked in the organization Modul, it was finished in Prva Iskra, Barić, where Mitrić oversaw the works. Afterwards it was transported to the building-site. Here it was put in a special hangar, where it could be gold-plated. The gold plating was done by Sava and Dragomir Dimitrijević, who did the gold plating for all 18 crosses of the church.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The cross was lifted in May 1989 prior to the lifting of the dome to its presumed location, which was achieved in only 15 minutes. After the cross became visible on the city scape, the media criticised its modernistic design. Mitrić and Pešić used a minimalistic approach, which was not to everyone's taste. But most criticism stemmed from the invocation of the four S, symbolizing a Serbian Heraldic Cross, which was in former Yugoslavia seen as a symbol only of Serbdom. After the attacks, Mitrić, who lost his whole family in the Holocaust committed suicide on 23 August 1989. Later the cross became one of the most copied crosses in the Serbian Orthodox Church and is commonly referred as Sava's Cross. Like Mitrić' previous works, which were famous for their miniature sculpturing (i.e. the medals for the Winter-Olympics 1984 in Sarajevo), the cross' elegance and harmonic shape with a minimalistic conception in the main emblems were unique.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The facade of the church was mainly executed in white marble. It covers 12.000 m. The polished Grecian Volakas marble from Kavalla took 14 months to install. Cornices are made of red Balmoral granite from Finland. It covers 120 m on the dome and the half-domes. The pedestal is made of 80 m black Jablanica granite from Bosnia. The stones in the facade weigh 3.000 tonnes.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The interior with naos, three side arms and the altar has a surface area of on the ground floor, with three galleries of on the first level, and a gallery on the second level. The church can hold 10,000 faithful. The choir gallery seats 800 singers. The basement contains a crypt, the treasury of Saint Sava, and the grave church of Saint Lazar the Hieromartyr, with a total surface of .


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The church will offer a permanent exhibition about the construction of the church, a bell information gallery and one that informs on the life of Saint Sava. At the northeastern and southeastern pillar, two elevators are being installed to reach the dome galleries. The northern and southern entrance halls have baptism fonts, a third at gallery level is on the northern side of the altar.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The material of the sixteen great columns in the choir were imported from Italy in 1939. The capitals are made of Carrara marble, the columns by green marble from Baveno. The motifs of the capitals were designed by Aleksandar Deroko and were largely executed by Josif Grassi before WW II.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The main iconostasis is made of iron trusses on which slabs of Carrara marble will be installed. The whole construction of the approximately 20 metre-wide iconostasis will weigh 100 tonnes. It will be decorated with mosaic icons. Work on the iconostasis as of August 20, 2020 was in progress. It will consist of one row of icons.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The great central wheel chandelier () is the main circular lightning device of the church and will be cast in bronze. With a diameter of 20 m, it will weigh approximately 14 tonnes. The chandelier in Saint Sava will be the greatest and heaviest of the world. The author of the chandelier is Nikolaj Mukhin, who also designed the mosaic decoration in the church. It will be decorated with wooden icons. The chandelier at 7,5 m above the floor basement in the circular space below the dome will be attached with 12 suspension chains to anchors in the church walls. With its decoration of stylized ornaments it will be reminiscent of the Serbian of the Middle Ages for which Serbian kings had been royal patrons. The two who at least were commissioned by royal patrons are those from Dečani Monastery in Kosovo and Metohija and Markov Monastery near Skopje which have been preserved until today.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Information on Russian interests to contribute to the mosaic cladding became public during the 2009 visit of the director of the Russian Academy of Arts, Zurab Tsereteli, to the church. Gazprom Neft was mentioned as sponsor. 2011 saw a state visit of Vladimir Putin during which he announced financial contribution to the mosaics. First assessments showed that 30 million Euros would be necessary for having all the interior done in mosaic cladding. An initial donation of 4 million from Gazprom Neft allowed first stage works in the dome to start. Gazprom deployed a representative to the meetings of the Russian Academy. The central meeting discussing the implementation of works was held on 13 November 2015 in Belgrade. Rossotrudnicestvo and its director, Lubov Nikolaevna Glebova, the designated Russian representative for the interior decoration, were present, as were the president of Serbia and its minister of foreign affairs.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: A second tranche over 5 million Euros was guaranteed personally by Vladimir Putin on 17 January 2019 during his visit to the church.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Putin advised a decrete, Pr-1197, 29 April 2011 that a state competition could be held in Moscow for the interior mosaic decoration of the Sava Cathedral. It was followed by a state agreement between the ministries of foreign affairs of Russia and Serbia on 19 March 2012. A competition with 50 entries was held in the gallery of the Russian Academy in Moscow, ul. Prechistenka 19, on 23 September 2014. On 5 October 2014, the work of Nikolay Aleksandrovich Mukhin was declared the best. His project was presented to the president of Serbia, the Serbian minister of foreign affairs and the bishop Amfilohije as the representative of the Serbian Orthodox church. Mukhin had chosen the classical Byzantine gold mosaics of the palaiologeen epoch of the 12th century as his inspiration.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Authors of the mosaics are Nikolay Aleksandrovich Mukhin (Николай Александрович Мухин, *1955), who composed the frescoes in the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour in Moscow, and his fellow Yevgeniy Nikolayevich Maksimov (Евгений Николаевич Максимов, *1948), director of the department of painting at the Russian Academy of Arts in Moscow. The authors scaled a model of the dome at 1:10 in the Russian Academy, which was later installed in the Russian Embassy in Belgrade. Mukhin visited the church for the first time 1994 in official company of Patriarch Alexy II of Moscow who held service with Patriarch Pavle. Alexy returned in 1999 during the bombardment of Yugoslavia. Mukhin later worked in Serbia in various church decorations from 2002. Prior to Saint Sava, his main work in Serbia was the decoration of the church in Ub (Crkva Vasnesenja Hrista) which had to be built anew after an earthquake shook the Kolubara basin in 1998 and where he worked from 2003. He then was a member of the board of cultural advisors to Putin, whom he had known since the early 2000s. Mukhin has painted 18 churches worldwide, four of them in Serbia, despite being a Russian painter, Mukhin stated that he tries to paint close to the culture that the church belongs to. He explained that in 1994 his first idea came to decorate Saint Sava. As the church encloses an immense space, he stated that for him a golden decoration was the only possibility and that it signified the Transfiguration of Jesus. His main task, he said, was to make the church interior shine from its golden surfaces, he as author saw it as symbol to transfiguration. The impression of the light as a medium of sacral illustration will also be enhanced by illumination of certain scenes according to the church calendar. An impulse in the lighting will change from warm to cool tones, dependent on the religious feast. The smelt of the Tessara was made in Moscow and for the golden and silver Tesserae, pure gold and silver were used. Despite having worked in the Moscow Cathedral of Christ the Saviour, the task in decorating Saint Sava was of different magnitude, as the dome and size of scenes are much larger and the artistic media more complex.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Realization of the mosaic works began on 28 September 2016 with the visit of Hilarion, director of the church Foreign Office in the Moscow Patriarchate and chairman of the Russo-Serbian commission at the Russian Academy. Zurab Tsereteli, Nikolaj Mukhin, Yevgeniy Maksimov and the acting director to the support of UNESCO, Manana Popova, presented the approved scale model.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The first seating of the commission for the mosaic works to place on 17 March 2017 in the Moscow atelier where the mosaic artwork was created.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Zurab Tsereteli as the coordinator of the artistic works expressed his gratitude to the authors at this first meeting. All mosaics were commissioned in the Moscow atelier in their original size, then cut and transported to Belgrade. The first ten tonnes of mosaics arrived in Belgrade on 3 May 2017. With a working platform at 43 m in the church, the mosaics were lifted with a specially constructed elevator.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The artists of the mosaics were chosen from the Moscow School of Painting, Sculpture and Architecture in Moscow and the Repin Institute of Arts at the Imperial Academy of Arts in Saint Petersburg.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The central mosaic in the dome depicts the Ascension of Jesus and represents Resurrected Christ, sitting on a rainbow and right hand raised in blessing, surrounded by four angels, Apostles and Theotokos. This composition is inspired by the mosaics in the main dome of St Mark's Basilica in Venice. The lower sections are influenced by the Gospel of Luke and the first narratives of the Acts of the Apostles. The texts held by the angels are written in the Church Slavonic language, while the names of the depicted persons are written in Greek. The first indicates pan-Slavic sentiment while the latter connects it to the Byzantine traditions. The total painted area of the dome is .


