title: Relative atomic mass

text: Additionally, the continued use of the term "atomic weight" (for any element) as opposed to "relative atomic mass" has attracted considerable controversy since at least the 1960s, mainly due to the technical difference between weight and mass in physics. Still, both terms are officially sanctioned by the IUPAC. The term "relative atomic mass" now seems to be replacing "atomic weight" as the preferred term, although the term ""standard" atomic weight" (as opposed to the more correct ""standard" relative atomic mass") continues to be used.


title: Relative atomic mass

text: Relative atomic mass is determined by the average atomic mass, or the weighted mean of the atomic masses of all the atoms of a particular chemical element found in a particular sample, which is then compared to the atomic mass of carbon-12. This comparison is the quotient of the two weights, which makes the value dimensionless (having no unit). This quotient also explains the word "relative": the sample mass value is considered relative to that of carbon-12.


title: Relative atomic mass

text: It is a synonym for atomic weight, though it is not to be confused with relative isotopic mass. Relative atomic mass is also frequently used as a synonym for standard atomic weight and these quantities may have overlapping values if the relative atomic mass used is that for an element from Earth under defined conditions. However, relative atomic mass (atomic weight) is still technically distinct from standard atomic weight because of its application only to the atoms obtained from a single sample; it is also not restricted to terrestrial samples, whereas standard atomic weight averages multiple samples but only from terrestrial sources. Relative atomic mass is therefore a more general term that can more broadly refer to samples taken from non-terrestrial environments or highly specific terrestrial environments which may differ substantially from Earth-average or reflect different degrees of certainty (e.g., in number of significant figures) than those reflected in standard atomic weights.


title: Relative atomic mass

text: The definition deliberately specifies "An atomic weight…", as an element will have different relative atomic masses depending on the source. For example, boron from Turkey has a lower relative atomic mass than boron from California, because of its different isotopic composition. Nevertheless, given the cost and difficulty of isotope analysis, it is common practice to instead substitute the tabulated values of standard atomic weights, which are ubiquitous in chemical laboratories and which are revised biennially by the IUPAC's Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights (CIAAW).


title: Relative atomic mass

text: Older (pre-1961) historical relative scales based on the atomic mass unit (symbol: "a.m.u." or "amu") used either the oxygen-16 relative isotopic mass or else the oxygen relative atomic mass (i.e., atomic weight) for reference. See the article on the history of the modern unified atomic mass unit for the resolution of these problems.


title: Relative atomic mass

text: The IUPAC commission CIAAW maintains an expectation-interval value for relative atomic mass (or atomic weight) on Earth named standard atomic weight. Standard atomic weight requires the sources be terrestrial, natural, and stable with regard to radioactivity. Also, there are requirements for the research process. For 84 stable elements, CIAAW has determined this standard atomic weight. These values are widely published and referred to loosely as 'the' atomic weight of elements for real-life substances like pharmaceuticals and commercial trade.


title: Relative atomic mass

text: Also, CIAAW has published abridged (rounded) values and simplified values (for when the Earthly sources vary systematically).


title: Relative atomic mass

text: Atomic mass ("m") is the mass of a single atom, with unit "Da" or "u" (the dalton). It defines the mass of a specific isotope, which is an input value for the determination of the relative atomic mass. An example for three silicon isotopes is given below.


title: Relative atomic mass

text: The relative "isotopic" mass is specifically the "ratio of" the mass of a single atom "to" the mass of a unified atomic mass unit. This value, too, is relative, and therefore dimensionless.


title: Relative atomic mass

text: Modern relative atomic masses (a term specific to a given element sample) are calculated from measured values of atomic mass (for each nuclide) and isotopic composition of a sample. Highly accurate atomic masses are available for virtually all non-radioactive nuclides, but isotopic compositions are both harder to measure to high precision and more subject to variation between samples. For this reason, the relative atomic masses of the 22 mononuclidic elements (which are the same as the isotopic masses for each of the single naturally occurring nuclides of these elements) are known to especially high accuracy. For example, there is an uncertainty of only one part in 38 million for the relative atomic mass of fluorine, a precision which is greater than the current best value for the Avogadro constant (one part in 20 million).


title: Relative atomic mass

text: The calculation is exemplified for silicon, whose relative atomic mass is especially important in metrology. Silicon exists in nature as a mixture of three isotopes: Si, Si and Si. The atomic masses of these nuclides are known to a precision of one part in 14 billion for Si and about one part in one billion for the others. However, the range of natural abundance for the isotopes is such that the standard abundance can only be given to about ±0.001% (see table).


title: Relative atomic mass

text: The estimation of the uncertainty is complicated, especially as the sample distribution is not necessarily symmetrical: the IUPAC standard relative atomic masses are quoted with estimated symmetrical uncertainties, and the value for silicon is 28.0855(3). The relative standard uncertainty in this value is 1 or 10 ppm.


title: Relative atomic mass

text: Apart from this uncertainty by measurement, some elements have variation over sources. That is, different sources (ocean water, rocks) have a different radioactive history and so different isotopic composition. To reflect this natural variability, the IUPAC made the decision in 2010 to list the standard relative atomic masses of 10 elements as an interval rather than a fixed number.


title: Briahna Joy Gray

text: Briahna Joy Gray (born August 15, 1985) is an American political commentator, lawyer, and political consultant who served as the National Press Secretary for the Bernie Sanders 2020 presidential campaign. Gray is a contributing editor for "Current Affairs", and was a senior politics editor for "The Intercept". She hosts her own podcast, "Bad Faith", and co-hosts The Hill's web series "Rising".


title: Briahna Joy Gray

text: Both of her parents were teachers. During her childhood, Gray lived in North Carolina, Kenya, and Saudi Arabia. Gray earned a Bachelor of Arts degree from Harvard University and a Juris Doctor from Harvard Law School.


title: Briahna Joy Gray

text: After graduating from law school, Gray worked as a corporate litigator in New York City for Dewey Pegno & Kramarsky LLP and Stroock & Stroock & Lavan. She was also the host of "Someone’s Wrong on the Internet," a podcast that covers politics and pop culture. Gray was hired by "The Intercept" in 2018, and has also written columns for "Rolling Stone", "Current Affairs", "The Guardian", and "New York Magazine".


title: Briahna Joy Gray

text: Gray supported Bernie Sanders 2016 presidential campaign and joined his 2020 campaign as his National Press Secretary. Gray has stated that she voted for Jill Stein in the 2016 presidential election.


title: Briahna Joy Gray

text: In 2020, Gray was included in "Fortune" magazine's '40 Under 40' listing under the "Government and Politics" category. On April 13, 2020, after Bernie Sanders dropped out of the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primary, Gray stated on Twitter that she did not endorse the presumptive Democratic presidential nominee Joe Biden. In response, Bernie Sanders distanced himself from her saying that "She is my former press secretary — not on the payroll." Sanders also stated that it would be "irresponsible" not to vote for Biden.


title: Briahna Joy Gray

text: Since Sanders' 2020 Democratic primary campaign ended, Gray returned to her role as contributing editor at "Current Affairs" in addition to co-hosting the "Bad Faith" podcast with former "Chapo Trap House" co-host Virgil Texas.


The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things is a painting attributed to Hieronymus Bosch or to a follower of his, completed around 1500 or later. Since 1898 its authenticity has been questioned several times. In 2015 the Bosch Research Conservation Project claimed it to be by a follower, but scholars at the Prado, where the painting hangs, dismissed this argument. The painting is oil on wooden panels and is presented in a series of circular images.


title: The Seven Deadly Sins and the Four Last Things

text: Four small circles, detailing the four last things — Death, Judgment, Heaven, and Hell — surround a larger circle in which the seven deadly sins are depicted: wrath at the bottom, then (proceeding clockwise) envy, greed, gluttony, sloth, extravagance (later replaced with lust), and pride, using scenes from life rather than allegorical representations of the sins.


text: At the centre of the large circle, which is said to represent the eye of God, is a "pupil" in which Christ can be seen emerging from his tomb. Below this image is the Latin inscription "Cave cave d[omi]n[u]s videt" ("Beware, Beware, The Lord Sees").


text: Above and below the central image are inscription in Latin of Deuteronomy 32:28–29, containing the lines "For they are a nation void of counsel, neither is there any understanding in them", above, and "O that they were wise, that they understood this, that they would consider their latter end!" below.


text: In 1560, Felipe de Guevara wrote about a pupil of Bosch, an unnamed "discipulo" (pupil), who was as good as his master and even signed his works with his master's name. Immediately after this, and without starting a new paragraph, Guevara refers to the painting of the "Seven Deadly Sins" as characteristic of his style. This led some scholars, as early as Dollmayr (1898) and most vocally Stechow (1966), to ascribe the work to this pupil.


text: Most experts have argued since, however, that given the highly ambiguous nature of the passage, Guevara had probably returned to a description of the works of Bosch himself. Furthermore, the accuracy and authority of Guevara is suspect: when in 1570 Guevara's heirs sold a copy of "The Haywain Triptych" to Philip II of Spain, it was made clear that Guevara had regarded that work as the original painted by Bosch himself, whilst nowadays it is known that his was a copy (displayed in El Escorial), of the original hanging in Prado. Philip II of Spain himself purchased the work (prior to 1560, probably from a monastery art sale) in the belief that "The Seven Deadly Sins" was a Bosch original, and he always regarded it as such. It was his favourite Bosch painting and it hung in his own bedroom in El Escorial. When he donated the painting to El Escorial in 1574, it was cataloged as being a Bosch original; Silva Maroto argued that it is hard to believe that Guevara would question the authorship of Phillip's favourite Bosch in such an ambiguous passage, which as Maroto pointed out is part of a manuscript that remained unpublished until 1788.


text: The alleged poor quality of the drawing had led to the incorrect belief it dates from Bosch's early period. The attribution to the "discipulo" was revived in the catalogue of the 2001 Bosch exhibition in Rotterdam, by Vermet and Vandenbroeck, who also suggested that several of the costumes suggest a much later date, around 1500, so that the awkward drawing and execution cannot be attributed to youthful imperfection. They also noted that the painting is not on oak, adding to their doubts about the attribution to Bosch.


