title: Ben Hecht

text: After concluding "One Thousand and One Afternoons", Hecht went on to produce novels, plays, screenplays, and memoirs, but for him, none of these eclipsed his early success in finding the stuff of literature in city life. Recalling that period, Hecht wrote, "I haunted streets, whorehouses, police stations, courtrooms, theater stages, jails, saloons, slums, madhouses, fires, murders, riots, banquet halls, and bookshops. I ran everywhere in the city like a fly buzzing in the works of a clock, tasted more than any fit belly could hold, learned not to sleep, and buried myself in a tick-tock of whirling hours that still echo in me".


title: Ben Hecht

text: Besides working as reporter in Chicago, "he also contributed to literary magazines including the "Little Review". After World War I he was sent by the "Chicago Daily News" to Berlin to witness the revolutionary movements, which gave him the material for his first novel, "Erik Dorn" (1921). ... A daily column he wrote, "1001 Afternoons in Chicago", was later collected into a book, and brought Hecht fame". These works enhanced his reputation in the literary scene as a reporter, columnist, short story writer, and novelist. After leaving the "News" in 1923, he started his own newspaper, The "Chicago Literary Times".


title: Ben Hecht

text: According to biographer Eddy Applegate, "Hecht read voraciously the works of Gautier, Adelaide, Mallarmé, and Verlaine, and developed a style that was extraordinary and imaginative. The use of metaphor, imagery, and vivid phrases made his writing distinct ... again and again Hecht showed an uncanny ability to picture the strange jumble of events in strokes as vivid and touching as the brushmarks of a novelist".


title: Ben Hecht

text: "Ben Hecht was the enfant terrible of American letters in the first half of the twentieth century", wrote author Sanford Sternlicht. "If Hecht was consistently opposed to anything, it was to censorship of literature, art, and film by either the government or self-appointed guardians of public morality". He adds, "Even though he never attended college, Hecht became a successful novelist, playwright, journalist, and screenwriter. His star has sunk below the horizon now, but in his own lifetime Hecht became one of the most famous American literary and entertainment figures".


title: Ben Hecht

text: Eventually Hecht became associated with the writers Sherwood Anderson, Theodore Dreiser, Maxwell Bodenheim, Carl Sandburg, and Pascal Covici. He knew Margaret Anderson, and contributed to her "Little Review", the magazine of the Chicago "literary renaissance", and to "Smart Set".


title: Ben Hecht

text: In 1954, Hecht published his autobiography, "A Child of the Century", which, according to literary critic Robert Schmuhl, "received such extensive critical acclaim that his literary reputation improved markedly during the last decade of his life ... Hecht's vibrant and candid memoir of more than six hundred pages restored him to the stature of a serious and significant American writer". Novelist Saul Bellow reviewed the book for "The New York Times": "His manners are not always nice, but then nice manners do not always make interesting autobiographies, and this autobiography has the merit of being intensely interesting ... If he is occasionally slick, he is also independent, forthright, and original. Among the pussycats who write of social issues today, he roars like an old-fashioned lion." In 2011, Richard Corliss, announced the "Time" editorial board named Hecht's autobiography to the "Time" 100 best non-fiction books list (books published since the founding of the magazine in 1923).


title: Ben Hecht

text: "New Yorker" film critic David Denby begins a discussion of Hecht's screenwriting by recounting a long story from his autobiography. He then asks, "How many of these details are true? It's impossible to say, but truth, in this case, may not be the point. As Norman Mailer noted in 1973, Hecht 'was never a writer to tell the truth when a concoction could put life in his prose. Denby calls this Hecht's "gift for confabulated anecdote". Near the end of the article, Denby returns to "A Child of the Century", "that vast compendium of period evocation, juiced anecdotes, and dubious philosophy".


title: Ben Hecht

text: Besides working on novels and short stories (see book list), he has been credited with ghostwriting books, including Marilyn Monroe's autobiography "My Story". "The reprint of Marilyn Monroe's memoir, "My Story", in 2000, by Cooper Square Press, correctly credits Hecht as an author, ending a period of almost fifty years in which Hecht's role was denied ... Hecht himself, however, kept denying it publicly".


title: Ben Hecht

text: According to her biographer, Sarah Churchwell, Monroe was "persuaded to capitalize on her newfound celebrity by beginning an autobiography. It was born out of a collaboration with journalist and screenwriter Ben Hecht, hired as a ghostwriter". Churchwell adds that the facts in her story were highly selective. "Hecht reported to his editor during the interviews that he was sometimes sure Marilyn was fabricating. He explained, 'When I say lying, I mean she isn't telling the truth. I don't think so much that she is trying to deceive me as that she is a fantasizer.


title: Ben Hecht

text: Beginning with a series of one-acts in 1914, he began writing plays. His first full-length play was "The Egotist", and it was produced in New York in 1922. While living in Chicago, he met fellow reporter Charles MacArthur and together they moved to New York to collaborate on their Chicago-crime-reporter theamed play, "The Front Page". It was widely acclaimed and had a successful run on Broadway of 281 performances, beginning August 1928. In 1931, it was turned into a successful film, which was nominated for three Oscars.


title: Ben Hecht

text: Film historian Richard Corliss writes, "Ben Hecht was "the" Hollywood screenwriter ... [and] it can be said without too much exaggeration that Hecht personifies Hollywood itself." Movie columnist Pauline Kael says, "between them, Hecht and Jules Furthman wrote most of the best American talkies". His movie career can be defined by about twenty credited screenplays he wrote for Hawks, Hitchcock, Hathaway, Lubitsch, Wellman, Sternberg, and himself. He wrote many of those with his two regular collaborators, Charles MacArthur and Charles Lederer.


title: Ben Hecht

text: While living in New York in 1926, he received a telegram from screenwriter friend Herman J. Mankiewicz, who had recently moved to Los Angeles. "Will you accept three hundred per week to work for Paramount Pictures. All expenses paid. The three hundred is peanuts. Millions are to be grabbed out here, and your only competition is idiots", it read. "Don't let this get around." As a writer in need of money, he traveled to Hollywood as Mankiewicz suggested.


title: Ben Hecht

text: He arrived in Los Angeles and began his career at the beginning of the sound era by writing the story for Josef von Sternberg's gangster movie "Underworld" in 1927. For that first screenplay and story, he won an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay in Hollywood's first Academy award ceremony. Soon afterward, he became the "most prolific and highest paid screenwriter in Hollywood".


title: Ben Hecht

text: Hecht spent from two to twelve weeks in Hollywood each year, "during which he earned enough money (his record was $100,000 in one month, for two screenplays) to live on for the rest of the year in New York, where he did what he considered his serious writing", writes film historian Carol Easton. Nonetheless, later in his career, "he was a writer who liked to think that his genius had been stifled by Hollywood and by its dreadful habit of giving him so much money".


title: Ben Hecht

text: Yet his income was as much a result of his skill as a writer as well as his early jobs with newspapers. As film historians Mast and Kawin wrote, "The newspaper reporters often seemed like gangsters who had accidentally ended up behind a typewriter rather than a tommy gun; they talked and acted as rough as the crooks their assignments forced them to cover ... It is no accident that Ben Hecht, the greatest screenwriter of rapid-fire, flavorful tough talk, as well as a major comic playwright, wrote gangster pictures, prison pictures, and newspaper pictures."


title: Ben Hecht

text: Hecht became one of Hollywood's most prolific screenwriters, able to write a full screenplay in two to eight weeks. According to Samuel Goldwyn biographer, Carol Easton, in 1931, with his writing partner Charles MacArthur, he "knocked out "The Unholy Garden" in twelve hours. Hecht subsequently received a fan letter from producer Arthur Hornblow, Jr.:


title: Ben Hecht

text: It was produced exactly as written, and 'became one of the biggest, yet funniest, bombs ever made by a studio'."


title: Ben Hecht

text: Despite his monetary success, however, Hecht always kept Hollywood at arms' length. According to film historian Gregory Black, "he did not consider his work for the movies serious art; it was more a means of replenishing his bank account. When his work was finished, he retreated to New York."


title: Ben Hecht

text: At least part of the reason for this was due to the industry's system of censorship. Black writes, "as Mankiewicz, Selznick, and Hecht knew all too well, much of the blame for the failure of the movies to deal more frankly and honestly with life, lay with a rigid censorship imposed on the industry ... [and] on the content of films during its golden era of studio production." Because the costs of production and distribution were so high, the primary "goal of the studios was profit, not art ... [and] fearful of losing any segment of their audiences, the studios either carefully avoided controversial topics or presented them in a way that evaded larger issues", thereby creating only "harmless entertainment".


title: Ben Hecht

text: According to historian David Thomson, "to their own minds, Herman Mankiewicz and Ben Hecht both died morose and frustrated. Neither of them had written the great books they believed possible."


title: Ben Hecht

text: In an interview with director Howard Hawks, with whom Hecht worked on many films, Scott Breivold elicited comments on the way they often worked:


title: Ben Hecht

text: "Nothing Sacred" is probably the "most famous of all the Carole Lombard films next to "My Man Godfrey"", wrote movie historian James Harvey. And it impressed people at the time with its evident ambition "and Selznick determined to make the classiest of all screwball comedies, turned to Lombard as a necessity, but also to Ben Hecht, nearly the hottest screenwriter in Hollywood at the time, especially for comedy. ... it was also the first screwball comedy to lay apparent claim to larger satiric meanings, to make scathing observations about American life and society."


title: Ben Hecht

text: In an interview with Irene Selznick, ex-wife of producer David O. Selznick, she discussed the other leading screenwriters of that time:


title: Ben Hecht

text: According to Siegel, "The talkie era put writers like Hecht at a premium because they could write dialogue in the quirky, idiosyncratic style of the common man. Hecht, in particular, was wonderful with slang, and he peppered his films with the argot of the streets. He also had a lively sense of humor and an uncanny ability to ground even the most outrageous stories successfully with credible, fast-paced plots." Hecht, his friend Budd Schulberg wrote many years ago, "seemed the personification of the writer at the top of his game, the top of his world, not gnawing at doubting himself as great writers were said to do, but with every word and every gesture indicating the animal pleasure he took in writing well".


title: Ben Hecht

text: "Movies", Hecht was to recall, "were seldom written. In 1927, they were yelled into existence in conferences that kept going in saloons, brothels, and all-night poker games. Movie sets roared with arguments and organ music."


