title: Something/Anything?

text: It was voted number 797 in the third edition of Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums" (2000). After "Something/Anything", Rundgren moved away from the straightforward pop ballads present on this album to more experimental territory and progressive rock in later releases, beginning with "A Wizard, A True Star".


title: Something/Anything?

text: By the time Rundgren started recording the album, he had already achieved commercial success as a solo artist and producer, and this increased his self-confidence. He had also become dissatisfied with other musicians playing on his recordings, recalling, "I'd never played drums or bass before, though I would hector those that did." This led him to decide to record the entire album by himself using multi-tracking. He wrote the material for the album at a prolific rate. He attributed his productivity to Ritalin and cannabis, stating that the drugs "caused me to crank out songs at an incredible pace." He found some of the other songs quick to write, too, noting "they were all basically starting out with C Major 7th, and I'd start moving my hand around in predictable patterns until a song came out."


title: Something/Anything?

text: The majority of backing tracks on the first three sides of the album were recorded at I.D. Sound Studios, Los Angeles, engineered by James Lowe with assistance from John Lee. The studio was one of the first independent units in LA, and Lowe believes Rundgren chose it due to the ability to work hands-on without record company interference and having all the latest technology and equipment. Rundgren played every instrument in turn, starting with the drums, noting it "was the logical place to start," with the others individually laid down on top. While recording the drums, Rundgren would try and hum the song in his head to remember where he was, but "if I would screw up, then I would change the song afterwards, to fit the mistake that I had made, because it was easier than going back and fixing it." In retrospect, Rundgren felt he might have performed better with a click track, being a novice drummer at the time, but concluded that the end result "sound[s] like a band". He didn't think his lack of technical proficiency on the instrument was a particular handicap, saying that "people comprehend what you're playing, and it has a greater impact." Engineering the album, Lowe recalled he was "mostly working in the dark", and that Rundgren would leave spaces for instruments during recording, spontaneously developing a song as it was being recorded. "I was never sure exactly where the song was going until we'd put down about four or five tracks."


title: Something/Anything?

text: In addition to recording at I.D. Sound, Rundgren took an 8-track recorder and some studio equipment, installing it at his rented home on Astral Drive, Nichols Canyon. 'Intro', 'Breathless', and 'One More Day (No Word)' were recorded here, along with various guitar and keyboard overdubs. A version of 'Torch Song' was also recorded, but was scrapped due to excessive background noise. Rundgren recalled that recording at home meant he could spend time working on pieces of technology or production, such as programming a VCS3 synthesizer, at his leisure without wasting anyone else's time. The artwork on the original gatefold sleeve was also shot in this apartment. Despite working long hours each day in both I.D and at home, with minimum breaks for sleeping and eating, Rundgren said he enjoyed the recording experience, and "wouldn't have had it any other way."


title: Something/Anything?

text: Rundgren contemplated recording more tracks to make up a double album in a similar manner, but following an earthquake, he decided to relocate to New York City and hold a live recording session at the Record Plant with session players. The basic idea was to create songs with sing-along choruses. Rundgren did not pre-plan who would play on the sessions, but simply wanted anyone who happened to be in or near the studio to turn up and learn the material.


title: Something/Anything?

text: Rundgren contacted Moogy Klingman, who would appear on several tracks and later co-found Utopia with Rundgren. Rundgren instructed Klingman to find the best session players possible for the recording. Klingman recalled getting a phone call from Rundgren late on a Friday evening asking him to find a full band by Sunday morning: "He wanted horns, singers, everything, so I made a ton of phone calls." Klingman said that not everyone could make the entire session, so a variety of musicians, particularly guitarists and bassists, needed to be used. The performers, including Rundgren himself, only rehearsed the songs a few times before committing the performance to tape, in order to sound spontaneous, and some of the banter between takes appears on the finished album.


title: Something/Anything?

text: Three songs were recorded at the Record Plant, including one of Klingman's own, "Dust in the Wind". Guitarist Rick Derringer appeared on one track, and would collaborate with Rundgren in the future. Trumpeter Randy Brecker had been a founding member of Blood, Sweat & Tears and, along with his brother Michael, who also played on the Record Plant sessions, went on to find commercial success with the Brecker Brothers. Trombonist Barry Rogers, who completed the brass section on the Record Plant recordings, had also collaborated with the Brecker brothers in the band Dreams.


title: Something/Anything?

text: A further live session was held at Bearsville Studios in Woodstock, which used some of the members of the Paul Butterfield blues band, resulting in two other tracks. The final track on side four, "Slut", was recorded earlier at a live session in I.D. Sound Studios, and featured previous collaborators Tony and Hunt Sales, guitarist Rick Vito, and future actor Edward James Olmos on backing vocals. The majority of vocals for the existing studio tracks were also recorded at the Record Plant, with additional recording at Bearsville, where the album was mixed. As in Los Angeles, Lowe helped out with the engineering. "We'd just put up a Neumann U67 and he'd sing right there in the control room using the monitors for the playback."


title: Something/Anything?

text: The liner notes describe the first side of the album as "a bouquet of ear-catching melodies", the second as "the cerebral side", the third as "The kid gets heavy", and the fourth is titled "Baby Needs a New Pair of Snakeskin Boots (A Pop Operetta)". Rundgren wrote the sleeve notes, and included a small operetta that described a narrative between the live tracks. "I Saw the Light" was placed at the start of album, as it was felt to be the most likely hit. The song was influenced by Carole King and written in approximately 20 minutes. "Couldn't I Just Tell You" has had a major influence on artists in the power pop music genre, with music critic Stephen Thomas Erlewine of the All Music Guide calling it one of "the great songs that provided power pop with its foundation". Scott Miller's 2010 book "" calls the song "likely the greatest power pop recording ever made," with lyrics "somehow both desperate and lighthearted at the same time," and a guitar solo having "truly amazing dexterity and inflection."


title: Something/Anything?

text: "Hello It's Me" had been recorded by Rundgren's old band, Nazz. Rundgren explained this unique instance of his re-recording a track by one of his former groups: "I had some sentimental attraction to it as it was the first song I had written. ... during an afternoon session, the songs I really wanted to get were 'Dust in the Wind' and 'You Left Me Sore'. The sessions were going well and 'Hello It's Me' was something I had been thinking about updating. It was done as such a dirge originally, I thought that part could be addressed." As with the rest of the live tracks on side four, little preparation was done for the track. Rundgren later claimed the entire song was rehearsed and recorded in under two hours, and the horn lines and backing vocals at the end of the track were completely improvised. The fourth side was completed by two small extracts of archive recordings featuring Rundgren in the 1960s. The first was a performance of Barrett Strong's "Money (That's What I Want)" by a group with the same name, Money, recorded around 1966, while the second was a clip of "Messin' with the Kid" performed by Woody's Truck Stop in Philadelphia, late 1966.


