title: Possessive

text: The concepts of possessive forms and genitive forms are sometimes conflated, although they are not exactly the same. The genitive form, which does not exist in modern English as a productive inflection outside of pronouns (see below), represents an "of" relationship, which may or may not be possessive; in other words, the possessive is a subset of genitive. For example, the genitive form "speed of the car" is equivalent to the possessive form "the car's speed". However, the genitive form "pack of dogs" is not the same as the possessive form "dogs' pack" (though it is the same as "dog pack", which is not possessive).


title: Possessive

text: It is common for languages to have independent possessive determiners and possessive pronouns corresponding to the personal pronouns of the language. For example, to the English personal pronouns "I", "you", "he", "she", "it", "we", "they", there correspond the respective possessive determiners "my", "your", "his", "her", "its", "our" and "their", and the (substantival) possessive pronouns "mine", "yours", "his", "hers", "its" (rare), "ours" and "theirs". In some instances there is no difference in form between the determiner and the pronoun; examples include the English "his" (and "its"), and informal Finnish "meidän" (meaning either "our" or "ours").


title: Possessive

text: In some languages, possessive determiners are subject to agreement with the noun they modify, and possessive pronouns may be subject to agreement with their antecedent, in terms of relevant categories of gender, number and case. For example, French has "mon", "ma", "mes", respectively the masculine singular, feminine singular and plural forms corresponding to the English "my", as well as the various possessive pronoun forms "le mien", "la mienne", "les mien(ne)s" corresponding to English "mine".


title: Possessive

text: Since personal pronouns may also agree in number and gender with their own antecedent or referent, the possessive forms may consequently show agreement with either the "possessor" or the "possessed", or both. In French (and most other Romance languages) the third-person singular possessives do not indicate the gender of the possessor, instead they agree with the possessed ("son", "sa" and "ses" can all mean either "his", "her" or "its"). In Spanish the number is always indicated but the gender is only indicated for possessive pronouns, not possessive determiners; "mi padre, mi madre, mis hermanos, mis hermanas" (my father, my mother, my brothers, my sisters), but "mío, mía, míos, mías" when used as "mine" to refer to the previous. This contrasts with English and standard Dutch, where the form of the possessives ("his", "her", "its"; "zijn", "haar") indicates the grammatical or natural gender of the possessor, but does not depend on properties of the possessed. Additionally, German and several Dutch dialects additionally inflect their possessives, thus giving agreement with both possessor and possessed; German has "sein" and "ihr" meaning "his" and "her" respectively, but these inflect to give (for example) feminine forms like "seine" and "ihre", depending on the gender (and number and case) of the thing possessed.


title: Possessive

text: In languages that have a genitive case, the possessive forms corresponding to pronouns may or may not resemble the genitive of those pronouns. For example, in Russian, the genitive of я "ja" "I" is меня "menya" ("of me"), whereas the corresponding possessive is мой "moy" ("my, mine", in masculine singular nominative form). In German the two sets of forms are quite similar (for example, the genitive of "ich" "I" is "meiner", the corresponding possessive pronoun is also "meiner" in the masculine singular nominative, and the possessive determiner is "mein" with various endings).


title: Possessive

text: Some languages have no distinct possessive determiners as such, instead using a pronoun together with a "possessive particle" – a grammatical particle used to indicate possession. For example, in Japanese, "my" or "mine" can be expressed as "watashi no", where "watashi" means "I" and "no" is the possessive particle. Similarly in Mandarin Chinese, "my" or "mine" is "wǒ de", where "wǒ" means "I" and "de" is the possessive particle.


title: Possessive

text: An alternative to the pronominal possessive determiner, found in some languages, including Finnish and Hungarian, is the possessive affix, usually a suffix, attached to the noun denoting the thing possessed. For example, in Finnish the suffix "-ni" means "my", producing forms such as "taloni" ("my house"), from "talo" ("house"). Hungarian possessive suffixes are used in a similar way, as in "háza" ("his/her house"), formed from "ház" ("house"). In Hungarian this affix can also be used when the possessor is represented by a full noun, as described in the next section.


title: Possessive

text: Pronouns other than personal pronouns, if they have possessive forms, are likely to form them in a similar way to nouns (see below). In English, for example, possessive forms derived from other pronouns include "one's", "somebody's" and "nobody's". There is however a distinct form "whose" for the possessive of the interrogative and relative pronoun "who"; other languages may have similarly functioning words, such as the Russian чей "chey" ("whose?"). Another possessive found in Russian and other Slavic languages is the reflexive possessive, corresponding to the general reflexive pronoun; the Russian form is свой "svoj" (meaning "one's (own)", "my (own)", etc.).


title: Possessive

text: In some languages, possessives are formed from nouns or noun phrases. In English, this is done using the ending "-'s", as in "Jane's", "heaven's", "the boy's", "those men's", or sometimes just an apostrophe, as in "workers'," "Jesus'," "the soldiers'." Note that the ending can be added at the end of a noun phrase even when the phrase does not end with its head noun, as in "the king of England's"; this property inclines many linguists towards the view that the ending is a clitic rather than a case ending (see below, and further at English possessive).


title: Possessive

text: In languages that have a genitive case, the genitive form of a noun may sometimes be used as a possessive (as in German "Karls Haus" "Karl's house"). Languages such as Japanese and Chinese form possessive constructions with nouns using possessive particles, in the same way as described for pronouns above. An example from Japanese is "neko no iro" ("the cat's color"), where "neko" means "cat", "no" is the particle, and "iro" means "color".


title: Possessive

text: In other languages, noun possessives must be formed periphrastically, as in French "la plume de ma tante" ("my aunt's pen", literally "the pen of my aunt"). In Hungarian, the construction "Mária háza" is used ("Maria's house", literally "Maria her house", where the final "-a" in "háza" is the possessive suffix meaning "her"). The possessor noun can carry an additional dative marker, in which case an article appears before the noun. For example, "Peter's house" may be translated either as "Péter háza" (literally "Peter his-house"), or "Péternek a háza" ("of-Peter the his-house").


title: Possessive

text: Possessive determiners are used in combination with a noun, playing the role of a determiner or attributive adjective. In English and some other languages, the use of such a word implies the definite article. For example, "my car" implies "the car that belongs to me" or "is used by me"; it is not correct to precede possessives with an article (*"the my car") or other definite determiner such as a demonstrative (*"this my car"), although they can combine with quantifiers in the same ways that "the" can ("all my cars", "my three cars", etc.; see English determiners). This is not the case in all languages; for example in Italian the possessive is usually preceded by another determiner such as an article, as in "la mia macchina" ("my car", literally "the my car") or "quel tuo libro" ("that book of yours", literally "that your book").


title: Possessive

text: Some languages place the possessive after the noun, as in Norwegian "boka mi" ("my book"). Here again the equivalent of the definite article – in this case the definite ending "-a" on the noun "bok" – is used in addition to the possessive. However, the forms "min bok" or "mi bok", where the noun "bok" is in the indefinite form, are equally correct.


title: Possessive

text: Possessive determiners may be modified with an adverb, as adjectives are, although not as freely or as commonly as is the case with adjectives. Such modification is generally limited to such adverbs as "more", "less", or "as much ... as" (comparative) or "mostly" (superlative), for example in "This is more my team than your team" and "This is mostly my team".


title: Possessive

text: Substantival possessive pronouns are used on their own and cannot be used to describe a noun, playing the role of noun phrases, so "mine" may stand for "my cat", "my sister", "my things", etc. In some languages these may require articles or other determiners, as the French "le mien" etc. In English, the "-'s" possessives formed from nouns or noun phrases can be used in the same way; "the president's" may stand for "the president's office", "the president's policies", etc., as determined by the context.


title: Possessive

text: A related use is that of the predicative expression, as in sentences like "the book is mine". Here "mine" may be considered to be a predicate adjective (like "red" in "the book is red") rather than a pronoun; in English, however, the same possessive form is used anyway. Other languages may use differing forms; for example French may use "...est à moi" for "...is mine".


title: Possessive

text: A particular use of possessive pronouns (and equivalent noun forms) in English is that illustrated in phrases like "a friend of mine" and "that coat of Fred's", used to form possessive expressions when the desired determiner is something other than the default "the" implied in the usual possessive determiner.


title: Possessive

text: The terminology used for possessive words and phrases is not consistent among all grammarians and linguists.


title: Possessive

text: What some authors refer to as "possessives", others may call "genitives", and vice versa. Nowadays, however, the term "genitive" is most commonly used in relation to languages with a developed case system (in which the "genitive case" often has a wider range of functions than merely forming possessives), while in languages like English, where their status as a grammatical case is doubtful, such words are usually called possessives rather than genitives. A given language may have distinct genitive and possessive forms, as in the example of Russian given above. (The English possessive in "-'s" is sometimes called the "Saxon genitive"; this alludes to its derivation from the genitive case that existed in Old English. It may also be called the "prenominal genitive"; this also applies to analogous forms in languages such as German.)


title: Possessive

text: Words like the English "my" and "your" have traditionally been called "possessive adjectives". However, modern linguists note that in a language such as English they behave like determiners rather than true adjectives (see examples in the section above), and thus prefer the term "possessive determiner". In some other languages, however, the equivalent words behave more like true adjectives (compare the Italian example above, for instance).


title: Possessive

text: While for most authors the term "possessive pronoun" is reserved (as in this article) for possessives like "mine" and "yours" which do not qualify an explicit noun, the term is sometimes taken also to include other possessive forms that correspond to pronouns, even though they behave as determiners, qualifying a noun, such as "my" and "your".


