title: Executive Residence

text: The Family Kitchen and the President's Dining Room are located in the northwest corner of the Second Floor. The large bedroom which originally existed here was known as the "Prince of Wales Room", after Albert, Prince of Wales stayed in the room in 1860.


title: Executive Residence

text: When this part of the Executive Residence was completed in 1809, a bedroom suite occupied this space. What is now the private stairs and Cosmetology Room were the eastern chamber and closet of the suite, a bedroom and toilet occupied what is now the President's Dining Room, and a lady's dressing room was in the space currently occupied by the Family Kitchen, the kitchen storage space, and the pantry.


title: Executive Residence

text: This space was little changed by 1825. Since the private stairs from the Ground Floor were now complete, the closet in the eastern chamber was removed and a landing for the stairs inserted in the middle of the room. This effectively created an open storage area in the southern third of the chamber. First Lady Louisa Adams and her niece, Mary Hellen, used the bedroom and dressing room as a bedroom suite (but did not occupy the eastern chamber). From March 1829 to the summer of 1830, all three rooms were occupied by Jack and Emily Donelson and their four children. President William Henry Harrison used the larger bedroom as his personal bedroom during his 32-day presidency in 1841. Robert Tyler (son of President John Tyler), his wife, and daughter used all three rooms from April 1841 to March 1845. From 1845 to 1849, the bedroom, dressing room, and eastern chamber were used by Augusta Tabb Walker and her two small children.


title: Executive Residence

text: A full bath was added to the eastern chamber by 1865. To accommodate the bathroom, the stairs were moved from the middle to the southern part of the room, and the storage space eliminated. In this configuration, the bedroom was used by Willie Lincoln (who died in it). First Lady Eliza Johnson used the small eastern chamber as her bedroom, while the First Family used the larger bedroom as a living room. The large room was later used as a bedroom by Nellie Grant (daughter of President Ulysses S. Grant); Fanny Hayes (daughter of President Rutherford B. Hayes); Mary "Mollie" Garfield (daughter of President James Garfield); Ellen "Nell" Arthur (daughter of President Chester Arthur); President Grover Cleveland and First Lady Frances Cleveland; James Robert and Mary Harrison McKee and their two small children; President William McKinley and his wife, Ida; Alice Roosevelt (daughter of President Theodore Roosevelt) from September 1901 to February 1906; Ethel Roosevelt (daughter of President Theodore Roosevelt); First Lady Helen Taft; Eleanor Wilson (daughter of President Woodrow Wilson); Calvin Coolidge, Jr.; Lorena Hickok (journalist and aide to First Lady Eleanor Roosevelt); and Margaret Truman (daughter of President Harry S. Truman).


title: Executive Residence

text: Major architectural changes to these spaces came in 1952. In the eastern chamber, the bathroom was removed, the stairs were widened, and the stairs moved back into the middle of the space. This created a new (and at last, enclosed) storage space south of the stairs. The passage from the eastern chamber to the bedroom was closed as well. The 1952 reconstruction turned the bedroom into a mirror image of the president's bedroom across the Center Hall. The bedroom's south wall was made convex, which created a walled-off dead space in the room's southeast corner. The southwest corner now became storage space accessible from the dressing room. After the reconstruction, Margaret Truman continued to use it as her bedroom. In 1953, First Lady Mamie Eisenhower turned it from a bedroom into a sitting room for her mother, Elivera "Minnie" Doud.


title: Executive Residence

text: In 1961, the bedroom suite was torn out. Jacqueline Kennedy thought the Family Dining Room on the State Floor was too cavernous and impersonal to raise a family in, and decided that a smaller, more intimate dining room (now the President's Dining Room) should be created on the Second Floor. A small kitchen took over the space which was once a dressing room, with a pantry and storage space occupying the southern half of the space. (The storage closet created in the now-convex room to the east was accessed from the new pantry.) The bedroom became the new President's Dining Room.


title: Executive Residence

text: What is known today as the Cosmetology Room was originally a series of small rooms used as work and storage space. It was turned into a bathroom by 1865. At some point before 1933, the bath in this space was removed and the area converted into a small office. First ladies Eleanor Roosevelt and Bess Truman used the space as their personal office. President Dwight Eisenhower used it as an art room, where he would paint. The Kennedys used it as a nursery for their two small children, and First Daughter Luci Johnson used it as a study. During the Nixon administration, the room was turned into a beauty salon and named the Cosmetology Room. First Lady Rosalynn Carter planned to renovate the Cosmetology Room, but left the job to First Lady Nancy Reagan. In 1981, the National Hairdressers and Cosmetologists Association paid for an $8,000 ($ in dollars) refurbishment of the Cosmetology Room. Added to the room were a $400 ($ in dollars) salmon-colored Louis XV lounge chair, $720 ($ in dollars) white leather side chair, $230 ($ in dollars) manicurist's stool, $346 ($ in dollars) enamel shampoo bowl, $1,200 ($ in dollars) pair of hair dryers, $1,800 ($ in dollars) in wallpaper featuring a pattern consisting of a minute Chinese-style medallion, $3,000 ($ in dollars) coral-colored handmade wool rug, white Lucite make-up center, green and red drapes, and dotted white batiste curtains from Switzerland. The space remained a beauty parlor into 2013.


title: Executive Residence

text: The West Room, North Hall, and East Room occupy the center section of the north wall of the Executive Residence. When this area of the mansion was completed in 1809, a single large storeroom occupied this space. The western wall of the East Room was in place by 1825. Two small storerooms had also been created in what would later be the North Hall by constructing short, non-load bearing walls. These walls projected west, dividing the room into thirds. The North Hall as it exists today was created by 1865 when the storage partitions in the West Room were removed.


title: Executive Residence

text: The West Room served, at various times, as a bedroom for Willie Lincoln, President Andrew Johnson, Andrew Johnson Jr. (President Johnson's son), Robert and Charles Taft (sons of President Taft), Joseph P. Lash (a close friend of First lady Eleanor Roosevelt), Reathel Odum (private secretary First Lady Bess Truman), John F. Kennedy Jr.; and Chuck and Lynda Bird Johnson Robb and their daughter. The room was converted into a playroom for First Daughter Amy Carter in 1977, and President Ronald Reagan had it set up as a fitness room.


title: Executive Residence

text: The North Hall was where President Abraham Lincoln stood as he delivered speeches to crowds on the North Lawn. It was used as a schoolroom for Fanny and Scott Hayes, youngest children of President Rutherford B. Hayes. This served as a maid's room during the two terms of President Theodore Roosevelt, as a bedroom for Maude Shaw (nursemaid for Caroline Kennedy and John F. Kennedy, Jr.), and as a clothing storage space for first ladies Lady Bird Johnson and Nancy Reagan.


title: Executive Residence

text: The East Room's first documented use was as a bedroom for Frederick Dent (the father of First Lady Julia Grant). It later served as a bedroom for President Chester Arthur, Mary Dimmick (First Lady Caroline Harrison's niece and private secretary), John Witherspoon Scott (father of First Lady Caroline Harrison), Kermit Roosevelt, Madge Wallace (mother of First Lady Bess Truman), Caroline Kennedy, Pat and Luci Nugent (she was the daughter of President Lyndon B. Johnson), Tricia Nixon, Susan Ford (daughter of President Gerald Ford), and Amy Carter. It was converted into an office for First Lady Nancy Reagan, but turned back into a bedroom for use by Chelsea Clinton (daughter of President Bill Clinton).


title: Executive Residence

text: Scott Hayes (young son of President Rutherford B. Hayes), Birchard Hayes (teenage son of President Rutherford B. Hayes), Irvin Garfield (young son of President James Garfield), Abram Garfield (young son of President James Garfield), also used either the West Room or East Room as a bedroom, but records are not clear which.


title: Executive Residence

text: During a 1927 renovation the White House attic was rebuilt into a Third Floor. It was further expanded with the Truman Reconstruction and currently contains 20 rooms, nine bathrooms, and a main hall. This floor was once used for staff bedrooms, but no staff currently live in the White House. Jacqueline Kennedy extensively decorated these rooms with her favorite White House antiques, with her best known room being the "Empire Guest Room" (finished in First French Empire style). President Jimmy Carter had one room paneled with wood panels taken from an old family barn in Georgia. First Lady Hillary Clinton turned one of the rooms into a soundproof music room where President Bill Clinton could play his saxophone without disturbing others, turned a guest room into an exercise room, and created an "Eleanor Roosevelt Room" for her own use. When Marian Robinson moved to the White House alongside her daughter Michelle Obama's family in 2009, she took a bedroom and sitting area on the Third Floor as her private quarters. When Donald Trump became president, his and First Lady Melania Trump's son Barron took a bedroom on the Third Floor.