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: It is one of the largest curved areas decorated with the mosaic techniques and when the work is completely finished, Saint Sava will be the 6th-largest church building in the world ornamented this way after St. Peter's Basilica in Vatican City, the People's Salvation Cathedral in Bucharest (also unfinished), the Basilica of the National Shrine of the Immaculate Conception in Washington, D.C, Primatial Basilica of the Blessed Virgin Mary in Esztergom and Berlin Cathedral. The mosaic was created for over a year in Russia, during 2016 and 2017. It was then cut and transported by special trucks to Belgrade. The total weight of the mosaic is 40 tons and it was placed on the dome from May 2017 to February 2018. The 3,289 m mosaic installed at the eastern wing section, the side of the altar covers 3,289 m.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The material for the tessera is produced by Smaltfactory in Moscow. The enterprise's gold mosaics use pure gold (24k). It is reasonable to suggest that for approximately 400 tonnes of mosaic in total, that a great part of the costs comes from the price of precious materials. Beside pure gold, a great deal of the tessera also has pure silver in its content. The pure precious metal content prevents the materials from changing as time passes. Only pure gold's natural colour is not changed by the high temperatures during the smelting process in the kiln. The highly reflective properties of the gold tessera and the differences of angles where the mosaics are installed will produce differences in reflection, a technique that is used to blur the background and constructive elements of a church's interior.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Capitals and cornices show a variety of sculptures. The heraldic symbols of the Nemanjić-Dynasty are a dominant motif. Floral motifs and anthropomorphic figures are inspired by the rich sculptural tradition of the Morava school. The main author of the stone ornaments of the interior decoration was initially Aleksandar Deroko, whose plans were executed on all of the capitals at the columns between narthexes and naos and the altar apse. They were executed by the Swiss sculptor Josif Grassi prior to WW II. After the long delay during the communist period, the decorative work was overseen by Dragomir Acović and executed by Nebojša Savović Neš. A variety of different white marbles from Italy and Greece, green marbles from Italy, South America and India, dark and bright red marbles from Italy and India, yellow and greenish onyx, white limestone, red and white travertin and blue lapis lazuli. These decorative stones cover 1500 m.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Discontinuous construction over decades produced numerous mistakes, one of which is the surrounding of the church which remained unfinished and nonfunctional. The construction of the National Library in 1973 affected massively the originally envisioned 1926 design by Deroko and Nestorović. Three architectural design competitions for arranging the plateau which surrounds the church (Vračar or Saint Sava's Plateau) were organized after World War II. One of the rejected but popular designs, Mihajlo Mitrović and Mario Jobst's, was invoked. Using denivelation of the Bulevar Oslobođenja, they envisioned the wide pedestrian connection with the Park Milutin Milanković across the boulevard. Denivelation would also allow for two large garages one of which would be used by the church visitors. The square in front of the temple would have green areas on its rim, and would include the Alley of the Greats (with monuments to all major members of the medieval Nemanjić dynasty), while the section across the boulevard would be adapted into the green, children area.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: On the fourth competition, organized in 1989, the project designed by architects Vladimir Macura and Đorđe Bobić was finally accepted in 1990. As with all the other aspects of the church construction, this one was controversial, too, as it was publicly criticized with disputes even reaching the courts of law. Citizens organized in groups and signed petitions against the project under the slogan "We don't want New Belgrade on Vračar, we want small Montmartre around the church". Construction finally began in 2003, and the works were ceremonially opened by prime minister Zoran Živković. The works were pushed in order to be finished by February 2004, for celebration of 200th anniversary of the First Serbian Uprising. The plateau covers some , of which was transformed into the park by 2010.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Bobić explained that the design was influenced by the Kalemegdan Park at Belgrade Fortress. Though it was envisioned by the church and politicians as the churchyard, the authors opted for public space, a green square, or even the park. This urban square was also envisioned as the ceremonial site of important events. The conceptualized "walls" of the square were the National Library on one side, and the Parochial Home (clergy house) and the planned Patriarchate Building on another. The building of the National library was designed by Ivo Kurtović and finished in 1973, while the Parochial Home, with facade of shining, white stone, is the work of Mateja Nenadović and his sons Miloš and Đorđe. The Patriarchate Building wasn't built. When built, the Parochial Home was deemed especially problematic, including its location inside the planned green area. It was also deemed too big for its location while the Patriarchate Building, planned in its extension, was deemed even worse as it was to be three times larger. The old Church of Saint Sava remained dwarfed between the new church and the Parochial Home. The cubical design of the Parochial Home remained almost universally disliked.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The traffic around the church was rerouted, with all bordering streets becoming one-way in order to make circling the church possible. The bus stop for public transportation was envisioned in the Skerlićeva street, below the church, but the public transportation line was never established. A parking lot was built behind the library, but only for the library purpose. The architects reject the idea of a large garage, either above or below ground, as the regulation didn't allow it at the time, plus, the authors believed that due to the nature of the object, people should come on foot anyway. Smaller underground garages, for Parochial Home and Patriarchate Building were planned, but never built. Krušedolska Street, along which the Patriarchate Building was planned, was to be expanded to become a "major city thoroughfare". This never happened, but the avenue along the street was cut under the pretext of this plan. The traffic solution was also criticized as some urbanists stated that all of the small streets behind the church should become pedestrian zones, with galleries, coffee and sweet shops, artistic squares, souvenir shops, etc.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The physical churchyard and the public space are divided by the symbolical "living fence", which consists only of columns, with spaces between. There is a ground floor fountain, made of glass and stone, which covers and is used as the pathway when not operational. The fountain is ornamented with lights. The entire square is used for walking, even the grassy areas, though there are relatively narrow pedestrian paths made of Jablanica marble. To enhance its "friendly" appearance. the plateau is completely flat, except for the mound with the Karađorđe Monument. Almost of earth was removed from the plateau to flatten it. The plan included the planting of 400 trees, but after the first ones began to dry soon, this was abandoned. The Russian Orthodox Church-donated statue of Saint Sava which was placed on the side facing the street bearing the saint's name. There are two children's playgrounds.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: As the result of the accepted plan, even though the new buildings in Vračar and neighboring Neimar were to have only three floors, buildings with six or seven floors were allowed. Urban historians claim that this damaged the inherited urban tissue of Vračar and Neimar. Construction of tall buildings in the narrow, small streets destroyed the neighborhood's ambiance and spirit.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: In time, due to the lack of maintenance, the plateau had deteriorated. Among other things, numerous granite slabs, used for paving of the churchyard and the pathways, crumbled and fell out, leaving holes. Scandal broke out during the visit of Russian president Vladimir Putin in January 2019 because of the sloppy repairs by the city communal service. Instead of replacing the missing slabs, workers had even removed some more of them and created patches, filling the holes with asphalt concrete which became laugh of the town.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: In January 2020, deputy mayor Goran Vesić announced a complete redesign of the plateau and the construction of the Patriarchate Building. The project was designed by architects Branislav Mitrović and Dejan Miljković. The project wasn't adopted by the city or any experts' commission or jury, but by the Serbian Orthodox Church itself. The central pedestrian pathway is to be expanded and between the library and the new Patriarchate Building an artificial forest, partially growing out of the water, was to be planted. The existing fountain will be dismantled and the new one "will not be a classical fountain". Though city officials claimed that there will be more green areas, from the officially presented architectural model it was obvious that there may be more trees, but less green areas overall. The first, smaller phase on the outskirts of the plateau were planned for October 2020, when the church should finally be finished.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The design was criticized by the Association of Serbian Architects. They stated that the planned “forest” would degrade the historical, symbolical and social importance by reducing the area to the profane city park. It was also noted that mass gatherings organized on the plateau (funeral processions for Patriarch Pavle and prime minister Zoran Đinđić, the visit of Russian president Vladimir Putin) showed that the area's space is inadequate as it is. The massive Patriarchate Building, though planned from the start, is also deemed problematic. It is considered too big and robust for its location. It will also enclose the Krušedolska Street, the tenants in it, and obstruct the view from the street's numerous cafés on the park which has a touristic value. There are calls for keeping the square-like shape of the present plateau or even expanding it as it basically functions as the extended, open-air narthex of the church and should have room for as many visitors as possible as the 1990 design only addressed local residents' needs, neglecting the area's spiritual and religious character.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: There were repeated calls for either an international or a domestic public design competition, instead of the clandestine process by which the church itself selected the design of public space.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The church has 49 bells. Four free-swinging bells are in the SW tower. The remaining 45 are part of a carillon, the only ones in the Balkans. All bells were manufactured at the Grassmayr Bell Foundry in Innsbruck, Austria. All bells have been paid for by private donations. The fourth-largest bell is dedicated to Zoran Đinđić during whose presidency the building of the church was restarted after the Yugoslav wars. The biggest bell is a donation of Svetislav Prlinčević for which 110.000 dollars were paid. The carillon plays regularly the hymn of Saint Sava.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The architecture of the church has been criticised in several ways through several epochs. It was especially debated after the second competition for Saint Sava in 1926–27, when no first prize was awarded, and after Patriarch Varnava assigned Bogdan Nestorović (1901–1975) in 1930 as winner of a second prize as principal architect to synthesise his plan with Aleksandar Deroko (1894-1988). The result was now asked to resemble the appearance of the Haghia Sophia in Istanbul, which hadn't been a requirement during the competition. The guidelines required an edifice in the Serbian tradition of the late medieval period under Stefan Lazar (i.e. the five-domed churches of the Morava monasteries). Nestorović's own competition entry, based on the most-acclaimed achievement of Serbian medieval architecture, the katholikon of the Gračanica monastery, had also circumvented competition guidelines. Most of the 22 participants had deliberately chosen Haghia Sophia as inspiration. Few entries used modern designs with expressionistic features. Thus Haghia Sophia was the chosen archetype even during the official contest. Most Serbian critics considered this unfitting, as it was not in the national tradition. The universal sacral expression of the Haghia Sophia did albeit fit requirements in the heterogeneous Yugoslav state, which consisted of many different religions and nationalities.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: After a criticism campaign started early 1932 in the newsletter Vreme, the most important art debate in the former Yugoslavia began to unfold. It led to the intervention of King Alexander I of Yugoslavia, who approved the reworked plans of Nestoroviċ and Deroko. Nestorović's change of model from "Gracanica" to "Haghia Sophia" is attributed to the new demands of the king and the clerics. The architects had each to present a plaster model at 1:100 scale, that appeared on 6 and 7 January 1932 in the Politika newspaper. Later that year, a new design, the final model, was presented.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Even after this had been adopted, the debate continued. Especially modern art-critics, analyzing the ideological circumstances of the 1930 debate, labelled its appearance clumsy, non-inventive or a reproduction.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Ljubica Jelisavac, art historian and art critic from the University of Arts in Belgrade, noted that the criticism was primarily based on ideological differences between traditionalists and modernists. Thus the real architectural achievement of the building was left marginalized in the debate. It was not even a topic inside art critic and architecture circles, but it wasn't omitted, that the decision to follow a traditionalistic design programme has been partly detrimental for architectural tendencies in Serbia in the interwar period.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Milica Ćeranić defended the architectural achievement and stylistical form. She stated that the well-proportioned and harmonic interior of the church is a result of a cohesion in designing the exterior and the interior. To achieve this, the architects used a rigorously centralized arrangement, which is especially known from early Christianity. The spheric and cubic elements are especially exponentiated - domes, exterior walls, shapes of openings, the stratification of facade surfaces, capitals and columns - with the excellent mastering of all these elements, apparent in their volume, a memorable impression is given.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: She points to the fact that the greatest impression to the percipient lies in the gradual pyramidal composition of the structure, which starts harmoniously from its portals across the conchs and representatively culminates in the dome. Observable at all four sides of the wings, whereby the western, southern and northern are identical, this cascading of the masses is most interesting and has the strongest imprint on the east wing, the side of the altar. The apse is polygonal, or rather pentagonal, thereby showing on its upper surface five small conchs, which correspond to five conchs on the lower side of the east facade. Thereby a synchronized effect in the development of the masses is realized, which are linked in sophisticated wave-like structures, that break the monolithic, square-build forms of the rigid walls.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Italian art critic and professor of Architectural Design at Milan University, Pier Paolo Tamburelli, praised the building. He claimed that the building possesses an incredibly pure and dignified interior. With its large dome and with its four apses it has a unified and well-developed, profound and dense space. While based on classical examples, Tamburelli notes its own ferocity and gentleness which is expressed in the sensitivity to light.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Tamburelli notes that he wonders if it would be possible to reproduce a theory capable of re-appropriating the resources that have been used to build Saint Sava, and whether it would be possible to find all necessary design techniques to build a construction theory on it, as its classical design layout was laid in subtle casts and shades of concrete slabs.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: The church has been compared to Sagrada Familia because of their long-running construction phase and their cultural and artistic importance. And both churches have served for liturgy during their lengthy construction.