title: Possessive

text: Some authors who classify both sets of words as "possessive pronouns" or "genitive pronouns" apply the terms "dependent/independent" or "weak/strong" to refer, respectively, to "my", "your", etc. and "mine", "yours", etc. Thus "my" is termed a "dependent" (or "weak") "possessive pronoun", while "mine" is an "independent" (or "strong") "possessive pronoun". Also, the first set may be called "adjectival" and the second set "substantival" possessive pronouns.


title: Possessive

text: According to the "OED", the first reference to possessive pronouns is found in 1530; the first use of "possessive" as a noun occurs in 1591, the first use of "possessive case" (which notes that it is like the Latin genitive, and may be called the genitive case in reference to English also) occurs in 1763, and the first use of "possessive adjective" dates from 1870.


title: Possessive

text: Since has its equivalent in (ktētikós), in linguistic terminology possessives are also referred to as ktetics, particularly in reference to ktetic (possessive) adjectives, and other ktetic (possessive) forms, including names derived from ktetics (ktetic personal names).


title: Possessive

text: Nouns or pronouns taking the form of a possessive are sometimes described as being in the "possessive case". A more commonly used term in describing the grammar of various languages is "genitive case", but that usually denotes a case with a broader range of functions than just producing possessive forms. (Some languages occasionally use the dative case to denote the possessor, as in the Serbo-Croatian "kosa mu je gusta" "his hair is thick" (literally "the hair to him is thick" in which "to him" is the dative pronoun "mu").)


title: Possessive

text: Other theorists reject the idea that the possessive in languages like English as represents a grammatical case since possessive forms do not generally behave in a parallel fashion to what are normally identified as cases. In particular, in English, as noted above, the "-'s" can attach to noun phrases even when they do not end with their head noun, as in "the king of Spain's", which is not typical behavior for a case ending. For further discussion of the issue, see .


title: Possessive

text: Some languages, such as the Cariban languages can be said to have a "possessed case" to indicate the other party (the thing possessed) in a possession relationship. In many Afro-Asiatic languages, such as Arabic, nouns take a form with similar significance called the construct state, sometimes even if the possessor is marked in the genitive case. Classical Nahuatl similarly presents an inflected possessed form (or case) in nouns, which contrasts with a non-possessed form (the absolutive).


title: Possessive

text: The relationship expressed by possessive determiners and similar forms is not necessarily one of possession in the strict sense of ownership. In English, strict possession has been found to be expressed in only about 40% of the situations labeled as "possessive" by linguists, a fact which may incline some to prefer the more traditional term "genitive". The "possessor" may be, for example:


title: They All Laughed

text: They All Laughed is a 1981 American romantic comedy film directed by Peter Bogdanovich and starring Audrey Hepburn, Ben Gazzara, John Ritter, Colleen Camp, Patti Hansen, and Dorothy Stratten. The film was based on a screenplay by Bogdanovich and Blaine Novak. It takes its name from the George and Ira Gershwin song of the same name.


title: They All Laughed

text: The film is set in New York City, largely filmed outdoors on the streets, and tells the story of three private detectives investigating two beautiful women for infidelity. The detectives eventually wind up romantically pursuing the women, who turn the tables on them. The film is also a candid look at love and sex in New York City in the early 1980s.


title: They All Laughed

text: The New York-based private investigation firm Odyssey Detective Agency employs three agents: the middle-aged, womanizing John Russo, the younger, hippie-ish Arthur Brodsky, and the nervy and anxious Charles Rutledge. Their cantankerous boss, Leon Leondopolous, tries to keep his bumbling agents in line while carrying on a poorly-disguised affair with his secretary Amy. Odyssey is investigating two separate married women: Angela Niotes, the aged but glamorous wife of a British tycoon, and Dolores Martin, a beautiful blonde. While attempting to follow Angela from the Manhattan heliport, John meets a taxi driver named Deborah Wilson. The two are instantly infatuated, and John makes plans to see Deborah (whom he calls "Sam") later that night. At the same time, Charles falls for Dolores as he spies on her in the lobby of a hotel. Arthur (who juggles a series of passionate romances throughout the film) is worried for each of his co-workers, but assists each of them in growing closer to their objects of affection: he helps John get away from his on-again off-again partner, country singer Christy Miller, and devises a plan for Charles to have a conversation with Dolores at a roller rink. He learns that Dolores is indeed cheating on her husband with Jose, a playboy with whom she plans to elope.


title: They All Laughed

text: The next morning, John recounts his tryst with Deborah to Leon; he worries that he has become too old for younger women. Meanwhile, Christy, who has figured out what John has done, decides to get back at him by starting a relationship with Charles. The two head to Midtown, where they run into Dolores at an upscale clothing store. Christy later tries to initiate a sexual encounter with Charles, but he is already too infatuated with Dolores to reciprocate. Meanwhile, John and Arthur track Angela and her young son to a toy store. John confesses who he is, but Angela is not surprised, as she knows that her husband is himself cheating on her. An attraction grows between John and Angela; once again Arthur helps his friend by pretending to be John's son. Deborah runs into Angela and John at the latter's apartment; she does not appear to be bothered by John's simultaneous desire for the two women. Meanwhile, Dolores almost kisses Charles at one of Christy's concerts, while Christy herself confesses her attraction to Jose. When Charles follows Dolores back home, she eventually leaves her apartment and kisses him before running away.


title: They All Laughed

text: Charles spends the night on a bench outside of Dolores' apartment, following her to a courthouse where Christy observes her and Jose enter a judge's chambers. Christy invites most of the other characters to another concert as Deborah and Angela have a secretive conversation. Later, Angela tells John that she is returning to Europe with her husband and son; she has arranged Deborah to take her place and nurse his broken heart. At the concert, Charles is reunited with Dolores, who reveals that she went to the courthouse to obtain a divorce. He proposes marriage to her (which she accepts). Christy introduces Jose, her fiancé, to the concert's audience. The following day, Charles and Dolores as well as Christy and Jose are married in a double wedding. John tearfully sees Angela off, then returns to his cab, where Deborah is waiting.


title: They All Laughed

text: "The genesis of "They All Laughed" was that Benny [Gazzara] and I talked a lot about romances and affairs and the battle of the sexes", said Bogdanovich later. "[I wanted] to try to make a personal picture, but not a personal picture like an indie prod. I wanted to hide it, like the old filmmakers in the studio system did. Hide it behind a genre. The genre was private detectives".


title: They All Laughed

text: "I didn't do any research about detectives", said Bogdanovich. "I never even went into a detective's office, but that didn't matter to me. That's not what it was about, that was just the disguise I hung my hat on."


title: They All Laughed

text: "Audrey Hepburn's story in the movie is Audrey Hepburn's story in life", said the director. "She was living with a man, her second husband, he was cheating on her, and she basically stayed with him because of the child."


title: They All Laughed

text: The film was shot on location in New York City during the spring and summer of 1980. Bogdanovich would often write scenes and give them to the actors just before they were shot, to give the film a feeling of freshness.


title: They All Laughed

text: Country music is prominently featured. According to Bogdanovich, in the first version of the script, the character of Christy was going to be a jazz singer, singing jazz standards, but then:


title: They All Laughed

text: There was a short, very short, very brief, vogue of country music in New York. About 30 seconds. And so I changed it. I like country music. I fell in love with it on "Last Picture Show". In fact, I wrote a couple of country songs. The phrase "One Day Since Yesterday" was something Dorothy said to me in a card. I liked the phrase.


title: They All Laughed

text: Many hints are given at a relationship between the plot and real life in this picture, which has caused some commentors to question the discipline of the filmmakers, but may, in time, actually contribute to the film's interest. Hepburn's son plays the part of Jose, though the part of her son in the film is played by Glenn Scarpelli. According to Bogdanovich, Hepburn and Gazzara had had an affair prior to the filming, though evidently this had fizzled by the time filming began, and Gazzara's ongoing divorce made further contact inadvisable. (Commentors have not agreed as to whether Gazzara and Hepburn have good onscreen chemistry in "They All Laughed"). Bogdanovich's real-life daughters portray John Russo's daughters, who along with Arthur (pretending to be Russo's son in a crucial scene), are enlisted to win Angela Niotes's trust. More implicitly, Arthur, who acts primarily as a facilitator to the others' romances, is portrayed by one of the film's screenwriters, Blaine Novak. Charles, who pursues Dorothy Stratten's character, wears director Peter Bogdanovich's trademark oversized plastic-framed eyeglasses, perhaps a reference to Bogdanovich's initial guilt and subsequent acceptance of his love for Stratten.


title: They All Laughed

text: Indeed, the theme of secret love surfacing is pervasive throughout. Even Russo's relationship with the taxi driver—possibly the least secretive and most above-board of all the couplings, so much so that Russo is brought to confess that he is aging and his sexual prowess is failing—takes place under a pseudonym (Russo calls Deborah "Sam" for obscure reasons). The theme of hidden desires is echoed in the soundtrack, which juxtaposes country music by Roy Acuff, Johnny Cash, Waylon Jennings, and Rodney Crowell—as well as by Camp—with visuals of the Manhattan skyline (the credits sequence follows a trek into Manhattan, notably focusing on the twin towers of the World Trade Center as Dorothy Stratten's credit appears) and songs recorded by Frank Sinatra, including the eponymous George and Ira Gerswhin song "They All Laughed".