text: Nowadays, most art historians agree that the costumes point at a date in between 1505 and 1510; it is argued that the key characteristics of the underlying drawing, the way the pictorial surface was developed, and the variety of strokes are entirely consistent with Bosch's later paintings. Furthermore, the theme, symbolism and the composition itself is profoundly original, which would make it extremely unlikely that an unknown pupil could have painted it.


text: In 2005, Ed Hoffman argued for the work being a copy, perhaps ordered by Philip II of Spain after the original had been damaged. In his view, the amateurish style, the plump figures, the lack of white highlights and the fact that the wooden panel is not oak but poplar (which can't be dated with dendrochronology). An argument for the authenticity, or at least originality, of the work could be found in the pentimenti of the underpainting, which indicate it could not have been a simple faithful reproduction. In addition, there is no question the signature in the painting is that of Bosch himself, and not a forgery.


text: In October 2015, the Bosch Research and Conservation Project, which had been responsible, since 2007, for technical research on most of Bosch's paintings, rejected the attribution to Bosch and deemed it to be made by a follower, most likely the "discipulo". In response, the Prado Museum stated that they still consider the piece to be authentic.


text: Each panel in the outer circle depicts a different sin. Clockwise from top (Latin names in brackets):


text: The four small circles also have details. In Death of the Sinner, death is shown at the doorstep along with an angel and a demon while the priest says the sinner's last rites, In Glory, the saved are entering Heaven, with Jesus and the saints, at the gate of Heaven an Angel prevents a demon from ensnaring a woman. Saint Peter is shown as the gatekeeper. In Judgment, Christ is shown in glory while angels awake the dead, while in the Hell demons torment sinners according to their sins.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x is a generic term referring to a series of Microsoft Windows computer operating systems produced from 1995 to 2000, which were based on the Windows 95 kernel and its underlying foundation of MS-DOS, both of which were updated in subsequent versions. The first version in the 9x series was Windows 95, which was succeeded by Windows 98 and then Windows Me, which was the third and last version of Windows on the 9x line, until the series was superseded by Windows XP.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x is predominantly known for its use in home desktops. In 1998, Windows made up 82% of operating system market share.


title: Windows 9x

text: Internal release versions for versions of Windows 9x are 4.x. The internal versions for Windows 95, 98, and Me are 4.0, 4.1, and 4.9, respectively. Previous MS-DOS-based versions of Windows used version numbers of 3.2 or lower. Windows NT, which was aimed at professional users such as networks and businesses, used a similar but separate version number between 3.1 and 4.0. All versions of Windows from Windows XP onwards are based on the Windows NT codebase.


title: Windows 9x

text: The first independent version of Microsoft Windows, version 1.0, released on November 20, 1985, achieved little popularity. Its name was initially "Interface Manager", but Rowland Hanson, the head of marketing at Microsoft, convinced the company that the name "Windows" would be more appealing to consumers. Windows 1.0 was not a complete operating system, but rather an "operating environment" that extended MS-DOS. Consequently, it shared the inherent flaws and problems of MS-DOS.


title: Windows 9x

text: The second installment of Microsoft Windows, version 2.0, was released on December 9, 1987, and used the real-mode memory model, which confined it to a maximum of 1 megabyte of memory. In such a configuration, it could run under another multitasking system like DESQview, which used the 286 Protected Mode.


title: Windows 9x

text: Microsoft Windows scored a significant success with Windows 3.0, released in 1990. In addition to improved capabilities given to native applications, Windows also allowed users to better multitask older MS-DOS-based software compared to Windows/386, thanks to the introduction of virtual memory.


title: Windows 9x

text: Microsoft developed Windows 3.1, which included several minor improvements to Windows 3.0, but primarily consisted of bugfixes and multimedia support. It also excluded support for Real mode, and only ran on an Intel 80286 or better processor. In November 1993 Microsoft also released Windows 3.11, a touch-up to Windows 3.1 which included all of the patches and updates that followed the release of Windows 3.1 in early 1992.


title: Windows 9x

text: Meanwhile, Microsoft continued to develop Windows NT. The main architect of the system was Dave Cutler, one of the chief architects of VMS at Digital Equipment Corporation. Microsoft hired him in August 1988 to create a successor to OS/2, but Cutler created a completely new system instead based on his MICA project at Digital.


title: Windows 9x

text: Microsoft announced at its 1991 Professional Developers Conference its intentions to develop a successor to both Windows NT and Windows 3.1's replacement (Windows 95, code-named Chicago), which would unify the two into one operating system. This successor was codenamed Cairo. In hindsight, Cairo was a much more difficult project than Microsoft had anticipated and, as a result, NT and Chicago would not be unified until Windows XP.


title: Windows 9x

text: After Windows 3.11, Microsoft began to develop a new consumer oriented version of the operating system code-named Chicago. Chicago was designed to have support for 32-bit preemptive multitasking, that of which was available in OS/2 and Windows NT, although a 16-bit kernel would remain for the sake of backward compatibility. The Win32 API first introduced with Windows NT was adopted as the standard 32-bit programming interface, with Win16 compatibility being preserved through a technique known as "thunking". A new GUI was not originally planned as part of the release, although elements of the Cairo user interface were borrowed and added as other aspects of the release (notably Plug and Play) slipped.


title: Windows 9x

text: Microsoft did not change all of the Windows code to 32-bit; parts of it remained 16-bit (albeit not directly using real mode) for reasons of compatibility, performance and development time. Additionally it was necessary to carry over design decisions from earlier versions of Windows for reasons of backwards compatibility, even if these design decisions no longer matched a more modern computing environment. These factors immediately began to impact the operating system's efficiency and stability.


title: Windows 9x

text: Microsoft marketing adopted Windows 95 as the product name for Chicago when it was released on August 24, 1995.


title: Windows 9x

text: OSR2, OSR2.1, and OSR2.5 were not released to the general public, rather, they were available only to OEMs that would preload the OS onto computers. Some companies sold new hard drives with OSR2 preinstalled (officially justifying this as needed due to the hard drive's capacity).


title: Windows 9x

text: On June 25, 1998, Microsoft released Windows 98. It included new hardware drivers and better support for the FAT32 file system which allows support for disk partitions larger than the 2 GB maximum accepted by Windows 95. The USB support in Windows 98 was more robust than the basic support provided by the OEM editions of Windows 95. It also controversially integrated the Internet Explorer 4 browser into the Windows GUI and Windows Explorer file manager.


title: Windows 9x

text: On May 5, 1999, Microsoft released Windows 98 Second Edition, an interim release whose notable features were the addition of Internet Connection Sharing and improved WDM audio and modem support. Internet Connection Sharing is a form of network address translation, allowing several machines on a LAN (Local Area Network) to share a single Internet connection. Windows 98 Second Edition has certain improvements over the original release. Hardware support through device drivers was increased. Many minor problems present in the original Windows 98 were found and fixed which make it, according to many, the most stable release of Windows 9x family—to the extent that commentators used to say that Windows 98's beta version was more stable than Windows 95's final (gamma) version.


title: Windows 9x

text: On September 14, 2000, Microsoft introduced Windows Me (Millennium Edition), which upgraded Windows 98 with enhanced multimedia and Internet features. It also introduced the first version of System Restore, which allowed users to revert their system state to a previous "known-good" point in the case of system failure. The first release of Windows Movie Maker was introduced as well.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows Me was conceived as a quick one-year project that served as a stopgap release between Windows 98 and Whistler (soon to be renamed to Windows XP). Many of the new features were available from the Windows Update site as updates for older Windows versions. As a result, Windows Me was not acknowledged as a distinct operating system along the lines of 95 or 98, and is often included in the Windows 9x series.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows Me was criticized by users for its instability and unreliability, due to frequent freezes and crashes. A "PC World" article dubbed Windows Me the "Mistake Edition" and placed it 4th in their "Worst Tech Products of All Time" feature.


title: Windows 9x

text: The inability of users to easily boot into real mode MS-DOS, as in Windows 95 and 98, led users to quickly learn how to hack their Windows Me installations to provide the needed service.


title: Windows 9x

text: The release of Windows 2000 marked a shift in the user experience between the Windows 9x series and the Windows NT series. Windows NT 4.0 suffered from a lack of support for USB, Plug and Play and DirectX versions after 3.0, preventing its users from playing contemporary games, whereas Windows 2000 featured an updated user interface, and better support for both Plug and Play and USB.


title: Windows 9x

text: The release of Windows XP confirmed the change of direction for Microsoft, bringing the consumer and business operating systems together under Windows NT.


title: Windows 9x

text: One by one, support for the Windows 9x series ended, and Microsoft stopped selling the software to end users, then later to OEMs. By March 2004, it was impossible to purchase any versions of the Windows 9x series.


title: Windows 9x

text: Microsoft continued to support the use of the Windows 9x series until July 11, 2006, when extended support ended for Windows 98, Windows 98 Second Edition (SE), and Windows Millennium Edition (Me) (extended support for Windows 95 ended on December 31, 2001).


title: Windows 9x

text: Microsoft DirectX, a set of standard gaming APIs, stopped being updated on Windows 95 at Version 8.0a. The last version of DirectX supported for Windows 98 and Me is 9.0c.


title: Windows 9x

text: Support for Microsoft Internet Explorer running on any Windows 9x system has also since ended. Internet Explorer 5.5 with Service Pack 2 is the last version of Internet Explorer compatible with Windows 95 and Internet Explorer 6 with Service Pack 1 is the last version compatible with Windows 98 and Me. Internet Explorer 7, the first major update to Internet Explorer 6 in half a decade, was only available for Windows XP SP2 and Windows Vista.


title: Windows 9x

text: The Windows Update website continued to be available for Windows 98, Windows 98SE, and Windows Me after their end of support date (Windows Update was never available for Windows 95); however, during 2011, Microsoft retired the Windows Update v4 website and removed the updates for Windows 98, Windows 98SE, and Windows Me from its servers. Microsoft announced in July 2019 that the Microsoft Internet Games services on Windows Me (and XP) would end on July 31, 2019.


title: Windows 9x

text: The growing number of important updates caused by the end of service life of these pieces of software have slowly made Windows 9x even less practical for everyday use. Today, even open source projects such as Mozilla Firefox will not run on Windows 9x without rework.