title: Church of Saint Sava

text: Pošta Srbije depicted on 14 November 2019 a floorplan and Aleksandar Deroko on a stamp to commemorate his 125th birthday.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs. Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld recur throughout Indo-European mythologies and may originate from Proto-Indo-European religion. Historian Julien d'Huy has suggested three narrative lines related to dogs in mythology. One echoes the gatekeeping noted above in Indo-European mythologies—a linkage with the afterlife; a second "related to the union of humans and dogs"; a third relates to the association of dogs with the star Sirius. Evidence presented by d'Huy suggests a correlation between the mythological record from cultures and the genetic and fossil record related to dog domestication.


title: Dogs in religion

text: Dogs had a major religious and symbolic significance to the Aztec peoples of central Mexico. Several ancient burial sites for dogs have been discovered in Mexico. Xolotl, an Aztec god of death, was depicted as a dog-headed monster.


title: Dogs in religion

text: The dog is one of the 12 animals honoured in Chinese astrology. The second day of the Chinese New Year is considered to be the birthday of all dogs and Chinese people often take care to be kind to dogs on that day. In China, Korea and Japan, dogs are viewed as kind protectors. Panhu is a dragon-dog who transformed into a man and married a princess.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In Christianity, dogs represent faithfulness. Within the Roman Catholic denomination specifically, the iconography of Saint Dominic includes a dog, after the hallow's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and becoming pregnant shortly after that. As such, the Dominican Order (Ecclesiastical Latin: "Domini canis") means "dog of the Lord" or "hound of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: "Domini canis"). In Christian folklore, a church grim often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and their churchyards from sacrilege.


title: Dogs in religion

text: A dog is mentioned in the deuterocanonical Book of Tobit, faithfully accompanying Tobias, Tobit's son and the angel Raphael on their journeys.


title: Dogs in religion

text: Jesus told the story of the poor man Lazarus, whose sores were licked by street dogs. This has traditionally been seen as showing Lazarus's wretched situation.


title: Dogs in religion

text: The Roman Catholic Church recognizes Saint Roch (also called Saint Rocco), who lived in the early 14th century in France, as the patron saint of dogs. It is said that he caught the plague while doing charitable work and went into the forest, expecting to die. There he was befriended by a dog that licked his sores and brought him food, and he was able to recover. The feast day of Saint Roch, August 16, is celebrated in Bolivia as the "birthday of all dogs."


title: Dogs in religion

text: Saint Guinefort was the name given to a dog who received local veneration as a saint at a French shrine from the 13th to the 20th centuries.


title: Dogs in religion

text: A black and white dog is sometimes used as an informal symbol of the Dominican Order of friars, religious sisters and nuns. This stems from a Latin pun: though the order's name is actually the Friars Preachers (, order of preachers), it is generally called the "Dominican" order (after St. Dominic, their founder); and in Latin means "the hounds of the Lord."


title: Dogs in religion

text: The Ancient Egyptians are often more associated with cats in the form of Bastet, but dogs are found to have a sacred role and figure as an important symbol in religious iconography.


title: Dogs in religion

text: Dogs were associated with Anubis, the jackal headed god of the underworld. At times throughout its period of being in use the Anubieion catacombs at Saqqara saw the burial of dogs. Anput was the female counterpart of her husband, Anubis, she was often depicted as a pregnant or nursing jackal, or as a jackal wielding knives.


title: Dogs in religion

text: Other dogs can be found in Egyptian mythology. Am-heh was a minor god from the underworld. He was depicted as a man with the head of a hunting dog who lived in a lake of fire. Duamutef was originally represented as a man wrapped in mummy bandages. From the New Kingdom onwards, he is shown with the head of a jackal. Wepwawet was depicted as a wolf or a jackal, or as a man with the head of a wolf or a jackal. Even when considered a jackal, Wepwawet usually was shown with grey, or white fur, reflecting his lupine origins. Khenti-Amentiu was depicted as a jackal-headed deity at Abydos in Upper Egypt, who stood guard over the city of the dead.


title: Dogs in religion

text: Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world. Dogs were sacred to Artemis and Ares. Cerberus is a three-headed, dragon-tailed watchdog who guards the gates of Hades. Laelaps was a dog in Greek mythology. When Zeus was a baby, a dog, known only as the "golden hound" was charged with protecting the future King of Gods. In Homer's epic poem the "Odyssey", when the disguised Odysseus returns home after 20 years, he is recognized only by his faithful dog, Argos, who has been waiting all this time for his return.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In Hindu mythology, Yama, the god of death, owns two watchdogs who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of Naraka. The hunter god Muthappan from the North Malabar region of Kerala has a hunting dog as his mount. Dogs are found in and out of the Muthappan Temple and offerings at the shrine take the form of bronze dog figurines.


title: Dogs in religion

text: The dog ("Shvan") is also the vahana or mount of the Hindu god Bhairava. Yudhishthira had approached heaven with his dog who was the god Yama himself, therefore among many Hindus, the common belief exists that caring for or adopting dogs can also pave the way to heaven. Dogs are also shown in the background in the iconography of Hindu deities like Dattatreya, many times dogs are also shown in the background in the iconography of deities like Khandoba. In Valmiki Ramayana there's a tale about a dog receiving justice,


title: Dogs in religion

text: The view on dogs in Islam is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing them as unclean, although Khaled Abou El Fadl states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet." Therefore, Sunni Malaki and Hanafi jurists permit the trade of and keeping of dogs as pets.