title: Something/Anything?

text: "Something/Anything" was released in February 1972. White-labeled promotional DJ issues of the LP were pressed on colored vinyl — the first record on red vinyl, the second on blue. "Billboard" reviewed that Rundgren's songs "have an aura of being irreverent, irrelevant little ditties, while in reality they are penetratingly strident observations", and that he seemed to have had fun making the album. "Hello It's Me" was released as a single in September 1973, and reached #5 on the "Billboard" Hot 100.


title: Something/Anything?

text: According to "Encyclopedia of Popular Music" writer Colin Larkin, the album has since been "rightly regarded as one of the landmark releases of the early 70s". AllMusic especially praised the album's endearing tone and often adventurous variety of styles, commenting that "Listening to "Something/Anything?" is a mind-altering trip in itself, no matter how many instantly memorable, shamelessly accessible pop songs are scattered throughout the album." "Village Voice" critic Robert Christgau also applauded the album’s variety: "The many good songs span styles and subjects in a virtuoso display ... And the many ordinary ones are saved by Todd's confidence and verve." "Rolling Stone" found the songs "perfectly composed" while deeming the record Rundgren's "best-selling, most-enduring work born of desperation", one that "demonstrates his command of the studio, unfurling his falsetto over a kaleidoscope of rock genres". Axl Rose declared in a 1989 Rolling Stone interview that "Today, my favorite record is Todd Rundgren's "Something/Anything"".


title: Something/Anything?

text: Rundgren himself has been more ambivalent about the album's success and critical acclaim. He has stated several times that since he had already become successful as a producer, he was not as interested in straight commercial pop success as other artists. In particular, he rejected a tag of being "a male Carole King". "With all due respect," he later stated, "I took no comfort in merely being labeled a 'singer / songwriter'." Subsequent albums, beginning with the follow-up "A Wizard, A True Star" and the spin-off group Utopia, would see a radical shift away from straightforward three-minute pop.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: Junior Bake Off is a British television baking competition in which young bakers aged 9 to 15 tackle a series of challenges involving baking cakes, biscuits, bread, and pastries, competing to be crowned "Junior Bake Off" Champion.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: The series debuted in 2011 as a spin-off from "The Great British Bake Off" and is also produced by Love Productions. Four series of "Junior Bake Off" were broadcast on CBBC from 2011 to 2016. Following its parent series' departure from the BBC in 2017, "Junior Bake Off" resumed with a fifth series in 2019 on Channel 4, with comedian Harry Hill as presenter and Prue Leith and Liam Charles as judges. The fifth series concluded on 22 November 2019. The show returned for a sixth series on 11 January 2021. Junior Bake Off returned Monday 10 January 2022 for its seventh series and concluded on 28 January 2022. It was confirmed that "Junior Bake Off" will return in 2023 for its eighth series.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: Each series of "Junior Bake Off" includes 15 episodes. While "The Great British Bake Off" features three challenges per episode (signature, technical, and showstopper), "Junior Bake Off" includes only the technical and showstopper challenges. In the first four series, aired on CBBC from 2011–16, the format featured 40 young bakers aged 9 to 12 years old divided into 10 qualifying rounds or heats. Each episode featured only four bakers, with one winner each episode and the other three eliminated. The winning baker from each heat were brought back for 'Finals Week' (divided into two semi-finals, followed by two finals, and then one grand final) which determined the winner.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: The format was altered in 2019 when the series moved to Channel 4. The episodes were increased from 30 minutes to one hour, the number of bakers halved to 20 (16 from series 6), and the upper age range of the contestants increased from 12 to 15 (changed back to 12 from series 8). Instead of only four bakers taking part in each qualifying round, the bakers are divided into two groups of 10 each, with five eliminated from one group during the first five episodes, and five eliminated from the second group during the second five episodes. The remaining five bakers from each group are combined in the week-long finals, resulting in quarterfinals, semifinals and finals. The 'Star Baker' award, given to the judges' favourite baker in each episode, was not included in the CBBC version of the show but is a part of the Channel 4 format.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: The first series began on 31 October 2011 on CBBC with judges from the main show Paul Hollywood and Mary Berry.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: A third series began airing on 2 November 2015 on CBBC, with Sam Nixon and Mark Rhodes replacing Craze as hosts. Allegra McEvedy and Graham Hornigold took over from Berry and Martin as judges.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: The fourth series began on 7 November 2016 on CBBC. Allegra McEvedy returns as judge with Nadiya Hussain replacing Graham Hornigold. Presenters Sam & Mark returned to host.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: The fifth series began on 4 November 2019 on Channel 4. Harry Hill presented the series which was judged by Prue Leith and Liam Charles.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: The sixth series of "Junior Bake Off" began on 11 January 2021 on Channel 4 with Ravneet Gill replacing Prue Leith.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: The seventh series of "Junior Bake Off" began on 10 January 2022 on Channel 4. The series concluded on 28 January 2022.


title: Junior Bake Off

text: There's a Brazilian version of "Junior Bake Off" called "Junior Bake Off Brasil", which currently broadcasts on SBT.


title: Dogstar (band)

text: Dogstar is an American alternative rock group. They were initially active from the mid-1990s to the early 2000s, during which time the band found moderate success but garnered significant media attention due to the band's bassist being Hollywood actor Keanu Reeves.


title: Dogstar (band)

text: The genesis of Dogstar was a chance encounter between Robert Mailhouse and Keanu Reeves in a supermarket in 1991. Mailhouse was wearing a Detroit Red Wings hockey sweater, and Reeves (an avid hockey fan and a keen player of the sport) asked if Mailhouse needed a goalie. As the two men formed a friendship, they began jamming together, and were joined by Gregg Miller as the original lead guitarist and singer in 1992. Reeves said that one thing led to another in the band's history:


title: Dogstar (band)

text: The band originally called themselves Small Fecal Matter, and then BFS (Big Fucking Shit, or Big Fucking Sound), before settling on Dogstar, after Mailhouse found the name in the book "Sexus", written by Henry Miller.


title: Dogstar (band)

text: Dogstar was joined by Bret Domrose as an additional vocalist and guitarist in 1994. One year later, the band toured extensively throughout the U.S. and Asia, and opened for David Bowie at his 1995 Hollywood Palladium gig, where they covered a song by Pink Floyd, as well as for Bon Jovi on his 1995 "These Days - Crossroads" Tour in Australia and New Zealand. Miller however left the band at the end of the tour. With "Quattro Formaggi", they released their first sound carrier in the form of a four-track EP in 1996, via Zoo Entertainment, and followed this up with their debut album, "Our Little Visionary", which was only distributed in Japan, even though Dogstar already had a worldwide fanbase at the time. The band also performed at the Zee Cine Awards in India, the 1996 Zwemdokrock Festival in Lummen, Belgium, and the 1999 Glastonbury Festival in Pilton, Somerset, England.