title: Windows 9x

text: RetroZilla is a fork of Gecko 1.8.1 aimed at bringing "improved compatibility on the modern web" for versions of Windows as old as Windows 95 and NT 4.0. The latest version, 2.2, was released in February 2019 and added support for TLS 1.2.


title: Windows 9x

text: Like most operating systems, Windows 9x consists of kernel space and user space memory. Although Windows 9x features some memory protection, it does not protect the first megabyte of memory from userland applications for compatibility reasons. This area of memory contains code critical to the functioning of the operating system, and by writing into this area of memory an application can crash or freeze the operating system. This was a source of instability as faulty applications could accidentally write into this region, potentially corrupting important operating system memory, which usually resulted in some form of system error and halt.


title: Windows 9x

text: The user-mode parts of Windows 9x consist of three subsystems: the Win16 subsystem, the Win32 subsystem and MS-DOS.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x/Me set aside two blocks of 64 KB memory regions for GDI and heap resources. By running multiple applications, applications with numerous GDI elements or by running applications over a long span of time, it could exhaust these memory areas. If free system resources dropped below 10%, Windows would become unstable and likely crash.


title: Windows 9x

text: The kernel mode parts consist of the Virtual Machine Manager (VMM), the Installable File System Manager (IFSHLP), the Configuration Manager, and in Windows 98 and later, the WDM Driver Manager (NTKERN). As a 32-bit operating system, virtual memory space is 4 GiB, divided into a lower 2 GiB for applications and an upper 2 GiB for kernel per process.


title: Windows 9x

text: Like Windows NT, Windows 9x stores user-specific and configuration-specific settings in a large information database called the Windows registry. Hardware-specific settings are also stored in the registry, and many device drivers use the registry to load configuration data. Previous versions of Windows used files such as codice_1, codice_2, codice_3, codice_4 and other files with an codice_5 extension to maintain configuration settings. As Windows became more complex and incorporated more features, codice_5 files became too unwieldy for the limitations of the then-current FAT filesystem. Backwards-compatibility with codice_5 files was maintained until Windows XP succeeded the 9x and NT lines.


title: Windows 9x

text: Although Microsoft discourages using .INI files in favor of Registry entries, a large number of applications (particularly 16-bit Windows-based applications) still use .INI files. Windows 9x supports .INI files solely for compatibility with those applications and related tools (such as setup programs). The AUTOEXEC.BAT and CONFIG.SYS files also still exist for compatibility with real-mode system components and to allow users to change certain default system settings such as the PATH environment variable.


title: Windows 9x

text: The Virtual Machine Manager (VMM) is the 32-bit protected mode kernel at the core of Windows 9x. Its primary responsibility is to create, run, monitor and terminate virtual machines. The VMM provides services that manage memory, processes, interrupts and protection faults. The VMM works with virtual devices (loadable kernel modules, which consist mostly of 32-bit ring 0 or kernel mode code, but may include other types of code, such as a 16-bit real mode initialisation segment) to allow those virtual devices to intercept interrupts and faults to control the access that an application has to hardware devices and installed software. Both the VMM and virtual device drivers run in a single, 32-bit, flat model address space at privilege level 0 (also called ring 0). The VMM provides multi-threaded, preemptive multitasking. It runs multiple applications simultaneously by sharing CPU (central processing unit) time between the threads in which the applications and virtual machines run.


title: Windows 9x

text: The VMM is also responsible for creating MS-DOS environments for system processes and Windows applications that still need to run in MS-DOS mode. It is the replacement for WIN386.EXE in Windows 3.x, and the file vmm32.vxd is a compressed archive containing most of the core VxD, including VMM.vxd itself and ifsmgr.vxd (which facilitates file system access without the need to call the real mode file system code of the DOS kernel).


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x does not natively support NTFS or HPFS, but there are third-party solutions which allow Windows 9x to have read-only access to NTFS volumes.


title: Windows 9x

text: Like Windows for Workgroups 3.11, Windows 9x provides support for 32-bit file access based on IFSHLP.SYS, and unlike Windows 3.x, Windows 9x has support for the VFAT file system, allowing file names with a maximum of 255 characters instead of having 8.3 filenames.


title: Windows 9x

text: Also, there is no support for event logging and tracing or error reporting which the Windows NT family of operating systems has, although software like Norton CrashGuard can be used to achieve similar capabilities on Windows 9x.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x is designed as a single-user system. Thus, the security model is much less effective than the one in Windows NT. One reason for this is the FAT file systems (including FAT12/FAT16/FAT32), which are the only ones that Windows 9x supports officially, though Windows NT also supports FAT12 and FAT16 (but not FAT32) and Windows 9x can be extended to read and write NTFS volumes using third-party Installable File System drivers. FAT systems have very limited security; every user that has access to a FAT drive also has access to all files on that drive. The FAT file systems provide no access control lists and file-system level encryption like NTFS.


title: Windows 9x

text: Some operating systems that were available at the same time as Windows 9x are either multi-user or have multiple user accounts with different access privileges, which allows important system files (such as the kernel image) to be immutable under most user accounts. In contrast, while Windows 95 and later operating systems offer the option of having profiles for multiple users, they have no concept of access privileges, making them roughly equivalent to a single-user, single-account operating system; this means that all processes can modify all files on the system that aren't open, in addition to being able to modify the boot sector and perform other low-level hard drive modifications. This enables viruses and other clandestinely installed software to integrate themselves with the operating system in a way that is difficult for ordinary users to detect or undo. The profile support in the Windows 9x family is meant for convenience only; unless some registry keys are modified, the system can be accessed by pressing "Cancel" at login, even if all profiles have a password. Windows 95's default login dialog box also allows new user profiles to be created without having to log in first.


title: Windows 9x

text: Users and software can render the operating system unable to function by deleting or overwriting important system files from the hard disk. Users and software are also free to change configuration files in such a way that the operating system is unable to boot or properly function.


title: Windows 9x

text: Installation software often replaced and deleted system files without properly checking if the file was still in use or of a newer version. This created a phenomenon often referred to as DLL hell.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows Me introduced System File Protection and System Restore to handle common problems caused by this issue.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x offers share-level access control security for file and printer sharing as well as user-level access control if a Windows NT-based operating system is available on the network. In contrast, Windows NT-based operating systems offer only user-level access control but integrated with the operating system's own user account security mechanism.


title: Windows 9x

text: Device drivers in Windows 9x can be virtual device drivers or (starting with Windows 98) WDM drivers. VxDs usually have the filename extension codice_8 or codice_9, whereas WDM compatible drivers usually use the extension codice_10. The 32-bit VxD message server (msgsrv32) is a program that is able to load virtual device drivers (VxDs) at startup and then handle communication with the drivers. Additionally, the message server performs several background functions, including loading the Windows shell (such as Explorer.exe or Progman.exe).


title: Windows 9x

text: Another type of device drivers are codice_11 drivers. These drivers are loaded in user-mode, and are commonly used to control devices such as multimedia devices. To provide access to these devices, a dynamic link library is required (such as MMSYSTEM.DLL).


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x retains backwards compatibility with many drivers made for Windows 3.x and MS-DOS. Using MS-DOS drivers can limit performance and stability due to their use of conventional memory and need to run in real mode which requires the CPU to switch in and out of protected mode.


title: Windows 9x

text: Drivers written for Windows 9x/Windows Me are loaded into the same address space as the kernel. This means that drivers can by accident or design overwrite critical sections of the operating system. Doing this can lead to system crashes, freezes and disk corruption. Faulty operating system drivers were a source of instability for the operating system.


title: Windows 9x

text: Other monolithic and hybrid kernels, like Linux and Windows NT, are also susceptible to malfunctioning drivers impeding the kernel's operation.


title: Windows 9x

text: Often the software developers of drivers and applications had insufficient experience with creating programs for the 'new' system, thus causing many errors which have been generally described as "system errors" by users, even if the error is not caused by parts of Windows or DOS. Microsoft has repeatedly redesigned the Windows Driver architecture since the release of Windows 95 as a result.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x has no native support for hyper-threading, Data Execution Prevention, symmetric multiprocessing, or multi-core processors.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x has no native support for SATA host bus adapters (and neither did Windows 2000 nor Windows XP), or USB drives (except Windows Me). There are, however, many SATA-I controllers for which Windows 98/Me drivers exist, and USB mass storage support has been added to Windows 95 OSR2 and Windows 98 through third party drivers. Hardware driver support for Windows 98/Me began to decline in 2005, most notably for motherboard chipsets and video cards.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 95 was able to reduce the role of MS-DOS in Windows much further than had been done in Windows 3.1x and earlier. According to Microsoft developer Raymond Chen, MS-DOS served two purposes in Windows 95: as the boot loader, and as the 16-bit legacy device driver layer.


title: Windows 9x

text: When Windows 95 started up, MS-DOS loaded, processed CONFIG.SYS, launched COMMAND.COM, ran AUTOEXEC.BAT and finally ran WIN.COM. The WIN.COM program used MS-DOS to load the virtual machine manager, read SYSTEM.INI, load the virtual device drivers, and then turn off any running copies of EMM386 and switch into protected mode. Once in protected mode, the virtual device drivers (VxDs) transferred all state information from MS-DOS to the 32-bit file system manager, and then shut off MS-DOS. These VxDs allow Windows 9x to interact with hardware resources directly, as providing low-level functionalities such as 32-bit disk access and memory management. All future file system operations would get routed to the 32-bit file system manager. In Windows Me, win.com was no longer executed during the startup process; instead it went directly to execute VMM32.VXD from IO.SYS.


title: Windows 9x

text: The second role of MS-DOS (as the 16-bit legacy device driver layer) was as a backward compatibility tool for running DOS programs in Windows. Many MS-DOS programs and device drivers interacted with DOS in a low-level way, for example, by patching low-level BIOS interrupts such as int 13h, the low-level disk I/O interrupt. When a program issued an int 21h call to access MS-DOS, the call would go first to the 32-bit file system manager, which would attempt to detect this sort of patching. If it detects that the program has tried to hook into DOS, it will jump back into the 16-bit code to let the hook run. A 16-bit driver called IFSMGR.SYS would previously have been loaded by CONFIG.SYS, the job of which was to hook MS-DOS first before the other drivers and programs got a chance, then jump from 16-bit code back into 32-bit code, when the DOS program had finished, to let the 32-bit file system manager continue its work. According to Windows developer Raymond Chen, ""MS-DOS was just an extremely elaborate decoy. Any 16-bit drivers and programs would patch or hook what they thought was the real MS-DOS, but which was in reality just a decoy. If the 32-bit file system manager detected that somebody bought the decoy, it told the decoy to quack.""