title: They All Laughed

text: No traditional villains are seen in the film, with the only unpleasant character momentarily depicted in extremely brief appearances as an understandably frustrated husband whose wife (Stratten) cuckolds him with their next door neighbor.


title: They All Laughed

text: Bogdanovich says Frank Sinatra let him have the rights to several of his songs for a cheap price because Sinatra felt sorry for Bogdanovich after Stratten's murder.


title: They All Laughed

text: Before the film was released, Time shut down its filmmaking division. 20th Century Fox, which retained North American distribution rights, test-marketed the film in Providence, Rhode Island and Minneapolis, but was disappointed with the results and pulled the film's release. Bogdanovich decided to distribute the film himself. His manager later claimed the director spent $5 million, but it made less than $1 million in ticket sales. This contributed to the director declaring bankruptcy in 1985. Bogdanovich:


title: They All Laughed

text: It was a nightmare. Dorothy was murdered and I went crazy. I decided I would buy the film back from Fox and I lost my shirt distributing it myself which was insanity. Unfortunately, nobody stopped me. So it didn’t get great distribution because you can’t self-distribute. It's impossible. For example, we played 15 weeks at the Music Hall in Beverly Hills. It was a huge success. We got a great theatre in Westwood and it broke all the records, and they pulled it right out because Paramount wanted the theatre for "Reds".


title: They All Laughed

text: "They All Laughed" was the last theatrical film in which Hepburn played a lead role (she later starred in the television film "Love Among Thieves" and had a cameo role in Steven Spielberg's "Always"). According to an interview conducted by Wes Anderson in the DVD features for the film, director Bogdanovich claims Hepburn and Gazzara fell in love and had an affair while shooting "Bloodline" (1979). Though the affair was short-lived, it inspired the characters they each played in "They All Laughed".


title: They All Laughed

text: Dorothy Stratten was murdered by her estranged husband and manager Paul Snider before the film's release. Stratten had begun an affair with Peter Bogdanovich during filming, and Snider hired a private detective to follow her. They separated and Stratten moved in with Bogdanovich, planning to file for divorce. When Snider was certain he had lost his wife and protégé, he murdered her and killed himself. These events were depicted in Bob Fosse's 1983 film "Star 80" (where Bogdanovich's counterpart was named Aram Nicholas, played by Roger Rees) and the television film "" (1981).


title: They All Laughed

text: Along with "Heaven's Gate", "Cruising", and "One from the Heart", "They All Laughed" generally is regarded as the end of the New Hollywood period, and the director-driven studio films of the 1970s. Since the very public failures of these four films, Hollywood studios rarely allow directors to control the films they finance.


title: They All Laughed

text: In 2002 the likes of Quentin Tarantino and Wes Anderson praised the film. The film was released to VHS on January 31, 1995; HBO Home Video released the film to DVD (as a 25th Anniversary Edition) on October 17, 2006.


title: They All Laughed

text: "It was a very loving picture", said Bogdanovich in 2011. "It was the happiest time of my life. I look back on it now and it's been like thirty years or so – it was definitely the high point in my life."


title: Ken Takakura

text: , born , was a Japanese actor and singer who appeared in over 200 films. Affectionately referred to as "Ken-san" by audiences, he was best known for his brooding style and the stoic presence he brought to his roles. He won the Japan Academy Prize for Outstanding Performance by an Actor in a Leading Role four times, more than any other actor. Takakura additionally received the Japanese Medal of Honor with purple ribbon in 1998, the Person of Cultural Merit award in 2006, and the Order of Culture in 2013.


title: Ken Takakura

text: Takakura was born in Nakama, Fukuoka in 1931. He attended Tochiku High School in nearby Yahata City, where he was a member of the boxing team and English society. It was around this time that he gained his streetwise swagger and tough-guy persona watching "yakuza" movies. This subject was covered in one of his most famous movies, "Showa Zankyo-den" ("Remnants of Chivalry in the Showa Era"), in which he played an honorable old-school yakuza among the violent post-war gangs. After graduating from Meiji University in Tokyo, Takakura attended an audition on impulse in 1955 at the Toei Film Company while applying for a managerial position.


title: Ken Takakura

text: Toei found a natural in Takakura as he debuted with "Denko Karate Uchi" ("Lightning Karate Blow") in 1956. In 1959 he married singer Chiemi Eri, but divorced in 1971. His breakout role would be in the 1965 film "Abashiri Prison", and its sequel "Abashiri Bangaichi: Bokyohen" ("Abashiri Prison: Longing for Home", also 1965), in which he played an ex-con antihero. By the time Takakura left Toei in 1976, he had appeared in over 180 films.


title: Ken Takakura

text: He gained international recognition after starring in the 1970 war film "Too Late the Hero" as the cunning Imperial Japanese Major Yamaguchi, the 1974 Sydney Pollack sleeper hit "The Yakuza" with Robert Mitchum, and is probably best known in the West for his role in Ridley Scott's "Black Rain" (1989), in which he surprises American cops played by Michael Douglas and Andy García with the line, "I do speak fucking English". He again appeared to Western audiences with the 1992 Fred Schepisi comedy "Mr. Baseball" starring Tom Selleck.


title: Ken Takakura

text: Takakura was one of the few Japanese actors who experienced popularity in China, due to his appearance in Junya Satō's 1976 crime drama "Kimi yo Fundo no Kawa o Watare" (known in some territories as "Manhunt"), the first foreign film shown after the Cultural Revolution. He also starred the titular assassin in Junya Satō's "Golgo 13" (1973), a Japanese–Iranian production and the first live-action adaptation of the Japanese manga series "Golgo 13".


title: Ken Takakura

text: He appeared in three films since 2000: in May 2001, "Riding Alone for Thousands of Miles", by Chinese director Zhang Yimou, in late December 2005, and Yasuo Furuhata's "Anata e" ("Dearest") in late August 2012, after a six-year hiatus. He died of lymphoma on November 10, 2014. Shintaro Ishihara described him as "the last big star (in Japan)." A huge number of Chinese internet users expressed their sympathies and condolences, including many celebrities in the Chinese movie industry. The spokesman of China's Ministry of Foreign Affairs Hong Lei said that Takakura made significant contributions to the cultural exchange between China and Japan.


title: Ken Takakura

text: A documentary based on Takakura's life entitled "Ken San" premiered at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival and was released in Japanese theaters on August 20, 2016. It was directed by photographer Yuichi Hibi and features interviews with filmmakers and actors such as Martin Scorsese, Paul Schrader, Michael Douglas, John Woo, and Yoji Yamada.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Social class in the United States refers to the idea of grouping Americans by some measure of social status, typically economic. However, it could also refer to social status or location. The idea that American society can be divided into social classes is disputed, and there are many competing class systems.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Many Americans believe in a social class system that has three different groups or classes: the American rich, the American middle class, and the American poor. More complex models propose as many as a dozen class levels, including levels such as high upper class, upper class, upper middle class, middle class, lower middle class, lower class and lower lower middle class. while others disagree with the American construct of social class completely. Most definitions of a class structure group its members according to wealth, income, education, type of occupation, and membership within a hierarchy, specific subculture, or social network. Most concepts of American social class do not focus on race or ethnicity as a characteristic within the stratification system, although these factors are closely related.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Sociologists Dennis Gilbert, William Thompson, Joseph Hickey, and James Henslin have proposed class systems with six distinct social classes. These class models feature an upper or capitalist class consisting of the rich and powerful, an upper middle class consisting of highly educated and affluent professionals, a middle class consisting of college-educated individuals employed in white-collar industries, a lower middle class composed of semi-professionals with typically some college education, a working class constituted by clerical and blue collar workers whose work is highly routinized, and a lower class divided between the working poor and the unemployed underclass.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Some definitions of class look only at numerical measures such as wealth or income. Others take into account qualitative factors, such as education, culture, and social status. There is no consensus on which of these variables is essential and which are merely common correlates. It is also disputed whether sharp lines can be drawn; one point of view in the debate:


title: Social class in the United States

text: Social class is sometimes presented as a description of how members of the society have sorted themselves along a continuum of positions varying in importance, influence, prestige, and compensation. In these models, certain occupations are considered to be desirable and influential, while others are considered to be menial, repetitive, and unpleasant. (In some cases, non-occupational roles such as a parent or volunteer mentor, are also considered.) Generally, the higher the ranking on such a scale, the higher the skill and education levels required to perform it.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Some sociologists consider the higher income and prestige of higher ranked jobs to simply be incentives to encourage members of society to obtain the skills necessary to perform important work. This is an important mechanism in the economic theory of capitalism, and is compatible with the notion that class is mutable and determined by a combination of choices and opportunities.


title: Social class in the United States

text: In other cases, class or status is inherited. For example, being the son or daughter of a wealthy individual, may carry a higher status and different cultural connotations than being a member of nouveau riche ("new money") or have a planned path of positive freedom. Those taking the functionalist approach to sociology and economics view social classes as components essential for the survival of complex societies such as American society.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Income in the United States is most commonly measured by United States Census Bureau in terms of either household or individual and remains one of the most prominent indicators of class status. As 82% of all households, 16% of those in the top quintiles, had two income earners the discrepancy between household and personal income is quite considerable. In 2005 the top 95% of income earners made $12,500 or more, while 18% of households had incomes over $100,000. Personal income is largely the result of scarcity. As individuals who hold higher status positions tend to possess rare skills or assume positions society deems very essential, have higher incomes. Overall the median household income was $46,326 in 2005 while the median personal income (including only those above the age of 25) was $32,140.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Per capita household income, the income a household is able to allocate to each member of the household is also an important variable in determining a given household's standard of living. A high household income may be offset by a large household size; thus, resulting in a low per capita household income. In 2005, the median household income per capita was $24,672.