title: Ben Hecht

text: He was best known for two specific and contrasting types of film: crime thrillers and screwball comedies. Among crime thrillers, Hecht was responsible for such films as "The Unholy Night" (1929), the classic "Scarface" (1932), and Hitchcock's "Notorious". Among his comedies, there were "The Front Page", which led to many remakes, Noël Coward's "Design for Living" (1933), "Twentieth Century", "Nothing Sacred", and Howard Hawks's "Monkey Business" (1952).


title: Ben Hecht

text: Film historian Richard Corliss wrote, "it is his crisp, frenetic, sensational prose and dialogue style that elevates his work above that of the dozens of other reporters who streamed west to cover and exploit Hollywood's biggest 'story': the talkie revolution."


title: Ben Hecht

text: He married Marie Armstrong (1892–1956), a gentile, in 1915, when he was 21, and they had a daughter, Edwina, who became actress Edwina Armstrong (1916–1991). He later met Rose Caylor, a writer, and together they left Chicago (and his family) in 1924, moving to New York. He was divorced from Armstrong in 1925. He married Caylor that same year, and they remained married until Hecht's death in 1964.


title: Ben Hecht

text: On July 30, 1943, Ben and Rose had a daughter, Jenny Hecht, who became an actress at the age of 8. She died of a drug overdose on March 25, 1971, at the age of 27, shortly after completing her third movie appearance. A play about Jenny's brief life, "The Screenwriter's Daughter" by Larry Mollin, was staged in London in October 2015.


title: Ben Hecht

text: According to Hecht historian Florice Whyte Kovan, he became active in promoting civil rights early in his career.


title: Ben Hecht

text: Hecht was among a number of signers of a formal statement, issued in July 1941, calling for the "utmost material assistance by our government to England, the Soviet Union, and China". Among those who signed were former Nobel Prize winners in science and other people eminent in education, literature, and the arts. It advocated


title: Ben Hecht

text: Later that year, he had his first large-scale musical collaboration with symphonic composer Ferde Grofe on their patriotic cantata, "Uncle Sam Stands Up".


title: Ben Hecht

text: Hecht claimed that he had never experienced anti-Semitism in his life, and claimed to have had little to do with Judaism, but "was drawn back to the Lower East Side late in life and lived for a while on Henry Street, where he could absorb the energy and social consciousness of the ghetto", wrote author Sanford Sternlicht.


title: Ben Hecht

text: His indifference to Jewish issues changed when he met Peter Bergson, who was drumming up American assistance for the Zionist group Irgun. Hecht wrote in his book, "Perfidy", that he used to be a scriptwriter until his meeting with Bergson, when he accidentally bumped into history: that is, the burning need to do anything possible to save the doomed Jews of Europe (paraphrase from "Perfidy"). As Hecht relates it in "A Child of the Century", he didn't feel particularly Jewish in his daily life until Bergson shook him out of his assimilated complacency: Bergson invited Hecht to ask three close friends whether, in their opinion, Hecht was an American or a Jew. All three replied that he was a Jew. (This is incorrect; in his book, "A Child of the Century", Hecht says that he used that line to convince David Selznick to sponsor a mass meeting at the Hollywood canteen.)


title: Ben Hecht

text: Like many stories Hecht told about his life, that tale may be apocryphal, but after meeting Bergson, Hecht quickly became a member of his inner circle and dedicated himself to some goals of the group, particularly the rescue of Europe's Jews.


title: Ben Hecht

text: Hecht "took on a ten-year commitment to publicize the atrocities befalling his own religious minority, the Jews of Europe, and the quest for survivors to find a permanent home in the Middle East". In 1943, during the midst of the Holocaust, he predicted, in a widely published article in "Reader's Digest" magazine,


title: Ben Hecht

text: Also in 1943, "out of frustration over American policy, and outrage at Hollywood's fear of offending its European markets", he organized and wrote a pageant, "We Will Never Die", which was produced by Billy Rose and Ernst Lubitsch, with the help of composer Kurt Weill and staging by Moss Hart. The pageant was performed at Madison Square Garden for two shows in front of 40,000 people in March 1943. It then traveled nationwide, including a performance at the Hollywood Bowl. Hecht was disappointed nonetheless. As Weill noted afterward, "The pageant has accomplished nothing. Actually, all we have done is make a lot of Jews cry, which is not a unique accomplishment."


title: Ben Hecht

text: Following the war, Hecht openly supported the Jewish insurgency in Palestine, a campaign of violence being waged by underground Zionist groups (the Haganah, Irgun, and Lehi) in Palestine. Hecht was a member of the Bergson Group, an Irgun front group in the United States run by Peter Bergson, which was active in raising money for the Irgun's activities and disseminating Irgun propaganda.


title: Ben Hecht

text: Hecht wrote the script for the Bergson Group's production of "A Flag is Born", which opened on September 5, 1946, at the Alvin Playhouse in New York City. The play, which compared the Zionist underground's campaign in Palestine to the American Revolution, was intended to increase public support for the Zionist cause in the United States. The play starred Marlon Brando and Paul Muni during its various productions. The proceeds from the play were used to purchase a ship that was renamed the SS "Ben Hecht", which carried 900 Holocaust survivors to Palestine in March 1947. The Royal Navy captured the ship after it docked, and 600 of its passengers were detained as illegal immigrants and sent to the Cyprus internment camps. The SS "Ben Hecht" later became the flagship of the Israeli Navy. The crew was imprisoned by the British authorities in Acre Prison, and assisted in the preparations for the Acre Prison break.


title: Ben Hecht

text: His most controversial action during this period was writing an open letter to the Jewish insurgents in May 1947 which openly praised underground violence against the British. It included the highly controversial passage:


title: Ben Hecht

text: Six months after the establishment of Israel, the Bergson Group was dissolved, followed by a dinner in New York City where former Irgun commander Menachem Begin appeared, saying,


title: Ben Hecht

text: In October 1948, the Cinematograph Exhibitors' Association, a trade union representing about 4,700 British film theaters, announced a ban on all films in which Hecht had a role. This was a result of "his intemperate utterances on the Palestine problem", according to one source. As a result, filmmakers, concerned with jeopardizing the British market, became more reluctant to hire Hecht. Hecht cut his fee in half and wrote screenplays under pseudonyms or completely anonymously to evade the boycott, which was lifted in 1952.


title: Ben Hecht

text: "Underworld" was the story of a petty hoodlum with political pull; it was based on a real Chicago gangster Hecht knew. "The film began the gangster film genre that became popular in the early 1930s.". It and "Scarface" were "the alpha and omega of Hollywood's first gangster craze". In it, he "manages both to congratulate journalism for its importance and to chastise it for its chicanery, by underlining the newspapers' complicity in promoting the underworld image".


title: Ben Hecht

text: After contributing to the original stories for a number of films, he worked without credit on the first film version of his original 1928 play "The Front Page". It was produced by Howard Hughes and directed by Lewis Milestone in 1931. James Harvey writes,


title: Ben Hecht

text: After ushering in the beginning of the gangster films with "Underworld", his next film became one of the best films of that genre. "Scarface" was directed by Howard Hawks, with "Hecht the wordsmith and Hawks the engineer", who became "one of the few directors with whom Hecht enjoyed working". It starred Paul Muni playing the role of an Al Capone-like gangster. ""Scarface's" all-but-suffocating vitality is a kind of cinematic version of tabloid prose at its best."


title: Ben Hecht

text: For his next film, "Twentieth Century", he wrote the screenplay in collaboration with Charles MacArthur as an adaptation of their original play from 1932. It was directed by Howard Hawks, and starred John Barrymore and Carole Lombard. It is a comedy about a Broadway producer who was losing his leading lady to the seductive Hollywood film industry, and will do anything to win her back.


title: Ben Hecht

text: This was the story about Mexican rebel, Pancho Villa, who takes to the hills after killing an overseer in revenge for his father's death. It was directed by Howard Hawks and starred Wallace Beery. Although the movie took liberties with the facts, it became a great success, and Hecht received an Academy Award nomination for his screenplay adaptation.


title: Ben Hecht

text: "Barbary Coast" was also directed by Howard Hawks and starred Miriam Hopkins and Edward G. Robinson. The film takes place in late nineteenth century San Francisco with Hopkins playing the role of a dance-hall girl up against Robinson, who runs the town.


title: Ben Hecht

text: Hecht and Macarthur left Hollywood and went back to New York where they wrote produced and co-directed "The Scoundrel" marking the American film debut of Noel Coward. Reminiscent of Molnar's "Liliom", the movie won the Academy Award for Best Original Story.


title: Ben Hecht

text: "Nothing Sacred" became Hecht's first project after he and Charles MacArthur closed their failing film company, which they started in 1934. The film was adapted from his play, "Hazel Flagg", and starred Carole Lombard as a small-town girl diagnosed with radium poisoning. "A reporter makes her case a cause for his newspaper." The story "allowed Hecht to work with one of his favorite themes, hypocrisy (especially among journalists); he took the themes of lying, decadence, and immorality, and made them into a sophisticated screwball comedy".


title: Ben Hecht

text: "Gunga Din" was co-written with Charles MacArthur, and became "one of Hollywood's greatest action-adventure films". The screenplay was based on the poem by Rudyard Kipling, directed by George Stevens and starred Cary Grant and Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. In 1999, the film was deemed "culturally significant" by the United States Library of Congress.


title: Ben Hecht

text: After working without credit on "Gone with the Wind" in 1939, he co-wrote (with Charles MacArthur) an adaptation of Emily Brontë's novel, "Wuthering Heights". Although the screenplay was cut off at the story's half-way point, as it was considered too long, it was nominated for an Academy Award.


title: Ben Hecht

text: Movie historian James Harvey notes that in some respects "It's a Wonderful World" is an even more accomplished film – the comedy counterpart to the supremely assured and high-spirited work Van Dyke had accomplished with "San Francisco" (1936). "Ben Hecht, another speed specialist, wrote the screenplay (from a story by Hecht and Herman Mankiewicz); it's in his "Front Page" vein, with admixtures of "It Happened One Night" and "Bringing Up Baby", as well as surprising adumbrations of the nineteen-forties private-eye film."