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 9x can run MS-DOS applications within itself using a method called "Virtualization", where an application is run on a Virtual DOS machine.


title: Windows 9x

text: Windows 95 and Windows 98 also offer regressive support for DOS applications in the form of being able to boot into a native "DOS Mode" (MS-DOS can be booted without booting Windows, not putting the CPU in protected mode). Through Windows 9x's memory managers and other post-DOS improvements, the overall system performance and functionality is improved. This differs from the emulation used in Windows NT-based operating systems. Some old applications or games may not run properly in a DOS box within Windows and require real DOS Mode.


title: Windows 9x

text: Having a command line mode outside of the GUI also offers the ability to fix certain system errors without entering the GUI. For example, if a virus is active in GUI mode it can often be safely removed in DOS mode, by deleting its files, which are usually locked while infected in Windows.


title: Windows 9x

text: Similarly, corrupted registry files, system files or boot files can be restored from the command line. Windows 95 and Windows 98 can be started from DOS Mode by typing codice_12 <enter> at the command prompt. However, the Recovery Console for Windows 2000, which as a version of Windows NT played a similar role in removing viruses.


title: Windows 9x

text: Because DOS was not designed for multitasking purposes, Windows versions such as 9x that are DOS-based lack File System security, such as file permissions. Further, if the user uses 16-bit DOS drivers, Windows can become unstable. Hard disk errors often plague the Windows 9x series.


title: Windows 9x

text: Users can control a Windows 9x-based system through a command-line interface (or CLI), or a graphical user interface (or GUI). For desktop systems, the default mode is usually graphical user interface, where the CLI is available through MS-DOS windows.


title: Windows 9x

text: The GDI, which is a part of the Win32 and Win16 subsystems, is also a module that is loaded in user mode, unlike Windows NT where the GDI is loaded in kernel mode.


title: Windows 9x

text: Alpha compositing and therefore transparency effects, such as fade effects in menus, are not supported by the GDI in Windows 9x.


title: Windows 9x

text: On desktop machines, Windows Explorer is the default user interface, though a variety of additional Windows shell replacements exist.


title: Windows 9x

text: Other GUIs include LiteStep, bbLean and Program Manager. The GUI provides a means to control the placement and appearance of individual application windows, and interacts with the Window System.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The Triumph TR6 is a sports car that was built by the Triumph Motor Company of England. While production began several months earlier, the TR6 was officially introduced in January as a 1969 model year vehicle. The last TR6 was produced on the 20th of July 1976. Of the 91,850 TR6s produced, 83,480 were exported, almost all of them to the United States, while only 8,370 were sold in the UK.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The styling of the body of the TR6 was done by Karmann of Germany. Triumph Motor Cars had a limited budget for the development of the TR6, and while the TR6 looked drastically different from the previous body style of the TR4/TR4A/TR250/TR5 cars, the same chassis, engines, running gear, doors, windshield, and much of the body tub were taken directly from the TR250/TR5 models. The new removable hardtop for the TR6 was designed in-house by Triumph, and was available as an option.


title: Triumph TR6

text: Construction of the TR6 was traditional body-on-frame with four-wheel independent suspension, front disc brakes and rear drum brakes.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The TR6 featured a four-speed manual transmission. An electrically switched overdrive made by Laycock de Normanville was available as an option. On early cars the "A-type" model overdrive was used and was able to be activated on second, third, and fourth gears and provided a 22% gear ratio reduction. Later TR6s had a "J-type" model overdrive able to be activated only on third and fourth gears but with a 28% gear ratio reduction.


title: Triumph TR6

text: Other notable features that were shared with the TR250/TR5 included aluminium semi-trailing arm independent rear suspension, rack and pinion steering, pile carpet on floors and trunk/boot, bucket seats, full instrumentation, wheels and depending on the market, Michelin asymmetric XAS tyres that dramatically improved the handling. The optional steel hardtop required two people to deploy. The dashboard was a light shade of flat cut walnut veneer over plywood with a thick coating. Overdrives and hardtops were more commonly selected options whereas a rear anti-roll bar and a limited-slip differential were very rarely options.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The first production TR6 was built on the 19th of September 1968, as a 1969 model year. All TR6s built until the 28th of November 1968 were carburetted-engine cars with CC commission number prefixes, at which point in time petrol-injected cars with CP commission number prefixes began to be produced on the same production line.


title: Triumph TR6

text: While small changes occurred to the TR6 during its production run, the basic shape and styling cues of the TR6 remained unchanged from beginning to end.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The only factory-recognised change to the TR6 occurred in 1973, when the commission number prefixes changed. Commission numbers were the sequential alpha-numeric numbers used to identify vehicles, a system preceding the use of the modern-day Vehicle Identification Number (VIN). The "Early" CC and CP prefixes were replaced by the "Later" prefixes of CF for carburetted engines and CR for petrol-injected engines. At that time a front spoiler was added, the gauges changed notably in style, as did the horn push and horn surround, and a different optional overdrive was used (Laycock de Normanville A-type for early cars but J-type for later cars). But more importantly, the later CR petrol-injected cars received the milder camshaft that had been used in the carburetted cars, and also a change to the mechanical petrol injection pump. This reduced the power on the later CR petrol-injected cars to 125bhp but made them more drivable in traffic. The power of the later CF carburettor-engined cars was officially reported to have remained mostly the same, 104bhp to106bhp, but the continued addition of emissions equipment on later CF TR6s added complexity and reduced performance.


title: Triumph TR6

text: Apart from the Early vs. Late commission number change, small aesthetic and mechanical changes occurred throughout the production run of the TR6, as is common on most production cars.


title: Triumph TR6

text: In terms of aesthetics, when first produced some styling details were carried over from earlier Triumph TR models but soon dropped, such as short fender beads on part of the rear wings (fenders) on the 1968-built and possibly very early 1969-built models. The wheel rims changed slightly starting with the 1970 model year, increasing their width from 5" to 5.5", at which time the Rostyle wheel covers (hubcaps) that were standard on the TR5, TR250, and 1969 TR6s were discontinued and centre caps were used. The 1969 models also sported a unique steering wheel and a magnetic petrol filler cap.


title: Triumph TR6

text: Different exterior and interior colours were offered in different years and therefore the original colour of a TR6 also indicated in which years it was likely manufactured. For example, TR6s originally painted Royal Blue were only offered up until 1971, whereas Inca yellow was a colour only available on 1976 TR6s. Carpets on earlier cars were made of Wilton wool versus later cars had tufted nylon carpets.


title: Triumph TR6

text: Evolving US regulations incited many of the changes to the TR6. More changes occurred to the carburettor-engined CC and CF cars but some of those changes carried over to the petrol-injected CP and CR cars. For example, changes that only affected carburetted TR6s were three versions of the seats, different bumpers, three different carburettor versions, and many emissions equipment changes. Changes instigated by US regulations that carried over to the petrol-injected TR6s were things like the relocation of the ignition key under the steering wheel in order to incorporate a steering lock.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The last petrol injected TR6 was produced in July 1975 while the production of carburetted TR6s continued until the very last TR6 was produced on the 20th of July 1976.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The early CP commission numbered petrol-injected TR6s used the same Lucas mechanical fuel-injection as the TR5, which produced (152 hp DIN) and 164 lb-ft of torque.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The early CC commission numbered US and Canada market cars, with carburettors and a lower compression ratio than the fuel-injected counterparts, were the same as used on the TR250 and only produced 104 net bhp and a peak torque of 143 lb-ft at 3500 RPM.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The early petrol-injected version TR6 could accelerate from zero to in 8.2 seconds and had a top speed of according to "Autocar" magazine.


title: Triumph TR6

text: The later CR petrol-injected engines were rated at 125bhp, while the later CF carburetted cars were rated at 106bhp.