title: Dogstar (band)

text: Although the band members had other work commitments, a second album, "Happy Ending", followed in 1999, produced by Michael Vail Blum and Richie Zito. Domrose called the music on this record more "pop-aggressive" than the band's earlier work. Their last performance was in October 2002 in Japan, and the band broke up afterwards. Domrose went on to perform as a solo artist, briefly played guitar with the band Berlin and is currently writing music for film and television. Reeves and Mailhouse later performed together in a band called "becky".


title: Dogstar (band)

text: Reeves was the bassist and backing vocalist of Dogstar and one of the two founding members. He is mostly known for his work as an actor in major Hollywood productions. In the end, he left the band to further pursue his acting career and meet his working schedule.


title: Dogstar (band)

text: Mailhouse was Dogstar's drummer / percussionist and the other of the two founding members. Like Reeves, Mailhouse has an acting career, but mostly for television productions, and has appeared in the NBC soap opera "Days of Our Lives", as well as the comedy series "Seinfeld".


title: Dogstar (band)

text: Miller joined Dogstar a year after Mailhouse's and Reeves first encounter as their leading guitarist and vocalist. He participated on the band's 1995 tour before leaving the band.


title: Dogstar (band)

text: Domrose joined in 1994 as an additional guitarist and vocalist. After Miller's departure from the band, he took the lead guitar and vocals position.


title: Dogstar (band)

text: The band appeared in the 1999 road drama "Me and Will", as well as the 2005 comedy-drama "Ellie Parker".


title: Dogstar (band)

text: Dogstar had several opening acts that went on to become notable, such as Rancid and Weezer (the latter's first gig was opening for Dogstar).


title: Kari Michaelsen

text: Kari Michaelsen (born Kari Markussen, November 3, 1961) is an American actress, television personality, and motivational speaker. As an actress, she is best known for her role as Katie Kanisky on the sitcom "Gimme a Break!" (1981–1987).


title: Kari Michaelsen

text: Born in Manhattan, Michaelsen followed her parents into show business. Her father, Arne Markussen, is a singer. Her mother, Roberta Stevenson, was a dancer. She sang on the soundtrack for "Sesame Street" and was performing in Off-Broadway plays by age 11. In 1975, her family moved to Beverly Hills, and Michaelsen (who changed her name from Markussen) soon won guest spots on such shows as "Diff'rent Strokes" and "Eight Is Enough". Her father is of Norwegian heritage.


title: Kari Michaelsen

text: She graduated from Beverly Hills High School in 1979 and studied at University of California, Los Angeles. She retired from television work in 2001. Kari has been doing public speaking and hosting educational seminars since 1990. She married David Waldock, a Mercedes-Benz executive, in July 2002. The couple had a son named Nickolas. Michaelsen and David Waldock were divorced in 2009.


title: Home invasion

text: A home invasion, also called a hot prowl burglary, is a sub-type of burglary (or in some jurisdictions, a separately defined crime) in which an offender unlawfully enters into a building residence while the occupants are inside. The overarching intent of a hot prowl burglary can be theft, robbery, assault, sexual assault, murder, kidnapping, or another crime, either by stealth or direct force. Hot prowl burglaries are considered especially dangerous by law enforcement because of the potential for a violent confrontation between the occupant and the offender.


title: Home invasion

text: The first published use of the term "home invasion" recorded in the "Oxford English Dictionary" is an article in "The Washington Post" on 1 February 1912, with an article in the "Los Angeles Times" on 18 March 1925 clearly indicating the modern meaning.


title: Home invasion

text: "Home-invasion robberies" were highlighted in June 1995, when the term appeared in the cover story of "The FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin" in an article written by Police Chief James T. Hurley of the Ft. Lauderdale, Florida, area, later republished on bNet, the online blog posted by Harvard Business School. Hurley posited that, at the time, the crime could be considered an alternative to bank or convenience store robberies, which were becoming more difficult to carry out due to technological advances in security. In the same article, Hurley recommended educating the public about home invasion. Before the term "home invasion" came into use, the term "hot burglary" was often used in the literature. Early references also use "burglary of occupied homes" and "burglar striking an occupied residence."


title: Home invasion

text: Connecticut Congressman Chris Murphy proposed in 2008 making home invasion a federal crime in the United States.


title: Home invasion

text: Home invasion differs from burglary in that its perpetrators have a violent intent apart from the unlawful entry itself, specific or general, much the same way as aggravated robbery—personally taking from someone by force—is differentiated from mere larceny (theft alone).


title: Home invasion

text: In some jurisdictions, there is a defined crime of home invasion; in others, there is no crime defined as home invasion, but events that accompany the invasion are charged as crimes. Where home invasion is defined, the definition and punishments vary by jurisdiction. It is not a legally defined federal offense throughout the United States, but is in several states, such as Georgia, Michigan, Connecticut, Illinois, Florida, Louisiana, and Nevada. Home invasion laws also have been introduced in the South Carolina General Assembly and in the State of Maryland. On March 15, 2011, a bill making home invasion deaths a capital crime in New Hampshire passed the New Hampshire House without debate.


title: Home invasion

text: Many U.S. states (particularly those that endorse the castle doctrine) include defending oneself against forcible entry of one's home as part of their definition of justifiable homicide without any obligation to retreat.


title: Home invasion

text: Home invasion as such is not defined as a crime in most countries other than the US, with offenders being charged according to the actual crimes committed once inside the building, such as armed robbery, rape or murder.


title: Home invasion

text: In English law, offenders who commit burglary while carrying a weapon can be convicted of the offence of aggravated burglary even if the weapon is not actually brandished or used.


title: Home invasion

text: In Canada, section 348 of the Criminal Code provides that home invasion can be considered an aggravating circumstance in cases of


title: Home invasion

text: The Lindbergh Kidnapping – In 1932, one-year-old Charles Augustus Lindbergh, Jr. was kidnapped from his family's home in East Amwell, New Jersey and later murdered. The offender perpetrated the crime by using a ladder to enter a second floor bedroom of the Lindbergh residence while the family was asleep.


title: Home invasion

text: The "Chauffeurs de la Drôme" (The Heaters of Drôme) were a gang of four men who carried out a series of attacks on remote dwellings in the Department of Drôme in south-west France between 1905 and 1908. They became notorious for roasting the feet of householders against the fireplace, to torture them into revealing the hiding places of valuables. Responsible for as many as 18 murders, three of the gang were executed on September 22, 1909. The fourth died on the penal colony on Devil's Island.