title: Dogs in religion

text: The majority of both Sunni and Shi'a Muslim jurists consider dogs ritually unclean. It is uncommon for practicing Muslims to keep dogs as pets.


title: Dogs in religion

text: However, the majority of Muslims would touch and pet dogs as long as they are completely dry because touching dry dogs is believed to remove impurities from them.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In Britain, police sniffer dogs are carefully used, and they are not permitted to touch passengers, instead, they are only permitted to touch their luggage. They are required to wear leather dog booties whenever they enter and search mosques or Muslim homes.


title: Dogs in religion

text: There are a number of traditions concerning Muhammad's attitude towards dogs. He said that the company of dogs, except as helpers in hunting, herding, and home protection, voided a portion of a Muslim's good deeds. On the other hand, he advocated kindness to dogs and other animals. Abu Huraira narrated that the prophet said:


title: Dogs in religion

text: "While a man was walking he felt thirsty and went down a well, and drank water from it. On coming out of it, he saw a dog panting and eating mud because of excessive thirst. The man said, 'This (dog) is suffering from the same problem as that of mine.' So, he (went down the well), filled his shoe with water, caught hold of it with his teeth, and climbed up and watered the dog. Allah thanked him for his (good) deed and forgave him." The people asked ``O Allah's Apostle! Is there a reward for us in serving (the) animals?" He replied: ``Yes, there is a reward for serving any animate (living being)."


title: Dogs in religion

text: Jewish law does not prohibit the keeping of dogs and other animals as pets. However, Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before they feed themselves and it also requires them to make arrangements for feeding them before they obtain them.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In Judaism, there is no explicit ban on the keeping of dogs as pets, and although opinions of dogs vary among Jews, they are negatively portrayed in both the Hebrew Bible and the Talmud, where they are mostly associated with violence and uncleanliness. Deuteronomy 23:18 appears to equate dogs with prostitution, and the Book of Kings describes dogs who feed on corpses. The Psalms describes dogs as beasts that maul at human beings.


title: Dogs in religion

text: This negative view of dogs is also found in the Talmud, which also describes dogs as dangerous animals. However, dogs and other animals that are useful for preventing infestations of vermin are permitted to be used for that task as long as they are chained, although people who raise dogs are cursed.


title: Dogs in religion

text: The Misneh Torah states that dogs must be chained because they are known to frequently cause damage. The Shulchan Aruch states that only evil dogs must be bound and chained. Most Jewish authorities do not believe that there are any prohibitions on the keeping of dogs if they do not pose any threat to people or property.


title: Dogs in religion

text: Judaism does not permit the neglect or abuse of any living animal. Jewish law states that any animal that is kept must be fed and it also states that arrangements for feeding them must be made before they are obtained. This ruling also applies to dogs.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In July 2019, Rabbis from Elad signed an edict to ban dogs from the city. The rabbis say in the edict that the dogs are scaring women and children with their barks, "even if it does not bite". They also justified their edict by making references to Torah and Talmud passages.


title: Dogs in religion

text: During archaeological diggings, the Ashkelon dog cemetery was discovered in the layer dating from when the city was part of the Persian Empire. It is believed the dogs may have had a sacred role – however, evidence for this is not conclusive.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In ancient Mesopotamia, from the Old Babylonian period until the Neo-Babylonian, dogs were the symbol of Ninisina, the goddess of healing and medicine, and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her. In the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of magical protection.


title: Dogs in religion

text: There is a temple in Isin, Mesopotamia, named é-ur-gi7-ra which translates as "dog house". Enlilbani, a king from the Old Babylonian First Dynasty of Isin, commemorated the temple to the goddess Ninisina. Although there is a small amount of detail known about it, there is enough information to confirm that a dog cult did exist in this area. Usually, dogs were only associated with the Gula cult, but there is some information, like Enlilbani's commemoration, to suggest that dogs were also important to the cult of Ninisina, as Gula was another goddess who was closely associated to Ninisina. More than 30 dog burials, numerous dog sculptures, and dog drawings were discovered when the area around this Ninisina temple was excavated. In the Gula cult, the dog was used in oaths and was sometimes referred to as a divinity.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In Norse mythology, a bloody, four-eyed dog called Garmr guards Helheim. Also, Fenrir is a giant wolf who is a child of the Norse god Loki, who was foretold to kill Odin in the events of Ragnarok.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In Philippine mythology, Kimat, the pet of Tadaklan, the god of thunder, is responsible for lightning.


title: Dogs in religion

text: In Zoroastrianism, the dog is regarded as an especially beneficent, clean and righteous creature, which must be fed and taken care of. The dog is praised for the useful work it performs in the household, but it is also seen as having special spiritual virtues. Dogs are associated with Yama who guards the gates of afterlife with his dogs just like Hinduism. A dog's gaze is considered to be purifying and to drive off daevas (demons). It is also believed to have a special connection with the afterlife: the Chinwad Bridge to Heaven is said to be guarded by dogs in Zoroastrian scripture, and dogs are traditionally fed in commemoration of the dead. "Ihtiram-i sag", "respect for the dog", is a common injunction among Iranian Zoroastrian villagers.


title: Dogs in religion

text: Detailed prescriptions for the appropriate treatment of dogs are found in the Vendidad (a subdivision of the Zoroastrian holy scripture Avesta), especially in chapters 13, 14 and 15, where harsh punishments are imposed for harm inflicted upon a dog and the faithful are required to assist dogs, both domestic and stray, in various ways; often, help or harm to a dog is equated with help and harm to a human. The killing of a dog ("a shepherd's dog, or a house-dog, or a Vohunazga [i.e. stray] dog, or a trained dog") is considered to lead to damnation in the afterlife. A homeowner is required to take care of a pregnant dog that lies near his home at least until the puppies are born (and in some cases until the puppies are old enough to take care of themselves, namely six months). If the homeowner does not help the dog and the puppies come to harm as a result, "he shall pay for it the penalty for wilful murder", because "Atar (Fire), the son of Ahura Mazda, watches as well (over a pregnant dog) as he does over a woman". It is also a major sin if a man harms a dog by giving it bones that are too hard and become stuck in its throat, or food that is too hot, so that it burns its throat. Giving bad food to a dog is as bad as serving bad food to a human. The believers are required to take care of a dog with a damaged sense of smell, to try to heal it "in the same manner as they would do for one of the faithful" and, if they fail, to tie it lest it should fall into a hole or a body of water and be harmed.


title: Dogs in religion

text: Both according to the Vendidad and in traditional Zoroastrian practice, dogs are allotted some funerary ceremonies analogous to those of humans. In the Vendidad, it is stated that the spirits of a thousand deceased dogs are reincarnated in a single otter ("water dog"), hence the killing of an otter is a terrible crime that brings drought and famine upon the land and must be atoned either by the death of the killer or by the killer performing a very long list of deeds considered pious, including the healing of dogs, raising of puppies, paying of fines to priests, as well as killing of animals considered noxious and unholy (cats, rats, mice and various species of reptiles, amphibians, and insects).


title: Dogs in religion

text: "Sagdid" is a funeral ceremony in which a dog is brought into the room where the body is lying so that it can look on it. "Sagdid" means "dog sight" in the Middle Persian language of Zoroastrian theological works. There are various spiritual benefits thought to be obtained by the ceremony. It is believed that the original purpose was to make certain that the person was really dead since the dog's more acute senses would be able to detect signs of life that a human might miss. A "four-eyed" dog, that is one with two spots on its forehead, is preferred for sagdid.


title: Dogs in religion

text: The traditional rites involving dogs have been under attack by reformist Zoroastrians since the mid-19th century, and they had abandoned them completely by the late 20th century. Even traditionalist Zoroastrians tend to restrict such rites to a significant extent nowadays (late 20th – early 21st century).


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: Surinam (), also unofficially known as Dutch Guiana, was a Dutch plantation colony in the Guianas, bordered by the equally Dutch colony of Berbice to the west, and the French colony of Cayenne to the east. It later bordered British Guiana from 1831 to 1966.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: Surinam was a Dutch colony from 26 February 1667, when Dutch forces captured Francis Willoughby's English colony during the Second Anglo-Dutch War, until 15 December 1954, when Surinam became a constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The status quo of Dutch sovereignty over Surinam, and English sovereignty over New Netherland, which it had conquered in 1664, was kept in the Treaty of Breda of 31 July 1667, and again confirmed in the Treaty of Westminster of 1674.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: After the other Dutch colonies in the Guianas, i.e., Berbice, Essequibo, Demerara, and Pomeroon, were lost to the British in 1814, the remaining colony of Surinam was often referred to as Dutch Guiana, especially after 1831, when the British merged Berbice, Essequibo, and Demerara into British Guiana. As the term Dutch Guiana was used in the 17th and 18th centuries to refer to all Dutch colonies in the Guianas, this use of the term can be confusing (see below).