title: Social class in the United States

text: In the passage above, Davis and Moore argue that income is one of the most prominent features of social class; it is not one of its causes. In other words, income does not determine the status of an individual or household but rather reflects on that status. Some say that income and prestige are the incentives provided by society in order to fill needed positions with the most qualified and motivated personnel possible.


title: Social class in the United States

text: "The New York Times" has used income quintiles to define class. It has assigned the quintiles from lowest to highest as lower class, lower middle class, middle class, upper middle class, and upper class. These definitions equate class with income, permitting people to move from class to class as their income changes.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Income is one of the most commonly used attributes of a household to determine its class status. The relationship between income, which mostly arises from the scarcity of a certain skill, may however, prove to be more complex than initially perceived. While the idea is that income reflects status, household income may just be the product of two or more incomes.


title: Social class in the United States

text: In 2005, 42% of American households had two or more income earners. The vast majority (77%) of households in the top quintile had two or more income earners. This means that the majority of household income in the top quintile are the result of two income earners pooling their resources, establishing a close link between perceived affluence and the number of income earners in a given household. This raises the question of whether or not the combination of incomes results in higher social status. Of course, there is no definite answer as class is a vague sociological concept.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Sociologist Dennis Gilbert states that it is possible for households to out-earn other households over higher class standing through increasing their number of income earners. He furthermore states that household size also played an essential role, as the standard of living for two persons living off one upper middle class personal income may very well be higher than that of a household with four members living off two working class personal incomes.


title: Social class in the United States

text: The combination of two or more incomes allows for households to increase their income substantially without moving higher on the occupational ladder or attaining higher educational degrees. Thus it is important to remember that the favorable economic position of households in the top two quintiles is in some cases the result of combined income, rather than demand for a single worker.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Tertiary education (or "higher education") is required for many middle-class professions, depending on how the term middle class is to be defined. Tertiary education is rarely free, but the costs vary widely: tuition at elite private colleges often exceeds $200,000 for a four-year program, although financial aid may be significant. On the other hand, public colleges and universities typically charge much less, particularly for state residents.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Also, scholarships offered by universities and government do exist, and low-interest loans are available. Still, the average cost of education, by all accounts, is increasing. The attainment of post-secondary and graduate degrees is the perhaps most important feature of a middle and upper middle class person with the university being regarded as the most essential institution and gatekeeper of the professional middle class. Educational attainment is also directly linked to income.


title: Social class in the United States

text: In 2005, the vast majority of those with doctorate and professional degrees were among the nation's top 15% of income earners. Those with bachelor's degrees had incomes considerably above the national median while the median income for those with some college education remained near the national median. According to United States Census Bureau, 9% of persons aged 25 or older had a graduate degree, 27.9% had a bachelor's degree or more with 53% having attended college.


title: Social class in the United States

text: With 85% of the population having graduated from high school, it becomes apparent that the average American does not have a college degree, but is likely to have attended college for some time and has graduated from high school. Overall, educational attainment serves as the perhaps most essential class feature of most Americans, being directly linked to income and occupation.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Broadly speaking, the United States aspires to be an egalitarian country with social mobility; the American Dream includes the idea from the Declaration of Independence that "all men are created equal" and have the "unalienable right" to "Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness". The phrase "second-class citizen" has a strong negative connotation in national politics. In practice, socioeconomic mobility in the United States is relatively low compared to Nordic countries and Canada, and income inequality in the United States is relatively high. Educational attainment and income are strongly correlated, but relatively low funding for K-12 schools in poor neighborhoods raises concerns about a cycle of poverty. These apparent contradictions lead to divergent views on whether American society is divided into distinct classes or should be analyzed that way.


title: Social class in the United States

text: In some American subcultures, people considered to be of a particular race, ethnicity, income range, educational background, religion, or gender are a significant majority; for example, hip-hop culture vs. preppy culture or fans of water polo vs. NASCAR. Other subcultures are relatively diverse.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Once defined, social classes can be considered to feature their own sub-cultures, including different ways of socializing children. Due to class mobility individuals may also acculturate to the culture of another class when ascending or descending in the social order. All social classes in the United States, except the upper class, consist of tens of millions of people. Thus social classes form social groups so large that they feature considerable diversity within and any statement regarding a given social class' culture needs to be seen as a broad generalization.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Since 1970, sociologists Paula LeMasters and Melvin Kohl have set out repeatedly to research class-based cultures. Class culture has been shown to have a strong influence on the mundane lives of people, affecting everything from the manner in which they raise their children, initiation and maintenance of romantic relationship to the color in which they paint their houses. The strongest cultural differences seem to run along the professional middle class-working class divide. A recent increase in residential class segregation and the overall tendency of individual to associate mostly with those of equal standing as themselves has further strengthened class differences.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Parental views are perhaps the most essential factor in determining the socialization process which shapes new members of society. The values and standards used in child rearing are commonly closely related to the parent's occupational status. Parents from the professional class tend to raise their children to become curious independent thinkers, while working-class parents raise their children to have a more communal perspective with a strong respect for authority. Middle-class parents tend to emphasize internal standards and values while working-class parents emphasize external values.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Sociologist Dennis Gilbert uses a list of values identified by Melvin Kohn to be typical of the professional middle and working class. Middle-class parents' values for their children and themselves included: "Consideration of Others, Self-Control, Curiosity, Happiness, Honesty, Tolerance of Nonconformity, Open to Innovation...Self-Direction." This contrasted with surveyed working class individuals, who reported: "Manners, Obedience...Neatness, Cleanliness, Strong Punishment of Deviant Behavior, Stock to Old Ways, People not Trustworthy...Strict Leadership" as values for themselves and their children. There is a strong correlation between these values and the occupational activities of the respondents. The job characteristics of middle class respondents included: ""Work Independently, Varied Tasks, Work with People or Data,"" versus working-class parents of reported ""Close Supervision and Repetitive Work...""


title: Social class in the United States

text: Gender roles are also viewed differently by those in the higher and lower social classes. Middle class individuals, who were more open towards "nonconformity" and emphasized individual self-direction as well as critical thinking, were also less stringent in their application of gender roles. Working class individuals, on the other hand, emphasized gender roles. While working-class people have more and more assimilated to middle class culture regarding their view and application of gender roles, differences remain. Professional class people are more likely to have an egalitarian distribution of work in their household with both spouses being equals in heterosexual marriages. According to Dennis Gilbert, "College life, generally a prologue to upper-middle class careers, delays marriage and encourages informal, relatively egalitarian association between men and women."


title: Social class in the United States

text: The following are reported income-, education-, and occupation-based terms for specific classes commonly used by sociologists.


title: Social class in the United States

text: This term is applied to a wide array of elite groups existing in the United States of America. The term commonly includes the so-called "blue bloods" (multi-generational wealth combined with leadership of high society) such as the Astor or Roosevelt families. Twentieth century sociologist W. Lloyd Warner divided the upper class into two sections: the "upper-upper class" (or bourgeoisie) and "lower-upper class" (or "scoobs"). The former includes established upper-class families while the latter includes those with great wealth. As there is no defined lower threshold for the upper class it is difficult, if not outright impossible, to determine the exact number or percentage of American households that could be identified as being members of the upper-class(es).


title: Social class in the United States

text: Income and wealth statistics may serve as a helpful guideline as they can be measured in a more objective manner. In 2005, approximately one and a half percent (1.5%) of households in the United States had incomes exceeding $250,000 with the top 5% having incomes exceeding $157,000. Furthermore, only 2.6% of households held assets (excluding home equity) of more than one-million dollars. One could therefore fall under the assumption that less than five percent of American society are members of rich households. The richest 1% of the American population owns as much as the combined wealth of the bottom 90%, or perhaps even more.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Members of the upper class control and own significant portions of corporate America and may exercise indirect power through the investment of capital. The high salaries and the potential for amassing great wealth through stock options have greatly increased the power and visibility of the "corporate elite". There is disagreement over whether the "nouveau riche" should be included as members of the upper class or whether this term should exclusively be used for established families. Many sociologists and commentators make a distinction between the upper class (in the sense of those in the families of inherited wealth) and the corporate elite. By implication, the upper class is held in lower regard (as inheritors of idle wealth) than the self-made millionaires in prestigious occupations.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Yet another important feature of the upper class is that of inherited privilege. While most Americans, including those in the upper-middle class need to actively maintain their status, some upper class persons do not need to work in order to maintain their status. Status tends to be passed on from generation to generation without each generation having to re-certify its status. Overall, the upper class is financially the best compensated and one of the most influential socio-economic classes in American society.


title: Social class in the United States

text: The high salaries and, especially, the potential wealth through stock options, has supported the term "corporate elite" or corporate class. Top executives, including Chief Executive Officers, are among the financially best compensated occupations in the United States. The median annual earnings for a CEO in the United States were $140,350 (exceeding the income of more than 90% of United States households). "The Wall Street Journal" reports the median compensation for CEOs of 350 major corporations was $6,000,000 in 2005 with most of the money coming from stock options.


title: Social class in the United States

text: In New York City in 2005, the median income (including bonuses) of a corporate "chief operating officer" (the No. 2 job) was $377,000. The total compensation for a "top IT officer" in charge of information technology in New York City was $218,000. Thus even below the CEO level of top corporations, financial compensation will usually be sufficient to propel households with a mere one income earner in the top 1%. In 2005 only 1.5% of American households had incomes above $250,000 with many reaching this level only through having two income earners.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Many politically powerful people make money before coming to office, but in general the political power elite have official incomes in the $150,000 to $185,000 range; members of Congress are paid $174,000, and are effectively required to have a residence in their district as well as one in Washington.