title: Home invasion

text: One well-known home invasion is the November 15, 1959, quadruple murder of the Clutter family by Richard "Dick" Hickock and Perry Edward Smith during a home-invasion robbery in rural Holcomb, Kansas. The murders were detailed in Truman Capote's "nonfiction novel" "In Cold Blood". However, the perpetrators were convicted of murder, not home invasion.


title: Home invasion

text: The BTK Killer – Between 1974 and 1991, a series of sexual assaults and murders was carried out in the Wichita, Kansas area. In most of the attacks, the offender broke into or forced his way into a residence, then killed one or more people.


title: Home invasion

text: The Golden State Killer – A serial killer and rapist who was active in California in the 1970s and 1980s, who is known to have murdered ten people between 1979 and 1986. His modus operandi was to break into the homes of his victims in the middle of the night and attack them as they slept.


title: Home invasion

text: The Night Stalker – A series of home invasion murders, rapes, and robberies plagued the Los Angeles, California area in the mid-1980s. In all, twelve murders were committed in southern California as part of this series.


title: Home invasion

text: Mr Cruel – An Australian paedophilic serial rapist who entered houses and attacked three girls in the northern and eastern suburbs of Melbourne, Victoria in the late 1980s and early 1990s.


title: Home invasion

text: Wichita Massacre – brothers Jonathan and Reginald Carr entered a house in December 2000, robbed the five residents, forced them into sex with each other and the attackers and then drove them to a snowy soccer field to be shot execution-style. One woman survived and testified against them in court, where they were given the death penalty.


title: Home invasion

text: Two paroled criminals were each charged with three counts of capital murder during a home invasion into the Petit family home in Cheshire, Connecticut, on July 23, 2007. During the invasion, the mother died of asphyxiation due to strangulation and the two daughters died of smoke inhalation after the suspects set the house on fire. The men were charged with first-degree sexual assault, murder of a kidnapped person, and murder of two or more people at the same time. The state attorney sought the death penalty against the suspects. The first defendant, Steven Hayes, was found guilty of 16 of 17 counts including capital murder on October 5, 2010, and on November 8, 2010, was sentenced to death. His co-defendant, Joshua Komisarjevsky, was convicted of all 17 counts against him in October 2011, and was also sentenced to death. Both men later had their sentences commuted to life without parole when Connecticut abolished the death penalty in 2015.


title: Home invasion

text: Another home invasion occurred on November 26, 2007, when Washington Redskins star Sean Taylor was murdered during an overnight home invasion of his suburban Miami home. Five men were convicted of the crime and given sentences ranging from 18 years to life imprisonment.


title: A Prophet

text: A Prophet () is a 2009 French prison crime film directed by Jacques Audiard with a screenplay by Audiard, with Thomas Bidegain, Abdel Raouf Dafri, and Nicolas Peufaillit, from a story by Dafri. The film stars Tahar Rahim in the title role as an imprisoned petty criminal of Algerian origins who rises in the inmate hierarchy, becoming an assassin and drug trafficker as he initiates himself into the Corsican and then Muslim subcultures.


title: A Prophet

text: Malik El Djebena, a 19-year-old French youth of Algerian descent, is sentenced to six years in prison for attacking police officers. Alone and illiterate upon his arrival, he falls under the sway of Corsican mobsters, led by César Luciani, who enforces a brutal rule.


title: A Prophet

text: The prison is divided between two main factions: the Corsicans and the Muslims. Malik keeps to himself. When Luciani forces him to be the unwilling assassin of Reyeb, a Muslim witness in a trial, Malik gains the protection of the Corsicans despite his North African origin.


title: A Prophet

text: Malik serves as a low-level servant to the Corsicans, who treat him with disdain. All the while, he is haunted by visions of the murdered Reyeb.


title: A Prophet

text: When most of the Corsicans are transferred or released, Luciani is forced to give Malik more responsibility. Having secretly learned Corsican, Malik acts as Luciani's eyes and ears in the prison. When Malik earns the privilege of day-long furloughs outside the prison, Luciani relies on him to conduct Luciani's criminal business outside.


title: A Prophet

text: Ryad, a Muslim friend, teaches Malik to read and write, and the two become close. Ryad teaches Malik about his own heritage, introducing him to two other Muslims, Tarik and Hassan, and increases his power within the prison.


title: A Prophet

text: Malik also becomes involved with a prison drug dealer, Jordi. When Ryad gains an early release due to testicular cancer, the three partners organize a drug-running enterprise to sell hashish. But when Ryad is kidnapped by the drug dealer Latif, Malik tracks down Latif's relative inside the prison. He kidnaps the relative's family and forces Latif's gang to release Ryad.


title: A Prophet

text: When Luciani discovers that Malik is using his day-releases for his own personal enterprise, he punishes him. Malik is sent to meet Brahim Lattrache in Marseille, another Muslim, who is involved in a deal between Luciani and the Lingherris, an Italian mafia group. Lattrache is bitter toward the Corsicans for the murder of Reyeb and holds Malik at gunpoint. When Malik spots a deer warning sign, he remembers a recent dream of deer running in the road. He tells his kidnappers that they are in danger of hitting wild animals, and they suddenly strike a deer. Lattrache is impressed by Malik, calling him a prophet and agreeing to conduct criminal business with him instead of Luciani, even though Malik admitted that he killed Reyeb.


title: A Prophet

text: Luciani believes there is a "mole" in his organization and decides to use Malik to assassinate Jacky Marcaggi, the don of the Corsican mafia, for secretly dealing with the Lingherris. But Malik and Ryad have their own plan for Marcaggi: they kill his bodyguards, kidnap him, and inform him that it was Luciani who ordered the hit before abandoning him in the city.


title: A Prophet

text: Malik takes refuge at Ryad's house with his wife and young son. Ryad's cancer has returned; his decision to forego more chemotherapy leaves him just six months to live. He gets Malik to promise to take care of his family when he's gone.


title: A Prophet

text: Upon Malik's return to the prison, he is placed in solitary for returning late - putting him out of reach of Luciani's retribution - while Marcaggi uses his influence to wipe out much of Luciani's faction. Once back in general population, Malik joins the Muslim faction in the yard. When a now powerless Luciani tries to approach him, two Muslims intercept and beat him.


title: A Prophet

text: On the day of his release, Malik is met by Ryad's wife and son outside the prison. They walk off together, followed by a vehicle convoy carrying Malik's new associates.


title: A Prophet

text: Audiard stated that in making the film he intended to "creat[e] icons, images for people who don't have images in movies, like the Arabs in France," though he also had stated that the film "has nothing to do with his vision of society," and is a work of fiction.