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: Although the colony has always been officially known as Surinam or Suriname, in both Dutch and English, the colony was often unofficially and semi-officially referred to as Dutch Guiana (Dutch: "Nederlands Guiana") in the 19th and 20th century, in an analogy to British Guiana and French Guiana. Historically, Suriname was only one of many Dutch colonies in the Guianas, others being Berbice, Essequibo, Demerara, and Pomeroon, which after being taken over by the United Kingdom in 1814, were united into British Guiana in 1831. The Dutch also controlled northern Brazil from 1630 to 1654, including the area that, when governed by Lisbon, was called Portuguese Guiana. Thus, before 1814, the term Dutch Guiana did not only describe Suriname, but rather all colonies under Dutch sovereignty in the region taken together: a set of polities, with distinct governments, whose external borders changed much over time.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: The economy of the Colony of Suriname depended upon people enslaved at its plantations. Slave labour was mostly supplied by the Dutch West India Company from its trading posts in West Africa, to produce their crops. Sugar, cotton, and indigo were the main goods exported from the colony to the Netherlands until the early 18th century, when coffee became the single most important export product of Surinam. Planters' treatment of the slaves was notoriously bad. The historian C.R. Boxer wrote that "man's inhumanity to man just about reached its limits in Surinam", and many slaves escaped the plantations. The Amsterdam Stock Exchange crashed in 1773, which dealt a severe blow to the plantation economy that was further exacerbated by the British abolition of the slave trade in 1807. This abolition was adopted by William I of the Netherlands, who signed a royal decree in this regard in June 1814, and who concluded the Anglo-Dutch Slave Trade Treaty in May 1818. Many plantations went bankrupt as a consequence of the abolition of slave trade. Without supply of slaves, many plantations were merged to increase efficiency.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: Slavery was eventually abolished on 1 July 1863, although slaves were only released after a ten-year transitory period in 1873. This spurred the immigration of indentured labourers from British India, after a treaty to that effect had been signed between the Netherlands and the United Kingdom in 1870. Apart from immigration from British India, Javanese workers from the Dutch East Indies were also contracted to work on plantations in Surinam. At the same time, a largely unsuccessful attempt to colonize Surinam with impoverished farmers from the Netherlands was started as well.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: In the 20th century, the natural resources of Surinam, which include rubber, gold and bauxite, were exploited. The gold rush that followed the discovery of gold on the banks of the Lawa River spurred the construction of the Lawa Railway in 1902, although construction was halted after gold production proved disappointing. In 1916, the U.S. aluminium company Alcoa began mining bauxite on the banks of the Cottica River, near the village of Moengo. In 1938, the company built an aluminium smelter in Paranam.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: The 1930s were a difficult time for Suriname. The Great Depression created great unemployment. Surinamese guest workers in Curaçao and other islands of the Netherlands Antilles returned to Suriname because there was no more work, which exacerbated the problem. No more funds came in and more unemployed people were added. To provide work, roads were built to Domburg and Groningen, and the Meursweg was constructed. The Salvation Army set up a soup kitchen to relieve the worst of necessities. However, this was not enough, and there was a great deal of unrest among the population in 1931, leading to demonstrations and street riots with looting. Nationalist Anton de Kom then came to Suriname to set up a workers' organization there: he established a consultancy firm, but when he organized a demonstration against governor Johannes Kielstra, he was imprisoned. A rally to get him released led to "Black Tuesday", in which 2 people were shot. De Kom was then put on a boat to the Netherlands. The Dutch Prime Minister Colijn stated in the Lower House in 1935:


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: Partly due to the importance of Surinamese aluminium for the allied war effort, United States troops were stationed in Surinam under an agreement with the Dutch government in exile on 23 November 1941. Under the provisions of the Atlantic Charter of August 1941, the Dutch government in exile promised to end the colonial relations between the Netherlands and its overseas possessions, promising them far-reaching autonomy and self-rule. This was eventually accomplished by the proclamation of the Charter for the Kingdom of the Netherlands on 15 December 1954, which constituted a Kingdom in which the Netherlands, the Netherlands Antilles, and Suriname participated on a basis of equality. In 1975, Suriname left the Kingdom of the Netherlands to become the independent country of Suriname.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: From 1683, the colony was governed by the Society of Suriname, a company composed of three equal shareholders, being the city of Amsterdam, the family Van Aerssen van Sommelsdijck, and the Dutch West India Company. Although the organization and administration was of the colony was limited to these three shareholders, all citizens of the Dutch Republic were free to trade with Suriname. Also, the planters were consulted in a Council of Police, which was a unique feature among the colonies of Guiana.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: In November 1795, the Society was nationalized by the Batavian Republic. From then on until 1954, the Batavian Republic and its legal successors (the Kingdom of Holland and the Kingdom of the Netherlands) governed the territory as a national colony, barring a period of British occupation between 1799 and 1802, and between 1804 and 1816.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: After the Batavian Republic took over in 1795, the Dutch government issued various government regulations for Suriname (Dutch: "Regeringsreglement voor Suriname"), establishing the government of the colony. In 1865, a new government regulation replaced the previous regulation of 1832, which theoretically gave Suriname some limited self-rule. The colonial elite was given the right to elect a Colonial Council (Dutch: "Koloniale Raad") which would co-govern the colony together with the Governor-General appointed by the Dutch crown. Among others, the Colonial Council was allowed to decide over the colony's budget, which was subject to approval by the Dutch crown, but which did not see any involvement of Dutch parliament.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: In the wake of the 1922 Dutch constitutional revision, in which the term "colony" was replaced by "overseas territory", the 1865 government regulation was replaced by the Basic Law of Suriname (Dutch: "Staatsregeling van Suriname") on 1 April 1937. This Basic Law renamed the Colonial Council to Estates of Suriname (Dutch: "Staten van Suriname") and increased the membership from 13 to 15.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: After the Second World War, during which the Dutch government in exile had pledged to review the relationship between the Netherlands and its colonies, the Basic Law was heavily revised. In March 1948, revisions to the Basic Law were adopted by Dutch parliament, which introduced universal suffrage for both men and women, which increased the membership of the Estates from 15 to 21, and which introduced a College of General Government (Dutch: "College van Algemeen Bestuur") which was to assist the Governor in the everyday government of the colony, and which was the precursor to the Cabinet of Ministers. The new constitution took effect in July 1948.


title: Surinam (Dutch colony)

text: In 1868 the Dutch government created the Netherlands Armed Forces in Suriname (TRIS) which served as the Dutch colonial army in Suriname. This meant that like the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army (KNIL) in the Dutch East Indies, TRIS fell under the responsibility of the Dutch Ministry of Colonies, instead of the Dutch Ministry of Defense. The size of the TRIS army was, however, small, compared to the KNIL army for the former colony of Indonesia, it consisted of two infantry and two artillery companies. In total 636 soldiers served in the TRIS army. These soldiers were tasked with patrolling and policing duties within the Dutch colony of Surinam.


title: Prelate

text: A prelate () is a high-ranking member of the Christian clergy who is an ordinary or who ranks in precedence with ordinaries. The word derives from the Latin , the past participle of , which means 'carry before', 'be set above or over' or 'prefer'; hence, a prelate is one set over others.


title: Prelate

text: The archetypal prelate is a bishop, whose prelature is his particular church. All other prelates, including the regular prelates such as abbots and major superiors, are based upon this original model of prelacy.


title: Prelate

text: In a general sense, a "prelate" in the Roman Catholic Church and other Christian churches is a bishop or other ecclesiastical person who possesses ordinary authority of a jurisdiction, i.e., of a diocese or similar jurisdiction, e.g., ordinariates, apostolic vicariates/exarchates, or territorial abbacies. It equally applies to cardinals, who enjoy a kind of "co-governance" of the church as the most senior ecclesiastical advisers and moral representatives of the Supreme Pontiff, and certain "superior prelates of the offices of the Roman Curia" who are not bishops, e.g., the auditors (judges) of the Roman Rota and protonotaries apostolic. By extension, it refers to "inferior" or "lesser prelates", that is priests who have the title and dress of prelates as a personal honorific, i.e., Papal chaplains, prelates of honor (formerly "domestic prelates"), and honorary protonotaries apostolic. All these enjoy the title of ""monsignor"", which also is used in some nations for bishops and archbishops. The seven "de numero" protonotaries apostolic in Rome, who are special Papal notaries, are true prelates like bishops; others are "supernumerary" protonotaries apostolic who enjoy this as an honorific, like Papal chaplains and prelates of honor.


title: Prelate

text: In the strict canonical sense, "prelate" denominates a priest or bishop who is ordinary of a personal prelature (see below), which is a functional equivalent of a diocese that has a "particular pastoral or missionary work for various regions or for different social groups" (cf. "Code of Canon Law", Canon 294) yet no territorial jurisdiction.


title: Prelate

text: In the Armenian Apostolic Church, "prelate" (in English) denominates a diocesan bishop, whose jurisdiction of his diocese is denominated a "prelacy".