title: Triumph TR6

text: As of 2020, approximately 4000 licensed for use and 1300 temporarily stored SORN TR6s were registered with the DVLA in the UK. The number of licensed and SORN TR6s has increased over the past dozen years, as many Triumphs are bought in the US and shipped back to the UK and elsewhere.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The Duesenberg Model J is a luxury automobile made by Duesenberg. Intended to compete with the most luxurious and powerful cars in the world, it was introduced in 1928, the year before the stock market crash that led to the Great Depression. The Model J, available with a supercharger after 1932, was sold until Duesenberg Motors Company went bankrupt in 1937.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: E. L. Cord, the owner of Auburn Automobile, and other transportation firms, bought the Duesenberg Motor Corporation on October 26, 1926 for the brothers' engineering skills, talent and brand name. He intended to produce a car to rival the size, power, and luxury of top European brands such as Hispano-Suiza and Rolls-Royce.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: After Cord's takeover, the new company was renamed "Duesenberg, Inc." Fred would continue in the new organization with the title of vice president in charge of engineering and experimental work. Fred's brother August, who had played an important role in the development of the Model A and its variant, the rare X, had nothing to do with the initial design of the J and had no formal connection with Duesenberg, Inc. until later. According to the expert Marshall Merkes, "Cord did not want Augie around." However, all Duesenberg racing cars produced after 1926 were built by Augie in an enterprise that functioned separately, and in a building apart from the main Duesenberg plant. He was also responsible for a number of engineering achievements like the superchargers developed for both the Auburn and Cord motorcars.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The newly revived Duesenberg company set about to produce the Model J, which debuted December 1 at the New York Car Show of 1928. In Europe, it was launched at the "Salon de l'automobile de Paris" of 1929. The first and — at the time of the New York presentation — only example made of the series, the J-101, was a LeBaron sweep panel dual cowl phaeton, finished in silver and black. By the time the Great Depression hit in October 1929, the Duesenberg Company had only built some 200 cars. An additional 100 orders were filled in 1930. Thus, the Model J fell short of the original goal to sell 500 cars a year. In fact, it took eight years and several iterations to dispatch a mere 480 of the cars, obsolete a couple years after their debut, retaining crash gearboxes (non-synchromesh transmissions) through the end. E.L.Cord advertised 265 hp to best the similarly inflated claim of 250 for a concurrent, limited-production Mercedes-Benz.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The straight eight model J motor was based on the company's successful racing engines of the 1920s and though designed by Duesenberg they were manufactured by Lycoming, another company owned by Cord. In normally aspirated form, it produced from dual overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder. It was capable of a top speed of , and in 2nd gear. Other cars featured a bigger engine but none of them surpassed its power. It was also both the fastest and most expensive American automobile on the market.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: As was common practice among the luxury car brands, only the chassis and engine were displayed; the body and interior trim of the car would be custom-made to the owner's specifications by a third-party coachbuilder. The chassis on most model Js were the same, as was the styling of such elements as fenders, headlamps, radiator, hood and instrument panel.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: About half the model Js built by Duesenberg had coachworks devised by the company's chief body designer, Gordon Buehrig, and executed under the name La Grande by company branches in Chicago, New York City, Los Angeles, Philadelphia, Florida and Denver, as well as by smaller dealers. The rest were designed and made by independent US coachbuilders such as Derham, Holbrook, Judkins, Le Baron, Murphy, Rollston (later renamed Rollson), Walker, Weymann, and Willoughby, and Fernandez et Darrin, Franay, Gurney Nutting, Saoutchik, and others in Europe.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The chassis cost US$8,500 ($ in dollars ) ($9,500 after 1932 ($ in dollars )). At a time when the average U.S. physician earned less than $3,000 a year ($ in dollars ), most completed vehicles fell between $13,000 and $19,000 ($ in dollars ), with two American-bodied J's reaching $25,000 ($ in dollars )). Figures for prices charged by deluxe coachbuilders in Europe are not available, but it is possible they were even higher than the most expensive American built models.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The J was generally available with either with a short wheelbase chassis or long ). Special orders included two SSJs shortened to and a few extended to and over.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The dash included mechanically timed lights that reminded the driver when to change the oil and inspect the battery.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: Most engine and chassis were made in 1929 and 1930, but due to the Depression, high price, etc., ended up sold and bodied throughout subsequent years. Thus the year for a given Model J usually refers to the latter.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: A series of minor modifications were carried out during the model's production life. The first major change was to replace the four-speed gearbox, which proved unable to handle the engine's power, with an unsynchronised three-speed gearbox, subsequently fitted to all Duesenbergs. Unlike almost all American manufacturers, Duesenberg did not switch to a fully synchronised gearbox in the mid-1930s, which made the Model J difficult to drive and outdated by the latter years of its run. The factory closed in 1937.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: A Duesenberg marketing slogan was that the only car that could pass a Duesenberg was another Duesenberg—and that was with the first owner's consent.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: Reinforcing this claim was the powerful supercharged "SJ" model Developed on the wheelbase by Fred Duesenberg and introduced in May 1932. It reputed to be capable of in second gear and have a top speed of 135–140 mph (217–225 km/h) in third. Zero-to- times of around eight seconds and in 17 seconds were reported for the SJ in spite of the unsynchronized transmissions, at a time when even the best cars of the era were not likely to reach . Duesenbergs generally weighed around two and a half tons; up to three tons was not unusual, considering the wide array of custom coachwork available.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The SJ's supercharger was located beside the engine; the vertical driving shaft necessitated a redesigned exhaust manifold arrangement; originally this took the form of a one-piece eight into one Monel manifold that re-routed the exhaust away from the engine, outside the engine compartment and through a single hole in the right front fender. The eight port manifold was found to be prone to cracking and was quickly superseded by a second manifold arrangement that routed four branches through the right side panel of the hood and right front fender. At least one supercharged car retains its original eight port manifold while most can be recognized by the four exposed exhaust pipes encased within bright flexible metal conduit tubes, a design which Cord registered as a trademark and used in his supercharged Cords and Auburns. The flamboyant external exhaust pipes were offered both as an option on new normally aspirated Model Js and retrofit to earlier Model Js.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: Fred Duesenberg died of pneumonia on July 26, 1932, resulting from injuries sustained in an automobile accident in which he was driving a Murphy SJ convertible. His brother, Augie, took over Fred's duties as chief engineer and Harold T. Ames became president of Duesenberg, Inc. Only 36 SJs were ever built.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: With financing from sponsors, Ab Jenkins commissioned the "Duesenberg Special" as a speed record car. It was built in 1935 on a supercharged Duesenberg Model J rolling chassis with a standard wheelbase, a modified front axle, and a non-standard high rear axle ratio. The engine was highly tuned by Augie Duesenberg. High performance parts developed for the Special, especially the "ram's horn" twin-carburetor inlet manifold, would be used on later supercharged Js. In October 1935, Jenkins drove the car to a one-hour record of and a twenty-four-hour record of at a circuit on the Bonneville Salt Flats. The 24-hour record would be held until 1961. The car was renamed "Mormon Meteor" after a Curtiss Conqueror aircraft engine was installed in place of the Duesenberg engine.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The one-off custom 1933 Rollston Arlington Torpedo-bodied Duesenberg SJ ultra-luxury sedan was the 2nd most expensive Duesenberg ever constructed and it is widely considered to be the most beautiful Duesenberg ever built. The Twenty Grand had 320 horsepower Supercharged DOHC engine and was built specifically for the 1933 Century of Progress in Chicago. It is owned by the Nethercutt Collection. Jay Leno owns the most expensive Duesenberg ever made, the 1934 Duesenberg Walker Coupe.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The short-wheelbase supercharged J, referred to by the public as the SSJ, had an extra-short wheelbase of and an engine delivering close to through the use of the dual-carburetor "ram's horn" manifold developed for the Duesenberg Special. The "ram's horn" manifold has two branches, each of which splits into two more branches.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: Only two were built; both had lightweight open-roadster bodies produced by Central Manufacturing Company, an Auburn subsidiary in Connersville, Indiana. At the rear, each short-wheelbase roadster had an external spare tire and smaller “later-style” round taillights.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The first short-wheelbase roadster was sold to the actor Gary Cooper in 1935. The other "SSJ" was lent by the company to actor and established Duesenberg customer Clark Gable in 1936. Cooper and Gable would race each other in the Hollywood Hills in these cars.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: There is another version of the model J known as the Duesenberg JN (a name never used by the company either). All JNs were sold with Rollston coachwork and only 10 were produced in 1935. In an attempt to give a more modern look to an ageing design, the JN was equipped with smaller 17-inch-diameter wheels (versus 19 inches), skirted fenders, bullet-shaped taillights, and bodies set on the frame rails for a lower look. The battery box and tool box were redesigned slightly so that the doors could close over the frame. Supercharged JNs gained the logical SJN designation.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The Model J quickly became one of the most popular luxury cars as well as a status symbol in the United States and Europe, driven by the nobility; the rich and famous, among them Al Capone, Evalyn Walsh McLean, Greta Garbo, Ginger Rogers, Howard Hughes, Mae West, Marion Davies, Tyrone Power, Clark Gable, Bill "Bojangles" Robinson, William Randolph Hearst, the families Mars, Whitney, and Wrigley; members of European royalty such as the Duke of Windsor, Prince Nicholas of Romania, Queen Maria of Yugoslavia, and the Kings Victor Emmanuel III of Italy and Alfonso XIII of Spain. The last was very keen on motoring and chose his now missing Duesenberg J, among his cars, to go to exile after the proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic. Father Divine had the last Duesenberg chassis built with an extra-long 178-inch wheelbase. It weighed and accommodated ten passengers. J. Herbert Newport was the designer. Built by Bohman & Schwartz and delivered in October 1937, it was long and wide. It was known as Father Divine's Throne Car because it had a removable rear top section that exposed two raised rear seats.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: Originally, New York supported the Model J. New York was the financial capital of the United States in 1929, and many of its people could afford such an expensive car. As the Depression deepened, however, power shifted, and ultimately it was newly wealthy Hollywood that kept Duesenberg alive through much of the 1930s. It was so reputed and imposing that many Hollywood stars, such as James Cagney, posed next to the car to promote their careers.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: There was a gradual evolution (up to the 1937 model) to preserve the "stately lines" while moving into a more integrated mode of styling. The final evolution of the Duesenberg engine was ram-air intakes, which were added to some of the last supercharged models to produce , referred to as "SSJ". Of the 481 Model Js (including all its versions) produced between 1928 and 1937, about 378 survive. Some are speculated to have been lost in the war, particularly those exported to Europe, while others may had been parted out or even altered beyond recognition during the late 1940s and early 1950s.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: Duesenberg ceased production in 1937 after Cord's financial empire collapsed. However, two more Duesenbergs were completed between 1937 and 1940. The first one was delivered by the coachbuilder Rollson to the German artist Rudolf Bauer in April 1940; it is both the longest Duesenberg and the last one delivered. The last one ever made was assembled from leftover parts between 1938 and 1940.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: Duesenberg became far less popular during World War II, and by 1941 to 1942, used specimens were abundant and cheap, with advertised prices averaging around $700 for the cars in excellent condition. Even still, a few used Model Js were advertised for around $300 to $400, with some ultimately selling for only $100 or $200.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: Business rebounded in the 1950s, when classic and vintage cars became popular among collectors. Several Model Js were advertised in "The New York Times" in the fall of 1950, at prices as low as $500, though an exceptional restored example could exceed $2,000 which was still within the reach of the average working American.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: By 1959 a decent example could not be bought for less than $4,000, and an exceptionally fine specimen could approach $10,000. A record price of $12,000 had been paid for a Duesenberg J in a private sale that year. In 10 years' time, by 1969, a Model J could fetch anywhere between $20,000 and $75,000. A record price of $205,000 was set at an auction in 1974 for a model J, surpassing Adolf Hitler’s personal 770K Mercedes, which sold for $153,000 the year prior.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: The Duesenberg Special, a.k.a. "Mormon Meteor", was sold at an auction by Gooding & Co. in August 2004 for $4.5 million. Another SJ sold for $4.4 million at RM Auctions in Monterey, California, in 2007.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: Liberace used a replica Duesenberg SJ encrusted with Austrian rhinestone crystals during his stage performances. The vehicle later went on to be exhibited at the Liberace Museum in Las Vegas, Nevada, and at The Cosmopolitan of Las Vegas, and its current location is at the "Liberace Garage" located in Las Vegas as well.