title: A Prophet

text: Audiard had been thinking about making a film set in prison after he had attended a screening of one of his films in one such institution and found himself shocked by the conditions there. The film's screenplay was submitted to them by a producer and reworked by Audiard and Thomas Bidegain.


title: A Prophet

text: Audiard cast Niels Arestrup as the Corsican crime boss César Luciani, after featuring him in his previous film, "The Beat that My Heart Skipped." He met Tahar Rahim, who plays Malik, when they shared an automobile ride from another film set. To ensure the authenticity of the prison experience, Audiard hired former convicts as advisors and extras.


title: A Prophet

text: "A Prophet" received widespread critical acclaim. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes reports that 97% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 160 reviews, with an average score of 8.3/10, making the film a "Certified Fresh" on the website's rating system. Its critical consensus states that "Featuring an impressive star turn by newcomer Tahar Rahim, "A Prophet" is a French gangster film filled with arresting, immediate details." At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the film received an average score of 90, based on 31 reviews, which indicates "Universal acclaim".


title: A Prophet

text: Reception of the film after its debut screening at 2009 Cannes Film Festival at the competition was good. "A Prophet" was picked as the best film of the festival by a group of sixteen English-language critics and bloggers polled by the daily independent film news site indieWIRE.


title: A Prophet

text: Karin Badt at "The Huffington Post" called it "refreshingly free". Jonathan Romney of Screen International said that the film "works both as hard-edged, painstaking detailed social realism and as a compelling genre entertainment."


title: A Prophet

text: Luke Davies of "The Monthly" criticized some of the film's stylistic methodology and content, asserting that the prophetic themes could have been stretched out, but he celebrated the film's central character and his well-executed "improbable rise from invisibility to dominance", describing "what gives [the film] such dynamic energy is the seamlessness with which this transition unfolds". Davies described the film's main achievement as conveying a character as "someone we care about and gun for," who started life on screen as a blank slate.


title: A Prophet

text: "A Prophet" won the BAFTA for Best Film Not in the English Language and nine Césars (including Best Film, Director, Actor and Supporting Actor), in addition to prizes at both the 2009 Cannes Film Festival and the London Film Festival. It was nominated for the Best Foreign Language Film at the 82nd Academy Awards.


title: A Prophet

text: It was the submission of France for the 82nd Academy Awards for Best Foreign Film. On 2 February 2010, when Academy Award nominations were announced, "A Prophet" received a nomination for Best Foreign Language film. The other four films in the category were "Ajami", "The Milk of Sorrow" and "The White Ribbon", and the eventual winner, "El secreto de sus ojos".


title: A Prophet

text: "A Prophet" won the Grand Prix at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival. At the 53rd London Film Festival, it won the Best Film Award. It won the Prix Louis Delluc 2009. At the 63rd British Academy Film Awards, it won a BAFTA for Best Film Not in the English Language. It was nominated for 13 César Awards, tying it with three other films for the most nominations of any film in César history. It won 9 Césars at the ceremony, including Best Film, Best Director, Best Actor and Best Supporting Actor. The film was nominated for the Grand Prix of the Belgian Syndicate of Cinema Critics. The film also won London's Favourite French Film award in 2010, as well as Best Foreign Film at the 13th annual British Independent Film Awards, which were held in London at the Old Billingsgate on 5 December 2010.


title: A Prophet

text: "A Prophet" was also nominated for Best International Film at the 8th Irish Film and Television Awards, an award that went to "The Social Network".


title: A Prophet

text: In the United Kingdom, the film grossed (), making it the fourth highest-grossing foreign-language film of 2010 in the UK (below "My Name Is Khan", "The Girl with the Dragon Tattoo", and "The Girl Who Played with Fire").


title: A Prophet

text: In the United Kingdom, it was 2012's eighth most-watched foreign-language film on television with 190,000 viewers on Channel 4, and the year's most-watched French-language film.


title: A Prophet

text: On 22 January 2016, "Deadline" reported that Sam Raimi is in talks to direct Sony's remake of the film, with Neal H. Moritz and Tobe Jaffe producing, and Dennis Lehane writing the script. On February 14, 2020, it was reported that Paramount Players acquired the project, which became Rapman’s "American Son" with Stephan James and Russell Crowe.


title: Our Souls at Night

text: Our Souls at Night is a 2017 American romantic drama film directed by Ritesh Batra and written by Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber. It is based on the novel of same name by Kent Haruf. The film stars Robert Redford, Jane Fonda, Matthias Schoenaerts, and Judy Greer. It had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on September 1, 2017. It was released on September 29, 2017 by Netflix. It marked the fourth collaboration between Fonda and Redford, having previously starred in "The Chase", "Barefoot in the Park", and "The Electric Horseman".


title: Our Souls at Night

text: The film received acclaim from critics, who appreciated the film's direction, adaptation from the novel, and performances (especially Fonda), with critics widely praising the casting of Fonda and Redford and their chemistry.


title: Our Souls at Night

text: The setting is the fictitious small Colorado city of Holt, where Louis Waters, a widower, and Addie Moore, a widow, have been neighbors for decades but hardly know each other. One night, Addie visits Louis to suggest they spend the night together, non-sexually, to counter their loneliness. Although Louis is initially somewhat hesitant, he soon agrees and they start spending their evenings and nights at Addie's house.


title: Our Souls at Night

text: At the start of the summer, Addie's son Gene drops off his son Jamie at Addie's house, as his marriage has fallen apart. Jamie spends the entire summer with Louis and Addie, who also adopt a dog for Jamie. At the end of the summer, Gene returns to pick up Jamie and confronts Addie about her relationship with Louis, which he disapproves of because of Louis’ past affair. Addie, however, refuses to break off the relationship.


title: Our Souls at Night

text: Sometime later, Addie is hospitalized after a fall. Her son Gene attempts to persuade her to move in with him, which Addie initially refuses. However, when she receives a distress phone call from Jamie in the middle of the night, she reconsiders. When she and Louis arrive at the house, they find Gene drunk and he confesses he has always believed Addie blamed him for his sister's death. She decides family must come first and decides to move in with Gene and Jamie. Addie and Louis spend their last night together. Both she and Louis are back to sleeping alone. Louis sends an electric train set for Jamie and a cell phone for her. After getting into bed, she calls him and they start talking like old friends.


title: Our Souls at Night

text: On July 7, 2016, Netflix hired Ritesh Batra to direct the film adaptation of Kent Haruf's novel "Our Souls at Night", scripted by Scott Neustadter and Michael H. Weber.


title: Our Souls at Night

text: Principal photography on the film began on September 12, 2016 in Colorado Springs, Colorado, and it also was shot in Florence, Colorado. Filming was completed on November 2, 2016.