title: Prelate

text: In the Catholic Church, a territorial prelate is a prelate whose geographic jurisdiction, denominated a "territorial prelature", is outside of and therefore not subject to any diocese. A territorial prelate is sometimes denominated a "prelate nullius", from the Latin ""nullius diœceseos"" (prelate of no diocese), denoting that his territory is directly subject to the Holy See (the Supreme Pontiff) and is not a diocese. , there were 44 territorial prelatures, all of which were in the Latin Church.


title: Prelate

text: The term also is used generically, in which case it may equally refer to an apostolic prefecture, an apostolic vicariate, or a territorial abbacy.


title: Prelate

text: In the Catholic Church, the personal prelature was conceived during the Second Vatican Council (1962–65) in no. 10 of the decree "Presbyterorum ordinis" and Pope Paul VI later enacted it into law in the "motu proprio" "Ecclesiae sanctae". The institution was later reaffirmed in the "Code of Canon Law" of 1983. Such a prelature is an institution having clergy and, possibly, lay members which would execute specific pastoral activities. The adjective "personal" refers to the fact that, in contrast with previous canonical use for ecclesiastical institutions, the jurisdiction of the prelate is not territorial and instead is of specific persons wherever they are located. The establishment of personal prelatures is an exercise of the theologically inherent power of self-organization which the Church has in order to pursue its mission, though a personal prelature is not a particular church, as are dioceses and military ordinariates.


title: Prelate

text: Personal prelatures are fundamentally secular organizations operating "in" the world (members do not take vows and live normal, everyday lives), whereas religious institutes are religious organizations operating "out" of the world (members take vows and live in accordance with the proper law of their institute).


title: Prelate

text: The first, and presently only, personal prelature is Opus Dei, which Pope John Paul II erected as such in 1982 by the Apostolic constitution "Ut sit". In the case of Opus Dei, the Prelate is elected by members of the Prelature and confirmed by the Supreme Pontiff; the laity and clergy of the Prelature remain subject to the government of the particular churches in whose territory they live, and the laity associated with the Prelature, both men and women, are organically united under the jurisdiction of the Prelate.


title: Prelate

text: On 15 February 2018, a "motu proprio" issued by Pope Francis ordered prelates and bishops to live simply and renounce any desire for power after they retire from senior offices of the Roman Curia. A number of such officials and bishops had been criticized in the preceding years for luxurious living, such as having large apartments and police escorts after they retired. One notable incident involved Tarcisio Bertone, an Italian prelate and former Cardinal Secretary of State removed from office in 2013, who used an apartment that had been renovated at the cost of nearly half a million dollars in funds, which were diverted from a Vatican-owned hospital by the former president of the hospital. Even after he retired, Tarcisio Bertone used escorts of Vatican City and Italian police to move around Rome.


title: Noah Okafor

text: Noah Arinzechukwu Okafor (born 24 May 2000) is a Swiss professional footballer who plays as midfielder for Austrian Bundesliga club Red Bull Salzburg and the Switzerland national team.


title: Noah Okafor

text: Okafor played his first youth football with local team FC Arisdorf. In 2009 he moved to the youth of FC Basel and continued through all the stages of their youth academy. He advanced to their first team during their 2018–19 season and on 31 January 2018, Okafor signed his first professional contract with his club under head coach Raphaël Wicky.<ref name="fcb-aktuell-2018/19-Okafor"></ref> He played his debut for their first team on 19 May 2018 in the home game against FC Luzern. The trainer substituted him in for the injured Mohamed Elyounoussi in the 34th minute and the game ended in a 2–2 draw.<ref name="fcb-achiv-2018/19-FCB-FCL"></ref> He scored his first goal for his club in the second round of the 2018–19 season on 28 July 2018 in the 1–1 away draw against Xamax.<ref name="fcb-aktuell-2018/19-Xamax-FCB"></ref>


title: Noah Okafor

text: Under trainer Marcel Koller Basel won the Swiss Cup in the 2018–19 season. In the first round Basel beat FC Montlingen 3–0, in the second round Echallens Région 7–2 and in the round of 16 Winterthur 1–0. In the quarter finals Sion were defeated 4–2 after extra time and in the semi finals Zürich were defeated 3–1. All these games were played away from home. The final was held on 19 May 2019 in the Stade de Suisse Wankdorf Bern against Thun. Striker Albian Ajeti scored the first goal, Fabian Frei the second for Basel, then Dejan Sorgić netted a goal for Thun, but the end result was 2–1 for Basel. Okafor played in four cup games and scored a goal in the semi-final against Zürich.


title: Noah Okafor

text: Between the years 2017 and 2020 Okafor played a total of 72 games for Basel scoring a total of nine goals. 39 of these games were in the Swiss Super League, seven in the Swiss Cup, eight in the UEFA competitions (Champios League and Europa League) and 18 were friendly games. He scored three goals in the domestic league, two in the cup, two in the European competitions and the other two were scored during the test games.


title: Noah Okafor

text: On 8 December 2021, Okafor scored the only goal of the game as Salzburg defeated Sevilla in the final group stage match of the Champions League. The win meant Salzburg secured progression to the Round of 16 and became the first-ever Austrian club to qualify for the knockout stages of the Champions League.


title: Noah Okafor

text: Okafor played various international games for the Swiss U-15 and U-17 teams. He played his first game for the U-18 team on 9 May 2018 in the 1–1 draw against the Italian U-18 team.


title: Noah Okafor

text: He made his debut for the senior national team debut on 9 June 2019 in the 2019 UEFA Nations League third place game against England, as an 113th-minute substitute for Haris Seferovic.


title: Noah Okafor

text: Okafor scored his first international goal for Switzerland on 15 November 2021, in their World Cup qualifying game against Bulgaria, a win which secured automatic qualification for Switzerland to the 2022 FIFA World Cup.


title: Noah Okafor

text: Born in Binningen, Switzerland, Okafor is of Igbo descent. His father is from Nigeria and his mother is Swiss.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: In the mathematical area of graph theory, a clique ( or ) is a subset of vertices of an undirected graph such that every two distinct vertices in the clique are adjacent. That is, a clique of a graph formula_1 is an induced subgraph of formula_1 that is complete. Cliques are one of the basic concepts of graph theory and are used in many other mathematical problems and constructions on graphs. Cliques have also been studied in computer science: the task of finding whether there is a clique of a given size in a graph (the clique problem) is NP-complete, but despite this hardness result, many algorithms for finding cliques have been studied.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: Although the study of complete subgraphs goes back at least to the graph-theoretic reformulation of Ramsey theory by , the term "clique" comes from , who used complete subgraphs in social networks to model cliques of people; that is, groups of people all of whom know each other. Cliques have many other applications in the sciences and particularly in bioinformatics.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: A clique, , in an undirected graph is a subset of the vertices, , such that every two distinct vertices are adjacent. This is equivalent to the condition that the induced subgraph of induced by is a complete graph. In some cases, the term clique may also refer to the subgraph directly.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: A maximal clique is a clique that cannot be extended by including one more adjacent vertex, that is, a clique which does not exist exclusively within the vertex set of a larger clique. Some authors define cliques in a way that requires them to be maximal, and use other terminology for complete subgraphs that are not maximal.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: A maximum clique of a graph, , is a clique, such that there is no clique with more vertices. Moreover, the clique number of a graph is the number of vertices in a maximum clique in .


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: The clique cover number of a graph is the smallest number of cliques of whose union covers the set of vertices of the graph.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: A maximum clique transversal of a graph is a subset of vertices with the property that each maximum clique of the graph contains at least one vertex in the subset.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: The opposite of a clique is an independent set, in the sense that every clique corresponds to an independent set in the complement graph. The clique cover problem concerns finding as few cliques as possible that include every vertex in the graph.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: A related concept is a biclique, a complete bipartite subgraph. The bipartite dimension of a graph is the minimum number of bicliques needed to cover all the edges of the graph.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: Closely related concepts to complete subgraphs are subdivisions of complete graphs and complete graph minors. In particular, Kuratowski's theorem and Wagner's theorem characterize planar graphs by forbidden complete and complete bipartite subdivisions and minors, respectively.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: In computer science, the clique problem is the computational problem of finding a maximum clique, or all cliques, in a given graph. It is NP-complete, one of Karp's 21 NP-complete problems. It is also fixed-parameter intractable, and hard to approximate. Nevertheless, many algorithms for computing cliques have been developed, either running in exponential time (such as the Bron–Kerbosch algorithm) or specialized to graph families such as planar graphs or perfect graphs for which the problem can be solved in polynomial time.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: The word "clique", in its graph-theoretic usage, arose from the work of , who used complete subgraphs to model cliques (groups of people who all know each other) in social networks. The same definition was used by in an article using less technical terms. Both works deal with uncovering cliques in a social network using matrices. For continued efforts to model social cliques graph-theoretically, see e.g. , , and .