title: Social class in the United States

text: The upper middle class consists of highly educated salaried professionals whose work is largely self-directed. Many have advanced graduate degrees and household incomes commonly exceed the high five-figure range. Members of this class commonly value higher education – most holding advanced academic degrees – and are often involved with personal and professional networks including professional organizations. The upper middle class tends to have great influence over the course of society.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Occupations which require high educational attainment are well compensated and are held in high public esteem. Physicians, lawyers, accountants, engineers, scientists and professors are largely considered to be upper middle class. The very well educated are seen as trendsetters; the anti-smoking, pro-fitness, and organic food movements, as well as environmentalism, are largely indigenous to this socio-economic grouping. Education serves as perhaps the most important value and also the most dominant entry barrier of the upper middle class.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Sociologists Dennis Gilbert, Willam Thompson, and Joseph Hickey estimate the upper middle class to constitute roughly 15% of the population (or roughly three in every twenty persons). The hallmark of this class is its high educational attainment.


title: Social class in the United States

text: The middle class is perhaps the most vaguely defined of the social classes. The term can be used either to describe a relative elite of professionals and managers – also called the upper middle class – or it can be used to describe those in-between the extremes of wealth, disregarding considerable differences in income, culture, educational attainment, influence, and occupation.


title: Social class in the United States

text: As with all social classes in the United States, there are no definite answers as to what is and what is not middle class. Sociologists such as Dennis Gilbert, James Henslin, William Thompson, and Joseph Hickey have brought forth class models in which the middle class is divided into two sections that combined constitute 47% to 49% of the population. The upper middle or professional class constitutes the upper end of the middle class which consists of highly educated, well-paid professionals with considerable work autonomy. The lower end of the middle class – called either lower middle class or just middle class – consists of semi-professionals, craftsmen, office staff, and sales employees who often have college degrees and are very loosely supervised.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Everyone wants to believe they are middle class. For people on the bottom and the top of the wage scale the phrase connotes a certain Regular Joe cachet. But this eagerness to be part of the group has led the definition to be stretched like a bungee cord.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Although income thresholds cannot be determined since social classes lack distinct boundaries and tend to overlap, sociologists and economists have put forward certain income figures they find indicative of middle class households. Sociologist Leonard Beeghley identifies a husband making roughly $57,000 and a wife making roughly $40,000 with a household income of roughly $97,000 as a typical middle-class family.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Sociologists William Thompson and Joseph Hickey identify household incomes between $35,000 and $75,000 as typical for the lower middle and $100,000 or more as typical for the upper middle class. Though it needs to be noted that household income distribution neither reflects standard of living nor class status with complete accuracy.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Those households more or less at the center of society may be referred to as being part of the American middle or middle-middle class in vernacular language use. In the academic models featured in this article, however, the middle class does not constitute a strong majority of the population. Those in the middle of the socio-economic strata—the proverbial Average Joe—are commonly in the area where the working and lower middle class overlap.


title: Social class in the United States

text: The most prominent academic models split the middle class into two sections. Yet, it remains common for the term middle class to be applied for anyone in between either extreme of the socio-economic strata. The middle class is then often sub-divided into an upper-middle, middle-middle, and lower-middle class. In colloquial descriptions of the class system the middle-middle class may be described as consisting of those in the middle of the social strata. Politicians and television personalities such as Lou Dobbs can be seen using the term middle class in this manner, especially when discussing the middle-class squeeze. The wide discrepancy between the academic models and public opinions that lump highly educated professionals together in the same class with secretaries may lead to the conclusion that public opinion on the subject has become largely ambiguous.


title: Social class in the United States

text: The lower middle class is, as the name implies, generally defined as those who occupy the lower portion of the middle class. People in this class commonly work in supporting occupations.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Sociologists Dennis Gilbert, William Thompson, and Joseph Hickey, however, only divide the middle class into two groups. In their class modes the middle class only consists of an upper and lower middle class. The upper middle class, as described above, constitutes roughly 15% of the population with highly educated white collar professionals who commonly have salaries in the high-5-figure range and household incomes in the low-6-figure range. Semi-professionals with some college degrees constitute the lower middle class. Their class models show the lower middle class positioned slightly above the middle of the socio-economic strata. Those in blue- and pink-collar as well as clerical occupations are referred to as working class in these class models.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Definitions of the term working class vary greatly. While Lloyd Warner found the vast majority of the American population to be in either the upper-lower class or lower-lower class in 1949, modern-day experts such as Michael Zweig, an economist for Stony Brook University, argue that the working class constitutes most of the population.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Dennis Gilbert places 13% of households among the "working poor" with 12% being in the "underclass". Thompson & Hickey place roughly 17% to 20% of households in the lower classes. The lower classes constituting roughly a fifth to a quarter of American society consists mainly of low-rung retail and service workers as well as the frequently unemployed and those not able to work. Overall, 13% of the population fall below the poverty threshold. Hunger and food insecurity were present in the lives of 3.9% of American households, while roughly twenty-five million Americans (ca. 9%) participated in the food stamp program.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Before industrialization, "yeoman farmers"—self-sufficient, politically independent landowners—made up a large portion of the country's population. Jeffersonian democracy and Jacksonian democracy successfully expanded the political rights of the yeomen, and the geographical extent of the nation to provide them farms. This culminated in the Homestead Act of 1862 which provided hundreds of thousands of free farms. Before 1865 large southern plantations used slaves. After emancipation, a system of sharecropping and tenant farming for both whites and blacks in the South provided a semi-independent status for farmers who did not own their land. In contemporary times, migrant agricultural workers—mostly Mexicans—perform field and packing work.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Only 0.7% of the population of the United States is employed in the agricultural sector. Most are proprietors of independent farms. Once the dominant American social class, this group diminished in overall numbers during the 20th century, as farm holdings grew more consolidated, farming operations became more mechanized, and most of the population migrated to urban areas.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Today, the agricultural sector has essentially taken on the characteristics of business and industry generally. In contemporary usage, a "farmer" is someone who owns and operates a farm, which more often than not will be a sizable business enterprise; "agricultural workers" or "farm workers", who perform the actual work associated with farming, typically come out of the lower classes; indeed, they are often near-destitute immigrants or migrant farm workers. In this respect, farming mirrors big business: like any enterprise, a farm has owners (who may be a family or a corporation), salaried managers, supervisors, foremen and workers.


title: Social class in the United States

text: With the number of farms steadily diminishing, the stereotypical humble homestead is increasingly the exception, for viable farming now means agribusiness; the large amounts of capital required to operate a competitive farm require large-scale organization. The large landowners in California's Central Valley, Coachella Valley and Imperial Valley fall squarely within the upper class. Among farmers, "income" in the conventional sense is not an accurate standard of wealth measurement, because farmers typically keep their official income low by placing their assets into farming corporations rather than drawing the money directly. The stereotypical poor, marginal farmer "eking out a living" from the soil, an image deeply ingrained in most Americans' minds by folklore, films, and even history texts, has now been largely displaced by agribusiness, which has bought them out and consolidated their holdings.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Income also has a significant impact on health as those with higher incomes have better access to healthcare facilities, higher life expectancy, lower infant mortality rate and increased health consciousness. In 2006, Harvard researchers divided the United States into "eight Americas."


title: Social class in the United States

text: Life expectancy ranges from 84.9 years for Asian-Americans who had an average per capita income of $21,566, to 71.1 years for urban African-Americans with an average per capita income of $14,800.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Furthermore, like other post-industrial nations, the United States saw increased health consciousness among persons of higher social status. Persons of higher status are less likely to smoke, more likely to exercise regularly, and be more conscious of their diet. Additionally, poorer Americans are more likely to consume lower quality, processed foods. One can therefore conclude that low socio-economic status contributes to a person's likelihood of being obese.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Income remains one of the main indicators of class, as it commonly reflects educational attainment as well as occupation. A frequent distinction in political attitudes can be found among individuals residing in households with differing incomes. For example, during the 2000 United States presidential election, voter turnout among those in the top 26% with household incomes exceeding $75,000 was 27% higher than the average.


title: Social class in the United States

text: Some academics consider American society sociologically and economically fragmented in such a manner that no clear class distinctions can be made. This means that there are no pronounced breaks in socioeconomic strata, which makes class division highly subjective and disputable. Others, such as sociologist Dennis Gilbert, dispute the concept of a well-mixed society, and claim that distinct social networks can be identified for each class. W. Lloyd Warner also asserts the existence of class markers:


title: Social class in the United States

text: Warner asserts that social class is as old as civilization itself and has been present in nearly every society from before the Roman Empire, through medieval times, and to the modern-day United States. He believes that complex societies such as the United States need an equally complex social hierarchy.


title: Social class in the United States

text: The existence of class differences in American society has long been the focus of popular culture, whether in the form of books, films, or plays. Social class, for example, is a theme used in the 1948 production "Mister Roberts", in a scene where the ship's captain displays resentment toward the title character, contrasting his own impoverished background to that of Roberts himself:


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: Michael Edward Adeane, Baron Adeane, (30 September 1910 – 30 April 1984) was Private Secretary to Elizabeth II for 19 years, between 1953 and 1972.