title: Our Souls at Night

text: The film had its world premiere at the Venice Film Festival on September 1, 2017. It was released on September 29, 2017 on Netflix streaming.


title: Our Souls at Night

text: The film's release in the United Kingdom attracted some commentary from critics and media observers because the first two words of the title sound (when read aloud) like "arseholes", a minor obscenity in British vernacular, equating to "assholes". This led to calls on Netflix to change the title of the film for UK release; Netflix responded that it had no intention of retitling the film.


title: Our Souls at Night

text: On review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 88% based on 41 reviews and an average rating of 7.47/10. The website's critical consensus reads, ""Our Souls at Night" honors the quiet strength of its source material by offering a simple yet sturdy canvas for two talented veteran leads to bring its story to life." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 69 out of 100 based on 15 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: The subsequent Nuremberg trials were a series of 12 military tribunals for war crimes against members of the leadership of Nazi Germany between December 1946 and April 1949. They followed the first and best-known Nuremberg trial before the International Military Tribunal which concluded in October 1946. In contrast, the subsequent trials were conducted before U.S. military courts rather than an international court. They are also collectively known as the Nuremberg Military Tribunals.


title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: These trials dealt with German industrialists accused of using slave labor and plundering occupied countries, and high-ranking army officers accused of atrocities against prisoners of war. The subsequent trials were held in the same location, at the Palace of Justice in Nuremberg.


title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: Although it had been initially planned to hold more than just one international trial at the IMT, the growing differences between the victors of the second world war (the United States, United Kingdom, France, and Soviet Union) made this impossible. However, the Control Council Law No. 10, which the Allied Control Council had issued on 20 December 1945, empowered any of the occupying authorities to try suspected war criminals in their respective occupation zones. Based on this law, the U.S. authorities proceeded after the end of the initial Nuremberg Trial against the major war criminals to hold another twelve trials in Nuremberg. The judges in all these trials were American, and so were the prosecutors; the Chief of Counsel for the Prosecution was Brigadier General Telford Taylor. In the other occupation zones similar trials took place.


title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: The twelve U.S. trials before the Nuremberg Military Tribunals (NMT) took place from 9 December 1946 to 13 April 1949. The trials were as follows:


title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: The Nuremberg process initiated 3,887 cases of which about 3,400 were dropped. 489 cases went to trial, involving 1,672 defendants. 1,416 of them were found guilty; fewer than 200 were executed, and another 279 defendants were sent to life in prison. By the 1950s almost all of them had been released.


title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: Many of the longer prison sentences were reduced substantially by an amnesty under the decree of high commissioner John J. McCloy in 1951, after intense political pressure. Ten outstanding death sentences from the "Einsatzgruppen" Trial were converted to prison terms. Many others who had received prison sentences were released outright.


title: Subsequent Nuremberg trials

text: Some of the NMTs have been criticised for their conclusion that "morale bombing" of civilians, including its nuclear variety, was legal, and for their judgement that, in certain situations, executing civilians in reprisal was permissible.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: Aiken is the largest city in, and the county seat of, Aiken County, in western South Carolina. It is one of the two largest cities of the Central Savannah River Area. Founded in 1835, Aiken was named after William Aiken, the president of the South Carolina Railroad. It became part of Aiken County when the county was formed in 1871 from parts of Orangeburg, Lexington, Edgefield, and Barnwell counties.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: Aiken is home to the University of South Carolina Aiken. According to 2020 census, the population was 32,025. The National Civic League gave Aiken the All-America City Award in 1997. Aiken was also named "best small town of the South" by Southern Living.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: Aiken is near the center of Aiken County. It is northeast of Augusta, Georgia, along U.S. Route 1 and 78. Interstate 20 passes to the north of the city, with access via South Carolina Highway 19 (Exit 18) and US 1 (Exit 22).


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has an area of , of which is land and , or 0.68%, is water.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: Aiken has a humid subtropical climate characterized by hot, humid summers and cool, dry winters, but experiences milder temperatures throughout the year than the rest of the state. Precipitation is distributed relatively uniformly throughout the year, with mostly rain in the milder months and occasional snow in the winter. The coldest recorded temperature was on January 21, 1985, and the hottest on August 21, 1983.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 32,025 people, 12,923 households, and 8,479 families residing in the city.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 29,524 people and 12,773 households with a population density was . There were 14,162 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 66.8% White, 28.5% Black or African American, 0.25% Native American, 1.28% Asian, 0.01% Pacific Islander, 0.44% from other races, and 1.09% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 2.6% of the population.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: There were 10,287 households, out of which 28.1% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.9% were married couples living together, 13.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.3% were non-families. 29.6% of all households were made up of individuals, and 11.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.34 and the average family size was 2.90.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 23.2% under the age of 18, 9.4% from 18 to 24, 25.5% from 25 to 44, 24.0% from 45 to 64, and 17.8% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 40 years. For every 100 females, there were 87.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.0 males.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: The median income for a household in the city was $49,100, and the median income for a family was $63,520. Males had a median income of $51,988 versus $28,009 for females. The per capita income for the city was $24,129. About 10.1% of families and 14.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 21.0% of those under age 18 and 10.5% of those age 65 or over.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: Aiken is governed via a mayor-council system. A mayor is elected at large. The city council consists of six members. All six members are elected from single-member districts.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: The municipality of Aiken was incorporated on December 19, 1835. The community formed around the terminus of the South Carolina Canal and Railroad Company, a rail line from Charleston to the Savannah River, and was named for William Aiken, the railroad's first president.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: During Sherman's March to the Sea in the American Civil War Sherman ordered Hugh Judson Kilpatrick and the cavalry corps he commanded to march through South Carolina. By February 5, they had reached Aiken County. While in Aiken county Kilpatrick fought Joseph Wheeler and his cavalry corps. This battle, called the Battle of Aiken, was a Confederate victory.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: Originally it was in the Edgefield District. With population increases, in 1871 Aiken County was organized, made up of parts of neighboring counties. Among its founding commissioners were three African-American legislators: Prince Rivers; Samuel J. Lee, speaker of the state House and the first black man admitted to the South Carolina Bar; and Charles D. Hayne, a free man of color from one of Charleston's elite families.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: Aiken was a planned town, and many of the streets in the historic district are named for other cities and counties in South Carolina, including Abbeville, Barnwell, Beaufort, Chesterfield, Colleton, Columbia, Dillon, Edgefield, Edisto, Fairfield, Florence, Greenville, Hampton, Horry, Jasper, Kershaw, Lancaster, Laurens, Marion, Marlboro, McCormick, Newberry, Orangeburg, Pendleton, Pickens, Richland, Sumter, Union, Williamsburg and York.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: In the late 19th century, Aiken gained fame as a wintering spot for wealthy people from the Northeast. Thomas Hitchcock, Sr. and William C. Whitney established the Aiken Winter Colony. Over the years Aiken became a winter home for many notable people, including George H. Bostwick, James B. Eustis, Madeleine Astor, William Kissam Vanderbilt, Eugene Grace, president of Bethlehem Steel, Allan Pinkerton, and W. Averell Harriman.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: Between 1890 and the 1920s, many Jewish immigrants settled in Aiken. The Jewish immigrants were from Eastern Europe, including Russia and Poland. Many were from Knyszyn, Poland. In 1905, a group of Russian-Jewish socialists from New York founded a farming colony in Aiken County that was known as "Happyville". Adath (Adas) Yeshurun (Congregation of Israel) Synagogue was chartered in Aiken in 1921 and the cornerstone was laid in 1925. An historical marker was added to the synagogue in 2014, sponsored by the Jewish Historical Society of South Carolina. In 1903, the Jewish-American peddler Abraham Surasky was the victim of an antisemitic murder that occurred near Aiken.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: The United States Atomic Energy Commission's selection of a site near Aiken for a plant to produce fuel for thermonuclear weapons was announced on November 30, 1950. Residences and businesses at Ellenton, South Carolina, were bought for use for the plant site. Residents were moved to New Ellenton, which was constructed about eight miles north, or to neighboring towns.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: The site was named the Savannah River Plant, and renamed the Savannah River Site in 1989. The facility contains five production reactors, fuel fabrication facilities, a research laboratory, heavy water production facilities, two fuel reprocessing facilities, and tritium recovery facilities.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: The Aiken Steeplechase Association, founded in 1930, hosts the Imperial Cup each March and the Holiday Cup in October, both races sanctioned by the National Steeplechase Association. This event draws more than 30,000 spectators.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: The Aiken Thoroughbred Racing Hall of Fame and Museum was established in 1977 as a tribute to the famous flat racing and steeplechase thoroughbred horses trained at the Aiken Training Track.