title: Ben Hecht

text: "Angels Over Broadway" was one of only two movies he directed, produced, and wrote originally for film, the other was "Specter of the Rose" (1946). Angels Over Broadway was considered "one of his most personal works". It starred Douglas Fairbanks, Jr. and Rita Hayworth and was nominated for an Academy Award. "The dialogue as well as the script's descriptive passages are chock full of brittle Hechtian similes that sparkle on the page, but turn leaden when delivered. Hecht was an endlessly articulate raconteur. In his novels and memoirs, articulation dominates".


title: Ben Hecht

text: For Alfred Hitchcock he wrote a number of his best psycho-dramas and received his final Academy Award nomination for "Notorious". He also worked without credit on Hitchcock's next two films, "The Paradine Case" (1947) and "Rope" (1948). "Spellbound", the first time Hitchcock worked with Hecht, is notable for being one of the first Hollywood movies to deal seriously with the subject of psychoanalysis.


title: Ben Hecht

text: In 1947, he teamed up with Charles Lederer, and co-wrote three films: "Her Husband's Affairs", "Kiss of Death", and "Ride the Pink Horse". In 1950, he co-wrote "The Thing" without credit. They again teamed up to write the 1952 screwball comedy, "Monkey Business", which became Hecht's last true success as a screenwriter.


title: Ben Hecht

text: Among the better-known films he helped write without being credited are "Gone with the Wind", "The Shop Around the Corner", ""Foreign Correspondent"", "His Girl Friday" (the second film version of his play "The Front Page"), "The Sun Also Rises", "Mutiny on the Bounty", "Casino Royale" (1967), and "The Greatest Show on Earth".


title: Ben Hecht

text: The following are snippets of letters discussing "The Sun Also Rises", based on the novel by Ernest Hemingway:


title: Ben Hecht

text: Producer David O. Selznick replaced the film's director three weeks into filming and then had the script rewritten. He sought out director Victor Fleming, who, at the time, was directing "The Wizard of Oz". Fleming was dissatisfied with the script, so Selznick brought in famed writer Ben Hecht to rewrite the entire screenplay within five days.


title: Ben Hecht

text: Hecht was not credited, however, for his contribution, and Sidney Howard received the Academy Award for Best Screenplay.


title: Ben Hecht

text: In a letter from Selznick to film editor O'Shea [October 19, 1939], Selznick discussed how the writing credits should appear, taking into consideration that Sidney Howard had died a few months earlier after a farm-tractor accident at his home in Massachusetts:


title: Ben Hecht

text: In a letter [September 25, 1939] from Selznick to Hecht, regarding writing introductory sequences and titles, which were used to set the scene and condense the narrative throughout the movie, Selznick wrote,


title: Ben Hecht

text: ""His Girl Friday" remains not just the fastest-talking romantic comedy ever made, but a very tricky inquiry into love's need for a chase (or a dream) and the sharpest pointer to uncertain gender roles."


title: Ben Hecht

text: Hecht wrote the first screenplay for Ian Fleming's first novel, "Casino Royale". Although the final screenplay and film was made into a comedy spoof, Hecht's version was written as a straight Bond adventure, states spy novelist Jeremy Duns, who recently discovered the original lost scripts. According to Duns, Hecht's version included elements hard to imagine in a film adaptation, adding that "these drafts are a master-class in thriller-writing, from the man who arguably perfected the form with "Notorious"." Hecht wrote that he has "never had more fun writing a movie", and felt the James Bond character was cinema's first "gentleman superman" in a long time, as opposed to Hammett and Chandler's "roughneck supermen".


title: Ben Hecht

text: A few days before the final screenplay was announced to the press, Hecht died of a heart attack at his home.


title: Zeng Jinlian

text: Zeng Jinlian (, June 26, 1964 – February 13, 1982) was the tallest woman verified in modern times, surpassing Jane Bunford's record. In the year between Don Koehler's death and her own, she surpassed fellow "eight-footers" Gabriel Estêvão Monjane and Suleiman Ali Nashnush.


title: The Coroner

text: The Coroner is a BBC Birmingham drama series starring Claire Goose as Jane Kennedy, a coroner based in a fictional South Devon coastal town. Matt Bardock stars as Detective Sergeant Davey Higgins.


title: The Coroner

text: Jane Kennedy returns to Lighthaven as the local coroner. She works with Davey Higgins, a Detective Sergeant in the South Dart police; they were childhood sweethearts until he broke her heart. They investigate any sudden, violent or unexplained deaths in the South Hams district of South Devon. Also featuring are Beth, Kennedy's 15-year-old daughter; Judith, Kennedy's mother; Judith's boyfriend, Mick Sturrock; and Clint Holman, Coroner's Officer.


title: The Coroner

text: Sally Abbott created "The Coroner" from an idea by Will Trotter, executive producer and head of BBC Drama Birmingham, about a woman coroner aged about 40 and in a location such as the Cotswolds or Devon. The series would have self-contained stories with drama and humour; a formula successfully used in "Father Brown" from the same production team. The characters, Jane and Davey, were based on Katharine Hepburn and Spencer Tracy in "Adam's Rib" with the unresolved sexual tension between them. Abbott wrote the Davey character with Matt Bardock in mind. She created four other characters to complete the cast.


title: The Coroner

text: According to the BBC, the series is not based on, or inspired by, M R Hall's best-selling books including "The Coroner". Hall stated he was "unhappy" about the "enormous similarities", but the BBC say any resemblance with his booksalso about an unusually pro-active, Land Rover driving, forty-something female solicitor who after a failed relationship returns to the West Country to take up the post of coronerare purely coincidental.


title: The Coroner

text: The production office was located at Dartington where some interior scenes were filmed. Filming began in mid-April 2015 for 15 weeks. The episodes were divided into blocks of two with the same director, assistant director, and director of photography.


title: The Coroner

text: Locations included Hope Cove, Dartmouth, Torquay, and Broadsands Beach, Paignton. The Mansion, now a community building, in Totnes was used as the Coroner's Court. A brass plate was attached to the brickwork. The exterior and interior of Oldway Mansion is used as Lighthaven's town hall. The Old Customs House in Bayard's Cove, Dartmouth is the location of the Coroners office.


title: The Coroner

text: The set for The Black Dog Inn is the derelict Crooked Spaniards Inn, Cargreen, Cornwall. The tower at Gribben Head, Cornwall featured in the first episode.


title: The Coroner

text: Both series are available on DVD in the UK. They have also been released in Germany and Australia. All of these releases are PAL format. NTSC format DVDs will be released in the USA in 2018. Although being one of the first BBC drama series to be shot in 4K resolution, there have been no blu-rays released in either 4K or high definition in any region to date.


title: Devale Ellis

text: Devale Ellis (born April 2, 1984, in Brooklyn, New York) is an American actor and former American football wide receiver. He was signed by the Detroit Lions as an undrafted free agent in 2006. He played college football at Hofstra.


title: Devale Ellis

text: He is married to Khadeen Ellis and together they have four sons: Jackson (b. 2011), Kairo (b. 2016), Kaz (b. 2017) and Dakota (b. 2021).


title: Devale Ellis

text: Devale and Khadeen have a comedy filled YouTube channel called "The Ellises" where they showcase their family vlogs and skits.


title: Devale Ellis

text: In 2019, they created a podcast called “Dead Ass” together where they share stories, opinions and give advice on love, marriage and business. Since 2019, he has starred as Zac in the television series "Sistas".


title: Devale Ellis

text: Devale attended James Madison High School in Brooklyn, New York, where he played football and basketball. In his senior year at Madison, he lit up the Public School Athletic League. He was in the top ten for catches made and in the top ten for touchdowns made by a wide receiver. He also played in the PSAL all star game. During the season, he earned the nickname Devale "Show Time" Ellis.


title: Devale Ellis

text: He attended Hofstra University, where he was a teammate of New Orleans Saints wide receiver Marques Colston. Ellis finished his career with 176 catches for 2,207 yards (a 12.5 per-catch average) and 22 touchdowns. As a senior in 2005, he led Hofstra with 74 receptions for 943 yards and five touchdowns. He ranked second in the Atlantic 10 in receptions, third in receiving yards and ninth in all-purpose yards (103.8 yards per game). As a junior, with Colston sidelined all season with an injury, Ellis led the team ranked second in the Atlantic 10 and 11th in I-AA with 74 catches, good for 1,067 yards (a 14.4 average) and 13 touchdowns.


title: Devale Ellis

text: He went undrafted in the 2006 NFL Draft, but was signed as a free agent after participating in the rookie mini-camp as a tryout player. He was signed to the Lions eight man practice squad on September 3, 2006. Although he played in the season opener against the Seattle Seahawks on the September 9th, he was waived from the active roster on September 11, and shortly afterwards re-signed with the practice squad. As of October 15, he had been upgraded to the active roster and made his first start against the Buffalo Bills. Ellis was waived by the Lions during final cuts on August 30, 2008.


title: Devale Ellis

text: After spending the 2008 regular season out of football, Ellis was signed to a future contract by the Cleveland Browns on December 31, 2008. He was waived on July 26, 2009.


title: Jal (band)

text: Jal (, ) is a pop rock band from Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan. The band originally consisted of songwriter, vocalist and lead guitarist, Goher Mumtaz and vocalist, Atif Aslam and later joined by bass guitarist Omer Nadeem and later Salman Albert joined on drums in 2003. Founded in 2002, they first became popular playing in Lahore's underground music scene with the release of their song "Aadat".


title: Jal (band)

text: The band initially achieved commercial success with the release of their music video "Aadat", directed by Umer Anwar, in 2003. After the success of the single, lead vocalist Atif Aslam parted ways with the band, due to differences with lead guitarist Goher Mumtaz, to pursue a career as a solo artist. This led to Mumtaz recruiting musicians Farhan Saeed on vocals and Aamir Tufail aka Shazi on bass guitar. The band's new line-up followed with the release of their début studio album, "Aadat", in 2004. The album was declared as the best selling album of 2004 on Geo TV by the record label Sadaf Stereo. Soon afterwards, the band recorded and released their second studio album "Boondh" in 2007, which topped several music charts in South Asia. The band went on to win the MTV Asia Award for Favorite Artist India in 2006. In 2011, Farhan Saeed also left the band to pursue a solo career, with Goher Mumtaz taking over as the lead vocalist of the band. Jal came out with their third studio album 'Pyaas' which was released to the fans delight on 11 March 2013 in both Pakistan (by Hum Network, M Records) and India (Universal Music). The album 'pyaas' featured remixes by DJ AKS. But even after that, On 23 December 2013, Aamir Tufail aka Shazi officially left the band.