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: Adeane was the son of Captain Henry Robert Augustus Adeane (1882–1914), by his wife Hon. Victoria Eugenie Bigge (d.1969). His paternal grandfather was Admiral Edward Stanley Adeane, from a family of landed gentry tracing their ancestry to a Simon Adeane who died in 1686; his maternal grandfather was Arthur Bigge, 1st Baron Stamfordham, Private Secretary to Queen Victoria and King George V. Adeane was educated at Eton College and graduated from Magdalene College, Cambridge in 1934 with a Master of Arts degree.


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: After graduating, Adeane travelled to Canada. He was aide-de-camp to Lord Bessborough, Governor General of Canada from 1934 to 1935, and then to his successor, Lord Tweedsmuir, until 1936.


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: Adeane then returned to Britain and became George VI's Assistant Private Secretary from 1945 after five-and-a-half years on active military duty, a post he held until the latter's death in 1952. He continued in that post for Queen Elizabeth until 1953 when he was promoted to Private Secretary and admitted to the Privy Council.


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: In 1961, during a Royal visit to Nepal, Adeane was credited with a share of a tiger kill with Sir Christopher Bonham-Carter in a royal tiger hunt. The tiger-shooting role had fallen to him after the Queen had declined, the Duke of Edinburgh had been unable to shoot due to having his trigger finger in a splint, and the then Foreign Secretary Alec Douglas-Home had missed twice.


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: On 10 January 1939 Adeane married Helen Chetwynd-Stapleton (1916 – 1994), and they had a daughter and a son. Their son, Edward Adeane, a barrister, was Private Secretary to the Prince of Wales from 1979 to 1984.


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: On 30 April 1984 Adeane died of heart failure in Aberdeen, Scotland. He was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium.


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: Adeane was appointed a Member of the Royal Victorian Order (MVO) in 1946, a Companion of the Order of the Bath (CB) in 1947, he was promoted to Knight Commander of the Royal Victorian Order (KCVO) in 1951, and Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath (KCB) in 1955. In 1962 he was promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order (GCVO) and in 1968 to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath (GCB). He also received the Royal Household Long and Faithful Service Medal.


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: In 1959, Adeane received the Grand Decoration in Gold with Sash for Services to the Republic of Austria and on 20 April 1972, he was created a life peer as Baron Adeane, of Stamfordham in the County of Northumberland.


title: Michael Adeane, Baron Adeane

text: Adeane is portrayed on-screen in the Netflix original series "The Crown" by actor Will Keen. Following the recast of the series as of season 3, he is played by David Rintoul.


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: The fourth season of "Family Guy" aired on Fox from May 1, 2005, to May 21, 2006, and consisted of thirty episodes, making it the longest season to date. The first half of the season is included within the volume 3 DVD box set, which was released on November 29, 2005, and the second half is included within the volume 4 DVD box set, which was released on November 14, 2006. Volume 4 was split into seasons 4 and 5 in regions outside the United States, leading to confusion over season numbers between U.S., Australian, and UK consumers. The last three episodes of season 4 were the basis for the movie known as "", and are edited for content; Fox does not include these episodes in the official episode count.


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: "Family Guy" had been canceled in 2002 due to low ratings, but was revived by Fox after reruns on Adult Swim became the network's most-watched program, and more than three million DVDs of the show were sold. "North by North Quahog" was the first episode to air following the series' revival.


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: The executive producers for the fourth production season are series creator Seth MacFarlane, along with David A. Goodman and Chris Sheridan. Starting with this season, MacFarlane would hand over showrunner duties to two writers, with Goodman and Sheridan being the inaugural co-showrunners.


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: The show was first canceled after the 1999–2000 season, but following a last-minute reprieve, it returned for a third season in 2001. In 2002, "Family Guy" was canceled after three seasons due to low ratings. Fox tried to sell rights for reruns of the show, but it was hard to find networks that were interested; Cartoon Network eventually bought the rights, " basically for free", according to the president of 20th Century Fox Television Production. When the reruns were shown on Cartoon Network's Adult Swim in 2003, "Family Guy" became the channel's most-watched show with an average 1.9 million viewers per episode. Following this, the show's first season was released on DVD in April 2003. The DVD set sold 2.2 million copies, making it the best-selling television DVD of 2003 and the second highest-selling television DVD ever, behind the first season of Comedy Central's "Chappelle's Show". The season 2 DVD release also sold more than 1 million copies. The show's popularity in both DVD sales and reruns rekindled Fox's interest. They ordered 35 new episodes in 2004, marking the first revival of a television show based on DVD sales. Gail Berman said cancelling the show was one of her most difficult decisions, and she was therefore happy it would return. The network also began production of a film based on the show.


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: "North by North Quahog" was the first episode to be broadcast after the show's cancellation. It was written by Seth MacFarlane and directed by Peter Shin. MacFarlane believed the show's three-year hiatus was beneficial because animated shows do not normally have hiatuses, and towards the end of their seasons "... you see a lot more sex jokes and (bodily function) jokes and signs of a fatigued staff that their brains are just fried". With "North by North Quahog", the writing staff tried to keep the show "... exactly as it was" before its cancellation, and did not "... have the desire to make it any slicker" than it already was. Walter Murphy, who had composed music for the show before its cancellation, returned to compose the music for "North by North Quahog". Murphy and the orchestra recorded an arrangement of Bernard Herrmann's score from "North by Northwest", a film referenced multiple times in the episode.


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: Fox had ordered five episode scripts at the end of the third season; these episodes had been written but not produced. One of these scripts was adapted into "North by North Quahog". The original script featured "Star Wars" character Boba Fett, and later actor, writer and producer Aaron Spelling, but the release of the iconic film "The Passion of the Christ" inspired the writers to incorporate Mel Gibson into the episode. Multiple endings were written, including one in which Death comes for Gibson. During production, an episode of "South Park" was released entitled "The Passion of the Jew" that also featured Gibson as a prominent character. This gave the "Family Guy" writers pause, fearing accusations " that we had ripped them off."


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: This season received high Nielsen ratings; "North by North Quahog", the premiere episode was broadcast as part of an animated television night on Fox, alongside two episodes of "The Simpsons" and the pilot episode of "American Dad!". The episode was watched by 11.85 million viewers, the show's highest ratings since the airing of the first season episode "". Its ratings also surpassed the ratings of both episodes of "The Simpsons" and "American Dad!". Season four's three-part finale was watched by 8.2 million viewers, bringing the season average to 7.9 million viewers per episode.


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: This season was nominated for a number of awards. In 2005, the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences nominated "North by North Quahog" for a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program (for Programming Less Than One Hour). It nominated "PTV" in the same category one year later. Neither of the episodes won the award, as "South Park" received the award in 2005 and "The Simpsons" was the eventual recipient of the award in 2006. Peter Shin and Dan Povenmire were both nominated for an Annie Award in the Best Directing in an Animated Television Production category, for directing "North by North Quahog" and "PTV" respectively; Shin eventually won the award. MacFarlane won the Annie Award for Best Voice-over Performance for providing the voice of Stewie in "Brian the Bachelor". At the Annie Awards the following year, John Viener was nominated in the category Writing in an Animated Television Production, for writing "Untitled Griffin Family History", but lost the award to Ian Maxtone-Graham, who wrote the episode of "The Simpsons" titled "The Seemingly Neverending Story". The editors of the episode "Blind Ambition" won the Motion Picture Sound Editors Golden Reel Award for Best Sound Editing in Television Animated.


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: Season 4 received widespread critical acclaim from critics. Reviewing the season premiere, Mark McGuire of "The Times Union" wrote: "... the first minute or so of the resurrected "Family Guy" ranks among the funniest 60 seconds I've seen so far this season." "The Pitt News" reviewer John Nigro felt that the show had not lost its steam while it was on hiatus, and was surprised that the show had been canceled because of its "wildly extravagant shock factor". Nigro cited "Breaking Out Is Hard to Do", "Petarded" and "Perfect Castaway" as the season's best episodes. In 2007, BBC Three named the episode "PTV" "The Best Episode...So Far". The episode has also been praised by Maureen Ryan of the "Chicago Tribune", who called it ""Family Guys" most rebellious outing yet". "The Boston Globe" critic Matthew Gilbert felt "Family Guy"s fourth season was as "crankily irreverent as ever".


title: Family Guy (season 4)

text: Fewer critics responded negatively to the season; "Seattle Post-Intelligencer" critic Melanie McFarland reacted very bitterly, stating "Three years off the air has not made the "Family Guy" team that much more creative". Critics of both PopMatters and IGN criticized the first few episodes but felt the show regained its humor after "Don't Make Me Over"; IGN's Mike Drucker commented "At that point, we get some amazingly creative humor. It's almost like MacFarlane and gang decided they had thanked their fans enough and could return to what made the show successful in the first place." Media watchdog group the Parents Television Council, a frequent critic of the show, branded the episodes "North by North Quahog", "The Father, the Son, and the Holy Fonz", "Brian Sings and Swings", "Patriot Games", and "The Courtship of Stewie's Father" as "worst show of the week".


title: Outhouse

text: An outhouse is a small structure, separate from a main building, which covers a toilet. This is typically either a pit latrine or a bucket toilet, but other forms of dry (non-flushing) toilets may be encountered. The term may also be used to denote the toilet itself, not just the structure.


title: Outhouse

text: Outhouses were in use in cities of developed countries (e.g. Australia) well into the second half of the twentieth century. They are still common in rural areas and also in cities of developing countries. Outhouses that are covering pit latrines in densely populated areas can cause groundwater pollution.