title: Aiken, South Carolina

text: In the late 19th century and the first part of the 20th century, Aiken served as a winter playground for many of the country's wealthiest families, such as the Vanderbilts, Bostwicks, and the Whitneys.


title: Model theory

text: In mathematical logic, model theory is the study of the relationship between formal theories (a collection of sentences in a formal language expressing statements about a mathematical structure), and their models (those structures in which the statements of the theory hold). The aspects investigated include the number and size of models of a theory, the relationship of different models to each other, and their interaction with the formal language itself. In particular, model theorists also investigate the sets that can be defined in a model of a theory, and the relationship of such definable sets to each other.


title: Model theory

text: As a separate discipline, model theory goes back to Alfred Tarski, who first used the term "Theory of Models" in publication in 1954.


title: Model theory

text: Compared to other areas of mathematical logic such as proof theory, model theory is often less concerned with formal rigour and closer in spirit to classical mathematics.


title: Model theory

text: This has prompted the comment that ""if proof theory is about the sacred, then model theory is about the profane"".


title: Model theory

text: The applications of model theory to algebraic and diophantine geometry reflect this proximity to classical mathematics, as they often involve an integration of algebraic and model-theoretic results and techniques.


title: Model theory

text: The most prominent scholarly organization in the field of model theory is the Association for Symbolic Logic.


title: Model theory

text: The relative emphasis placed on the class of models of a theory as opposed to the class of definable sets within a model fluctuated in the history of the subject, and the two directions are summarised by the pithy characterisations from 1973 and 1997 respectively:


title: Model theory

text: Nonetheless, the interplay of classes of models and the sets definable in them has been crucial to the development of model theory throughout its history. For instance, while stability was originally introduced to classify theories by their numbers of models in a given cardinality, stability theory proved crucial to understanding the geometry of definable sets.


title: Model theory

text: A first-order "formula" is built out of atomic formulas such as "R"("f"("x","y"),"z") or "y" = "x" + 1 by means of the Boolean connectives formula_1 and prefixing of quantifiers formula_2 or formula_3. A sentence is a formula in which each occurrence of a variable is in the scope of a corresponding quantifier. Examples for formulas are φ (or φ(x) to mark the fact that at most x is an unbound variable in φ) and ψ defined as follows:


title: Model theory

text: (Note that the equality symbol has a double meaning here.) It is intuitively clear how to translate such formulas into mathematical meaning. In the σ-structure formula_5 of the natural numbers, for example, an element "n" "satisfies" the formula φ if and only if "n" is a prime number. The formula ψ similarly defines irreducibility. Tarski gave a rigorous definition, sometimes called "Tarski's definition of truth", for the satisfaction relation formula_6, so that one easily proves:


title: Model theory

text: A set formula_9 of sentences is called a (first-order) theory, which takes the sentences in the set as its axioms. A theory is "satisfiable" if it has a "model" formula_10, i.e. a structure (of the appropriate signature) which satisfies all the sentences in the set formula_9. A complete theory is a theory that contains every sentence or its negation.


title: Model theory

text: The complete theory of all sentences satisfied by a structure is also called the "theory of that structure".


title: Model theory

text: It's a consequence of Gödel's completeness theorem (not to be confused with his incompleteness theorems) that a theory has a model if and only if it is consistent, i.e. no contradiction is proved by the theory.


title: Model theory

text: A signature or language is a set of non-logical symbols such that each symbol is either a constant symbol, or a function or relation symbol with a specified arity. Note that in some literature, constant symbols are considered as function symbols with zero arity, and hence are omitted. A structure is a set formula_12 together with interpretations of each of the symbols of the signature as relations and functions on formula_13 (not to be confused with the formal notion of an "interpretation" of one structure in another).


title: Model theory

text: Example: A common signature for ordered rings is formula_14, where formula_15 and formula_16 are 0-ary function symbols (also known as constant symbols), formula_17 and formula_18 are binary (= 2-ary) function symbols, formula_19 is a unary (= 1-ary) function symbol, and formula_20 is a binary relation symbol. Then, when these symbols are interpreted to correspond with their usual meaning on formula_21 (so that e.g. formula_22 is a function from formula_23 to formula_21 and formula_20 is a subset of formula_23), one obtains a structure formula_27.


title: Model theory

text: A structure formula_28 is said to model a set of first-order sentences formula_29 in the given language if each sentence in formula_9 is true in formula_31 with respect to the interpretation of the signature previously specified for formula_28. (Again, not to be confused with the formal notion of an "interpretation" of one structure in another)


title: Model theory

text: A substructure formula_33 of a σ-structure formula_34 is a subset of its domain, closed under all functions in its signature σ, which is regarded as a σ-structure by restricting all functions and relations in σ to the subset.