title: Executive Residence

text: Other notable features on the Third Floor include a sunroom with wet bar (atop the south portico), billiards room, and outdoor rooftop promenade. Visiting dignitaries are normally housed in the Second Floor state bedrooms and foreign heads of state and government customarily stay at Blair House.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: 42nd Street is a 1933 American pre-Code musical film directed by Lloyd Bacon, and a script by Rian James and James Seymour (plus uncredited contributions by Whitney Bolton), adapted from the 1932 novel of the same name by Bradford Ropes. Starring an ensemble cast of Warner Baxter, Bebe Daniels, George Brent, Ruby Keeler, Dick Powell and Ginger Rogers, the film revolved around the rehearsals of a Broadway show at the height of the Great Depression, and its cast and crew. The film was choreographed by Busby Berkeley, with music by Harry Warren and lyrics by Al Dubin.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: This backstage musical was very successful at the box office and is now a classic. The film was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture at the 6th Academy Awards. In 1998, it was selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being "culturally, historically, or aesthetically significant". In 2006, it ranked 13th on the American Film Institute's list of best musicals. A stage adaption of the film debuted on Broadway in 1980, winning two Tony Awards, including Best Musical.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: It is 1932, the depth of the Great Depression, and noted Broadway producers Jones and Barry are putting on "Pretty Lady", a musical starring Dorothy Brock. She is involved with wealthy Abner Dillon, the show's "angel" (financial backer), but while she is busy keeping him both hooked and at arm's length, she is secretly seeing her old vaudeville partner, out-of-work Pat Denning.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: Julian Marsh is hired to direct, although his doctor warns that he risks his life if he continues in his high-pressure profession. Despite a long string of successes he's broke, a result of the 1929 Stock Market Crash, so he must make his last show a hit, in order to have enough money to retire.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: Cast selection and rehearsals begin amidst fierce competition, with not a few "casting couch" innuendos flying around. Naïve newcomer Peggy Sawyer, who arrives in New York from her home in Allentown, Pennsylvania, is duped and ignored until two experienced chorines, Lorraine Fleming and Ann "Anytime Annie" Lowell, take her under their wing. Lorraine is assured a job because of her relationship with dance director Andy Lee; she also sees to it that Ann and Peggy are chosen. The show's juvenile lead, Billy Lawler, takes an immediate liking to Peggy (after her being tricked into bursting into his dressing room), as does Pat.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: When Marsh learns about Dorothy's relationship with Pat, he sends some thugs led by his gangster friend Slim Murphy to rough him up. That, plus her realization that their situation is unhealthy, makes Dorothy and Pat agree not to see each other for a while. He gets a stock job in Philadelphia.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: Rehearsals continue for five weeks, to Marsh's complete dissatisfaction, until the night before the show's surprise opening in Philadelphia, when Dorothy breaks her ankle. By the next morning, Abner has quarreled with her and wants Marsh to replace her with his new girlfriend, Annie. Annie confesses in earnest that she can't carry the show, but convinces the director that the inexperienced Peggy can. With 200 jobs and his future riding on the outcome, a desperate Julian rehearses Peggy mercilessly until an hour before the premiere, vowing "I'll either have a live leading lady or a dead chorus girl."


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: Billy finally gets up the nerve to tell Peggy he loves her. They embrace and kiss, just as Dorothy shows up and walks through the door. Surprisingly, she wishes Peggy the best of luck and reveals that she and Pat are finally getting married. The show goes on to rousing applause. The last twenty minutes of the film are devoted to three Busby Berkeley production numbers: "Shuffle Off to Buffalo", "(I'm) Young and Healthy", and "42nd Street".


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: The show is a hit. As the theater audience comes out, Julian stands in the shadows outside the stage door, hearing comments that Peggy is the star and that he, the director, doesn't deserve the credit for the show's success.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: In the original Bradford Ropes novel, Julian and Billy are lovers. Since same-sex relationships were unacceptable in films by the moral standards of the era, the studio substituted a romance between Billy and Peggy. Although in one scene a gay innuendo is presented, as director Marsh puts his arm over choreographer Andy Lee's shoulder and asks if he has a date for the evening, who replies "No." Immediately Marsh replies, "Come on home with me will you? I'm lonesome."


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: The film's uncredited cast includes Harry Akst as Jerry, Adele Lacy as a chorus girl, Guy Kibbee's brother Milton, Louise Beavers, Lyle Talbot, George Irving and Charles Lane. Dubin and Warren, who wrote the film's songs, make cameo appearances.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: The film was Ruby Keeler's first, and the first time that Berkeley, Warren and Dubin had worked for Warner Bros. Director Lloyd Bacon was not the first choice to direct – he replaced Mervyn LeRoy when LeRoy became ill. LeRoy was dating Ginger Rogers at the time, and had suggested to her that she take the role of "Anytime Annie".


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: Actors who were considered for lead roles when the film was being cast include Warren William and Richard Barthelmess for the role of Julian Marsh, eventually played by Warner Baxter; Kay Francis and Ruth Chatterton instead of Bebe Daniels for the role of Dorothy Brock; Loretta Young as Peggy Sawyer instead of Ruby Keeler; Joan Blondell instead of Ginger Rogers for Anytime Annie; Glenda Farrell for the role of Lorraine, played by Una Merkel, and Frank McHugh instead of the diminutive George E. Stone as Andy, the dance director.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: The film began production on October 5, 1932. The shooting schedule ran for 28 days at the Warner Bros. studio in Burbank, California. The total cost of making it has been estimated to be $340,000–$439,000.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: The "Love Theme", written by Harry Warren, is played under scenes between Ruby Keeler and Dick Powell, and Bebe Daniels and George Brent. It has no title or lyrics, and is unpublished.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: The music playing during dance rehearsals and the opening of the show is an instrumental piano piece that Harry Warren wrote, titled "Pretty Lady."


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: A special patter with different music was written for the song "Forty-Second Street" and the production number of same, with music by Warren and lyrics by Dubin. It was cut for unknown reasons from the finished film, but an unpublished manuscript of this still exists.


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: Though the songs of 42nd Street all allude to sex, there is a single moment at the end of "Shuffle Off to Buffalo", when one word of the scripted lyrics, "belly", was changed to "tummy" presumedly to comply with the then weakly enforced Motion Picture Production Code of 1930. But in making the change, the filmmakers purposely drew attention to the censored word. During the last two verses, Una Merkel & Ginger Rogers sing about a traveling salesman who impregnates the farmer's daughter, and then is forced into a shotgun wedding. The lyric is: "He did right by little Nellie, with a shotgun at his belly..." But as Ginger Rogers sings it, Una gestures to her and she changes the last word: "He did right by little Nellie, with a shotgun at his bel - - tummy".


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: The film premiered in New York on March 9, 1933, at the Strand Theatre, and went into general release two days later, becoming one of the most profitable films of the year, bringing in an estimated gross of $2,300,000, equal to $ today. According to Warner Bros. records, the film earned $1,438,000 domestically and $843,000 abroad. It received Oscar nominations for Best Picture and Best Sound Recording, and was named one of the 10 Best Films of 1933 by "Film Daily".


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: Mordaunt Hall of "The New York Times" called the film "invariably entertaining" and, "The liveliest and one of the most tuneful screen musical comedies that has come out of Hollywood".


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: The "New York World-Telegram" described it as "A sprightly entertainment, combining, as it did, a plausible enough story of back-stage life, some excellent musical numbers and dance routines and a cast of players that are considerably above the average found in screen musicals."


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: "Every element is professional and convincing", wrote "Variety". "It'll socko the screen musical fans with the same degree that Metro's pioneering screen musicals did."


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: John Mosher of "The New Yorker" called it "a bright movie" with "as pretty a little fantasy of Broadway as you may hope to see", and praised Baxter's performance as "one of the best he has given us", though he described the plot as "the most conventional one to be found in such doings."


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a 96% rating based on 25 reviews. Its Critic Consensus reads: " Berkeley does it again in "42nd Street", a brilliant depression-era romp with stellar musical numbers and impeccable choreography."


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: On January 14, 2004, Dennis Schwartz observed: "The musical film was changed forever by this innovative one, while due to its tremendous box office appeal it not only saved Warner Brothers from bankruptcy but made it into a major studio. Busby Berkeley … created numbers tailored-made for this film that exceeded the previous conventional limits... One can't say enough good things about what Busby Berkeley did for the musical...The unneeded melodramatics get in the way of the musical numbers and the fun atmospheric backstage happenings. But when the music is blasting away, this becomes a magical picture and all is forgiven."


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: On April 10, 2020, in "The New Yorker", listing the best films to stream during the Covid-19 pandemic, Richard Brody observes: "Modern musicals start here, and Busby Berkeley's genius bursts into full flower."


title: 42nd Street (film)

text: In 1980, the film was adapted into a stage musical by Harry Warren and Al Dubin. It featured additional songs by Warren and lyrics by Dublin and Johnny Mercer and a book by Michael Stewart and Mark Bramble. The original Broadway production directed and choreographed by Gower Champion (whose death on opening night was announced at the curtain call by producer David Merrick) won the Tony Award for Best Musical. Since then, it has been produced both regionally and professionally around the world. The soundtrack included all musical numbers from the film besides "June."


title: Medieval ships

text: The ships of Medieval Europe were powered by sail, oar, or both. There was a large variety, mostly based on much older, conservative designs. Although wider and more frequent communications within Europe meant exposure to a variety of improvements, experimental failures were costly and rarely attempted. Ships in the north were influenced by Viking vessels, while those in the south by classical or Roman vessels. However, there was technological change. The different traditions used different construction methods; clinker in the north, carvel in the south. By the end of the period, carvel construction would come to dominate the building of large ships. The period would also see a shift from the steering oar or side rudder to the stern rudder and the development from single-masted to multi-masted ships. As the area is connected by water, people in the Mediterranean built different kinds of ships to accommodate different sea levels and climates. Within the Mediterranean area during the Medieval times ships were used for a multitude of reasons, like war, trade, and exploration.


title: Medieval ships

text: The knarr, a relative of the longship, was a type of cargo vessel used by the Vikings. It differed from the longship in that it was larger and relied almost entirely on its square-rigged sail for propulsion.


title: Medieval ships

text: Although the name "cog" is recorded as early as the 9th century, the seagoing vessel of that name seems to have evolved on the Frisian coast during the 14th century. Cogs progressively replaced Viking-type ships in Northern waters during the 13th century. Why this was the case is uncertain but cogs could carry more cargo than knarr of a similar size. Their flat bottoms allowed them to settle flat in the harbor, making them easier to load and unload. Their high sides made them more difficult to board in a sea-fight, which may have made them safer from pirates.


title: Medieval ships

text: The cog traditionally reached the Mediterranean in 1304. This led to a Mediterranean variant, the "coach".


title: Medieval ships

text: The hulk (OE: "hulc") is first recorded in the 10th century, when it is distinguished from a keel (OE: "ceol"), a ship in the Nordic tradition such as the knarr. Very little is known about the hulc, with no archaeological remains or usefully descriptive contemporary records. Early images of hulks show them strongly curved upwards at stem and stern.


title: Medieval ships

text: Hulks continued to be mentioned in use throughout the Middle Ages and into the 16th century when it is particularly associated with the Baltic and the Hanseatic League. These late hulks could be as large as contemporary great ships. "Jesus of Lübeck" of 1544 was a ship of , the same as the "Mary Rose". However, how similar later medieval hulks were to their ancestors is unknown. There is some evidence of hybridization with the cog form, showing both hulk and post-construction. Others have suggested that late hulks were partially carvel-built.