title: Duesenberg Model J

text: In 2018 a Duesenberg SSJ that was formerly owned by Gary Cooper was sold at auction for $22 million. This made it the most expensive American car ever sold.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: The Pulitzer Prize for Music is one of seven Pulitzer Prizes awarded annually in Letters, Drama, and Music. It was first given in 1943. Joseph Pulitzer arranged for a music scholarship to be awarded each year, and this was eventually converted into a prize: "For a distinguished musical composition of significant dimension by an American that has had its first performance in the United States during the year."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: Because of the requirement that the composition have its world premiere during the year of its award, the winning work had rarely been recorded and sometimes had received only one performance. In 2004 the terms were modified to read, "For a distinguished musical composition by an American that has had its first performance or recording in the United States during the year."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: In his will, dated April 16, 1904, Joseph Pulitzer established annual prizes for a number of creative accomplishments by living Americans, including prizes for journalism, novels, plays, histories and biographies, but did not establish a prize in music, choosing instead to inaugurate an annual scholarship for "the student of music in America whom the Advisory Board shall deem the most talented and deserving, in order that he may continue his studies with the advantage of European instruction." The Pulitzer Prize for Music was instituted in 1943 to recognize works of "music in its larger forms as composed by an American." The phrase "music in its larger forms" proved difficult to interpret for the advisory board and the prize's juries, resulting in controversies over the years. One critic of the award said, "The Prize Board could hardly have chosen more offensive words to communicate its message."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: In 1965, the jury unanimously decided that no major work was worthy of the Pulitzer Prize. Instead, it recommended a special citation be given to Duke Ellington in recognition of his body of work, but the Pulitzer Board refused and therefore no award was given that year. Ellington responded: "Fate is being kind to me. Fate doesn't want me to be too famous too young." (He was then 67 years old.) Despite this joke, Nat Hentoff reported that when he spoke to Ellington about the subject, he was "angrier than I'd ever seen him before", and Ellington said, "I'm hardly surprised that my kind of music is still without, let us say, official honor at home. Most Americans still take it for granted that European-based music—classical music, if you will—is the only really respectable kind."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: In 1996, after years of internal debate, the Pulitzer Board announced a change in the criteria for the music prize "so as to attract the best of a wider range of American music." The result was that the next year, Wynton Marsalis became the first jazz artist to win the Pulitzer Prize. But his victory was controversial because, according to the Pulitzer guidelines, his winning work, "Blood on the Fields", a three-hour-long oratorio about slavery, should not have been eligible. Winning works are supposed to have had their first performance during the year of the award, but Marsalis's piece premiered on April 1, 1994, and its recording, released on Columbia Records, was dated 1995. Yet the piece won the 1997 prize. Marsalis's management had submitted a "revised version" of "Blood on the Fields" that "premiered" at Yale University after Marsalis made seven small changes. When asked what would make a revised work eligible, the chairman of that year's music jury, Robert Ward, said: "Not a cut here and there...or a slight revision", but rather something that changed "the whole conception of the piece." After being read the list of revisions made to the piece, Ward acknowledged that the minor changes should not have made it eligible, but said, "the list you had here was not available to us, and we did not discuss it."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: Nine women have received the Pulitzer Prize: Ellen Taaffe Zwilich in 1983; Shulamit Ran in 1991; Melinda Wagner in 1999; Jennifer Higdon in 2010; Caroline Shaw in 2013; Julia Wolfe in 2015; Du Yun in 2017; Ellen Reid in 2019; and Tania León in 2021. In addition to being the first woman to receive the award, Zwilich was also the first woman to receive a Doctor of Musical Arts degree in composition at the Juilliard School of Music. Du is the first woman of color to receive the award. George Walker was the first African American composer to win the Prize, for his work "Lilacs" in 1996.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: In 1992 the music jury, which that year consisted of George Perle, Roger Reynolds, and Harvey Sollberger, chose Ralph Shapey's "Concerto Fantastique" for the award. The Pulitzer Board rejected that decision and gave the prize to the jury's second choice, Wayne Peterson's "The Face of the Night, the Heart of the Dark". The jury responded with a public statement that they had not been consulted in that decision and that the Board was not professionally qualified to make such a decision. The Board responded that the "Pulitzers are enhanced by having, in addition to the professional's point of view, the layman's or consumer's point of view" and did not rescind its decision.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: In 2004, responding to criticism, Sig Gissler, the administrator of the Pulitzer Prizes at the Columbia University School of Journalism, announced that the board wanted to "broaden the prize a bit so that we can be more assured that we are getting the full range of the best of America's music". Board member Jay T. Harris said, "The prize should not be reserved essentially for music that comes out of the European classical tradition."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: The announced rule changes included altering the jury pool to include performers and presenters in addition to composers and critics. Entrants are no longer required to submit a score. Recordings are also accepted, although scores are still "strongly urged." Gissler said, "The main thing is we're trying to keep this a serious prize. We're not trying to dumb it down any way shape or form, but we're trying to augment it, improve it...I think the critical term here is 'distinguished American musical compositions.'" Reaction among Pulitzer Prize in Music winners has varied.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: The Pulitzer Prize Advisory Board officially announced: "After more than a year of studying the Prize, now in its 61st year, the Pulitzer Prize Board declares its strong desire to consider and honor the full range of distinguished American musical compositions—from the contemporary classical symphony to jazz, opera, choral, musical theater, movie scores and other forms of musical excellence...Through the years, the Prize has been awarded chiefly to composers of classical music and, quite properly, that has been of large importance to the arts community. However, despite some past efforts to broaden the competition, only once has the Prize gone to a jazz composition, a musical drama or a movie score. In the late 1990s, the Board took tacit note of the criticism leveled at its predecessors for failure to cite two of the country's foremost jazz composers. It bestowed a Special Citation on George Gershwin marking the 1998 centennial celebration of his birth and Duke Ellington on his 1999 centennial year. Earlier, in 1976, a Special Award was made to Scott Joplin in the American Bicentennial year. While Special Awards and Citations continue to be an important option, the Pulitzer Board believes that the Music Prize, in its own annual competition, should encompass the nation's array of distinguished music and hopes that the refinements in the Prize's definition, guidelines and jury membership will serve that end.”


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: In 2006, a posthumous "Special Citation" was given to jazz composer Thelonious Monk, and in 2007 the prize went to Ornette Coleman, a free jazz composer, for his disc "Sound Grammar", a recording of a 2005 concert, the first time a recording won the music Pulitzer, and a first for purely improvised music.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: In 2018, rapper Kendrick Lamar won the award for his 2017 hip hop album "Damn". The recording was the first musical work not in the jazz or classical genre to win the prize.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: In 2004, Donald Martino, the 1974 winner, said, "If you write music long enough, sooner or later, someone is going to take pity on you and give you the damn thing. It is not always the award for the best piece of the year; it has gone to whoever hasn't gotten it before."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: John Corigliano, the 2001 winner, said that although the prize was intended for music that meant something to the world, it had become a very different kind of award, "by composers for composers" and "mired in a pool of rotating jurors."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: Composer and music critic Kyle Gann complained in his essay "The Uptown Prejudice Against Downtown Music" that the judges for the Pulitzer and other top awards for composition often included "the same seven names over and over as judges": Gunther Schuller, Joseph Schwantner, Jacob Druckman, George Perle, John Harbison, Mario Davidovsky, and Bernard Rands. Gann argued that "Downtown" composers like himself did not win awards because the composer-judges were all "white men, all of them coming pretty much from the same narrow Eurocentric aesthetic... These seven men have determined who wins the big prizes in American music for the last two decades. They have made sure that Downtown composers never win."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: After winning the Pulitzer in 2003, John Adams expressed "ambivalence bordering on contempt" because "most of the country's greatest musical minds" have been ignored in favor of academic music.


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: Schuller welcomed the broadening of the eligibility criteria for the prize in 2004: "This is a long overdue sea change in the whole attitude as to what can be considered for the prize. It is an opening up to different styles and not at all to different levels of quality." Composer Olly Wilson agreed that the changes were "a move in the right direction" because they acknowledge "a wider spectrum of music, including music that is not written down." Some other former prize winners disagreed. Harbison called it "a horrible development", adding, "If you were to impose a comparable standard on fiction you would be soliciting entries from the authors of airport novels." According to Martino, the prize had "already begun to go in the direction of permitting less serious stuff" before the 2004 changes. Lewis Spratlan, who won the prize in 2000, also objected, saying "The Pulitzer is one of the very few prizes that award artistic distinction in front-edge, risk-taking music. To dilute this objective by inviting the likes of musicals and movie scores, no matter how excellent, is to undermine the distinctiveness and capability for artistic advancement." In 2018, 1970 winner Charles Wuorinen denounced the jury for awarding the music award to Lamar, telling the "New York Times" the decision constituted "the final disappearance of any societal interest in high culture."


title: Pulitzer Prize for Music

text: In its first 71 years, the Music Pulitzer was awarded 67 times; it was never split, and no prize was given in 1953, 1964, 1965, or 1981.


title: Múte Bourup Egede

text: Múte Inequnaaluk Bourup Egede (; born 11 March 1987) is a Greenlandic politician currently serving as the seventh prime minister of Greenland, a position he has held since April 2021. He has served as a member of the Inatsisartut, the parliament of Greenland, since 2015, and furthermore as chairman of the Inuit Ataqatigiit party since 2018.


title: Múte Bourup Egede

text: Egede was born in Nuuk but grew up in Narsaq in southern Greenland. He attended high school in Qaqortoq before he in 2007 started studying Cultural and Social History at the University of Greenland. Between 2011 and 2012, he was the vice chairman of "KISAQ", the Greenlandic Academic Student Society. He did not finish his studies, as he in 2013 dropped out to take over a family-owned fodder company run by his father.