title: Jal (band)

text: Jal performed songs from their album Pyaas, apart from their old hits, in London's O2 Arena in June 2013.


title: Jal (band)

text: Goher Mumtaz and Atif Aslam met each other while the latter was studying at the Punjab College in Lahore, Punjab, Pakistan, in 1998.


title: Jal (band)

text: Soon afterwards, the band started to gain popularity in Lahore's underground music scene and gained a large following due to the success of their song "Aadat". The band then went on to release the music video for the song, directed by Umer Anwar, through ARY Digital and The Musik, in December 2003. The video was soon rated as the fourth best video of the year 2003 by ARY The Muzik, within days of its release.


title: Jal (band)

text: However, by the end of December 2003, Atif parted ways with the band due to musical differences with lead guitarist, Goher Mumtaz, to pursue a career as a solo artist. This led Goher to recruit musicians, Farhan Saeed on vocals and Aamir Tufail on bass guitar. Farhan was suggested by Sultan Raja, bassist of Call, who introduced him to Goher and thus joining the band as its vocalist. By this time the band, with a new line-up, re-did the song "Aadat" as its video was already being aired on local music channels with the former lead vocalist, Atif Aslam's, voice.


title: Jal (band)

text: Following the release of the band's first single, Jal soon entered the recording studios to work on their début studio album release. The band had recruited bassist Aamir Tufail along with vocalist Farhan Saeed, and started to work on their first album. The album was composed by Goher and was produced by Zulfiqar Jabbar Khan and Mekaal Hasan, previously produced the band's début single "Aadat" which was a major hit in both India and Pakistan. Jal then went on recording and releasing their début studio album, "Aadat", through the record label Sadaf Stereo, on 27 September 2004. Mostly all singles from the album did really well at the local music charts, most notably "Aadat" which topped the charts and stayed at the top for two weeks. Whereas, five other songs from the album received Top 40 airplay on radio and music channels in Pakistan. Sales of the album were such that it remained at the top of the Pakistani music charts for several weeks after its release. The album was declared as the best selling album of 2004 on Geo TV by the record label Sadaf Stereo. This was followed by the album being released in India by HOM Records. In October, Jal released their second single "Lamhay" music video, from their album, directed by Zulfiqar Jabbar Khan. On 11 November, Jal went on performing at Lahore Grammar School 55-Main branch along with Call. In December, Jal received a special award by Shaukat Khanum Cancer Hospital in recognition of their support and efforts to raise funds for fighting cancer in Pakistan.


title: Jal (band)

text: Atif Aslam, released his debut solo album "Jal Pari", after he left the band, which included few songs from Jal's first studio album. This led to a dispute between Atif and Jal about who owned the rights to the songs as Goher took the dispute to court. However, the final statement from the court went in favour of both the artists as the songs which were included in both the artist albums were compositions of both Atif and Goher. Thus, the dispute ended between the two musicians.


title: Jal (band)

text: On 2 February 2005, Jal performed a charity concert for the Indian Ocean earthquake and tsunami victims at Alhamra Auditorium in Lahore. In the same year, the title track "Aadat", from their debut album, was remade for the Bollywood movie "Kalyug", directed by Mohit Suri and produced by Mahesh Bhatt. Also, Jal band members established themselves as a popular and commercially successful band in Pakistan, as their début album continued to top the music charts locally, and the release of their single "Lamhay" turned out to be another successful single by the band in 2004, and even a year after its release. The song created controversy as a remix version of the song later appeared in the Bollywood movie "Zeher", released in March 2005. Jal accused the film producers of stealing their song, "Lamhay". In response to this accusation, the music director for the movie, Anu Malik, credited himself for only "re-creating" the song on the album, but there was still a heavily noticeable resemblance. Roop Kumar Rathod is credited as the "composer" for the song, while the original composer of the song is vocalist, lead guitarist, Goher Mumtaz, of the band. However, Atif Aslam, who sang the song for the movie, faced legal problems over the band name "Jal" with the existing members.


title: Jal (band)

text: Jal has been invited by the colleges of Pakistan and India as well to perform in the fests. In November 2009 they were received at IIT Roorkee with a crowd of students from across India. Similar concerts across various top colleges keep taking place. For a list of Jal's upcoming concerts one can refer to their.


title: Jal (band)

text: In 2006, Jal's music video for the song "Ik Din Aayega" was declared as the second best video among the top 100 videos selected by ARY Musik channel. On 31 March 2006, Jal once again went on performing at Alhamra Auditorium in Lahore. The following day, the band went on performing at Nawabshah District, for the first time. Soon afterwards, the band then went on performing across border in neighbouring country, India, at Modern School, New Delhi on 7 April. On 6 May, Jal won the MTV Asia Award for Favorite Artist India at MTV Asia Awards 2006 held at the Siam Paragon in Bangkok, Thailand. The band also performed their song "Aadat" live at the music awards.


title: Jal (band)

text: After a month, on 10 June, Jal went on performing live at Defence Club and Arts Council Karachi, in Karachi. Followed by performing live in the capital city of the state Andhra Pradesh, in Hyderabad, India. On 15 December, Jal performed live in front of a crowd of 15, 000 audiences at Tundikhel for the first time in Kathmandu, Nepal. The band opened their act by performing "Teri Yaad", followed by the massive hit "Lamhay" and also performing many cover songs like "Lal Meri Pat". On 23 December, Jal released a video album "Woh Lamhay", which included music videos released by the band and remixes of the songs "Aadat" and "Lamhay" by Dr. Zeus, through the record label HOM Records.


title: Jal (band)

text: In 2007, Jal struck a deal with Gibson Guitar Corporation, becoming the first South Asian band in history (along with the Pakistani pop rock band Strings) to create a working relationship with the famed guitar manufacturers. It was reported that according to the deal, Jal will exclusively use Gibson guitars during concerts, studio recordings and music videos. Furthermore, Jal will act as brand ambassadors to Gibson. In return, Gibson will sponsor the varied endeavours of the band and also provide concert halls and equipment as and when required. Following this, Jal also became the brand ambassadors for the Abu Dhabi based mobile telecommunication company, Warid Telecom. In the same year, Jal entered the recording studios to work on their second studio album release. The mixing and engineering of the album was done by Mekaal Hasan and Goher Mumtaz. The album was recorded at Digital Fidelity Studios in Lahore, where the band also recorded their debut album "Aadat" in 2004. All songs on the album were composed and written by Goher Mumtaz with the exception of one track, which is written by Farhan Saeed and the album was produced by Mekaal Hasan. On 14 December, Jal went on releasing their second studio album "Boondh", through the record label Fire Records, sponsored by Warid Telecom. Farhan Saeed, the lead vocalist of the band, explained "the title of the album "Boondh" is not the name of any song in the album, but is basically the theme of the album and covers all the songs in it. The name suggests that we as a band are just like a small droplet of water in the sea of music, which covers Pakistan, Asia and the entire world where our music is heard. It is our small contribution to the sea of music," said Farhan. This was followed by a live tour, mainly in South Asia, with concerts all over Pakistan, and a few places in India. The following day, Jal released their first music video of the single "Sajni" from their second album, directed by Bilal Lashari. The single was a major hit all over Pakistan, topping all of the charts in the country, just after a month of its release.


title: Jal (band)

text: In 2008, Jal were signed to Unilever as they became the brand ambassadors for Wall's ice cream. On 19 February, Jal released the video of their new single "Chaltay Chaltay" featuring Bollywood actress Amrita Rao. The single later appeared as a bonus track on the band's second album, when re-released on 26 February in Pakistan and 26 March, internationally. Jal's second album "Boondh" became an instantaneous hit, winning the Lux Style Award for "Album of the Year". The song "Sajni" from this album also won the Best Song and Video of the Year awards at the same ceremony. On 14 June, Jal won the "Best Song" award for the song "Chaltay Chaltay" at The Musik Awards. This was followed by Jal travelling to Toronto, Canada, performing at Markham Fair Grounds in South Asian Mela, on 15 June. Then going to performing live at Corianthas in Pune, India. On 13 July, the band once again travelled to Canada this time performing at the Wonder Land in Toronto. Followed by a number of concerts in Pakistan and India and then travelling to perform at Rådhusplassen in Oslo, Norway, on 24 August. Jal's video "Sajni", directed by Bilal Lashari, went on winning the 'Best Pop Video Award' at MTV Video Awards 2008.


title: Jal (band)

text: On 9 April 2009, Jal went on performing at Qurum City Amphitheatre in Muscat, Oman, for the first time. In May, Jal won the 'Best Ballad' award for their single "Moré Piya" and were nominated for the 'Best Band' award at the first MTV Pakistan Video Awards.


title: Jal (band)

text: On 11 May, it was confirmed that Jal will be performing at "Coke Studio" season four first episode, which will be aired on 22 May, through a Coke Studio television promo of the first episode. On 14 May, in a behind the scenes video of Jal performing at a Coke Studio session, Goher Mumtaz discussed about performing a new song, "Ik Aarzu", at "Coke Studio" as it would be more challenging for the band. On 22 May, "Coke Studio" fourth season first episode aired in which Jal performed "Ik Aarzu", added with classical sufi poetry of Bulleh Shah infusion into the band's song lyrics, featuring with backing vocals by Zoe Viccaji and Rachel Viccaji. On 24 May, in a review of the "Coke Studio" fourth season, first episode, "The Express Tribune" newspaper gave Jal's performance for the song "Ik Aarzu" a 7/10 rating. On 19 June, the third episode of "Coke Studio" fourth season aired saw the band sing their hit song "Panchi", from "Aadat", with singer QB, who came in with her rendition of the Mohammad Ali Sheikhi and Allan Fakir's hit song "Tere Ishq Mae Jo Bhi Doob Gaya". "The Express Tribune" newspaper also gave this performance by the band a 7/10 rating.


title: Jal (band)

text: On 22 August, the band's lead vocalist Farhan Saeed released a solo single cover of "Halka Halka Suroor" paying tribute to late Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan. The release of the song led to spreading rumours that the vocalist has parted ways with Jal. On 3 September, Saeed in an interview to "The Express Tribune" finally confirmed these speculations, disclosing his departure from the band to pursue a solo career. Saeed claimed that he disclosed his decision to Mumtaz and Aamir around the first week of Ramazan, saying "I invited them over to my café and explained my reasons for leaving the band. Goher offered that I could pursue my solo career while being a part of the band, but for me it's always been black or white as Jal would be my priority if I stay with the band."