title: Medieval ships

text: The caravel was a ship developed by the Portuguese in the 13th century, being used for fishing and cargo work. It was well suited to some of the exploration activity in the Age of Discovery and was used from about 1440 in this activity. Unlike the longship and cog, it used a carvel method of construction. In contrast to some contemporary Mediterranean ship types, caravels had a rudder mounted on the sternpost, as opposed to using a side-mounted steering oar. It could be either square rigged and lateen rigged ("Caravela Redonda") or only lateen rigged ("Caravela Latina"), as is found in earlier examples. The most famous examples of caravels were the "Niña" and the "Pinta". The caravel became increasingly common in Northern European waters from the 1430s and the spread of this one type of vessel meant that carvel construction had to be learnt in the shipyards outside the Iberia.


title: Medieval ships

text: The carrack was a ship type invented in southern Europe in the 15th century and particularly developed in Portugal in the same century. It was a larger vessel than the caravel. Columbus’s ship, the Santa María was a famous example of a carrack. The ships commanded by Vasco da Gama as the São Gabriel, with six sails, a bowsprit, foresail, mizzen, spritsail and two topsails, already had the complete features and the design of the typical carrack.


title: Medieval ships

text: A number of smaller vessels are named in English sources of the Late Middle Ages, some of which continued into the 16th century and beyond.


title: Medieval ships

text: The hoy originated in Flanders in the 15th century. A single-masted vessel usually of used a coaster or on short sea routes, as well as a lighter. The type would evolve in the 16th and 17th, only finally disappearing in the early 19th century.


title: Medieval ships

text: First recorded in the 1320s, the picard was a single-masted vessel of 10–40 tons used mainly as support vessel for fishing fleets, bringing home their catches and ferrying supplies, or as a lighter, loading from vessels at anchor and discharging onto beaches or shallow creeks. A widespread type, in use from Scotland, all round the English coast and across in Ireland.


title: Medieval ships

text: Galleys had been in use for trade and warfare since at least the 8th century BC and remained in use throughout the Middle Ages. Rowing was the primary method of propulsion, which was well-suited for often-fickle winds of the Mediterranean where they were primarily used. The galley was also used in the waters of Northern Europe, but to a lesser extent since its low freeboard and lack of stability in rough seas made it vulnerable. During the years 1150-1350, after the Second Crusade, the Mediterranean witnessed an economic boom known as the Commercial Revolution. To keep up with trade, ship building increased as well. Italian city-states like Venice constructed ships like the galley. By the thirteenth century the galley was able to hold about and was about long.


title: Medieval ships

text: The longship was a type of ship that was developed over a period of centuries and perfected by its most famous user, the Vikings, in approximately the 9th century. The ships were clinker-built, utilizing overlapping wooden strakes.


title: Medieval ships

text: The balinger was a clinker-built oared vessel, initially with a single mast, but in the 15th century larger vessels had a second mast. They were usually small vessels of but larger vessels of up to are recorded. Balingers were popular in the Bay of Biscay and English Channel and were used both for trade and warfare. Fast and with the flexibility of oars and sails for propulsion, they were commonly used by pirates.


title: Medieval ships

text: In the waters off the west of Scotland between 1263 and 1500, the Lords of the Isles used galleys both for warfare and for transport around their maritime domain, which included the west coast of the Scottish Highlands, the Hebrides, and Antrim in Ireland. They employed these ships for sea-battles and for attacking castles or forts built close to the sea. As a feudal superior, the Lord of the Isles required the service of a specified number and size of galleys from each holding of land. For examples the Isle of Man had to provide six galleys of 26 oars, and Sleat in Skye had to provide one 18-oar galley.


title: Medieval ships

text: Carvings of galleys on tombstones from 1350 onward show the construction of these ships. From the 14th century they abandoned a steering-oar in favour of a stern rudder, with a straight stern to suit. From a document of 1624, a galley proper would have 18 to 24 oars, a birlinn 12 to 18 oars and a lymphad fewer still.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: Stormé DeLarverie (December 24, 1920 – May 24, 2014) was an American woman known as the butch lesbian whose scuffle with police was, according to Stormé and many eyewitnesses, the spark that ignited the Stonewall uprising, spurring the crowd to action. She was born in New Orleans, to an African American mother and a white father. She is remembered as a gay civil rights icon and entertainer, who performed and hosted at the Apollo Theater and Radio City Music Hall. She worked for much of her life as an MC, singer, bouncer, bodyguard, and volunteer street patrol worker, the "guardian of lesbians in the Village." She is known as "the Rosa Parks of the gay community."


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: DeLarverie's father was white and wealthy. Her mother was African American and worked as a servant for his family. According to DeLarverie, she was never given a birth certificate and was not certain of her actual date of birth. She celebrated her birthday on December 24, Christmas Eve.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: Her father paid for her education, and she was largely raised by her grandfather. As a biracial child, DeLarverie faced bullying and harassment from the other children. "The white kids were beating me up; the Black kids were. Everybody was jumping on me. ... For being a negro with a white face." She rode jumping horses with the Ringling Brothers Circus when she was a teenager. She stopped riding horses after being injured in a fall. She realized she was lesbian near the age of eighteen.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: Biracial and androgynous, she could pass for white or Black, male or female. She was picked up twice on the streets by police who mistook her for a drag queen.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: Her partner, a dancer named Diana, lived with her for about 25 years until dying in the 1970s. According to friend Lisa Cannistraci, DeLarverie carried a photograph of Diana with her at all times.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: Fifty-two years later, the events of June 28, 1969, have been called "the Stonewall riots." However, DeLarverie was very clear that "riot" is a misleading description:


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: At the Stonewall rebellion, a scuffle broke out when a woman in handcuffs, who may have been Stormé, was roughly escorted from the door of the bar to the waiting police wagon. She was brought through the crowd by police several times, as she escaped repeatedly. She fought with at least four of the police, swearing and shouting, for about ten minutes. Described by a witness as "a typical New York City butch" and "a dyke-stone butch," she had been hit on the head by an officer with a baton for, as one witness stated, announcing that her handcuffs were too tight. She was bleeding from a head wound as she fought back. Bystanders recalled that the woman, whose identity remains uncertain (Stormé has been identified by some, including herself, as the woman), sparked the crowd to fight when she looked at bystanders and shouted, "Why don't you guys do something?" After an officer picked her up and heaved her into the back of the wagon, the crowd became a mob and went "berserk": "It was at that moment that the scene became explosive." Some have referred to that woman as "the gay community's Rosa Parks".


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: "'Nobody knows who threw the first punch, but it's rumored that she did, and she said she did,' said Lisa Cannistraci, a friend of DeLarverie and owner of the Village lesbian bar Henrietta Hudson. 'She told me she did.'"


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: Whether or not DeLarverie was "the" woman who fought her way out of the police wagon, all accounts agree that she was one of several butch lesbians who fought back against the police during the uprising.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: From 1955 to 1969 DeLarverie toured the black theater circuit as the MC (and only drag king) of the Jewel Box Revue, North America's first racially integrated drag revue. The revue regularly played the Apollo Theater in Harlem, as well as to mixed-race audiences, something that was still rare during the era of Racial segregation in the United States. She performed as a baritone.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: During shows audience members would try to guess who the "one girl" was, among the revue performers, and at the end Stormé would reveal herself as a woman during a musical number called, "A Surprise with a Song," often wearing tailored suits and sometimes a moustache that made her "unidentifiable" to audience members. As a singer, she drew inspiration from Dinah Washington and Billie Holiday (both of whom she knew in person). During this era when there were very few drag kings performing, her unique drag style and subversive performances became celebrated, influential, and are now known to have set a historic precedent.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: In 1987 Michelle Parkerson released the first cut of the movie, "Stormé: The Lady of the Jewel Box", about DeLarverie and her time with the revue.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: With her theatrical experience in costuming, performance and makeup, biracial DeLarverie could pass as either a man or a woman, Black or white. Offstage, she cut a striking, handsome, androgynous presence, and inspired other lesbians to adopt what had formerly been considered "men's" clothing as street wear. She was photographed by renowned artist Diane Arbus, as well as other friends and lovers in the arts community, in three piece suits and "men's" hats. She is now considered to have been an influence on gender-nonconforming women's fashion decades before unisex styles became accepted.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: In the 1980s and 1990s she worked as a bouncer for several lesbian bars in New York City, including Elaine Romagnoli's Cubby Hole. She was a member of the Stonewall Veterans' Association,


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: holding the offices of Chief of Security, Ambassador and, in 1998 to 2000, Vice President. She was a regular at the gay pride parade. For decades DeLarverie served the community as a volunteer street patrol worker, the "guardian of lesbians in the Village."


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: In addition to her work for the LGBT community, she also organized and performed at benefits for battered women and children. When asked about why she chose to do this work, she replied, "Somebody has to care. People say, 'Why do you still do that?' I said, 'It's very simple. If people didn't care about me when I was growing up, with my mother being black, raised in the south.' I said, 'I wouldn't be here.'"