title: Múte Bourup Egede

text: In 2007, Egede was a member of the Greenlandic youth parliament, the "Inuusuttut Inatsisartui", and from 2013 till 2015 chairman of the "Inuusuttut Ataqatigiit", the youth wing of Inuit Ataqatigiit.


title: Múte Bourup Egede

text: At the 2015 Danish general election, Egede was a candidate for the Folketing for Inuit Ataqatigiit. He received 2,131 votes, not enough for a seat in parliament.


title: Múte Bourup Egede

text: Between 2016 and 2018, Egede served as Minister for Raw Material and the Labour Market, where he simultaneously – for three months in 2017 – was acting Minister of Communes, Hamlets, Outer Districts, Infrastructure and Housing.


title: Múte Bourup Egede

text: On 1 December 2018 he was elected chair of Inuit Ataqatigiit, succeeding Sara Olsvig. He led the party to the 2021 Greenlandic general elections, where it, with 36.6% of the vote, became the largest party in parliament. With 3,380 personal votes, Egede was the candidate with the most personal votes in the elections, receiving upwards of 1,500 more than the sitting Prime Minister, Kim Kielsen of the Siumut party. On 16 April it was announced that IA had formed a coalition with Naleraq with a 10 member Naalakkersuisut; Atassut, which holds two seats, announced that while it would not enter a pro-independence coalition they would provide support to the coalition. Egede is the youngest ever Prime Minister of Greenland. He was confirmed as Prime Minister by the Inatsisartut on 23 April.


title: Múte Bourup Egede

text: Egede is the chairman of Inuit Ataqatigiit, which is a democratic socialist political party in Greenland. Like the party, Egede is an advocate for Greenlandic independence.


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: Joshua Todd Gruber (born April 4, 1970), known professionally as Josh Todd, is an American musician, singer, songwriter and actor, best known as the lead singer of the American rock band Buckcherry.


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: Josh Todd grew up in Anaheim Hills, California, and later moved to Lake Forest, California. He attended high school at Trabuco Hills High School in Orange County, California, and graduated in 1989. Prior to his days in Buckcherry, Todd fronted the Hollywood glam rock band Slamhound. Slamhound was signed to Skydoor Records, an independent record company that was unsuccessful in releasing a Slamhound album even though the band recorded over a dozen songs with Todd as the lead singer. While in Slamhound, Todd honed his musical style, moving away from glam and more towards punk. In 1995, Todd met guitarist Keith Nelson through his tattoo artist. The two agreed to meet because of their shared love of AC/DC. They soon formed the band Sparrow, which later changed its name to Buckcherry. He later married Jasmine Lawson, an American actress and model. He is currently married to actress/model Mitzi Martin. They have two children. Todd became a certified phlebotomist during the COVID pandemic.


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: In 1999, even before the debut Buckcherry album had ever been released, Todd was featured in one of "Rolling Stone"'s last issues of 1999 as "What's Hot in the New Millennium," which included a center-fold photograph of him.


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: In 1999, Buckcherry released their debut self-titled album, featuring the hit "Lit Up". The album had a very commercial sound, far away from the glam punk music of his earlier bands.


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: In 2001, the band released their second album "Time Bomb". Todd and Nelson went on to play a tribute to Ozzy Osbourne/Mötley Crüe drummer, Randy Castillo, alongside former Guns N' Roses members Slash, Duff McKagan, and Matt Sorum. The band, for that show, was named Cherry Roses. The band went on to record about ten songs under the name "The Project" before the others decided to replace Todd and Nelson with Scott Weiland and Dave Kushner, respectively. The band went on to become Velvet Revolver. One song, "Dirty Little Thing", was written during the time with Todd and Nelson and gives the latter co-writing credits.


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: In 2003, Josh Todd released the album "You Made Me" under the band name Josh Todd The band consisted of Josh Todd (Vocals), Jesse Logan (Guitars), Mike Hewitt (Guitars), Mark Lettig (Bass) and Kent Ross (Drums). The bands guitar tech was Stevie D. The album was distributed in the US by DRT Entertainment in the US, and by JVCKenwood Victor Entertainment in Japan. After returning from Japan supporting the "You Made Me" album, which included dates with Aerosmith and the Who, Josh Todd decided to return to the band Buckcherry. The Josh Todd band was disbanded, and TODD Entertainment was dissolved.


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: In 2022, the album was released for the first time worldwide through music streaming services and included the songs "Collide" and "Catastrophe".


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: In 2005, Josh Todd reformed Buckcherry with Keith Nelson and new members Stevie D., Jimmy Ashhurst, and Xavier Muriel.


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: In 2008, Todd was one of the four backing vocalists for the hard rock band Mötley Crüe for the gang vocal version of "Saints of Los Angeles".


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: Todd has released nine albums with Buckcherry and one solo album. He also performed at the Canadian Live8 venue in Barrie, Ontario in 2005. He first joined Darryl McDaniels, Tom Hamilton and Joey Kramer of Aerosmith, and others on stage for a rendition of Aerosmith's "Walk This Way" and then later joined all other performers on stage for a version of Neil Young's "Rockin' in the Free World".


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: He has appeared in several films in both credited and uncredited roles including playing the part of "Rudy" in the 2002 teen comedy "The New Guy" and several small parts in "XXX" and "The Salton Sea". He has also appeared in the 2008 thriller "Eagle Eye".


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: In 2008 Todd appeared on Escape the Fate's album "This War Is Ours" in the songs "10 Miles Wide" and "Harder Than You Know". He was featured in the music video for "10 Miles Wide" in 2009.


title: Josh Todd (musician)

text: Following Keith Nelson's departure from Buckcherry in 2017, Todd is now the only original member in the band.


title: Rough Wooing

text: The Rough Wooing (December 1543 – March 1551), also known as the Eight Years' War, was part of the Anglo-Scottish Wars of the 16th century. Following its break with the Roman Catholic Church, England attacked Scotland, partly to break the Auld Alliance and prevent Scotland being used as a springboard for future invasion by France, partly to weaken Scotland, and partly to force the Scottish Parliament to confirm the existing marriage alliance between Mary, Queen of Scots (born 8 December 1542), and the English heir apparent Edward (born 12 October 1537), son of King Henry VIII, under the terms of the Treaty of Greenwich of July 1543. An invasion of France was also contemplated. Henry declared war in an attempt to force the Scottish Parliament to agree to the planned marriage between Edward, who was six years old at the start of the war, and the infant queen, thereby creating a new alliance between Scotland and England. Upon Edward's accession to the throne in 1547 at the age of nine, the war continued for a time under the direction of the Duke of Somerset, before Somerset's removal from power in 1549 and replacement by the Duke of Northumberland, who wished for a less costly foreign policy than his predecessor. It was the last major conflict between Scotland and England before the Union of the Crowns in 1603.


title: Rough Wooing

text: In Scotland, the war was called the "Eight" or "Nine Years' War". The idea of the war as a "Wooing" was popularised many years later by Sir Walter Scott, in order to hide the extreme nature of the war, and the phrase "Rough Wooing" appeared in several history books from the 1850s onwards.


title: Rough Wooing

text: The phrase appears to derive from a famous remark attributed to George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly by Patrick Abercromby in his edition of Jean de Beaugué's history of the war: "We liked not the manner of the wooing, and we could not stoop to being bullied into love", or as William Patten reported, "I lyke not thys wooyng." The historian William Ferguson contrasted this jocular nickname with the savagery and devastation of the war:


title: Rough Wooing

text: In November 1542, a Scottish army suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Solway Moss and James V died soon after. He was succeeded by his six-day old daughter, Mary, Queen of Scots. A plan for an English marriage for Mary proposed by the Treaty of Greenwich was conditionally accepted by the Scottish government led by Regent Arran. However, Arran was slow to advance the marriage due to strong internal factions favouring an alternative alliance with France and the continuance of the Catholic religion in Scotland. The English diplomat Ralph Sadler reported Adam Otterburn's comment on the Scottish opinion of the marriage:


title: Rough Wooing

text: In Scotland civil war ensued with the Regent opposed by the Douglas faction in the east and Matthew Stewart, 4th Earl of Lennox in the west, with a Battle at Glasgow. The Scots also faced the anger of Henry VIII, after the Parliament of Scotland renounced the Treaty of Greenwich in December 1543. Five days later, on 20 December, war was declared in Edinburgh by the messenger Henry Ray, Berwick Pursuivant. Henry VIII released some Scottish noblemen who had been captured at the Battle of Solway Moss on licence, hoping they would build consensus for the royal marriage. In March 1544, Henry sent Richmond Herald to the Privy Council of Scotland to demand their return.


title: Rough Wooing

text: Major hostilities began with an attack on Edinburgh on 3 May 1544, led by the Earl of Hertford and Viscount Lisle. Hertford had instructions to burn Edinburgh and issue Henry's proclamation of 24 March 1544, which laid the blame on Cardinal Beaton's "sinister enticement" of Regent Arran. Hertford considered establishing an English garrison at Leith but the English Privy Council vetoed this plan. Henry VIII also asked him to destroy St Andrews, but Hertford pointed out the extra distance would be troublesome. After burning St Monans on the north side of the Firth of Forth and taking fishing boats for landing-craft, the English army landed at Granton, then occupied Leith. Hertford parleyed with Adam Otterburn, the Provost of Edinburgh, but he had been instructed not to make terms or accept a surrender. The next day the troops entered Edinburgh's Canongate, and set the city on fire. Edinburgh Castle was defended by cannon fire commanding the Royal Mile. Hertford decided not to lay siege but thoroughly burn the city. According to the English contemporary account, all the houses within the suburbs and city walls were burnt including Holyroodhouse and the Abbey. The English ships at Leith were loaded with looted goods and sailed with the captured "Unicorn" and "Salamander". The army returned to England by land, burning towns and villages along the way.


title: Rough Wooing

text: Soon after the English force had landed, Regent Arran released the Earl of Angus and George Douglas of Pittendreich who had been imprisoned in Blackness Castle. Although they had been supporters of the English marriage, Arran now needed the support of Clan Douglas against an English invasion. Following this attack, Sir William Eure and Ralph Eure made raids across the border from Berwick upon Tweed, burning houses and buying the loyalty of Scots who became "assured men".