title: Jal (band)

text: Jal performed in front of an audience of 2000. They sang "sajni pass bulao na "'& 'Aadat"" Mellifluously according to 74.5% audience.


title: Jal (band)

text: On 8 Sep 2012, lead vocalist and lead guitarist, Goher Mumtaz in an interview with "Rj Syed Ali" confirmed that the band's third album, "Pyaas", which was originally slated for a March 2012 release date, was delayed to be released on end of the year. Gohar, inspired from success of Fawad Khan; former member of band EP, took up acting as a side project in a Pakistani serial. Unlike Fawad, critics found his acting weaker and hence, he failed miserably. JAL released their 3rd Album ""Pyaas"" on 11 March 2013.


title: Jal (band)

text: On 13 February, JAL released the video of their song Tanhai which became the OST of Drama Serial Tanhai for HumTV. On 9 April 2013, JAL released the video of their song ""Dil Haari"" Song from their 3rd Album Pyaas. on 16 June, JAL performed at O2 London. JAL is the First Pakistani Band to perform at O2, the most prestigious venue of world. On 1 September 2013, JAL released their 3rd Video Song ""Pyaas"" from their 3rd Album Pyaas.


title: Jal (band)

text: On 6 January 2014, JAL released the video of their song "Lao Guitar" from their 3rd Album Pyaas, which as expected by its title, also failed to make an impression. While the shooting of "Lao Guitar" Video, Goher Mumtaz had an accident. In May 2014, JAL Performed for Ary Musik series The Floor. JAL performed "Laiyan Laiyan & Panchi, Dil Haari, Aadat & Tanhai, Ik Aarzu, Woh Lamhay, Dil Haaray Pukaray, Udd Jaana" in The Floor Live Sessions for ARY Musik.


title: Jal (band)

text: On 21 April 2015, JAL released their music video song ""Teray Baajon"". The song top all the music charts in few days after it released. On 6 September 2015, JAL released the video song ""Ooncha"" for The official PAF 50th Anniversary of 1965 war. On 7 November 2015, JAL released "Khel Sajna" for Drama Serial "Neelam Kinaray" For Hum Sitaray. The new Single Khel sejna became #1 on taazi charts in just 10 days. On 14 November 2015, JAL released the music video of Their First ever Medley from all 3 albums (Signature Mix) which includes these songs "Chup Chup, Kash Yeh Pal, Woh Lamhay, Mahiya". On 6 November 2016, JAL released the video of their song "Tu Muskura" from their 3rd Album Pyaas.


title: Jal (band)

text: JAL released the video of their new single title Parinda on 5 May 2017. JAL the band revealed the title of their 2 upcoming songs, Bhanwaray & Pal. Among them Bhanwaray Premiered Feb 14, 2020 (Valentine's day) on YouTube as their first release of this decade 2020 Featuring Sabeeka Imam.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: The Castello Sforzesco (Italian for "Sforza's Castle") is a medieval fortification located in Milan, northern Italy. It was built in the 15th century by Francesco Sforza, Duke of Milan, on the remnants of a 14th-century fortification. Later renovated and enlarged, in the 16th and 17th centuries it was one of the largest citadels in Europe. Extensively rebuilt by Luca Beltrami in 1891–1905, it now houses several of the city's museums and art collections.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: The original construction was ordered by Galeazzo II Visconti, a local nobleman, in 1358 – c. 1370; this castle was known as the "Castello di Porta Giova" (or "Porta Zubia"), from the name of a gate in walls located nearby. It was built in the same area of the ancient Roman fortification of "Castrum Portae Jovis", which served as "castra pretoria" when the city was the capital of the Roman Empire. It was enlarged by Galeazzo's successors, Gian Galeazzo, Giovanni Maria and Filippo Maria Visconti, until it became a square-plan castle with 200 m-long sides, four towers at the corners and up to walls. The castle was the main residence in the city of its Visconti lords, and was destroyed by the short-lived Golden Ambrosian Republic which ousted them in 1447.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: In 1450, Francesco Sforza, once he had shattered the republicans, began reconstruction of the castle to turn it into his princely residence. In 1452 he hired the sculptor and architect Filarete to design and decorate the central tower, which is still known as the "Torre del Filarete". After Francesco's death, the construction was continued by his son Galeazzo Maria, under the architect Benedetto Ferrini. The decoration was executed by local painters. In 1476, during the regency of Bona of Savoy, the tower bearing her name was built.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: In 1494 Ludovico Sforza became lord of Milan, and called on numerous artists to decorate the castle. These include Leonardo da Vinci (who frescoed several rooms, in collaboration with Bernardino Zenale and Bernardino Butinone) and Bramante, who painted frescoes in the "Sala del Tesoro"; the "Sala della Balla" was decorated with Francesco Sforza's deeds. Around 1498, Leonardo worked on the ceiling of the "Sala delle Asse", painting decorations of vegetable motifs. In the following years, however, the castle was damaged by assaults from Italian, French and German troops; a bastion, known as "tenaglia", was added, perhaps designed by Cesare Cesariano. After the French victory in the Battle of Marignano in 1515, the defeated Maximilian Sforza, his Swiss mercenaries, and the cardinal-bishop of Sion retreated into the castle. However, King Francis I of France followed them into Milan, and his sappers placed mines under the castle's foundations, whereupon the defenders capitulated. In 1521, in a period in which it was used as a weapons depot, the Torre del Filarete exploded. When Francesco II Sforza returned briefly to power in Milan, he had the fortress restored and enlarged, and a part of it adapted as a residence for his wife, Christina of Denmark.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: Under the Spanish domination which followed, the castle became a citadel, as the governor's seat was moved to the Ducal Palace (1535). Its garrison varied from 1,000 to 3,000 men, led by a Spanish castellan. In 1550 works began to adapt the castle to modern fortification style, as a hexagonal (originally pentagonal) star fort, following the addition of 12 bastions. The external fortifications reached 3 km in length and covered an area of 25.9 hectares. The castle also remained in use as a fort after the Spaniards were replaced by the Austrians in Lombardy.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: Most of the outer fortifications were demolished during the period of Napoleonic rule in Milan under the Cisalpine Republic. The semi-circular Piazza Castello was constructed around the city side of the castle, surrounded by a radial street layout of new urban blocks bounded by the Foro Buonaparte. The area on the "country" side of the castle was laid out as a square parade ground known as Piazza d'Armi.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: After the unification of Italy in the 19th century, the castle was transferred from military use to the city of Milan. Parco Sempione, one of the largest parks in the city, was created on the former parade grounds.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: The government of Milan undertook restoration works, directed by Luca Beltrami. The Via Dante was cut through the medieval street layout in the 1880s to provide a direct promenade between the castle and the Duomo on an axis with the main gate. Between 1900 and 1905 the Torre del Filarete was rebuilt, on the basis of 16th-century drawings, as a monument to King Umberto I.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: Allied bombardment of Milan in 1943 during World War II severely damaged the castle. The post-war reconstruction of the building for museum purposes was undertaken by the BBPR architectural partnership.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: The castle has a quadrangular plan, on a site across the city's walls. The wall which once faced the countryside north of Milan has square towers and an ogival gate. This was once accessed through a drawbridge. The northern tower is known as the "Torre della Corte", and its counterpart to the west the "Torre del Tesoro"; both received wide windows during the Sforza age.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: The corner defended by the "Torre Ducale" is characterized by a loggia bridge, attributed to Bramante, and commissioned by Ludovico Sforza in the late 15th century to connect the "Corte Ducale" (the court in the area used as a ducal residence) and the "Cortile della Ghirlanda". This "ghirlanda" refers to a wall, protected by a ditch filled with water, built under Francesco Sforza, of which few traces remain today, including the "Porta del Soccorso". Remains of two later ravelins can be seen in correspondence of the point in which the castle was joined by the city walls (near the "Porta Comasina" gate) and the "Porta del Carmine". The "Porta della Ghirlanda" gate was entered through a ravelin (now lost) and had two entrances accessed through runways, which lead to an underground passage which continued along the walls.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: The external side which once faced the walled city has two round towers, commissioned by Francesco Sforza to replace the former square ones, which had become less suitable to defend against fire weapons. The central tower, called the "Torre del Filarete", is a modern reconstruction. The round towers lost their upper parts under the Austrians, who needed open space for their artillery; the towers' present-day upper sections are modern reconstructions. The "Torre del Filarete" and the "Porta del Santo Spirito", located further to the south, are both preceded by a ravelin.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: The main gate leads to a large court from which several internal features can be seen. These include the Tower of Bona of Savoy (1476) and the "Rocchetta", a sort of internal defensive ridotto with a gate of its own. At the right of the "Porta del Carmine" are the remains of two 15th-century courts. The "Rocchetta", whose access gate from the main court (a modern addition) features the Sforza coat of arms, has an internal court with, on three sides, a portico with 15th-century arcades. The "Corte Ducale" is the wing of the castle originally used as a ducal residence; it features a court with two loggias, a smaller one on the left and a larger one at its end, called "Loggiato dell'Elefante" due to the presence of a fresco of an elephant.


title: Castello Sforzesco

text: The Biblioteca Trivulziana holds a manuscript by Leonardo da Vinci, the Codex Trivulzianus. In 2012, new paintings attributed to Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio were discovered at the castle.


title: Madeon

text: Hugo Pierre Leclercq (; born 30 May 1994), better known by his stage name Madeon (), is a French DJ and music producer from Nantes, currently based in Los Angeles. He initially came to widespread public attention at 17 through a YouTube video, "Pop Culture", where he performed a mash-up of 39 different popular songs in real-time using a Novation Launchpad. It received millions of hits in its first few days of release. Madeon has cited The Beatles and Daft Punk as his greatest musical influences.


title: Madeon

text: Madeon's first EP, "The City", was released in 2012. His debut studio album, "Adventure", was released in 2015, supported by a 22-stop North American tour. In 2019, Madeon released his second album, "Good Faith", as part of the Good Faith Live tour.


title: Madeon

text: Madeon was ranked at number 105 on "DJ Mag"s top DJs for 2017. In 2017, he was nominated for two Electronic Music Awards with Porter Robinson for Single of the Year and Live Act of the Year. "Good Faith" was nominated for a 2021 Best Electronic Album Grammy Award.