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: For several decades, DeLarverie lived at New York City's famous Hotel Chelsea, where she "thrived on the atmosphere created by the many writers, musicians, artists, and actors." Cannistraci says that DeLarverie continued working as a bouncer until age 85.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: In June 2019, DeLarverie was one of the inaugural fifty American "pioneers, trailblazers, and heroes" inducted on the National LGBTQ Wall of Honor within the Stonewall National Monument (SNM) in New York City's Stonewall Inn. The SNM is the first U.S. national monument dedicated to LGBTQ rights and history, and the wall's unveiling was timed to take place during the 50th anniversary of the Stonewall riots.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: DeLarverie suffered from dementia in her later years. From 2010 to 2014, she lived in a nursing home in Brooklyn. Though she seemingly did not recognize she was in a nursing home, her memories of her childhood and the Stonewall Uprisings remained strong.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: On June 7, 2012, Brooklyn Pride, Inc. honored Stormé DeLarverie at the Brooklyn Society for Ethical Culture. Michelle Parkerson's film, "Stormé: The Lady of the Jewel Box", was screened. On April 24, 2014, DeLarverie was honored alongside Edith Windsor by the Brooklyn Community Pride Center, "for her fearlessness and bravery" and was also presented with a proclamation from New York City Public Advocate, Letitia James.


title: Stormé DeLarverie

text: She died in her sleep on May 24, 2014, in Brooklyn. No immediate family members were alive at her time of death. Lisa Cannistraci, who became one of DeLarverie's legal guardians, stated that the cause of death was a heart attack. She remembers DeLarverie as "a very serious woman when it came to protecting people she loved." A funeral was held May 29, 2014, at the Greenwich Village Funeral Home.


title: GoldLink

text: D'Anthony William Carlos (born May 17, 1993), better known by his stage name GoldLink, is an American rapper and singer. In 2014, he released his debut mixtape, "The God Complex", which received critical acclaim. In June 2015, GoldLink was chosen as part of the XXL Freshman Class. In October 2015, he released his second mixtape, "And After That, We Didn't Talk", which was supported by the singles "Dance on Me" and "Spectrum". His debut album, "At What Cost", was released in March 2017 to positive reviews. The album's lead single, "Crew" (featuring Brent Faiyaz and Shy Glizzy), peaked at number 45 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 chart and earned GoldLink his first Grammy nomination. His second studio album, "Diaspora", was released in June 2019.


title: GoldLink

text: GoldLink's father was a parks and recreation worker and his mother a secretary at a law firm. After his parents separated, GoldLink moved to Bowie, Maryland with his mother and eventually settled in Virginia. He graduated from Hayfield Secondary School in Alexandria, Virginia.


title: GoldLink

text: GoldLink began his career performing under his birth name D'Anthony Carlos. He began making music as a hobby after graduating high school at Hayfield Secondary School, eventually recording tracks in a local studio in Falls Church, Virginia named Indie Media Lab. He released his first tracks on Bandcamp under the name Gold Link James. It was in 2013 that he began performing as GoldLink, releasing several free tracks on SoundCloud.


title: GoldLink

text: GoldLink released his first mixtape "The God Complex" in July 2014. "Complex" named it one of the best projects released during the first half of 2014, "Spin" placed it at number 19 on its The 40 Best Hip-Hop Albums of 2014, "Clash" ranked it at number 7 on their Top 10 Mixtapes of 2014 and Pitchfork Media gave the mixtape a 7.9 rating.


title: GoldLink

text: GoldLink began collaborating with producer Rick Rubin in 2015. In November 2015 he released the mixtape "After That, We Didn't Talk", much of which was considered a follow-up to questions left unanswered from "The God Complex". Pigeons & Planes placed it at number 19 on its Best Albums of 2015 list. GoldLink was also named a member of the XXL Freshman Class in 2015. In 2016, GoldLink signed a major deal with RCA Records and revealed he is working on his second album. He released the single "Fall In Love" featuring rapper Cisero and produced by Canadian band BADBADNOTGOOD and Canadian producer and DJ Kaytranada. He later released the song "Untitled" with TDE rapper Isaiah Rashad.


title: GoldLink

text: In February 2017, Goldlink took part in "Red Bull Sound Selects" reputable 3 Days Miami among artists Kelela, Angel Olsen, Brika, and others. On March 24, 2017, he released his debut album, "At What Cost", featuring guest appearances from Wale, Shy Glizzy, Steve Lacy, Jazmine Sullivan, Kaytranada, Mýa, Ciscero, Kokayi, Hare Squead, Radiant Children, April George and Lil Dude. The project debuted at number 128 on the US "Billboard" 200 chart. It was preceded by the singles "Crew" and "Meditation". "Crew" has peaked at number 45 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100, becoming his highest charting single in the country. It was also nominated for Best Rap/Sung Performance at the 60th Annual Grammy Awards.


title: GoldLink

text: On June 7, 2018, GoldLink was featured on the song "Like I Do" by American singer Christina Aguilera from her eighth studio album, "Liberation", which was nominated for Best Rap/Sung Performance at the 61st Annual Grammy Awards.


title: GoldLink

text: On June 12, 2019, GoldLink released his second studio album "Diaspora". In an interview with Wonderland Magazine, he said that he considered "At What Cost" to be his breakout mixtape due to a label agreement and "Diaspora" as his debut album.


title: GoldLink

text: On June 18, 2021, GoldLink released his third studio album "Haram!". In the run up to the album release, GoldLink began trolling some of his fellow rappers, tweeting insults and threats at Sheck Wes and sporting a fake facial jewel on his forehead in a July 13, 2021 "The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon" appearance, in apparent mockery of the facial jewelry trend popularized by Lil Uzi Vert and Sauce Walka. In the album's first single, "White Walls," GoldLink continued his disses of Sheck Wes. The feud with Wes dates back to 2019 when GoldLink's then-girlfriend Justine Skye accused Wes of abuse, stalking, and harassment.


title: GoldLink

text: On November 26, 2019, GoldLink wrote a post on Instagram that outlined both his appreciation for Pittsburgh rapper Mac Miller, who died of an accidental overdose in 2018, and his belief the late star intentionally cribbed the sound of "And After That, We Didn't Talk" for Miller's album "The Divine Feminine". GoldLink claimed he showed Miller his album while they were on tour together for Miller's previous album "" and wrote the rapper loved it and had him play it for the whole touring crew. GoldLink pointed to similarities in the albums' structure and use of singer Anderson Paak for a lead single. Paak responded in an Instagram post of his own, slamming GoldLink for having a "God Complex" and being disrespectful in the wake of their friend's death. On November 28, 2019, GoldLink spoke on the war of words at a concert in Hamburg, Germany, focusing on the love he expressed in the post for Miller and emphasizing he never accused the deceased rapper of stealing or copying.


title: Year of the Rabbit (TV series)

text: Year of the Rabbit is a British television sitcom, created by Kevin Cecil and Andy Riley, that began broadcasting on Channel 4 on 10 June 2019.


title: Year of the Rabbit (TV series)

text: Set in London in 1887, the series follows "a group of Victorian detectives including Detective Inspector Rabbit, a hardened booze-hound who’s seen it all, and his new, hapless, by-the-books partner. While investigating a local murder, the chief of police's lewd but insightful adopted daughter becomes the country's first female officer. Together, the trio must fight crime while rubbing shoulders with street gangs, crooked politicians, Bulgarian princes, spiritualists, music hall stars, and the Elephant Man."


title: Year of the Rabbit (TV series)

text: On 9 October 2017, it was announced that Channel 4 had given the production a pilot order, with the episode set to be written by Andy Riley and Kevin Cecil.


title: Year of the Rabbit (TV series)

text: On 7 June 2018, it was announced that the production had been given a series order, for a first series consisting of six episodes and that American television network IFC had joined the project as a co-producer. It was further announced that Matt Berry would serve as an additional writer and that the series would be directed by Ben Taylor. Production companies involved with the series were slated to consist of Objective Fiction with All3Media International handling distribution. On 29 January 2019, it was reported that Ben Farrell and Toby Stevens would serve as executive producers and Hannah Mackay as a producer.


title: Year of the Rabbit (TV series)

text: Production visited the Chatham Historic Dockyard in Kent for some of the filming of the series, where exterior street scenes were filmed and the interior of the Tarred Yarn Store.


title: Year of the Rabbit (TV series)

text: Alongside the pilot order announcement, it was confirmed that Matt Berry, Freddie Fox, and Susan Wokoma would star in the series. On 29 January 2019, it was announced that Keeley Hawes, Sally Phillips, Jill Halfpenny, David Dawson, Ann Mitchell, Alistair Petrie, Matthew Holness, and Craig Parkinson would also appear. On 6 June 2019, it was announced that Taika Waititi would be making a cameo appearance.


title: Year of the Rabbit (TV series)

text: As well as being broadcast weekly at 10:00pm on Mondays, the entire first series was also made available as a box-set on All 4 from 10 June 2019. Outside of the United Kingdom, the series is broadcast on IFC in the United States—beginning 19 February 2020. In the autumn of 2019, the series was heavily promoted as part of the range of programming on Virgin Atlantic's onboard entertainment service Vera.


title: Year of the Rabbit (TV series)

text: On February 11, 2020, the programme was renewed for a second series of six episodes, however Channel 4 pulled out of funding the series in January 2021 due to budgetary concerns brought by the COVID-19 pandemic, with production company Objective Media Group said to be "on the hunt for a new partner for the comedy" as a result.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: James "Bonecrusher" Smith (born April 3, 1953) is an American former professional boxer who competed from 1981 to 1999, and held the WBA heavyweight title from 1986 to 1987.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Smith was born in Magnolia, North Carolina. After graduating from high school, he attended James Sprunt Community College in Kenansville, North Carolina. He earned an associate's degree in Business Administration in 1973. Two years later, he earned a bachelor's degree in Business Administration from Shaw University in Raleigh, North Carolina.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: After serving in the US military and working as a prison guard, Smith competed as an amateur compiling a record of 35–4, before turning professional in November 1981.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: He lost his first fight against James "Broad-Axe" Broad, a world-class amateur and qualifier for the 1980 Olympics who was 2–0 as a pro. The fight was broadcast on ESPN. Smith was dropped in 4 rounds with body shots and counted out.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: The following year Smith upset future cruiserweight world champion and southpaw Ricky Parkey, then 2–0 as a pro, by winning a 6-round points decision. After scoring two knockouts, Smith followed up the Parkey win with another upset. An 8-round points decision over Chris McDonald, who was 8–0–1 as a pro and had been a top amateur. He went on to score nine straight knockouts, before traveling to the UK in 1984. There he fought Frank Bruno, who was 21–0 (21 KO), and knocked him out.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: In November 1984, he fought Larry Holmes for the IBF heavyweight championship. Holmes had a record of 45–0 and had won eighteen straight world title fights. Smith was stopped on advice of the doctor in the 12th round, due to a cut. He again was behind on points.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Smith came back in 1985, fighting on Don King undercards. He lost a 10-round decision to 19–0 amateur star and future world champ Tony Tubbs in an eliminator, won a 10-round decision over 18–1 Cuban contender José Ribalta, but then he dropped a wide 12-round decision to ex-world champ Tim Witherspoon in a bid for Witherspoon's NABF belt.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: In 1986 he dropped Marvis Frazier, also breaking Frazier's jaw, but lost the 10-round decision. At this time, Bonecrusher began consulting a psychiatrist. In his next fight he beat ex-world champ Mike Weaver in one round. He followed it up with two 10-round decisions over Jesse Ferguson (14–2) and David Bey (15–2).