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: Many different problems from bioinformatics have been modeled using cliques. For instance, model the problem of clustering gene expression data as one of finding the minimum number of changes needed to transform a graph describing the data into a graph formed as the disjoint union of cliques; discuss a similar biclustering problem for expression data in which the clusters are required to be cliques. uses cliques to model ecological niches in food webs. describe the problem of inferring evolutionary trees as one of finding maximum cliques in a graph that has as its vertices characteristics of the species, where two vertices share an edge if there exists a perfect phylogeny combining those two characters. model protein structure prediction as a problem of finding cliques in a graph whose vertices represent positions of subunits of the protein. And by searching for cliques in a protein-protein interaction network, found clusters of proteins that interact closely with each other and have few interactions with proteins outside the cluster. Power graph analysis is a method for simplifying complex biological networks by finding cliques and related structures in these networks.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: In electrical engineering, uses cliques to analyze communications networks, and use them to design efficient circuits for computing partially specified Boolean functions. Cliques have also been used in automatic test pattern generation: a large clique in an incompatibility graph of possible faults provides a lower bound on the size of a test set. describe an application of cliques in finding a hierarchical partition of an electronic circuit into smaller subunits.


title: Clique (graph theory)

text: In chemistry, use cliques to describe chemicals in a chemical database that have a high degree of similarity with a target structure. use cliques to model the positions in which two chemicals will bind to each other.


title: Oberführer

text: Oberführer (short: Oberf, , ) was an early paramilitary rank of the Nazi Party (NSDAP) dating back to 1921. An "Oberführer" was typically a NSDAP member in charge of a group of paramilitary units in a particular geographical region. From 1921 to 1925, the phrase "Oberführer" was used as a title in the "Sturmabteilung" (SA), but became an actual SA rank after 1926.


title: Oberführer

text: "Oberführer" was also a rank of the "Schutzstaffel" (SS, at that time a branch of the SA), established in 1925 as "Gauführer", a rank for SS officers in charge of SS personnel in the several "Gaue" throughout Germany; in 1928 the rank was renamed "Oberführer", and used of the commanders of the three regional "SS-Oberführerbereiche". In 1930, the SS was reorganized into "SS-Gruppen" and "Brigaden", at which time "Oberführer" became subordinate to the higher rank of "Brigadeführer". By 1932, "Oberführer" was an established rank of the SA, SS and NSKK.


title: Oberführer

text: "Oberführer" wore two oak leaves on the uniform collar rank patch, along with the shoulder boards and lapels of a general officer. In 1938, the status of "SS-Oberführer" began to change with the rise of the "SS-Verfügungstruppe" (SS-VT), which would later become the Waffen-SS. Since "Brigadeführer" was rated equal to a "Generalmajor", and "Standartenführer" to an "Oberst", "Oberführer" had no military equivalent and quickly became regarded as a senior colonel rank. This distinction continues in historical circles with most texts referring to "Oberführer" as a senior colonel rank while some others state it was a military equivalent to a British Army brigadier.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: The climate of Los Angeles is mild to hot year-round, and mostly dry. It is classified as a Mediterranean climate, which is a type of dry subtropical climate. It is characterized by seasonal changes in rainfall—with a dry summer and a winter rainy season. Under the modified Köppen climate classification, the coastal areas are classified as "Csb", and the inland areas as "Csa".


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: The Los Angeles area contains microclimates, where daytime temperatures can vary as much as between inland areas such as the San Fernando Valley or San Gabriel Valley, and the coastal Los Angeles Basin. The two northernmost cities in Los Angeles County, Palmdale and Lancaster, frequently receive snow in the winter due to their altitude of approximately , while their summers are hotter than the rest of the county.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: The primary weather station for Los Angeles is located near downtown at the University of Southern California campus, and this article refers primarily to climate data generated by this station as representative of the Los Angeles metropolitan area as a whole.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles has a hot-summer Mediterranean climate (Köppen "Csa"), with hot, dry summers, and mild-to-warm winters, with increased precipitation. While the typical dry-summer and wet-winter pattern typical of most Mediterranean climates is part of the climate of Los Angeles, precipitation annually is lower than in many typical Mediterranean climates, giving it semi-arid characteristics.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: The summer dry season normally runs from May through October, when clear skies, hot temperatures, and very little change in sensible weather occur from day to day. Average high temperatures are in the lower 80's F (26-28 C) with overnight lows in the lower 60's F (15-17 C). During this season, there is essentially no rainfall, and both July and August average less than 0.05 of an inch (1.27 mm) of monthly precipitation.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: The winter wet season normally runs from November through April. Precipitation episodes in Los Angeles, with a few notable exceptions, are largely caused by extratropical disturbances approaching California from the west or northwest during the winter season. The normal seasonal rainfall measured at downtown Los Angeles is 14.77 inches, of which 92% falls between November 1 and April 30. While there is a great increase in rainfall in the winter months, the winter months in Los Angeles are still frequently sunny and pleasant with mild -to-warm temperatures. The average highs range from the upper 60's F to lower 70's F (17-21 C) with cooler overnight lows in the upper 40's and lower 50's F (8-12 C). Warm winter temperatures give the city subtropical characteristics.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Summers are warm to hot, and nearly completely dry. The summer temperature pattern usually begins in late June or early July, and lasts through September or October, although it may start as early as late May. In August, the average high/low at the University of Southern California downtown campus are and . The same figures at Los Angeles International Airport, approximately to the southwest and near the ocean, are and . However, temperatures across the region often exceed during the summer. This happens when an atmospheric high-pressure area becomes dominant over the Great Basin of Nevada and Utah (a frequent occurrence), and the resulting offshore flow of the atmospheric air mass shuts off the normal coastal sea breeze in Los Angeles. July, August and September are the hottest months, with September holding the all-time record of . Skies are nearly constantly sunny, unless interrupted in late spring and early summer by the June Gloom pattern, which is unpredictable year-to-year. The North American Monsoon can bring occasional thunderstorms and high humidity to Los Angeles in the summer and early fall.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Winters are mild to moderately warm, with average high temperatures at the Downtown/USC weather station of and lows of , with occasional heavy rainfall. Temperatures across the coastal basin rarely drop below , although light frost does occasionally form during cooler nights, at least in areas removed from the direct influence of the coastal air (approximately inland from the beach). The last severe cold outbreak in the Los Angeles area occurred in December 1990, when temperatures dropped below freezing across a major portion of the coastal plain, and into the low to mid 20s F over inland valleys. Temperatures stayed below freezing for up to eight hours at some valley locations, resulting in significant damage to plants and commercial agriculture.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: In the winter months, high pressure systems over the deserts often bring Santa Ana winds, resulting in dry, and dusty days. On rare occasion, temperatures can reach into the range during Santa Ana Winds even in December or January. Sunny skies characteristically dominate the weather pattern in the winter season, mixed in with the occasional rain producing weather system.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Spring and autumn hardly exist as such in this climate. Summer temperature patterns of highs and lows usually persist until early November. Likewise, the "winter-season" temperature pattern of highs and lows may last through April or May, periodically interrupted by hot Santa Ana wind events for up to a week at a time. The rainy season always ends by mid-May. June is normally a transitional month of less-volatile temperatures between , with increased cloudy days and the disappearance of the Santa Ana winds.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Most rain occurs during the winter and early to mid spring, typical of a Mediterranean climate. However, the amount received is usually lower than in other Mediterranean climates. The first sporadic rainfall of the rainy season usually occurs in October or November, with heavy rain becoming more common late November through early April. Usually the Pineapple Express storms from December to March. February, on average, is the wettest month. The rains then taper off in April or by May, usually see only two to three light rain showers. However, the timing and volume of rains in the winter is far from predictable. After a significant rain, the region's air is cleared of the usual atmospheric haze as well as man-made smog, giving exceptionally clear views across the giant metropolis.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Most cold fronts and depressions spun off by the polar low, the strong winter seasonal low-pressure area in the Gulf of Alaska, fail to carry significant precipitable moisture as far south as Los Angeles, resulting in the region's relatively low average rainfall amount of even in normal years. However, a "normal" year rarely occurs, since rainfall in Los Angeles is subject to the position and strength of the jet stream, and the strength of the Gulf of Alaska low. Some years, a well-developed series of cold fronts moves into the area with relatively short separation between each, bringing intermittently rainy periods to Los Angeles for several weeks at a time. If this pattern persists in a rainy season, significantly above-average precipitation will be received. Other years, especially in the drought years of 2012–2016, a blocking region of atmospheric high pressure over the eastern Pacific Ocean, between Alaska and the Pacific Northwest, diverts the jet stream and its flow of cold fronts far to the north through Canada and down into the U.S. Midwest, leaving the U.S. west coast and especially Los Angeles under warm and dry conditions for weeks to months at a time.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Because the rainy season begins in late fall and ends in early to mid spring, precipitation is measured using the water year instead of the calendar year, to give an accurate picture of each rainy season's precipitation amounts. Each water year begins October 1 and ends the following September 30, during the driest part of the year.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Sometimes rainfall can occur in the summer from westward-straying monsoon thunderstorms, but this is unusual. Even less common is rain from remnants of dissipating eastern Pacific hurricanes. Los Angeles averages only of precipitation per year, and this is lower at the coast and higher in the mountains and foothill cities. Rain is typically brought with when High Pressure systems in the summer which move east in a clockwise motion across the western United States bringing monsoonal moisture to the area. This will usually occur during the summer months (usually in July–September). Snow is extremely rare in the Greater Los Angeles area and basin, but the nearby San Gabriel Mountains and San Bernardino Mountains typically receive a heavy amount of snow every winter season. The greatest snowfall recorded in downtown Los Angeles was on January 15, 1932.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Historically, the warm phase of an El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) regime typically coincides with above-average precipitation across Southern California. The above-average sea-surface temperatures in the equatorial Pacific Ocean are largely responsible for this as the ocean acts as a rich moisture source for tropical moisture to advect towards the North American continent in atmospheric river events. Prior to the strong El Niño of 2015–2016, the previous two strong El Niño events in 1982–83 and 1997–98 coincided with well above average precipitation across Southern California. While some measurements suggest the 2015-2016 El Niño was the strongest on record since 1950, Southern California received below average precipitation contrary to what the Climate Prediction Center predicted leading up to the winter months.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: The Los Angeles Basin, composed of the coastal plain surrounded by mountains, is generally the coolest in summer and mildest in winter. Overall, it receives less rainfall than the surrounding valleys and mountains.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Los Angeles International Airport airport and its surroundings (Westchester and El Segundo, as well as Santa Monica, Venice, and the immediately surrounding neighborhoods) are generally the coolest part of the region in the summer, as they receive a near-constant sea breeze. Santa Monica and its environs may be cooler than areas only further inland. Under the Köppen climate classification, the airport has a semi-arid climate due to its modest winter rainfall and mild mean temperatures. For monthly statistics, see Climate of Los Angeles#Temperatures and seasons