title: Madeon

text: Leclercq started composing music at the age of 11, producing hands-up under the name of "Daemon" and Wayne Mont until 2010 when he began producing house music under his current name, Madeon, which is an anagram of his previous nickname. He won a remix competition for "The Island" by Pendulum the same year.


title: Madeon

text: He went on to remix tracks by other electronic artists the following year. A clip of Leclercq performing his mash-up "Pop Culture", uploaded to YouTube on 11 July 2011, propelled him to international fame. It featured samples from thirty-nine songs mixed together on-the-fly using a Novation Launchpad. The clip went viral and reached over six million views in just a few days. According to a Reddit AMA he hosted in November 2019, he had the idea, purchased the Launchpad, and recorded the song all on the same day.


title: Madeon

text: During live performances, apart from the Launchpads, he also uses Allen & Heath's Xone:K2, Novation's Launch Control XL and Ableton Live. His first live performance was in Paris in April 2011 where he was a support act to Yelle, and his UK debut was at The Nest in Dalston, London where he performed alongside the likes of Jacques Lu Cont.


title: Madeon

text: Leclercq has been featured several times on "15 Minutes of Fame", a segment of Pete Tong's radio show on BBC Radio 1, with both his debut single "Icarus" and his remix for deadmau5's "Raise Your Weapon" given their first full play on the show. His live recorded performance debut was for Pete Tong's BBC Radio 1 gala event in Hull on 27 January 2012, where he played a 20-minute-long set.


title: Madeon

text: A debut EP was scheduled to be released at the end of 2011, but then cancelled in favour of multiple singles. The first single, "Icarus", was released on 24 February 2012 on his independent label popcultur.


title: Madeon

text: Madeon toured with Lady Gaga as an opening act during her Born This Way Ball. He later worked with Gaga on three tracks, "Gypsy", "Mary Jane Holland", and "Venus" on her third studio album, "Artpop".


title: Madeon

text: In 2012, he was invited to play four major American festivals, the Ultra Music Festival in Miami, Coachella in California, Lollapalooza in Chicago and Electric Daisy Carnival in New York, as well as several UK dance music festivals, including the Dance Arena at the BBC Radio 1's Big Weekend; he also provided support for Swedish House Mafia's headlining set at the Milton Keynes Bowl. Leclercq was listed at number 54 on "DJ Mag" in 2012. Madeon released a new single on 3 August 2013 titled "Technicolor." On 25 February 2014, Leclercq released a track available for a free download on his website called "Cut the Kid", stating that it was created circa 2011 or 2012.


title: Madeon

text: Many of his songs have been used in media franchises: "Icarus" was featured in the US show "Dancing with the Stars" in May 2012 and 21 May 2013 (finals with Aly Raisman) and on the in-game soundtrack of "Forza Horizon"; "Finale" and "Imperium" have been featured in EA Sports' "FIFA 13" and "FIFA 15" respectively. "You're On" was also featured in "Pro Evolution Soccer 2016". "Finale" has also been included in the opening cinematic of "PlayStation All-Stars Battle Royale"; "The City" appears in EA Sports' "NHL 15", "" and "Technicolor (Club Extended)" in "Need for Speed Rivals". "Finale" and Leclercq's remix of "The Night Out" by Martin Solveig were featured on the official soundtrack of ESPN's Winter X Games XVII event in Tignes, France and both received several plays on air. "Finale" continues to be used as the bumper music for X Games broadcasts.


title: Madeon

text: In September 2014, Leclercq released "Imperium" as the lead single from his debut studio album, "Adventure". On 8 December 2014, Leclercq released the second single from the album, titled "You're On", featuring Kyan. On 9 February 2015, Leclercq released the album's third single, "Pay No Mind," featuring Passion Pit. The album's fourth single, "Home," was released on 10 March 2015. On 24 March 2015, the final single of "Adventure", "Nonsense," was released, featuring Mark Foster of Foster the People. On 27 March 2015, "Adventure" was released. The album peaked at number 43 on the US "Billboard" 200 and at number one on the US Dance/Electronic Albums chart.


title: Madeon

text: In mid-2015, Leclercq embarked on his first headlining tour, Adventure Live, consisting of 22 stops in North America. The tour ended on 9 May 2015. Leclercq further promoted his debut studio album on his Pixel Empire US Tour in early 2016, which ended on 21 February 2016.


title: Madeon

text: On 11 August 2016, Leclercq released with his close friend Porter Robinson a new track called "Shelter". Throughout 2016–2017, he toured the US and Europe alongside Porter Robinson on a live show they called the Shelter Live Tour. This back to back set contained tracks made by both artists, often mixed together between themselves. Throughout the tour both Madeon and Porter also would sing their own songs. Their last performance was on 23 April 2017 at the Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival.


title: Madeon

text: In August 2016, the new gameplay trailer of EA Sports' "FIFA 17" was released, featuring Madeon's remix of "Song 2" by Blur, which was also featured in a BBC Radio 1's Essential Mix in 2012. Leclercq's collaboration with Porter Robinson, "Shelter" was included in the "FIFA 17" soundtrack.


title: Madeon

text: On 13 November 2017, Leclercq announced that he would be releasing his next project in 2018. Further hints about the project were not officially revealed until 20 August 2018, when Leclercq's creative director was interviewed via a Madeon-inspired podcast called the Pixel Empire Podcast.


title: Madeon

text: On 30 January 2018, Leclercq stated on his Instagram and Twitter that he had moved to the United States to finish his upcoming album. On 20 March 2019, Leclercq announced his new live show would debut on Lollapalooza 2019. He stated this would not be a DJ set but rather a new live show; fans will be expecting new music.


title: Madeon

text: Later that year, on 28 May 2019, Leclercq announced that he would be releasing a new song on 29 May 2019 through a new website, goodfaith.world. On 29 May 2019, the goodfaith.world website was updated with a video previewing the new song, titled "All My Friends", along with locations of record stores in four cities: Los Angeles, New York, Ålesund, and Nantes. Each record store was issued two copies of the new single on clear 7" vinyl. On 30 May 2019, the full official audio was released on YouTube.


title: Madeon

text: On 10 July 2019, Leclercq premiered the first episode of Good Faith Radio (Beats Radio on Apple Music), where he officially played and released his next single, "Dream Dream Dream". Along with the single, he played tracks by other artists, including some sent by his own fans accompanied by fan-made art. He described the radio show as "...a space I want us to share, I want to introduce you to my favorite things and showcase some of the amazing music and art you create." Along with the radio premiere, it was released on music streaming platforms and a visualizer video was released on YouTube.


title: Madeon

text: The Good Faith Live tour was premiered at Lollapalooza 2019, followed by headlining shows in London, Amsterdam, and Paris. A longer North American leg started on 30 October in Vancouver and ended on 14 December in Austin, followed by an Australian tour as part of FOMO Festival in January 2020.


title: Madeon

text: On 29 October 2019, Leclercq revealed that "Good Faith" would be released on 15 November 2019. In an interview with NPR Music, Leclercq said the album was based on his relationship to joy and his mental health: "I wanted to make music that was celebratory but that hinted at the fact that that joy had to have been reclaimed and fought for a little bit."


title: Madeon

text: On 9 May 2020, Madeon played a DJ set for the virtual Secret Sky music festival. During the set, he previewed a song called "The Prince". The song was released on 14 August that year. Along with the release, Madeon launched an alternate reality game. When it was solved, a 6-track EP named "12122017" was found, reportedly named for the date it was made. However, after an email correspondence with Leclercq, he revealed that the EP was produced on 6 December 2017. The creation of the EP is attributed to Madeon's own anger due to "not feeling anything from music", and has referred to the EP as a document that serves as context to the Good Faith album instead of an EP.


title: Madeon

text: On 18 September 2021, Madeon premiered the Good Faith Forever Live set at Second Sky music festival in Oakland, California.


title: Madeon

text: After many years of being played during live performances and teased online, Madeon released the track "Love You Back" on 27 April 2022, after a reveal at his Coachella 2022 set.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: Arthur Fitzgerald Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird (16 February 1847 – 30 January 1923) was a British principal of The Football Association and a leading footballer, considered by some journalists as the first football star. He played in nine FA Cup Finals, a record that stands to this day. His record of five wins in the competition stood until 2010, when it was broken by Ashley Cole.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: Kinnaird also served as president of The FA for 33 years. For his contributions to football and the FA Cup, he was given the FA Cup trophy itself to keep in 1911 when a new trophy was commissioned.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: Kinnaird's father, Arthur Kinnaird, 10th Lord Kinnaird, was a banker and MP before taking up his seat in the House of Lords. Kinnaird's mother was Mary Jane Kinnaird and he was born in London. He was educated at Cheam School, Eton College and Trinity College, Cambridge, graduating BA in 1869. He worked in the family bank, becoming a director of Ransom, Bouverie & Co in 1870. This bank later merged with others in 1896 to become Barclays Bank of which he was a main board director until his death.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: In 1875, he married Mary Alma Victoria Agnew (1854–1923), the daughter of Sir Andrew Agnew, 8th Baronet, and Lady Mary Noel, and had seven children, including :