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: In December 1986, while preparing for a fight with Mitch "Blood" Green, Don King informed him at short notice that Tony Tubbs had dropped out of his upcoming challenge to WBA champ Tim Witherspoon, and now Smith would be getting a rematch with WItherspoon. He dropped Witherspoon three times in the opening round, scoring a first-round knockout and winning the WBA title in an upset.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: With his victory over Witherspoon, Smith took his place in the heavyweight unification series, an ongoing competition being conducted by HBO and King to try to crown an undisputed world heavyweight champion for the first time since the retirement of Muhammad Ali. The victory garnered Smith another fight, where he was to defend his belt against newly crowned WBC champion Mike Tyson in a unification contest. Taking place on March 7, 1987, the bout saw Tyson beat Smith to the punch in nearly every round, while Smith resorted to holding to keep himself in the fight. The decision saw Smith lose eleven rounds on two scorecards and all twelve on another.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: He returned to the ring for a few months. He took on Brazilian contender Adilson "Maguila" Rodrigues in São Paulo, losing by split decision.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: In 1989, now aged 36, he took on the Jamaican-Canadian Donovan (Razor) Ruddock. Ruddock won by knockout in the 7th round. Smith announced his retirement after the loss and said he would now pursue politics.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Smith was back in the ring only two months later, KOing journeyman Calvin Jones and followed up with three more knockouts before being matched with former victim Mike Weaver in a battle of hard hitting ex-champs. This time, Smith was resigned to having to win a dull 12 round points decision over Weaver, although he did score a knockdown in a brief moment of excitement. He also earned the WBA Americas belt, and a world ranking.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: After a year layoff he was back, now aged 38, and scored six knockouts, including a notable 8-round knockout of the cement-skulled journeyman Everett (Bigfoot) Martin (who had just taken George Foreman the distance), and a first-round knockout of equally hard hitting ex-contender Jeff Sims.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: However, he lost his world ranking and all his momentum in November 1991 when he dropped a shocking 10-round decision to club fighter Levi Billups who had a patchy 15–5 record. Smith looked under-prepared as he was banged around and generally outhustled by Billups. He rallied to knock down the underdog in the 9th; however, it was too little too late.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Still active in 1992, now aged 39 and with a 33–9–1 record, Smith regained some credibility with a 10-round decision over Mark Wills. His old agitator Don King gave him another opportunity on one of his undercards and matched him with warhorse Greg Page, in a battle of two ex-champs. In the opening round Bonecrusher tried to rush Page as he had done Witherspoon, however he was decked himself for his efforts, and was outpunched by Page over the 10 round distance.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: In 1993 Smith lost to undefeated southpaw and #1 contender Michael Moorer. The paying audience jeered the two passive fighters through to the 10 round finish, where Smith lost a lopsided decision.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Smith competed in the One-Night Heavyweight Tournament in Bay St Louis (not included in the official record, counted as show), where a group of heavies of varying quality would fight a series of 3 round fights with the winner being awarded one million dollars. He beat Lester Jackson and Marshall Tillman, before losing in the semi-final to Romanian prospect Daniel Dăncuţă. Smith's old buddy Tony (TNT) Tubbs eventually won.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: In 1994 he was matched with power punching Tyson-lookalike Lionel Butler, who was highly ranked and on a red-hot string of knockouts. Smith collapsed in 3 rounds, having offered little resistance.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Later that year he traveled to Europe to drop a points decision to German Axel Schulz, and in Denmark he was stopped in 5 rounds due to a cut from a headbutt, courtesy of Brian Nielsen. Smith was overweight for both of these fights, and his days as a contender were definitely over.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: He fought on and off for a few more years. In 1998, he traveled to Australia to battle Joe Bugner for the WBF Heavyweight Championship, but had to retire after one round when his shoulder popped out. The same injury ended a fight in 1999 with former world champion Larry Holmes. After this loss, Smith retired at the age of 46 and with a record of 44–17–1 (32 KOs).


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: In 1995, Smith helped establish the North Carolina Boxing Commission. He served as its first chairman.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Smith became an ordained minister in 1996 and dedicated his life to helping young people stay clear of crime and drugs. Three years later, he retired from boxing.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: In 2004 Smith started the non-profit Champion For Kids Inc. to provide scholarships to high school students.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Smith began working as a recruiter and the Director of Intramural Athletics for Sandhills Community College in June 2005.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Deeply committed to helping impoverished fighters, Smith was a guest at the Ring 10 Veterans Boxing Foundation 2nd Annual Fundraiser in 2012 where he expressed his support of initiatives to better provide for those in need.


title: James Smith (boxer)

text: Smith is currently working with organizers to establish the Legend's of Boxing Hall of fame in Myrtle Beach, South Carolina.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Cell is a multi-core microprocessor microarchitecture that combines a general-purpose PowerPC core of modest performance with streamlined coprocessing elements which greatly accelerate multimedia and vector processing applications, as well as many other forms of dedicated computation.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: It was developed by Sony, Toshiba, and IBM, an alliance known as "STI". The architectural design and first implementation were carried out at the STI Design Center in Austin, Texas over a four-year period beginning March 2001 on a budget reported by Sony as approaching US$400 million. Cell is shorthand for Cell Broadband Engine Architecture, commonly abbreviated "CBEA" in full or "Cell BE" in part.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The first major commercial application of Cell was in Sony's PlayStation 3 game console, released in 2006. In May 2008, the Cell-based IBM Roadrunner supercomputer became the first TOP500 LINPACK sustained 1.0 petaflops system. Mercury Computer Systems also developed designs based on the Cell.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The Cell architecture includes a memory coherence architecture that emphasizes power efficiency, prioritizes bandwidth over low latency, and favors peak computational throughput over simplicity of program code. For these reasons, Cell is widely regarded as a challenging environment for software development. IBM provides a Linux-based development platform to help developers program for Cell chips.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In mid-2000, Sony Computer Entertainment, Toshiba Corporation, and IBM formed an alliance known as "STI" to design and manufacture the processor.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The STI Design Center opened in March 2001. The Cell was designed over a period of four years, using enhanced versions of the design tools for the POWER4 processor. Over 400 engineers from the three companies worked together in Austin, with critical support from eleven of IBM's design centers. During this period, IBM filed many patents pertaining to the Cell architecture, manufacturing process, and software environment. An early patent version of the Broadband Engine was shown to be a chip package comprising four "Processing Elements", which was the patent's description for what is now known as the "Power Processing Element" (PPE). Each Processing Element would contain 8 ""Synergistic Processing Elements"" (SPEs) on the chip. This chip package was supposed to run at a clock speed of 4 GHz and with 32 SPEs providing 32 gigaFLOPS each (FP8 quarter precision), the Broadband Engine was meant to have 1 teraFLOPS of raw computing power in theory.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The design with 4 PPEs and 32 SPEs was never realized. Instead, Sony and IBM only manufactured a design with one PPE and 8 SPEs. This smaller design, the Cell Broadband Engine or Cell/BE was fabricated using a 90 nm SOI process.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In March 2007, IBM announced that the 65 nm version of Cell/BE is in production at its plant (at the time, now GlobalFoundries') in East Fishkill, New York, with Bandai Namco Entertainment using the Cell/BE processor for their 357 arcade board as well as the subsequent 369.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In February 2008, IBM announced that it would begin to fabricate Cell processors with the 45 nm process.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In May 2008, IBM introduced the high-performance double-precision floating-point version of the Cell processor, the PowerXCell 8i, at the 65 nm feature size.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In May 2008, an Opteron- and PowerXCell 8i-based supercomputer, the IBM Roadrunner system, became the world's first system to achieve one petaFLOPS, and was the fastest computer in the world until third quarter 2009. The world's three most energy-efficient supercomputers, as represented by the Green500 list, are similarly based on the PowerXCell 8i.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: By November 2009, IBM had discontinued the development of a Cell processor with 32 APUs but was still developing other Cell products.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: On May 17, 2005, Sony Computer Entertainment confirmed some specifications of the Cell processor that would be shipping in the then-forthcoming PlayStation 3 console. This Cell configuration has one PPE on the core, with eight physical SPEs in silicon. In the PlayStation 3, one SPE is locked-out during the test process, a practice which helps to improve manufacturing yields, and another one is reserved for the OS, leaving 6 free SPEs to be used by games' code. The target clock-frequency at introduction is 3.2 GHz. The introductory design is fabricated using a 90 nm SOI process, with initial volume production slated for IBM's facility in East Fishkill, New York.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The relationship between cores and threads is a common source of confusion. The PPE core is dual threaded and manifests in software as two independent threads of execution while each active SPE manifests as a single thread. In the PlayStation 3 configuration as described by Sony, the Cell processor provides nine independent threads of execution.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: On June 28, 2005, IBM and Mercury Computer Systems announced a partnership agreement to build Cell-based computer systems for embedded applications such as medical imaging, industrial inspection, aerospace and defense, seismic processing, and telecommunications. Mercury has since then released blades, conventional rack servers and PCI Express accelerator boards with Cell processors.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In the fall of 2006, IBM released the QS20 blade module using double Cell BE processors for tremendous performance in certain applications, reaching a peak of 410 gigaFLOPS in FP8 quarter precision per module. The QS22 based on the PowerXCell 8i processor was used for the IBM Roadrunner supercomputer. Mercury and IBM uses the fully utilized Cell processor with eight active SPEs. On April 8, 2008, Fixstars Corporation released a PCI Express accelerator board based on the PowerXCell 8i processor.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The Cell Broadband Engine, or "Cell" as it is more commonly known, is a microprocessor intended as a hybrid of conventional desktop processors (such as the Athlon 64, and Core 2 families) and more specialized high-performance processors, such as the NVIDIA and ATI graphics-processors (GPUs). The longer name indicates its intended use, namely as a component in current and future online distribution systems; as such it may be utilized in high-definition displays and recording equipment, as well as HDTV systems. Additionally the processor may be suited to digital imaging systems (medical, scientific, "etc.") and physical simulation ("e.g.", scientific and structural engineering modeling).