title: Rough Wooing

text: Against these English invasions, the Scots won a victory at the Battle of Ancrum Moor in February 1545. Scotland was included in the Treaty of Camp, or Treaty of Ardres, of 6 June 1546, which concluded the Italian War of 1542–1546. This brought 18 months of peace between England and Scotland. In May 1546, Fife lairds had murdered the Francophile Cardinal Beaton at St Andrews Castle. These Protestant lairds became known as the Castilians, and garrisoned the castle against Regent Arran, hoping for English military support.


title: Rough Wooing

text: The English established a fort at Langholm in the Scottish borders. Unable to secure its return by diplomatic leverage, Regent Arran reduced it by force on 17 July 1547 following an unsuccessful attempt in June. At the same time, a French naval force took St Andrews Castle from the Castilians. On 24 July Arran ordered seven signal beacons to be prepared to warn of an expected English invasion by sea. The first was at St Abb's Head, the second at Dowhill near Fast Castle, next on the Doun Law near Spott, North Berwick Law, 'Dounprenderlaw', at Arthur's Seat or Edinburgh Castle, and at 'Binning's Craig' near Linlithgow. The keepers of these 'bailes' were instructed to have horsemen ready to carry news of the invasion to the next beacon if it came in daylight. The towns of Lothian, the borders and Forth valley were ordered to ensure that all men between sixty and sixteen living in sight of the beacons were ready to respond to the signal.


title: Rough Wooing

text: An English invasion in September 1547 won a major encounter at the Battle of Pinkie close to Musselburgh, and put much of southern Scotland under military occupation. Haddington was occupied, along with Broughty Castle near Dundee. Beginning on 5 April 1548, Sir Robert Bowes built a fort at Lauder. Increased French military support for the Scots included the services of military engineers like Migliorino Ubaldini who strengthened Edinburgh Castle and Dunbar. An English commander William Grey, 13th Baron Grey de Wilton burnt Musselburgh on 9 June 1548 and Dunbar on 12 June. On 16 June 10,000 French troops arrived at Leith, and besieged Haddington with artillery.


title: Rough Wooing

text: Mary was taken to safety in France in August 1548 and betrothed to the Dauphin, and Piero Strozzi began to fortify Leith with 300 Scottish workmen. Strozzi had been shot in the leg at Haddington and was carried around the works in a chair by four men. By May 1549, the English army on the frontier included 3,200 soldiers with 1,700 German and 500 Spanish and Italian mercenaries. With more financial and military assistance from France brought by Paul de Thermes, the Scots were able to maintain resistance. André de Montalembert, sieur d'Essé, captured the island of Inchkeith on 19 June 1549.


title: Rough Wooing

text: The English abandoned Haddington on 19 September 1549. Hostilities ended with Scotland comprehended in the of 24 March 1550, which was primarily between France and England. Peace was declared in England on Saturday 29 March 1550; a week earlier the Privy Council had sent secret orders to English commanders telling them not to move cannon that would be abandoned to the Scots. There were conditions to return prisoners and dismantle border fortifications. As part of the treaty six French and English hostages were to be exchanged on 7 April. These were, for France: Mary of Guise's brother, the Marquis de Mayenne; Louis de la Trémoille; Jean de Bourbon, Comte d'Enghien; François de Montmorency; Jean d'Annebaut, son of the Admiral of France; François de Vendôme, Vidame de Chartres, were sent to London. For England: Henry Brandon; Edward Seymour, 1st Earl of Hertford; George Talbot; John Bourchier, 5th Baron FitzWarren; Henry Fitzalan; Henry Stanley.


title: Rough Wooing

text: Francois de Seguenville-Fumel, sieur de Thors, brought the peace treaty and ratifications to Scotland in April 1550. Mary of Guise and Regent Arran gave De Thors a gold chain, made by the Edinburgh goldsmith John Mosman.


title: Rough Wooing

text: The hostages at both courts were well entertained and most had returned home by August 1550. In France, Henry II organised a triumphal entry to Rouen on 1 October 1550. Mary of Guise and Mary, Queen of Scots took part. There were banners depicting the French victories in Scotland; and a herald recited:


title: Rough Wooing

text: A separate peace negotiation between Scotland and the Holy Roman Empire was required, chiefly so that trade and piracy disputes could be resolved. In August 1550, Regent Arran taxed forty of the chief trading burghs of Scotland to fund an embassy to Charles V. This treaty was concluded in Antwerp by Thomas, Master of Erskine on 1 May 1551. The Treaty of Norham in 1551 formally ended the war and the English military presence withdrew from Scotland. By October 1551, Mary of Guise herself was welcomed in England and she travelled from Portsmouth to meet Edward VI in London.


title: Rough Wooing

text: The peace concluded at Norham Castle and church on 10 June 1551 was negotiated by Thomas Erskine, Master of Erskine, Lord Maxwell, Sir Robert Carnegie of Kinnaird, and Robert Reid, Bishop of Orkney with Louis St Gelais, Seigneur de Lansac, representing Henry II of France. The English delegation included Sir Robert Bowes, Sir Leonard Beckwith, Sir Thomas Challoner and Richard Sampson, Bishop of Lichfield and Coventry. The terms included: the English abandoning their holdings in Scotland; the border and Debatable Lands to revert to original lines and usage; Edrington and fishing rights on the Tweed returned to Scotland; all captives, pledges, and hostages to be returned. Edward VI ratified the treaty on 30 June and Mary on 14 August 1551.


title: Rough Wooing

text: The English objective to forward a union between Scotland and England had wavering support among some sectors of the Scots population. These Scots may not have relished French domination of Scottish affairs or may have seen the alliance with England as furthering the Protestant cause. A number of books and pamphlets were published in England as propaganda to encourage such feelings. They focused on three aspects of the conflict: long-standing debates about the rights of the English crown in Scotland, the perceived injustice of the Scottish rejection of the Treaty of Greenwich and the merit of the Protestant religion. The English commander at Broughty, Andrew Dudley, hoped to distribute Bibles printed in English, which were not freely available in Scotland. Scotland countered the English propaganda with the "Complaynt of Scotland", probably printed in France in 1549. Another work, "Ane Resonyng" by William Lamb, did not make it to the press.


title: Rough Wooing

text: The first English work was written before the Battle of Solway Moss: "A Declaration, conteyning the iust causes and consyderations, of this present warre with the Scottis, wherein alsoo appereth the trewe & right title, that the kings most royall maiesty hath to the soveraynitie of Scotlande". A journal of Hertford's raid on Edinburgh of 1544 was printed as "The Late expedicion of the Earl of Hertford into Scotland". A contribution by a Scot in England, John Elder, remained unpublished. It was intended to preface a detailed description and map of Scotland. Elder claimed that the northern lords of Scotland, who were 'red-shanks' of Irish descent would be loyal to Henry VIII, and reject the French culture imposed by Cardinal Beaton and the Scottish court. (Elder later became the tutor of Lord Darnley.)


title: Rough Wooing

text: Somerset began a new round in 1547 shortly before the Battle of Pinkie by publishing the Scot James Henrisoun's "An Exhortacion to the Scottes to conforme themselfes to the honourable, Expedient & godly Union betweene the two realmes of Englande & Scotland". It was followed by Somerset's printed "Proclamation" of 4 September 1547, and the "Epistle or Exhortation" of February 1548. The Pinkie campaign was described by William Patten in "The Expedition into Scotland of the most worthy Prince, Edward Duke of Somerset". A Welshman, Nicholas Bodrugan, added his "Epitome of the title of the kynges majestie of Englande", which looks back to Geoffrey of Monmouth to justify English claims and seeks to reassure Scottish fears that the civil law of England was harsher than Scots law. David Lindsay's poem "The Tragedy of the Cardinal" was published in London with an account of the death of George Wishart, with a preface encouraging religious reform by Robert Burrant. In October 1548, Sir John Mason and other clerks were rewarded £20 for their archival researches into "records of matters of Scotland" for these tracts.


title: Rough Wooing

text: Lord Methven understood the effect of the English propaganda and raised his concern with Mary of Guise in June 1548. The Protestant Fife lairds who had killed David Beaton and held the Regent's son, James Hamilton hostage at St Andrews Castle gambled on English assistance. In East Lothian, three friends of the Protestant preacher George Wishart, John Cockburn of Ormiston, Ninian Cockburn, and Alexander Crichton of Brunstane lent their support to England. Lord Gray and the Master of Ruthven were also happy to deal with the English.


title: Rough Wooing

text: Other Scots were induced to sign bonds and take payments from the English and became "assured men". A sample bond for assurance was drafted by a Scot, Henry Balnaves, at St Andrews Castle in December 1546. That mostly happened in the war zones of the border and around English garrisons. After the war ended, many Scots were accused of assurance or collaboration as a crime; 192 citizens of Dundee were acquitted in 1553, and the whole town of Dumfries received a pardon. In July 1549 with English losses in France the assurance system ceased. Henrisoun, observing recent developments, questioned "Whether it were better to conquer hearts without charges, or burn, and build forts at great charges, which will never conquer Scotland?"


title: Rough Wooing

text: At the end of the war, the French celebrated their successful intervention at fêtes like the entry to Rouen. The details of these events were published in illustrated festival books. In England a number of the English commanders had their portraits painted celebrating their martial prowess, including John Luttrell, James Wilford, Thomas Wyndham, and a picture (now lost) was made to commemorate Edward Shelley who was killed in action at Pinkie. Exploits during the siege of Haddington were later celebrated by the Elizabethan author Ulpian Fulwell in 1575.


title: Savoie

text: Savoie (; Arpitan: "Savouè" or "Savouè-d'Avâl"; English: "Savoy" ) is a department in the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region, Southeastern France. Located in the French Alps, its prefecture is Chambéry. In 2019, Savoie had a population of 436,434.


title: Savoie

text: Together with Haute-Savoie, it is one of the two departments of the historical region of Savoy; the Duchy of Savoy was annexed by France in 1860, following the signature of the Treaty of Turin. The area is known for its numerous ski resorts and contribution to French cuisine, with culinary specialities such as fondue savoyarde, tartiflette, génépi, as well as various sorts of saucisson.