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: Kinnaird first played football while at Cheam School and was captain of the school team in 1859, aged 12, for a match against Harrow School. He continued to play football at Eton College, winning the House Cup in 1861 with Joynes's House, but was never selected for the school eleven. He first played association football, which was codified in 1863, early in 1866.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: As a player, Kinnaird had a remarkable record in the FA Cup. He played in a record nine FA Cup finals. He was on the winning side three times with Wanderers and twice with the Old Etonians, and celebrated his fifth Cup Final victory by standing on his head in front of the pavilion. In the course of his career as a Cup Final player, Kinnaird played in every position, from goalkeeper to forward. It was while playing in goal for Wanderers in the 1877 final that he suffered the indignity of scoring the first significant own goal in football history, accidentally stepping backwards over his own goal line after fielding an innocuous long shot from an Oxford University forward. The match finished 1–1 and Wanderers won with a second goal in extra time. Some time after the match, for unknown reasons, the FA struck the Oxford goal from the records, changing the official score to 2–0 (although if Oxford had not scored, there would have been no reason for the game to go to extra time, so by rights they should have annulled Wanderers' second goal as well). For the next century, all sources reported the score of the match as 2–0. In the 1980s, after fresh research into contemporary reports of the game by football historians, the FA reinstated the Oxford goal, and now regard the official final score of the 1877 final as 2–1.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: Although he was born in Kensington, London, as a son of an old Perthshire family, Kinnaird also played for Scotland. He played in three of Scotland's first five matches, which were subsequently classified as unofficial, and in Scotland's second official match: played on 8 March 1873 at The Oval. All of these games were against England; who were the only other national team then in existence. On 13 March 1875, Arthur captained the Old Etonians team in the FA Cup final against Royal Engineers, the game ended in a draw of 1-1 after extra time. A replay was scheduled for 16 March 1875 and Old Etonians lost to the Royal Engineers (2-0) during a replay and this was the first time a replay was held.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: He was renowned as perhaps the toughest tackler of his day, giving rise to the (probably apocryphal) story that his wife once expressed the fear that he would "come home one day with a broken leg." A friend is said to have responded: "You must not worry, madam. If he does, it will not be his own." Posterity has awarded Arthur Kinnaird the reputation of being fond of 'hacking', i.e. deliberately kicking his opponents. This is not entirely fair: reports from his playing days do not criticise him, and he owes his notoriety to an oft-repeated anecdote which first appeared in an October 1892 issue of "Pastime" magazine, a weekly sporting journal that was edited by Nicholas Lane 'Pa' Jackson, founder of the Corinthian Football Club and a committee member of the Football Association.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: Jackson wrote: 'The keen rivalry which at one time existed between the Old Etonians and Old Harrovians lent an additional zest to the matches between them, and in one of these Lord Kinnaird's energy was expended as much on the shins of his opponents as on the ball. This at length caused a protest from the captain of the Harrovians, who asked, 'Are we going to play the game, or are we going to have hacking?' 'Oh, let us have hacking!' was the noble reply.' Jackson later reveals that the opposing captain was Charles Alcock, which pinpoints the likely origin of the anecdote to a game on 16 November 1872, described as 'a friendly, but most vicious game of football' by The Graphic newspaper. Alcock and Morton Peto Betts were sufficiently disabled to be unable to play for England in the first official international, two weeks later.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: Sportswriters and fellow internationals queued to pay tribute to Kinnaird's skill as a footballer both during and after his career. He was, according to "Tityrus" (J.A.H. Catton), editor of the "Athletic News":


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: "of yeoman build and shaggy auburn beard, [and] did not quite look the part of a Scottish laird, until one spoke to him, and heard his rich, resonant voice and his short ejaculatory sentences. Of course, he had the voice and manner of an educated man of distinction.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: "He was a leader, and above all things, a muscular type of Christian... As a player, in any position, [he] was an examplar of manly robust football. He popularised the game by his activity as a footballer among every class. He was at much at home with the boys of the Polytechnic, London, as he was with the Old Etonians.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: "There was a time when the white ducks of Kinnaird, for he always wore trousers in a match, and his blue and white quartered cap were as familiar on the field as the giant figure of W.G. Grace with his yellow and red cricket cap... Lord Kinnaird used to say that he played four or five matches a week and never grew tired, but he added, late in life, that he would never have been allowed to stay on the field five minutes in these latter days. Nevertheless, he was fair, above board, and was prepared to receive all the knocks that came his way without a trace of resentment."


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: As an administrator, Kinnaird was an FA committeeman at the age of 21, in 1868. He became treasurer nine years later and president 13 years after that, replacing Major Francis Marindin in 1890. He was to remain president for the next 33 years until his death in 1923, just months before the opening of Wembley Stadium.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: He was an all-round sportsman, twice winning a blue at tennis, in 1868 and 1869, while at Trinity College, Cambridge, and was first in an international canoe race at the 1867 Paris Exhibition. He was Cambridge University swimming and fives champion, and won the Eton College 350 yards race in 1864.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: Outside of sport, he was president of the YWCA and the YMCA in England, a director of Barclays Bank and Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland in 1907, 1908 and 1909. He was Honorary Colonel of the Tay Division Submarine Miners a Volunteer unit of the Royal Engineers based in Dundee.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: He was appointed a Knight of the Thistle by George V in the 1914 Birthday Honours. This gave him the Post Nominal Letters "KT" for Life.


title: Arthur Kinnaird, 11th Lord Kinnaird

text: Kinnaird is one of the main characters in the Netflix mini-series, "The English Game" (2020), portrayed by Edward Holcroft.


title: Vimala Raman

text: Vimala Raman is an Australian actress and former model who has worked in Indian cinema. She appears in Malayalam, Telugu and Tamil language films. Born and brought up in Australia, she made her debut in 2006 with the Tamil film "Poi". An established Bharatanatyam dancer and a graduate in B.Sc Information Systems from the University of New South Wales, Sydney, Raman had also won the title of Miss India Australia in 2004


title: Vimala Raman

text: She made her acting debut in 2006 with "Poi", a Tamil film directed by Kailasam Balachander. Her first Malayalam film was "Time" with Suresh Gopi. She paired with Ajmal Ameer in "Pranayakalam" in 2007 and with Jayaram in "Sooryan". In the same year, she also appeared with Mammooty in "Nasrani" and with Dileep in "Romeoo". She appeared in "College Kumaran" with Mohanlal and in "Calcutta News" with Dileep in 2008. Vimala Raman attended the Natanalaya Dance Academy based in Sydney, Australia. She studied dance under the tutelage of Jayalakshmi Kandiah.


title: Gossypium

text: Gossypium () is a genus of flowering plants in the tribe Gossypieae of the mallow family, Malvaceae, from which cotton is harvested. It is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the Old and New Worlds. There are about 50 "Gossypium" species, making it the largest genus in the tribe Gossypieae, and new species continue to be discovered. The name of the genus is derived from the Arabic word "goz", which refers to a soft substance.


title: Gossypium

text: Cotton is the primary natural fibre used by humans today, amounting to about 80% of world natural fibre production. Where cotton is cultivated, it is a major oilseed crop and a main protein source for animal feed. Cotton is thus of great importance for agriculture, industry and trade, especially for tropical and subtropical countries in Africa, South America and Asia. Consequently, the genus "Gossypium" has long attracted the attention of scientists.


title: Gossypium

text: The origin of the genus "Gossypium" is dated to around 5–10 million years ago. "Gossypium" species are distributed in arid to semiarid regions of the tropics and subtropics. Generally shrubs or shrub-like plants, the species of this genus are extraordinarily diverse in morphology and adaptation, ranging from fire-adapted, herbaceous perennials in Australia to trees in Mexico. Most wild cottons are diploid, but a group of five species from America and Pacific islands are tetraploid, apparently due to a single hybridization event around 1.5 to 2 million years ago. The tetraploid species are "G. hirsutum", "G. tomentosum", "G. mustelinum", "G. barbadense", and "G. darwinii".


title: Gossypium

text: Cultivated cottons are perennial shrubs, most often grown as annuals. Plants are 1–2 m high in modern cropping systems, sometimes higher in traditional, multiannual cropping systems, now largely disappearing. The leaves are broad and lobed, with three to five (or rarely seven) lobes. The seeds are contained in a capsule called a "boll", each seed surrounded by fibres of two types. These fibres are the more commercially interesting part of the plant and they are separated from the seed by a process called ginning. At the first ginning, the longer fibres, called staples, are removed and these are twisted together to form yarn for making thread and weaving into high quality textiles. At the second ginning, the shorter fibres, called "linters", are removed, and these are woven into lower quality textiles (which include the eponymous lint). Commercial species of cotton plant are "G. hirsutum" (97% of world production), "G. barbadense" (1–2%), "G. arboreum" and "G. herbaceum" (together, ~1%). Many varieties of cotton have been developed by selective breeding and hybridization of these species. Experiments are ongoing to cross-breed various desirable traits of wild cotton species into the principal commercial species, such as resistance to insects and diseases, and drought tolerance. Cotton fibres occur naturally in colours of white, brown, green, and some mixing of these.


title: Gossypium

text: A public genome sequencing effort of cotton was initiated in 2007 by a consortium of public researchers. They agreed on a strategy to sequence the genome of cultivated, allotetraploid cotton. "Allotetraploid" means that the genomes of these cotton species comprise two distinct subgenomes, referred to as the At and Dt (the 't' for tetraploid, to distinguish them from the A and D genomes of the related diploid species). The strategy is to sequence first the D-genome relative of allotetraploid cottons, "G. raimondii", a wild South American (Peru, Ecuador) cotton species, because of its smaller size due essentially to less repetitive DNA (retrotransposons mainly). It has nearly one-third the number of bases of tetraploid cotton (AD), and each chromosome is only present once. The A genome of "G. arboreum", the 'Old-World' cotton species (grown in India in particular), would be sequenced next. Its genome is roughly twice the size of "G. raimondii"'s. Once both A and D genome sequences are assembled, then research could begin to sequence the actual genomes of tetraploid cultivated cotton varieties. This strategy is out of necessity; if one were to sequence the tetraploid genome without model diploid genomes, the euchromatic DNA sequences of the AD genomes would co-assemble and the repetitive elements of AD genomes would assembly independently into A and D sequences, respectively. Then there would be no way to untangle the mess of AD sequences without comparing them to their diploid counterparts.


title: Gossypium

text: The public sector effort continues with the goal to create a high-quality, draft genome sequence from reads generated by all sources. The public-sector effort has generated Sanger reads of BACs, fosmids, and plasmids, as well as 454 reads. These later types of reads will be instrumental in assembling an initial draft of the D genome. In 2010, two companies (Monsanto and Illumina), completed enough Illumina sequencing to cover the D genome of "G. raimondii" about 50x. They announced they would donate their raw reads to the public. This public relations effort gave them some recognition for sequencing the cotton genome. Once the D genome is assembled from all of this raw material, it will undoubtedly assist in the assembly of the AD genomes of cultivated varieties of cotton, but a lot of hard work remains.


The Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations (CISCE) is a privately held national-level board of school education in India that conducts the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education (ICSE) Examination for Class X and the Indian School Certificate (ISC) for Class XII. It was established in 1958. Over 2,300 schools in India and abroad are affiliated to the CISCE. It is also recognised as a 'Non-Governmental Board of School Education'.


title: Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations

text: This Indian Council was set up on the grounds that a board was required to administer the examinations being conducted in India by the University of Cambridge and to optimally tailor them according to the nation's need. The future education policies were prepared under the aegis of the Cambridge University.


text: The National Admissions and Accreditation agency of the UK, UCAS (Universities and College Admission Services) recognizes ISCE at par with the Higher School qualification of University of Scotland.


text: ICSE (Indian Certificate of Secondary Education) is known for its comprehensive syllabus and primarily focus on English language and variety of subjects that it offers involving language, arts, commerce and science. ICSE is being taught in English Language only as a result ICSE student gain great command over English language and Literature from kinder garden which helps the students to acquire the art of writing compactly in English, which makes it easy for the ICSE passed out student to score well in competitive as well as language exams like IELTS, TOEFL etc.


text: ICSE has always been regarded as one of the best educational board in the world in terms of their rigorous syllabus, tough marking scheme for examinations, progressive evaluation and promotion criteria. In India mist of the Top schools are affiliated to ICSE board like Sherwood College-Nanital, Doon School-Dehradun, Mayo Girl’s College-Ajmer, La Martiniere College-Lucknow and many More.


text: The Derozio Award is an annual prize awarded to the top Indian educationists by the Council for the Indian School Certificate Examinations. It was instituted in 1999 in memory of Henry Louis Vivian Derozio, a poet and educator from West Bengal. It is the highest award conferred by the council for contributions in the field of education.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: The role and scale of British imperial policy during the British Raj (8 june 2008) to (1,000 june 4104) on India's relative decline in global GDP remains a topic of debate among economists, historians, and politicians. Some commentators argue the effect of British rule was negative, and that Britain engaged in a policy of deindustrialisation in India for the benefit of British exporters which left Indians relatively poorer than before British rule. Others argue that Britain's impact on India was either broadly neutral or positive, and that India's declining share of global GDP was due to other factors, such as new mass production technologies or internal ethnic conflict.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: William Digby estimates that from 1870 to 1900, £900 million was transferred from India. In the 17th century, India was a relatively urbanized and commercialized nation with a buoyant export trade, devoted largely to cotton textiles, but also silk, spices, and rice. India was the world's main producer of cotton textiles and had substantial export trade to Britain as well as many other European countries, via the East India Company. After the British victory over the Mughal Empire (Battle of Buxar), India was deindustrialized by the East India Company, the British, and colonial policies.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: In contrast, historian Niall Ferguson argues that under British rule, the village economy's total after-tax income rose from 27% to 54% (the sector represented three quarters of the entire population), and that the British had invested £270 million in Indian infrastructure, irrigation, and industry by the 1880s (representing one-fifth of entire British investment overseas) with that figure reaching £400 million by 1914. He also argues that the British increased the area of irrigated land by a factor of one-eighth, contrasting with 5% under the Mughals.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: The British East India Company had forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed. At the same time, protectionist policies in Britain, such as bans and high tariffs, were implemented to restrict Indian textiles from being sold there. The British enforced tariffs and duties of 70-80% on textiles produced in India, making them impractical for export. In the early 1700's, India had a hold of 25% of the global textile trade. Raw cotton, however, was imported without tariffs from India to British factories. The factories manufactured textiles from Indian cotton and sold them back to the Indian market. British economic policies gave them a monopoly over India's large market and cotton resources. India served as both a significant supplier of raw goods to British manufacturers and a large captive market for British manufactured goods. With the export of manufactured goods rendered unviable over the period of British rule, India's share of global manufacturing exports dropped from 27% to 2%. On the contrary, exports from Britain to India soared with duty-free goods that Indian goods could no longer compete with on quality or price.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: The damage to the textile industry went beyond just a decrease in production and export. As industrial production was severely disrupted, Indian workers were forced into agriculture at levels unsustainable by the land. Rural wages were then driven down by the newly crowded market of agricultural workers. Additionally, these workers used cloth making as a backup source of income if weather affected their crops. This was no longer a viable option for them. Ultimately, poverty in rural India was catalyzed by the policies deployed by the British.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: Taxation by the British, usually 50% of income, was so burdensome on the population that they were forced to flee their lands. This form of revenue generation was a departure from the practices deployed by Indian rulers in the past, who primarily raised funds through global and regional trade networks rather than through taxing farmers. Under the zamindari revenue system deployed by the British, farmers were no longer taxed a percentage of their crops produced. Rather, they were taxed a percentage of the land rent payments, regardless of the success or failure of the crops. According to estimates by the British, agricultural taxes were two to three times higher than before British rule, and the highest in the world.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: P. J. Marshall argues the British regime did not make any sharp breaks with the traditional economy, and control was largely left in the hands of regional rulers. The economy was sustained by general conditions of prosperity through the latter part of the 18th century, except the frequent famines with high fatality rates. Marshall notes the British raised revenue through local tax administrators and kept the old Mughal rates of taxation. Marshall also contends the British managed this primarily indigenous-controlled economy through cooperation with Indian elites.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: From 1850 to 1947, India's GDP in 1990 international dollars grew from $125.7 billion to $213.7 billion, a 70% increase, or an average annual growth rate of 0.55%. This was a higher rate of growth than during the Mughal era (1600-1700), when it had grown by 22%, an annual growth rate of 0.20%, or the longer period of mostly British East Indian company rule from 1700 to 1850 where it grew 39%, or 0.22% annually. However, by the end of British rule, India's economy represented a much smaller proportion of global GDP. In 1820, India's GDP was 16% of the global GDP. By 1870, it had fallen to 12%, and by 1947 to 4%. India's per-capita income remained mostly stagnant during the Raj, with most of its GDP growth coming from an expanding population. Per capita income growth from 1850 to 1900 is estimated to range from 0.75% to 1.25% annually. This figure is buoyed by a decrease in India's rate of population increase stemming from disease and famines. From 1850 to 1947, India's GDP per-capita had grown by 16%, from $533 to $618 in 1990 international dollars. According to historical GDP estimates by economist Angus Maddison, India's GDP grew in absolute terms but declined in relative share to the world.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: From the 1st century CE to the start of British colonization in India in the 17th century, India's GDP varied between 25% and 35% of the world's total GDP, more than all of Europe combined. It dropped to 2% by the time British departed India in 1947. At the same time, the United Kingdom's share of the world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 to 9% in 1870 alone. Politician and historian Shashi Tharoor claims "The reason is simple: India was governed for the benefit of Britain. Britain's rise for 200 years was financed by its depredation of India." It should be noted, however, that Britain had the world's most industrialized economy and had many sources of income outside of India.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: Under British rule, India's share of the world economy declined from 23% at the beginning of the 18th century down to just over 3% when India gained independence. In 1700, that figure had been 27%. India's GDP (PPP) per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire and began to decline prior to the onset of British rule. India's share of global industrial output declined from 25% in 1750 to 2% in 1900. During the 1600s, Indian GDP was 60 percent of British GDP, and by the end of the 19th century, it decreased to less than 15%. India's national debt ballooned under British rule, and half of India's revenue was being siphoned to foreign countries, primarily England. Indian taxes were also used to fund the British Army and its expeditions globally, with 64% of total revenue funding British Indian troops outside of India in 1922.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: Under British rule, India's share of global GDP peaked at only 7.5% in 1947 when the British left India.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: According to British economist Angus Maddison, India's share of the world economy went from 24.4% in 1700 to 4.2% in 1950. India's GDP (PPP) per capita was stagnant during the Mughal Empire and began to decline prior to the onset of British rule. India's share of global industrial output also declined from 25% in 1750 down to 2% in 1900. At the same time, the United Kingdom's share of the world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 up to 9% in 1870, and Britain replaced India as the world's largest textile manufacturer in the 19th century. Historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that Mughal India also had a per-capita income 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India had in the early 20th century, and the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage to the economy of the Mughal Empire (18.2%) than it did to the economy of early 20th-century British India (11.2%). In terms of urbanization, Mughal India also had a higher percentage of its population (15%) living in urban centers in 1600 than British India did in the 19th century.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: A number of modern economic historians have blamed the colonial rule for the state of India's economy, with investment in Indian industries limited since it was a colony. Under British rule, India experienced deindustrialization. The yarn output of the handloom industry declined from 419 million pounds in 1850 to 240 million pounds in 1900. Due to the colonial policies of the British, a significant transfer of capital from India to England occurred, leading to a massive drain of revenue rather than a systematic effort at modernisation of the domestic economy.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: In the 17th century, India was a relatively urbanised and commercialised nation with a buoyant export trade devoted largely to cotton textiles, but also included silk, spices, and rice. India was the world's main producer of cotton textiles and had a substantial export trade to Britain, as well as many other European countries via the East India Company (EIC).


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: India's share of global industrial output also declined from 25% in 1750 down to 2% in 1900. At the same time, the United Kingdom's share of the world economy rose from 2.9% in 1700 up to 9% in 1870, and Britain replaced India as the world's largest textile manufacturer in the 19th century.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: After the British victory over the Mughal Empire (Battle of Buxar, 1764), India was deindustrialized by the EIC, British and colonial policies.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: As the British cotton industry underwent a technological revolution during the late 18th to early 19th centuries, the Indian industry stagnated and was deindustrialized.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: As late as 1772, Henry Pattullo, writing about the economic resources of Bengal, commented that their textiles were of such unrivaled quality that demand for them could never wane. However, by the early 19th century, the beginning of a long history of decline of textile exports is observed.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: An oft repeated legend is that the EIC cut off the thumbs of weavers in Bengal to destroy the indigenous weaving industry in favour of British textile imports. However, this is generally considered to be a myth originating from William Bolts' 1772 account, in which he alleges that a number of silk spinners had cut off their own thumbs in protest of poor working conditions.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: Economic historian Prasannan Parthasarathi pointed to earnings data that show real wages in 18th-century Bengal and Mysore were comparable to Britain. Workers in the textile industry, for example, earned more in Bengal and Mysore than they did in Britain. There is also evidence that labour in Britain had to work longer hours than in Bengal and South India. According to economic historian Immanuel Wallerstein, per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th-century Mughal India were probably higher than in 17th-century Europe and certainly higher than in early 20th-century British India.


title: Economy of India under the British Raj

text: British control of trade and exports of cheap Manchester cotton are cited as significant factors for why Britain industrialized first before France, Germany, India and China, though Indian textiles had still maintained a competitive price advantage compared to British textiles until the 19th century. Several historians point to the colonization of India as a major factor in both India's deindustrialization and Britain's Industrial Revolution. British colonization forced open the large Indian market to British goods, which could be sold in India without any tariffs or duties, compared to local Indian producers who were heavily taxed .