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In a simple analysis, the Cell processor can be split into four components: external input and output structures, the main processor called the "Power Processing Element" (PPE) (a two-way simultaneous-multithreaded PowerPC 2.02 core), eight fully functional co-processors called the "Synergistic Processing Elements", or SPEs, and a specialized high-bandwidth circular data bus connecting the PPE, input/output elements and the SPEs, called the "Element Interconnect Bus" or EIB.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: To achieve the high performance needed for mathematically intensive tasks, such as decoding/encoding MPEG streams, generating or transforming three-dimensional data, or undertaking Fourier analysis of data, the Cell processor marries the SPEs and the PPE via EIB to give access, via fully cache coherent DMA (direct memory access), to both main memory and to other external data storage. To make the best of EIB, and to overlap computation and data transfer, each of the nine processing elements (PPE and SPEs) is equipped with a DMA engine. Since the SPE's load/store instructions can only access its own local scratchpad memory, each SPE entirely depends on DMAs to transfer data to and from the main memory and other SPEs' local memories. A DMA operation can transfer either a single block area of size up to 16KB, or a list of 2 to 2048 such blocks. One of the major design decisions in the architecture of Cell is the use of DMAs as a central means of intra-chip data transfer, with a view to enabling maximal asynchrony and concurrency in data processing inside a chip.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The PPE, which is capable of running a conventional operating system, has control over the SPEs and can start, stop, interrupt, and schedule processes running on the SPEs. To this end, the PPE has additional instructions relating to the control of the SPEs. Unlike SPEs, the PPE can read and write the main memory and the local memories of SPEs through the standard load/store instructions. Despite having Turing complete architectures, the SPEs are not fully autonomous and require the PPE to prime them before they can do any useful work. As most of the "horsepower" of the system comes from the synergistic processing elements, the use of DMA as a method of data transfer and the limited local memory footprint of each SPE pose a major challenge to software developers who wish to make the most of this horsepower, demanding careful hand-tuning of programs to extract maximal performance from this CPU.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The PPE and bus architecture includes various modes of operation giving different levels of memory protection, allowing areas of memory to be protected from access by specific processes running on the SPEs or the PPE.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Both the PPE and SPE are RISC architectures with a fixed-width 32-bit instruction format. The PPE contains a 64-bit general purpose register set (GPR), a 64-bit floating-point register set (FPR), and a 128-bit Altivec register set. The SPE contains 128-bit registers only. These can be used for scalar data types ranging from 8-bits to 64-bits in size or for SIMD computations on a variety of integer and floating-point formats. System memory addresses for both the PPE and SPE are expressed as 64-bit values for a theoretic address range of 2 bytes (16 exabytes or 16,777,216 terabytes). In practice, not all of these bits are implemented in hardware. Local store addresses internal to the SPU (Synergistic Processor Unit) processor are expressed as a 32-bit word. In documentation relating to Cell a word is always taken to mean 32 bits, a doubleword means 64 bits, and a quadword means 128 bits.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In 2008, IBM announced a revised variant of the Cell called the PowerXCell 8i, which is available in QS22 Blade Servers from IBM. The PowerXCell is manufactured on a 65 nm process, and adds support for up to 32 GB of slotted DDR2 memory, as well as dramatically improving double-precision floating-point performance on the SPEs from a peak of about 12.8 GFLOPS to 102.4 GFLOPS total for eight SPEs, which, coincidentally, is the same peak performance as the NEC SX-9 vector processor released around the same time. The IBM Roadrunner supercomputer, the world's fastest during 2008–2009, consisted of 12,240 PowerXCell 8i processors, along with 6,562 AMD Opteron processors. The PowerXCell 8i powered super computers also dominated all of the top 6 "greenest" systems in the Green500 list, with highest MFLOPS/Watt ratio supercomputers in the world. Beside the QS22 and supercomputers, the PowerXCell processor is also available as an accelerator on a PCI Express card and is used as the core processor in the QPACE project.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Since the PowerXCell 8i removed the RAMBUS memory interface, and added significantly larger DDR2 interfaces and enhanced SPEs, the chip layout had to be reworked, which resulted in both larger chip die and packaging.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: While the Cell chip can have a number of different configurations, the basic configuration is a multi-core chip composed of one "Power Processor Element" ("PPE") (sometimes called "Processing Element", or "PE"), and multiple "Synergistic Processing Elements" ("SPE"). The PPE and SPEs are linked together by an internal high speed bus dubbed "Element Interconnect Bus" ("EIB").


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The "PPE" is the PowerPC based, dual-issue in-order two-way simultaneous-multithreaded CPU core with a 23-stage pipeline acting as the controller for the eight SPEs, which handle most of the computational workload. PPE has limited out of order execution capabilities; it can perform loads out of order and has delayed execution pipelines. The PPE will work with conventional operating systems due to its similarity to other 64-bit PowerPC processors, while the SPEs are designed for vectorized floating point code execution. The PPE contains a 64 KiB level 1 cache (32 KiB instruction and a 32 KiB data) and a 512 KiB Level 2 cache. The size of a cache line is 128 bytes. Additionally, IBM has included an AltiVec (VMX) unit which is fully pipelined for single precision floating point (Altivec 1 does not support double precision floating-point vectors.), 32-bit Fixed Point Unit (FXU) with 64-bit register file per thread, Load and Store Unit (LSU), 64-bit Floating-Point Unit (FPU), Branch Unit (BRU) and Branch Execution Unit(BXU).


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: PPE consists of three main units: Instruction Unit (IU), Execution Unit (XU), and vector/scalar execution unit (VSU). IU contains L1 instruction cache, branch prediction hardware, instruction buffers, and dependency checking logic. XU contains integer execution units (FXU) and load-store unit (LSU). VSU contains all of the execution resources for FPU and VMX. Each PPE can complete two double-precision operations per clock cycle using a scalar fused-multiply-add instruction, which translates to 6.4 GFLOPS at 3.2 GHz; or eight single-precision operations per clock cycle with a vector fused-multiply-add instruction, which translates to 25.6 GFLOPS at 3.2 GHz.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The PPE was designed specifically for the Cell processor but during development, Microsoft approached IBM wanting a high-performance processor core for its Xbox 360. IBM complied and made the tri-core Xenon processor, based on a slightly modified version of the PPE with added VMX128 extensions.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Each SPE is a dual issue in order processor composed of a "Synergistic Processing Unit", SPU, and a "Memory Flow Controller", MFC (DMA, MMU, and bus interface). SPEs do not have any branch prediction hardware (hence there is a heavy burden on the compiler). Each SPE has 6 execution units divided among odd and even pipelines on each SPE : The SPU runs a specially developed instruction set (ISA) with 128-bit SIMD organization for single and double precision instructions. With the current generation of the Cell, each SPE contains a 256 KiB embedded SRAM for instruction and data, called "Local Storage" (not to be mistaken for "Local Memory" in Sony's documents that refer to the VRAM) which is visible to the PPE and can be addressed directly by software. Each SPE can support up to 4 GiB of local store memory. The local store does not operate like a conventional CPU cache since it is neither transparent to software nor does it contain hardware structures that predict which data to load. The SPEs contain a 128-bit, 128-entry register file and measures 14.5 mm on a 90 nm process. An SPE can operate on sixteen 8-bit integers, eight 16-bit integers, four 32-bit integers, or four single-precision floating-point numbers in a single clock cycle, as well as a memory operation. Note that the SPU cannot directly access system memory; the 64-bit virtual memory addresses formed by the SPU must be passed from the SPU to the SPE memory flow controller (MFC) to set up a DMA operation within the system address space.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In one typical usage scenario, the system will load the SPEs with small programs (similar to threads), chaining the SPEs together to handle each step in a complex operation. For instance, a set-top box might load programs for reading a DVD, video and audio decoding, and display and the data would be passed off from SPE to SPE until finally ending up on the TV. Another possibility is to partition the input data set and have several SPEs performing the same kind of operation in parallel. At 3.2 GHz, each SPE gives a theoretical 25.6 GFLOPS of single-precision performance.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Compared to its personal computer contemporaries, the relatively high overall floating-point performance of a Cell processor seemingly dwarfs the abilities of the SIMD unit in CPUs like the Pentium 4 and the Athlon 64. However, comparing only floating-point abilities of a system is a one-dimensional and application-specific metric. Unlike a Cell processor, such desktop CPUs are more suited to the general-purpose software usually run on personal computers. In addition to executing multiple instructions per clock, processors from Intel and AMD feature branch predictors. The Cell is designed to compensate for this with compiler assistance, in which prepare-to-branch instructions are created. For double-precision floating-point operations, as sometimes used in personal computers and often used in scientific computing, Cell performance drops by an order of magnitude, but still reaches 20.8 GFLOPS (1.8 GFLOPS per SPE, 6.4 GFLOPS per PPE). The PowerXCell 8i variant, which was specifically designed for double-precision, reaches 102.4 GFLOPS in double-precision calculations.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Tests by IBM show that the SPEs can reach 98% of their theoretical peak performance running optimized parallel matrix multiplication.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Toshiba has developed a co-processor powered by four SPEs, but no PPE, called the SpursEngine designed to accelerate 3D and movie effects in consumer electronics.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The EIB is a communication bus internal to the Cell processor which connects the various on-chip system elements: the PPE processor, the memory controller (MIC), the eight SPE coprocessors, and two off-chip I/O interfaces, for a total of 12 participants in the PS3 (the number of SPU can vary in industrial applications). The EIB also includes an arbitration unit which functions as a set of traffic lights. In some documents, IBM refers to EIB participants as 'units'.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The EIB is presently implemented as a circular ring consisting of four 16-byte-wide unidirectional channels which counter-rotate in pairs. When traffic patterns permit, each channel can convey up to three transactions concurrently. As the EIB runs at half the system clock rate the effective channel rate is 16 bytes every two system clocks. At maximum concurrency, with three active transactions on each of the four rings, the peak "instantaneous" EIB bandwidth is 96 bytes per clock (12 concurrent transactions × 16 bytes wide / 2 system clocks per transfer). While this figure is often quoted in IBM literature, it is unrealistic to simply scale this number by processor clock speed. The arbitration unit imposes additional constraints.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Each participant on the EIB has one 16-byte read port and one 16-byte write port. The limit for a single participant is to read and write at a rate of 16 bytes per EIB clock (for simplicity often regarded 8 bytes per system clock). Each SPU processor contains a dedicated DMA management queue capable of scheduling long sequences of transactions to various endpoints without interfering with the SPU's ongoing computations; these DMA queues can be managed locally or remotely as well, providing additional flexibility in the control model.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Data flows on an EIB channel stepwise around the ring. Since there are twelve participants, the total number of steps around the channel back to the point of origin is twelve. Six steps is the longest distance between any pair of participants. An EIB channel is not permitted to convey data requiring more than six steps; such data must take the shorter route around the circle in the other direction. The number of steps involved in sending the packet has very little impact on transfer latency: the clock speed driving the steps is very fast relative to other considerations. However, longer communication distances are detrimental to the overall performance of the EIB as they reduce available concurrency.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Despite IBM's original desire to implement the EIB as a more powerful cross-bar, the circular configuration they adopted to spare resources rarely represents a limiting factor on the performance of the Cell chip as a whole. In the worst case, the programmer must take extra care to schedule communication patterns where the EIB is able to function at high concurrency levels.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: At 3.2 GHz, each channel flows at a rate of 25.6 GB/s. Viewing the EIB in isolation from the system elements it connects, achieving twelve concurrent transactions at this flow rate works out to an abstract EIB bandwidth of 307.2 GB/s. Based on this view many IBM publications depict available EIB bandwidth as "greater than 300 GB/s". This number reflects the peak "instantaneous" EIB bandwidth scaled by processor frequency.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: However, other technical restrictions are involved in the arbitration mechanism for packets accepted onto the bus. The IBM Systems Performance group explained:


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: This quote apparently represents the full extent of IBM's public disclosure of this mechanism and its impact. The EIB arbitration unit, the snooping mechanism, and interrupt generation on segment or page translation faults are not well described in the documentation set as yet made public by IBM.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In practice, effective EIB bandwidth can also be limited by the ring participants involved. While each of the nine processing cores can sustain 25.6 GB/s read and write concurrently, the memory interface controller (MIC) is tied to a pair of XDR memory channels permitting a maximum flow of 25.6 GB/s for reads and writes combined and the two IO controllers are documented as supporting a peak combined input speed of 25.6 GB/s and a peak combined output speed of 35 GB/s.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: To add further to the confusion, some older publications cite EIB bandwidth assuming a 4 GHz system clock. This reference frame results in an instantaneous EIB bandwidth figure of 384 GB/s and an arbitration-limited bandwidth figure of 256 GB/s.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: All things considered the theoretic 204.8 GB/s number most often cited is the best one to bear in mind. The "IBM Systems Performance" group has demonstrated SPU-centric data flows achieving 197 GB/s on a Cell processor running at 3.2 GHz so this number is a fair reflection on practice as well.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Cell contains a dual channel Rambus XIO macro which interfaces to Rambus XDR memory. The memory interface controller (MIC) is separate from the XIO macro and is designed by IBM. The XIO-XDR link runs at 3.2 Gbit/s per pin. Two 32-bit channels can provide a theoretical maximum of 25.6 GB/s.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The I/O interface, also a Rambus design, is known as FlexIO. The FlexIO interface is organized into 12 lanes, each lane being a unidirectional 8-bit wide point-to-point path. Five 8-bit wide point-to-point paths are inbound lanes to Cell, while the remaining seven are outbound. This provides a theoretical peak bandwidth of 62.4 GB/s (36.4 GB/s outbound, 26 GB/s inbound) at 2.6 GHz. The FlexIO interface can be clocked independently, typ. at 3.2 GHz. 4 inbound + 4 outbound lanes are supporting memory coherency.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Some companies, such as Leadtek, have released PCI-E cards based upon the Cell to allow for "faster than real time" transcoding of H.264, MPEG-2 and MPEG-4 video.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: On August 29, 2007, IBM announced the BladeCenter QS21. Generating a measured 1.05 giga–floating point operations per second (gigaFLOPS) per watt, with peak performance of approximately 460 GFLOPS it is one of the most power efficient computing platforms to date. A single BladeCenter chassis can achieve 6.4 tera–floating point operations per second (teraFLOPS) and over 25.8 teraFLOPS in a standard 42U rack.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: On May 13, 2008, IBM announced the BladeCenter QS22. The QS22 introduces the PowerXCell 8i processor with five times the double-precision floating point performance of the QS21, and the capacity for up to 32 GB of DDR2 memory on-blade.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Several companies provide PCI-e boards utilising the IBM PowerXCell 8i. The performance is reported as 179.2 GFlops (SP), 89.6 GFlops (DP) at 2.8 GHz.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Sony's PlayStation 3 video game console was the first production application of the Cell processor, clocked at 3.2 GHz and containing seven out of eight operational SPEs, to allow Sony to increase the yield on the processor manufacture. Only six of the seven SPEs are accessible to developers as one is reserved by the OS.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Toshiba has produced HDTVs using Cell. They presented a system to decode 48 standard definition MPEG-2 streams simultaneously on a 1920×1080 screen. This can enable a viewer to choose a channel based on dozens of thumbnail videos displayed simultaneously on the screen.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: IBM's supercomputer, IBM Roadrunner, was a hybrid of General Purpose x86-64 Opteron as well as Cell processors. This system assumed the #1 spot on the June 2008 Top 500 list as the first supercomputer to run at petaFLOPS speeds, having gained a sustained 1.026 petaFLOPS speed using the standard LINPACK benchmark. IBM Roadrunner used the PowerXCell 8i version of the Cell processor, manufactured using 65 nm technology and enhanced SPUs that can handle double precision calculations in the 128-bit registers, reaching double precision 102 GFLOPs per chip.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Clusters of PlayStation 3 consoles are an attractive alternative to high-end systems based on Cell blades. Innovative Computing Laboratory, a group led by Jack Dongarra, in the Computer Science Department at the University of Tennessee, investigated such an application in depth. Terrasoft Solutions is selling 8-node and 32-node PS3 clusters with Yellow Dog Linux pre-installed, an implementation of Dongarra's research.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: As first reported by "Wired" on October 17, 2007, an interesting application of using PlayStation 3 in a cluster configuration was implemented by Astrophysicist Gaurav Khanna, from the Physics department of University of Massachusetts Dartmouth, who replaced time used on supercomputers with a cluster of eight PlayStation 3s. Subsequently, the next generation of this machine, now called the "PlayStation 3 Gravity Grid", uses a network of 16 machines, and exploits the Cell processor for the intended application which is binary black hole coalescence using perturbation theory. In particular, the cluster performs astrophysical simulations of large supermassive black holes capturing smaller compact objects and has generated numerical data that has been published multiple times in the relevant scientific research literature. The Cell processor version used by the PlayStation 3 has a main CPU and 6 SPEs available to the user, giving the Gravity Grid machine a net of 16 general-purpose processors and 96 vector processors. The machine has a one-time cost of $9,000 to build and is adequate for black-hole simulations which would otherwise cost $6,000 per run on a conventional supercomputer. The black hole calculations are not memory-intensive and are highly localizable, and so are well-suited to this architecture. Khanna claims that the cluster's performance exceeds that of a 100+ Intel Xeon core based traditional Linux cluster on his simulations. The PS3 Gravity Grid gathered significant media attention through 2007, 2008, 2009, and 2010.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The computational Biochemistry and Biophysics lab at the Universitat Pompeu Fabra, in Barcelona, deployed in 2007 a BOINC system called PS3GRID for collaborative computing based on the CellMD software, the first one designed specifically for the Cell processor.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The United States Air Force Research Laboratory has deployed a PlayStation 3 cluster of over 1700 units, nicknamed the "Condor Cluster", for analyzing high-resolution satellite imagery. The Air Force claims the Condor Cluster would be the 33rd largest supercomputer in the world in terms of capacity. The lab has opened up the supercomputer for use by universities for research.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: With the help of the computing power of over half a million PlayStation 3 consoles, the distributed computing project Folding@home has been recognized by Guinness World Records as the most powerful distributed network in the world. The first record was achieved on September 16, 2007, as the project surpassed one petaFLOPS, which had never previously been attained by a distributed computing network. Additionally, the collective efforts enabled PS3 alone to reach the petaFLOPS mark on September 23, 2007. In comparison, the world's second-most powerful supercomputer at the time, IBM's BlueGene/L, performed at around 478.2 teraFLOPS, which means Folding@home's computing power is approximately twice BlueGene/L's (although the CPU interconnect in BlueGene/L is more than one million times faster than the mean network speed in Folding@home). As of May 7, 2011, Folding@home runs at about 9.3 x86 petaFLOPS, with 1.6 petaFLOPS generated by 26,000 active PS3s alone.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: IBM announced on April 25, 2007, that it would begin integrating its Cell Broadband Engine Architecture microprocessors into the company's line of mainframes. This has led to a gameframe.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The architecture of the processor makes it better suited to hardware-assisted cryptographic brute force attack applications than conventional processors.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Due to the flexible nature of the Cell, there are several possibilities for the utilization of its resources, not limited to just different computing paradigms:


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The PPE maintains a job queue, schedules jobs in SPEs, and monitors progress. Each SPE runs a "mini kernel" whose role is to fetch a job, execute it, and synchronize with the PPE.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: The mini kernel and scheduling is distributed across the SPEs. Tasks are synchronized using mutexes or semaphores as in a conventional operating system. Ready-to-run tasks wait in a queue for an SPE to execute them. The SPEs use shared memory for all tasks in this configuration.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Each SPE runs a distinct program. Data comes from an input stream and is sent to SPEs. When an SPE has terminated the processing, the output data is sent to an output stream.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: This provides a flexible and powerful architecture for stream processing, and allows explicit scheduling for each SPE separately. Other processors are also able to perform streaming tasks but are limited by the kernel loaded.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In 2005, patches enabling Cell support in the Linux kernel were submitted for inclusion by IBM developers. Arnd Bergmann (one of the developers of the aforementioned patches) also described the Linux-based Cell architecture at LinuxTag 2005. As of release 2.6.16 (March 20, 2006), the Linux kernel officially supports the Cell processor.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Fixstars Solutions provides Yellow Dog Linux for IBM and Mercury Cell-based systems, as well as for the PlayStation 3. Terra Soft strategically partnered with Mercury to provide a Linux Board Support Package for Cell, and support and development of software applications on various other Cell platforms, including the IBM BladeCenter JS21 and Cell QS20, and Mercury Cell-based solutions. Terra Soft also maintains the Y-HPC (High Performance Computing) Cluster Construction and Management Suite and Y-Bio gene sequencing tools. Y-Bio is built upon the RPM Linux standard for package management, and offers tools which help bioinformatics researchers conduct their work with greater efficiency. IBM has developed a pseudo-filesystem for Linux coined "Spufs" that simplifies access to and use of the SPE resources. IBM is currently maintaining a Linux kernel and GDB ports, while Sony maintains the GNU toolchain (GCC, binutils).