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Santa Monica has mean temperatures low enough for its precipitation numbers to still retain a cool-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csb").


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Culver City, Inglewood, Palms, and surrounding areas are only a few miles inland from Santa Monica and the beach, but reach temperatures up to 10 degrees (F) warmer on average in the summer. Culver City has a semi-arid climate that is still significantly moderated by the Pacific trade winds keeping averages mild compared to areas farther inland.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Long Beach, located in the coastal basin about to the south of downtown Los Angeles, has a coastally-influenced climate, but is not as cool as Santa Monica, or the Westside, or the South Bay during the summer. Long Beach sits on a south-facing section of coast, and does not receive as much sea breeze cooling from the prevailing westerly/south-westerly winds (as these winds may pass over the Palos Verdes Peninsula, San Pedro, and the twin ports first). Long Beach's high temperature can compete with those of downtown Los Angeles. Locations further north in Long Beach, which stretches over northward from the water, can be considerably warmer than Long Beach's coast and airport weather station.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: The San Fernando Valley is known for significantly higher temperatures than the coastal basin. Canoga Park and Woodland Hills, in the south-west end of the valley, typically record the highest temperatures. The all-time high of nearly rivals the record high temperatures of Phoenix, Arizona () and Palm Springs (). The city of Burbank, at the eastern end of the Valley, is also known for being significantly hotter than downtown Los Angeles, which is only to the south. During winter both the Canoga Park and Burbank weather stations are significantly wetter than some coastal stations and thus retain hot-summer Mediterranean climates ("Csa"). By comparison, Canoga Park has quite cool summer nights, in contrast to many other interior Southern California areas.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: The climate of Santa Ana, the county seat of Orange County, as well as Anaheim, both in north-central Orange County, are quite similar, and typical of locations on the coastal plain inland from the beach. Whilst Santa Ana sits firmly on the border between the semi-arid and the hot-summer Mediterranean climate, Anaheim is firmly a semi-arid climate with very low precipitation for the Los Angeles metropolitan area.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: In downtown Los Angeles, weather records began on July 1, 1877. The highest temperature recorded in downtown Los Angeles was on September 27, 2010. The lowest temperature was on January 7, 1913 and on January 4, 1949. The wettest “rain year” from July to the following June was 1883/1884 with , and the driest 2006/2007 with . The greatest rainfall in one month was in December 1889, which also had the most days – twenty – receiving at least of rain. The greatest rainfall in 24 hours was on March 2, 1938.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: At Los Angeles International Airport, the highest recorded temperature was on September 26, 1963. The lowest temperature was on January 4, 1949. The wettest year was 1983 with and the driest year was 1947 with . The greatest rainfall in one month was in February 1998. The greatest rainfall in 24 hours was on November 21, 1967.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: In Long Beach, the highest recorded temperature was on October 16, 1958, and October 15, 1961, and again on September 27, 2010. The lowest temperature was on January 20, 1922. The wettest year was 1978 with . The driest year was 2002 with . The greatest rainfall in one month was in January 1969, including a record 24-hour rainfall of on January 20 that month.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: In San Fernando Valley, the highest recorded temperature was on September 5, 2020. The lowest temperature was on February 6, 1989.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Snowfall inside the city of Los Angeles is rare. The record snowfall occurred on January 19, 1949, when of snow fell inside city limits, however Burbank reported 4.7 inches. Since official records were first kept in 1877, the downtown Los Angeles weather station observed measurable snowfall three times, in 1882, 1932, and 1949.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: The Santa Ana winds are strong, extremely dry offshore winds that characteristically sweep across Southern California and northern Baja California during late September into early May. They range from hot to cold, depending on the prevailing temperatures in the source region, the Great Basin and upper Mojave Desert. Nevertheless, the winds are notorious for causing hot, dry weather due to compressional heating of the lower atmosphere.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Notable Santa Ana windstorms happen several times a year between fall and spring. Once every several years a strong windstorm causes significant damage, toppling or uprooting large old trees and damaging structures across the region.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: While overall precipitation is low, the rain that does fall occasionally comes in brief heavy storms. Combined with steep mountain slopes and recent burn areas from wildfires, these heavy rains often cause landslides and debris flows in foothill areas, damaging structures and blocking roads.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Textbook cumulonimbus-formed summer thunderstorms are fairly rare in Los Angeles, because the atmosphere over the coastal basin is generally too stable and dry, especially during summer, to allow the strong vertical development necessary for mature cumulonimbus clouds. Full, mature thunderstorms can develop in the surrounding deserts and mountains during the summer North American Monsoon, but rarely over the Los Angeles metropolitan region and coastal basin, where the moisture is coming off of the Gulf of Mexico and the Gulf of California. This atmospheric stability is largely due to the cool and persistent marine layer, which is fueled by the constant influx of cold Pacific water via the California Current. Summer thunderstorms that do manage to form on the coastal basin are typically associated with the North American Monsoon and/or tropical cyclones, or downburst winds followed by weak tornadoes, which can bring enough tropical heat and moisture to overcome the cool marine layer, destabilizing the atmosphere.


title: Climate of Los Angeles

text: Though still relatively rare, thunderstorms most often occur during warm southerly-flow winter rain storms. These warm storms are different from the typical northwesterly cold fronts that bring most of the region's winter precipitation. Atmospheric instability caused by these warm winter storm systems allows the formation of small, weak, isolated thunderstorms, which tend to move across the area quickly, producing a few rumbles of thunder, and soon dissipate back into the larger rain storm system. Occasionally, these bring impressive displays of lightning, hail, and damaging winds to small localities within the region. Small, weak, isolated tornadoes can occur during these events, but are exceedingly rare. Likewise, weak-to-moderate-strength waterspouts may form over the ocean (typically off the stretch of coast between Long Beach and Huntington Beach) during warm winter storms, but again, this is very rare.


title: Ceramic art

text: Ceramic art is art made from ceramic materials, including clay. It may take forms including artistic pottery, including tableware, tiles, figurines and other sculpture. As one of the plastic arts, ceramic art is one of the visual arts. While some ceramics are considered fine art, such as pottery or sculpture, most are considered to be decorative, industrial or applied art objects. Ceramics may also be considered artefacts in archaeology. Ceramic art can be made by one person or by a group of people. In a pottery or ceramic factory, a group of people design, manufacture and decorate the art ware. Products from a pottery are sometimes referred to as "art pottery". In a one-person pottery studio, ceramists or potters produce studio pottery.


title: Ceramic art

text: The word "ceramics" comes from the Greek "keramikos" (κεραμεικός), meaning "pottery", which in turn comes from "keramos" (κέραμος) meaning "potter's clay". Most traditional ceramic products were made from clay (or clay mixed with other materials), shaped and subjected to heat, and tableware and decorative ceramics are generally still made this way. In modern ceramic engineering usage, ceramics is the art and science of making objects from inorganic, non-metallic materials by the action of heat. It excludes glass and mosaic made from glass "tesserae".