title: Outhouse

text: Increasingly, "outhouse" is used for a structure outside the main living property that is more permanent in build quality than a shed. In some localities and varieties of English, particularly outside North America, the term "outhouse" refers "not" to a toilet, but to outbuildings in a general sense: sheds, barns, workshops, etc.


title: Outhouse

text: Outhouses vary in design and construction. They are by definition outside the dwelling, and are not connected to plumbing, sewer, or septic system. The World Health Organization recommends they be built a reasonable distance from the house balancing issues of easy access versus that of smell.


title: Outhouse

text: The superstructure exists to shelter the user, and also to protect the toilet itself. The primary purpose of the building is for privacy and human comfort, and the walls and roof provide a visual screen and some protection from the elements. The outhouse also has the secondary role of protecting the toilet hole from sudden influxes of rainwater, which would flood the hole and flush untreated wastes into the underlying soils before they can decompose.


title: Outhouse

text: Outhouses are commonly humble and utilitarian, made of lumber or plywood. This is especially so, so they can easily be moved when the earthen pit fills up. Depending on the size of the pit and the amount of use, this can be fairly frequent, sometimes yearly. As pundit "Jackpine" Bob Cary wrote: "Anyone can build an outhouse, but not everyone can build a good outhouse." Floor plans typically are rectangular or square, but hexagonal outhouses have been built.


title: Outhouse

text: The arrangements inside the outhouse vary by culture. In Western societies, many, though not all, have at least one seat with a hole in it, above a small pit. Others, often in more rural, older areas in European countries, simply have a hole with two indents on either side for the user's feet. In Eastern societies, there is a hole in the floor, over which the user crouches. A roll of toilet paper is usually available. Old corn cobs, leaves, or other types of paper may instead be used.


title: Outhouse

text: The decoration on the outhouse door has no standard. The well-known crescent moon on American outhouses was popularized by cartoonists and had a questionable basis in fact. There are authors who claim the practice began during the colonial period as an early "mens"/"ladies" designation for an illiterate populace (the sun and moon being popular symbols for the sexes during those times). Others dismiss the claim as an urban legend. What is certain is that the purpose of the hole is for venting and light and there were a wide variety of shapes and placements employed.


title: Outhouse

text: An outhouse often provides the shelter for a pit latrine, which collects human feces in a hole in the ground. When properly built and maintained they can decrease the spread of disease by reducing the amount of human feces in the environment from open defecation. When the pit fills to the top, it should be either emptied or a new pit constructed and the shelter moved or re-built at the new location. The management of the fecal sludge removed from the pit is complicated. There are both environment and health risks if not done properly. As of 2013 pit latrines are used by an estimated 1.77 billion people. This is mostly in the developing world as well as in rural and wilderness areas.


title: Outhouse

text: Another system is the bucket toilet, consisting of a seat and a portable receptacle (bucket or pail). These may be emptied by their owners into composting piles in the garden (a low-tech composting toilet), or collected by contractors for larger-scale disposal. Historically, this was known as the pail closet; the municipality employed workers, often known as "nightmen" (from night soil), to empty and replace the buckets. This system was associated in particular with the English town of Rochdale, to the extent that it was described as the "Rochdale System" of sanitation. 20th century books report that similar systems were in operation in parts of France and elsewhere in continental Europe.


title: Outhouse

text: The system of municipal collection was widespread in Australia; "dunny cans" persisted well into the second half of the twentieth century, see below. In Scandinavia and some other countries, outhouses are built over removable containers that enable easy removal of the waste and enable much more rapid composting in separate piles. A similar system operates in India, where hundreds of thousands of workers engage in manual scavenging, i.e. emptying pit latrines and bucket toilets without any personal protective equipment.


title: Outhouse

text: A variety of systems are used in some national parks and popular wilderness areas, to cope with the increased volume of people engaged in activities such as mountaineering and kayaking. The growing popularity of paddling, hiking, and climbing has created special waste disposal issues throughout the world. It is a dominant topic for outdoor organizations and their members. For example, in some places the human waste is collected in drums which need to be helicoptered in and out at considerable expense.


title: Outhouse

text: Alternatively, some parks mandate a "pack it in, pack it out" rule. Many reports document the use of containers for the removal of excrement, which must be packed in and packed out on Mount Everest. Also known as "expedition barrels" or "bog barrels", the cans are weighed to make sure that groups do not dump them along the way. "Toilet tents" are erected. There has been an increasing awareness that the mountain needs to be kept clean, for the health of the climbers at least.


title: Outhouse

text: Worm hold privies, another variant of the composting toilet, are being used by Vermont's Green Mountain Club. These simple outhouses are stocked with red worms (a staple used by home composters). Composting toilets are also subject to regulations.


title: Outhouse

text: There are other types of toilet that may be covered by an outhouse superstructure, or a toilet tent (e.g. in humanitarian relief operations), or even be installed inside a house that is beyond the reach of sewers. The Swedish Pacto toilet uses a continuous roll of plastic to collect and dispose of waste. Incinerating toilets are installed in several thousand cabins in Norway. These toilets incinerate waste into ashes, using only propane and 12 volt battery electricity.


title: Outhouse

text: Outhouse design, placement, and maintenance has long been recognized as being important to the public health. See posters created by the Works Progress Administration during the 1930s and early 1940s.


title: Outhouse

text: Some types of flying insects such as the housefly are attracted to the odor of decaying material, and will use it for food for their offspring, laying eggs in the decaying material. Other insects such as mosquitoes seek out standing water that may be present in the pit for the breeding of their offspring.


title: Outhouse

text: Both of these are undesirable pests to humans, but can be easily controlled without chemicals by enclosing the top of the pit with tight-fitting boards or concrete, using a sufficiently sealed toilet hole cover that is closed after every use, and by using fine-grid insect screen to cover the inlet and outlet vent holes. This prevents flying insect entry by all potential routes.


title: Outhouse

text: It is common (at least in the United States) for outhouses to have a bucket or a bag of powdered lime with a scoop of some kind in it. Either before or after using the outhouse (usually after but sometimes both) a scoop or two of lime is sprinkled into the lid holes to cover the waste as to suppress the odor which also can help with the insect issues. This method of using powdered lime is also used (and for the same reasons) in common/mass graves.


title: Outhouse

text: One of the purposes of outhouses is to avoid spreading parasites such as intestinal worms, notably hookworms, which might otherwise be spread via open defecation.


title: Outhouse

text: Old outhouse pits are seen as excellent places for archeological and anthropological excavations, offering up a trove of common objects from the pasta veritable inadvertent time capsulewhich yields historical insight into the lives of the bygone occupants. This is also called privy digging. It is especially common to find old bottles, which seemingly were secretly stashed or trashed, so their content could be privately imbibed. Fossilised feces (coprolites) yield much information about diet and health.


title: Outhouse

text: "Dunny" or "dunny can" are Australian words for a toilet, particularly an outhouse. For other uses of the word, see Dunny (disambiguation).


title: Outhouse

text: In suburban areas not connected to the sewerage, outhouses were not always built over pits. Instead, these areas utilized a pail closet, where waste was collected into large cans positioned under the toilet seat, to be collected by contractors (or night soil collectors) hired by property owners or the local council. The used cans were replaced with empty, cleaned cans. Brisbane relied on "dunny carts" until the 1950s; because the population was so dispersed, it was difficult to install sewerage. Tar, creosote, and disinfectant kept the smell down. Academic George Seddon claimed that "the typical Australian back yard in the cities and country towns" had, throughout the first half of the twentieth century, "a dunny against the back fence, so that the pan could be collected from the dunny lane through a trap-door". The person who appeared weekly to empty the buckets beneath the seats was known as the "dunnyman", see gong farmer.


title: Outhouse

text: The "dunny lanes" provided access to collectors. These access lanes can now be worth considerable sums see Ransom strip.


title: Outhouse

text: The remains of a thousand year old Viking outhouse were discovered in 2017. This is the oldest known outhouse in the country, even though evidence cannot establish it to be "the first". This discovery was considered to be culturally significant.


title: Outhouse

text: Outhouses are typically built on one level, but two-story models are to be found in unusual circumstances. One double-decker was built to serve a two-story building in Cedar Lake, Michigan. The outhouse was connected by walkways. It still stands (but not the building). The waste from "upstairs" is directed down a chute separate from the "downstairs" facility in these instances, so contrary to various jokes about two-story outhouses, the user of the lower level has nothing to fear if the upper level is in use at the same time. The Boston Exchange Coffee House (1809–1818) was equipped with a four-story outhouse with windows on each floor.


title: Outhouse

text: Some outhouses were built surprisingly ornately, considering the time and the place. For example, an opulent 19th century antebellum example (a three-holer) is at the plantation area at the state park in Stone Mountain, Georgia. The outhouses of Colonial Williamsburg varied widely, from simple expendable temporary wood structures to high-style brick. Thomas Jefferson designed and had built two brick octagons at his vacation home. Such outhouses are sometimes considered to be overbuilt, impractical and ostentatious, giving rise to the simile "built like a brick shithouse." That phrase's meaning and application is subject to some debate; but (depending upon the country) it has been applied to men, women, or inanimate objects.


title: Outhouse

text: With regards to anal cleansing, old newspapers and mail order catalogs, such as those from Montgomery Ward or Sears Roebuck, were common before toilet paper was widely available. Paper was often kept in a can or other container to protect it from mice, etc. The catalogs served a dual purpose, also giving one something to read.