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In November 2005, IBM released a "Cell Broadband Engine (CBE) Software Development Kit Version 1.0", consisting of a simulator and assorted tools, to its web site. Development versions of the latest kernel and tools for Fedora Core 4 are maintained at the Barcelona Supercomputing Center website.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In August 2007, Mercury Computer Systems released a Software Development Kit for PlayStation 3 for High-Performance Computing.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: In November 2007, Fixstars Corporation released the new "CVCell" module aiming to accelerate several important OpenCV APIs for Cell. In a series of software calculation tests, they recorded execution times on a 3.2 GHz Cell processor that were between 6x and 27x faster compared with the same software on a 2.4 GHz Intel Core 2 Duo.


title: Cell (microprocessor)

text: Illustrations of the different generations of Cell/B.E. processors and the PowerXCell 8i. The images are not to scale; All Cell/B.E. packages measures 42.5×42.5 mm and the PowerXCell 8i measures 47.5×47.5 mm.


Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia is the study of the genetics and archaeogenetics of the ethnic groups of South Asia. It aims at uncovering these groups' genetic history. The geographic position of South Asia makes its biodiversity important for the study of the early dispersal of anatomically modern humans across Asia.


title: Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia

text: Based on Mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) variations, genetic unity across various South Asian sub–populations have shown that most of the ancestral nodes of the phylogenetic tree of all the mtDNA types originated in South Asia. Conclusions of studies based on Y Chromosome variation and Autosomal DNA variation have been varied.


text: South Asians are descendants of an indigenous South Asian component (termed "Ancient Ancestral South Indians", short "AASI"), closest to modern isolated tribal groups from South India, as well as Andamanese peoples, and more distantly related to Aboriginal Australians and East Asians and later-arriving West-Eurasian (European/Middle Eastern-related) and additional East/Southeast Asian components respectively, in varying degrees.


text: The AASI type ancestry is found at the highest levels among tribal groups of southern India, such as the Paniya, and is generally found throughout all South Asian ethnic groups in substantially varying degrees. The West-Eurasian ancestry, specifically an Iranian-related component, combined with varying degrees of AASI ancestry formed the "Indus Periphery Cline" around ~5400–3700 BCE, the main ancestry of most modern South Asian groups. The Indus Periphery ancestry, around the 2nd millennium BCE, mixed with another West-Eurasian wave, the incoming mostly male-mediated Yamnaya-Steppe component to form the "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI), while at the same time it contributed to the formation of "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI) by admixture with hunter-gatherers having higher proportions of AASI-related ancestry. The ANI-ASI gradient, as demonstrated by the higher proportion of ANI in traditionally upper caste and Indo-European speakers, that resulted because of the admixture between the ANI and the ASI after 2000 BCE at various proportions is termed as the "Indian Cline". The East Asian ancestry component forms the major ancestry among Tibeto-Burmese and Khasi-Aslian speakers in the Himalayan foothills and Northeast India, and is generally distributed throughout South Asia at lower frequency, with substantial presence in Mundari-speaking groups, as well as in some populations of northern, central and eastern South Asia.


text: According to recent genome studies, South Asians are overall descendants of three ancestral groups in varying degrees: an indigenous South Asian component (often termed "Ancient Ancestral South Indians", short "AASI"), an ancient population relatively most closely related to the Andamanese, and more distantly to East Asians, and Aboriginal Australians), with its highest frequency among southern Indian tribal groups, a West-Eurasian (European/Middle Eastern-related) component which makes up the majority of derived ancestry for South Asians, and an additional East/Southeast Asian component, which is found primarily among ethnic minority groups along the Himalayan mountain range and Northeastern India. A specific Neolithic Iranian component, which may be associated with the spread of Dravidian languages, forms the base ancestry of South Asians. This component, paired with substantial AASI ancestry resulted in the "Indus Periphery Cline", which is characteristic for South Asians. A Yamnaya Steppe pastoralist component is found in higher frequency among Indo-Aryan speakers, and is generally distributed throughout the Indian subcontinent. An East Asian ancestry component forms the major ancestry among Tibeto-Burmese and Khasi-Aslian speakers in the Himalayan foothills and Northeast India, and is also found in substantial presence in Mundari-speaking groups.


text: The AASI population became genetically isolated from other populations since approximately ~45,000 years BCe. The Andamanese people are hypothesized to be most closely related to the AASI population and sometimes used as an (imperfect) proxy for it, but others propose the Indian tribal groups like Paniya and Irula as better proxies for indigenous South Asian (AASI) ancestry than the Andamanese. According to Yelmen et al. 2019, the AASI ""separated from East Asian and Andamanese populations, shortly after having separated from West Eurasian populations"". According to Yang (2022): ""This distinct South Asian ancestry, denoted as the Ancient Ancestral South Indian (AASI) lineage, was only found in a small percentage of ancient and present-day South Asians. Present-day Onge from the Andamanese Islands are the best reference population to date, but Narasimhan et al. used qpGraph to show that the divergence between the AASI lineage and the ancestry found in present-day Onge was very deep. Ancestry associated with the AASI lineage was found at low levels in almost all present-day Indian populations"".


text: Earliest West-Eurasian ancestry is proposed to have perhaps arrived already during the Paleolithic, about ~40,000 BC and may be linked to expanding Aurignacian groups of the Levant. Genetic data shows that the main West-Eurasian wave, happened during the Neolithic period, or already during the Holocene, in tandem with the arrival of East Asian-related components during the Neolithic period with Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burmese groups from Southeast Asia and East Asia respectively. According to an international research team led by palaeogeneticists of the Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz (JGU), one of the most important ancestry components of South Asians is derived from a population related to Neolithic farmers from the eastern Fertile Crescent and Iran. They concluded "that the Iranian genomes represent the main ancestors of modern-day South Asians".


text: In the 2nd millennium BCE, the "Indus Periphery"-related ancestry mixed with the arriving Yamnaya-Steppe component forming the "Ancestral North Indians" (ANI), while at the same time it contributed to the formation of "Ancestral South Indians" (ASI) by admixture with hunter-gatherers further South having higher proportions of AASI-related ancestry. The proximity to West-Eurasian populations is based on the "ANI-ASI" gradient, also termed the "Indian Cline", with the groups harboring higher ANI-ancestry being closer to West Eurasians as compared to populations harboring higher ASI-ancestry. Tribal groups from southern India harbor mostly ASI ancestry and sits farthest from West-Eurasian groups on the PCA compared to other South Asians.


text: It has been found that the ancestral node of the phylogenetic tree of all the mtDNA types (mitochondrial DNA haplogroups) typically found in Central Asia, the West Asia and Europe are also to be found in South Asia at relatively high frequencies. The inferred divergence of this common ancestral node is estimated to have occurred slightly less than 50,000 years ago. In India, the major maternal lineages are various M subclades, followed by R and U sublineages. These mitochondrial haplogroups' coalescence times have been approximated to date to 50,000 BP.


text: The major paternal lineages of South Asians, represented by Y chromosomes, are haplogroups R1a1, R2, H, L and J2, as well as O-M175. R1a1, J2 and L are mainly found among European and Middle Eastern populations, O-M175 is mainly restricted among Austroasiatic and Tibeto-Burmese speakers, and also common among East and Southeast Asians, while H is mostly restricted to South Asians. Some researchers have argued that Y-DNA Haplogroup R1a1 (M17) is of autochthonous South Asian origin. However, proposals for a Central Asian/Eurasian steppe origin for R1a1 are also quite common and supported by several more recent studies.


text: Genetic studies comparing eight X chromosome based STR markers using a multidimensional scaling plot (MDS plot), revealed that South Asians like Indians, Bangladeshis and Sinhalese people cluster close to each other, but also closer to Europeans. In contrast Southeast Asians, East Asians and Africans were placed at a distant positions, outside the main cluster.


text: Arguing for the longer term "rival Y-Chromosome model", Stephen Oppenheimer believes that it is highly suggestive that India is the origin of the Eurasian mtDNA haplogroups which he calls the "Eurasian Eves". According to Oppenheimer it is highly probable that nearly all human maternal lineages in Central Asia, the Middle East and Europe descended from only four mtDNA lines that originated in South Asia 50,000–100,000 years ago.


text: The macrohaplogroup M, which is considered as a cluster of the proto-Asian maternal lineages, represents more than 60% of South Asian MtDNA.


text: The M macrohaplotype in India includes many subgroups that differ profoundly from other sublineages in East Asia especially Mongoloid populations. The deep roots of M phylogeny clearly ascertain the relic of South Asian lineages as compared to other M sublineages (in East Asia and elsewhere) suggesting 'in-situ' origin of these sub-haplogroups in South Asia, most likely in India. These deep-rooting lineages are not language specific and spread over all the language groups in India.


text: Virtually all modern Central Asian MtDNA M lineages seem to belong to the Eastern Eurasian (Mongolian) rather than the South Asian subtypes of haplogroup M, which indicates that no large-scale migration from the present Turkic-speaking populations of Central Asia occurred to India. The absence of haplogroup M in Europeans, compared to its equally high frequency among South Asians, East Asians and in some Central Asian populations contrasts with the Western Eurasian leanings of South Asian paternal lineages.


text: Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in South and Southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans.


text: The macrohaplogroup R (a very large and old subdivision of macrohaplogroup N) is also widely represented and accounts for the other 40% of South Asian MtDNA. A very old and most important subdivision of it is haplogroup U that, while also present in West Eurasia, has several subclades specific to South Asia.