title: Outhouse

text: Outdoor toilets are referred to by many terms throughout the English-speaking world. The term "outhouse" is used in North American English for the structure over a toilet, usually a pit latrine ("long drop"). However, in British English "outhouse" means any outbuilding, such as a shed or barn. The more descriptive "shit house" may be used.


title: Outhouse

text: In Australia and parts of Canada an outdoor toilet is known as a "dunny". "Privy", an archaic variant of "private", is used in North America, Scotland, and northern England. "Bog" is common throughout Britain (used to coin the neologism "tree bog") and is also used informally in Britain, as well as Canada and Australia to refer to any toilet. The name "little house" (as "") continues as a euphemism for any toilet in both the Welsh language and the Welsh English dialect. Other terms include "back house", "house of ease", and "house of office". The last was common in 17th-century England and appeared in Samuel Pepys's "Diary" on numerous occasions.


title: Outhouse

text: A regional name for an outhouse in North America used especially in Virginia is "johnnyhouse" or "johnny house". In the Scouting Movement in North America, a widespread term for outhouse is "kybo". This appears to have originated from camps which used Kybo brand coffee cans to hold lye or lime which was sprinkled down the hole to reduce odor. "Keep Your Bowels Open" may be a backronym. Temporary encampments may use a tent or tarpaulin over a shallow pit; one name for this is a "hudo".


title: Outhouse

text: It is not easy to determine whether a given term was restricted to an outdoor toilet, or whether the meaning had extended, over time and with the development of indoor plumbing, to any toilet.


title: Outhouse

text: Tsi-Ku, also known as Tsi Ku Niang, is described as the Chinese goddess of the outhouse and divination. It is said that a woman could uncover the future by going to the outhouse to ask Tsi-Ku. See toilet god.


title: Outhouse

text: Construction and maintenance of outhouses in the US is subject to state and local governmental restriction, regulation and prohibition. It is potentially both a public health issue, which has been addressed both by law and by education of the public as to good methods and practices ("e.g.", separation from drinking water sources). This also becomes a more prevalent issue as urban and suburban development encroaches on rural areas, and is an external manifestation of a deeper cultural conflict. "See also" urban sprawl, urban planning, regional planning, suburbanization, urbanization and counterurbanization.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: Gabriel is a family of sea skimming anti-ship missiles manufactured by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI). The initial variant of the missile was developed in the 1960s in response to the needs of the Israeli Navy which first deployed it in 1970. Since then, variants have been exported to navies around the world. The latest variant, the Gabriel V, is in use by the Finnish and Israeli navies as of 2020.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: On October 21, 1967, four Styx missiles sank the destroyer INS "Eilat", which was patrolling along the northern shores of the Sinai. Forty-seven Israeli sailors and officers were killed or went missing in action and 100 were injured. The loss of the ship prompted the Israeli Navy to ask Israel Aerospace Industries to accelerate the development of an anti-ship missile, which had begun in 1958 with the Luz (or Lutz) program.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: Faced with Rafael Advanced Defense Systems's anxiety to develop a new guidance system, Shlomo Erell asked Israel Aerospace Industries to take over the program by recruiting Ori Even-Tov, a former Rafael engineer. Even-Tov suggested dropping the guidance joystick approach used by the Luz, and instead proposed the development of an autonomous guidance system which would allow the missile to seek its objective, even in bad weather or bad visibility.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: He further proposed using an altimeter, allowing the missile to fly some meters over the surface of the sea, making it difficult to detect and allowing it to hit the target just above the waterline. A radar installed on the ship had to guide the missile, while the altimeter would keep the missile in sea-skimming mode.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: The development of the Gabriel for the Israeli Navy began in 1962, before being first shown to the public in 1970. It was touted to be the world's first operational sea-skimming missile, and saw extensive action during the Yom Kippur War. A batch of 50 was imported by the Republic of China Navy for evaluation and as the interim weapon for the three Allen M. Sumner class destroyers upgraded with Gabriel Mk 2 missile system, and it is also the basis for the Taiwanese Hsiung Feng I missile.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: The Gabriel Mk 2, an improved version of Gabriel, was created in 1972 and entered service in 1976. It was also built under license in South Africa under the name "Skerpioen" (Afrikaans for Scorpion). The Taiwanese Hsiung Feng I missile can be considered as a parallel development, being based on Gabriel Mk 1 but with similar improvements, and ordnances used by the two systems are interchangeable.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: Gabriel III and Gabriel III A/S were introduced in 1978 with major improvements. The air-launched Gabriel III A/S has a range of over 60 km. Both Gabriel III versions employ the widely used 'fire and forget' mode.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: Developed in the early 1990s is related to the Gabriel Mk III but larger and with a turbojet engine for sustained flight. It is distinguishable from the Mk III because of its swept wings with cropped tip. Like the Mk III, it has 3 guidance modes: Fire and Forget, Fire and Update with data link, and Fire and command using Radar update


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: Israel Aerospace Industries is reportedly working on a Gabriel V Advanced Naval Attack Missile, with an advanced active multi-spectral seeker designed for cluttered littoral environments. As of 2020, this variant is deployed by the Finnish and Israeli navies. Range is claimed to be more than 200 km to 400 km.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: Successful test firing of the Gabriel V was conducted by the Israel Defense Forces on September 21st 2022.


title: Gabriel (missile)

text: In 2020, Israel's IAI and Singapore's ST Engineering started a 50/50 joint venture company called Proteus Advanced Systems to develop, produce and market a derivative of the Gabriel V called the Blue Spear missile system (Blue Spear). The missile has both sea and deep land attack capabilities with enhanced maneuverability for littoral environments. The warhead employs an active radar-homing seeker, accurate INS-based navigation capabilities, beyond-line-of-sight (BLOS) capability and a robust system which is immune to GPS disruptions and maximal accuracy target acquisition. The system is equipped with a variety of deception means to achieve its mission and cope with the different battle-field challenges. ST Engineering’s role in the Blue Spear’s development includes the design, development and production of major subsystems like the booster motor and warhead whilst IAI focuses on other parts. In 2021, IAI and Thales jointly market a variant of Gabriel V or Blue Spear called Sea Serpent to the Royal Navy to replace its ageing Harpoon missile system. At DSEI 2021, IAI revealed that Sea Serpent is developed in parallel with the Blue Spear and based on the Gabriel V missile system and/or older variants. IAI added that Sea Serpent has a low profile mode or sea skimming range of greater than 290 km


title: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight

text: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight () is a 2020 Polish supernatural horror slasher film directed by Bartosz M. Kowalski, written by Kowalski, Jan Kwieciński, and Mirella Zaradkiewicz, and starring Julia Wieniawa, Michał Lupa, and .


title: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight

text: The story begins with an old lady washing blood-soaked clothing in a tub full of water. A postman who just arrived notices noises coming from the house's cellar. Thinking someone is trapped down there, the postman makes his mistake when he rips off a board barring the entrance and enters the basement. Then he is dragged by an unseen force into the basement and disappears.


title: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight

text: Thirty years later, a phone-free camp for teenagers starts with all the teens arriving and surrendering their phones to the camp leaders. The teens are placed into groups. The main protagonists all end up in a group together and head off into the woods with counselor, Iza, for a three-day hike.


title: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight

text: As they go trekking through the forest they come across a dead, rotting deer. Iza notices that the deer was not killed by a predator, but ignores that and orders everyone to keep going into the woods.


title: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight

text: They stop by a lake to spend the night. That night they hear a noise in the woods. Iza searches but finds a little fox. That night, Daniel is accompanied at the lake by Aniela. After having sex with Daniel, Aniela then goes back to her tent, not knowing that soon afterwards Daniel is beaten to death by a gigantic man by banging his body against a tree. In the morning, everyone searches for Daniel, Iza disregards the "rules of horror" that Julek warns the group about, and they split up in groups, with half of them searching for Daniel with the coach, and the rest waiting by the lake in case Daniel comes back.


title: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight

text: The group reaches the house seen in the beginning of the movie and discover the basement with Daniel's mangled body inside. As they attempt to run away, they notice the killer coming inside the house, so they hide in the basement. Zosia and Julek escape through a cellar window, but Iza stays behind to fight the monster in order to try and get Daniel's phone to call for help, which ends in her death.


title: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight

text: Aniela and Bartek are talking by the lake when she is suddenly killed by a metal bar going through the back of her neck and mouth. Horrified, Bartek runs away and attempts to get help from a priest in a nearby church. The priest knocks him out, gags him, and ties him to a chair. The priest hears noises outside and goes to investigate. He is killed by the killer by putting him in a woodchipper. The killer enters the church and opens the confession box to find Bartek hiding.


title: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight

text: Zosia and Julek, having run away from the killer's house, find refuge in an old man's house, who tells them the story of the twins who lived with their mother until they found a small meteorite that crashed in the area. The twins take a piece of rock and keep it hidden under their bed. The following night, a black fluid seeps from the rock and enters the bodies of the twins, who lose their minds and become animalistic carnivores. Their mother awakens in the morning only to be horrified seeing her sons eating their dog in the basement. She locks them up in the basement and hunts animals to keep them hidden. The old man states that the mother lost her mind. One day, while trying to get a dead animal into the basement, she dies, causing the twins to be able to escape.


title: Nobody Sleeps in the Woods Tonight

text: The teens decide to call for help and go back to the basement to get the phone from Daniel's body. Julek tries to distract the killer with some noise and Zosia sneaks into the basement to grab the phone. However, the killer's twin is in front of her and Julek stabs him to distract his attention. Zosia is knocked unconscious and chained up, while Julek is stabbed with a knife and his tongue ripped out.