title: Model theory

text: This generalises the analogous concepts from algebra; For instance, a subgroup is a substructure in the signature with multiplication and inverse.


title: Model theory

text: A substructure is said to be "elementary" if for any first-order formula φ and any elements "a", ..., "a" of formula_33,


title: Model theory

text: In particular, if "φ" is a sentence and formula_33 an elementary substructure of formula_34, then formula_40 if and only if formula_41. Thus, an elementary substructure is a model of a theory exactly when the superstructure is a model.


title: Model theory

text: Example: While the field of algebraic numbers formula_42 is an elementary substructure of the field of complex numbers formula_43, the rational field formula_44 is not, as we can express "There is a square root of 2" as a first-order sentence satisfied by formula_43 but not by formula_44.


title: Model theory

text: An embedding of a σ-structure formula_33 into another σ-structure formula_34 is a map "f": "A" → "B" between the domains which can be written as an isomorphism of formula_33 with a substructure of formula_34. If it can be written as an isomorphism with an elementary substructure, it is called an elementary embedding. Every embedding is an injective homomorphism, but the converse holds only if the signature contains no relation symbols, such as in groups or fields.


title: Model theory

text: A field or a vector space can be regarded as a (commutative) group by simply ignoring some of its structure. The corresponding notion in model theory is that of a "reduct" of a structure to a subset of the original signature. The opposite relation is called an "expansion" - e.g. the (additive) group of the rational numbers, regarded as a structure in the signature {+,0} can be expanded to a field with the signature {×,+,1,0} or to an ordered group with the signature {+,0,<}.


title: Model theory

text: Similarly, if σ' is a signature that extends another signature σ, then a complete σ'-theory can be restricted to σ by intersecting the set of its sentences with the set of σ-formulas. Conversely, a complete σ-theory can be regarded as a σ'-theory, and one can extend it (in more than one way) to a complete σ'-theory. The terms reduct and expansion are sometimes applied to this relation as well.


title: Model theory

text: The compactness theorem states that a set of sentences S is satisfiable if every finite subset of S is satisfiable. The analogous statement with "consistent" instead of "satisfiable" is trivial, since every proof can have only a finite number of antecedents used in the proof. The completeness theorem allows us to transfer this to satisfiability. However, there are also several direct (semantic) proofs of the compactness theorem.


title: Model theory

text: As a corollary (i.e., its contrapositive), the compactness theorem says that every unsatisfiable first-order theory has a finite unsatisfiable subset. This theorem is of central importance in model theory, where the words "by compactness" are commonplace.


title: Model theory

text: According to the Löwenheim-Skolem Theorem, every infinite structure in a countable signature has a countable elementary substructure. Conversely, for any infinite cardinal κ every infinite structure in a countable signature that is of cardinality less than κ can be elementarily embedded in another structure of cardinality κ (There is a straightforward generalisation to uncountable signatures). In particular, the Löwenheim-Skolem Theorem implies that any theory in a countable signature with infinite models has a countable model as well as arbitrarily large models.


title: Model theory

text: In a certain sense made precise by Lindström's theorem, first-order logic is the most expressive logic for which both the Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem hold.


title: Model theory

text: In model theory, definable sets are important objects of study. For instance, in formula_51 the formula


title: Model theory

text: In a similar way, formulas with "n" free variables define subsets of formula_54. For example, in a field, the formula


title: Model theory

text: Both of the definitions mentioned here are "parameter-free", that is, the defining formulas don't mention any fixed domain elements. However, one can also consider definitions "with parameters from the model".


title: Model theory

text: In general, definable sets without quantifiers are easy to describe, while definable sets involving possibly nested quantifiers can be much more complicated.


title: Model theory

text: A theory "T" has quantifier elimination if every first-order formula φ("x", ..., "x") over its signature is equivalent modulo "T" to a first-order formula ψ("x", ..., "x") without quantifiers, i.e. formula_62 holds in all models of "T".


title: Model theory

text: If the theory of a structure has quantifier elimination, every set definable in a structure is definable by a quantifier-free formula over the same parameters as the original definition.


title: Model theory

text: For example, the theory of algebraically closed fields in the signature σ = (×,+,−,0,1) has quantifier elimination. This means that in an algebraically closed field, every formula is equivalent to a Boolean combination of equations between polynomials.


title: Model theory

text: If a theory does not have quantifier elimination, one can add additional symbols to its signature so that it does. Axiomatisability and quantifier elimination results for specific theories, especially in algebra, were among the early landmark results of model theory. But often instead of quantifier elimination a weaker property suffices:


title: Model theory

text: A theory "T" is called model-complete if every substructure of a model of "T" which is itself a model of "T" is an elementary substructure. There is a useful criterion for testing whether a substructure is an elementary substructure, called the Tarski–Vaught test. It follows from this criterion that a theory "T" is model-complete if and only if every first-order formula φ("x", ..., "x") over its signature is equivalent modulo "T" to an existential first-order formula, i.e. a formula of the following form:


title: Model theory

text: where ψ is quantifier free. A theory that is not model-complete may have a model completion, which is a related model-complete theory that is not, in general, an extension of the original theory. A more general notion is that of a model companion.


title: Model theory

text: In every structure, every finite subset formula_64 is definable with parameters: Simply use the formula


title: Model theory

text: Since we can negate this formula, every cofinite subset (which includes all but finitely many elements of the domain) is also always definable.


title: Model theory

text: A structure formula_66 is called minimal if every subset formula_67 definable with parameters from formula_66 is either finite or cofinite.


title: Model theory

text: A structure is called "strongly minimal" if the theory of that structure is strongly minimal. Equivalently, a structure is strongly minimal if every elementary extension is minimal.


title: Model theory

text: Since the theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination, every definable subset of an algebraically closed field is definable by a quantifier-free formula in one variable. Quantifier-free formulas in one variable express Boolean combinations of polynomial equations in one variable, and since a nontrivial polynomial equation in one variable has only a finite number of solutions, the theory of algebraically closed fields is strongly minimal.


title: Model theory

text: On the other hand, the field formula_58 of real numbers is not minimal: Consider, for instance, the definable set


title: Model theory

text: A densely totally ordered structure formula_66 in a signature including a symbol for the order relation is called o-minimal if every subset formula_67 definable with parameters from formula_66 is a finite union of points and intervals.


title: Model theory

text: Particularly important are those definable sets that are also substructures, i. e. contain all constants and are closed under function application. For instance, one can study the definable subgroups of a certain group.


title: Model theory

text: However, there is no need to limit oneself to substructures in the same signature. Since formulas with "n" free variables define subsets of formula_54, "n"-ary relations can also be definable. Functions are definable if the function graph is a definable relation, and constants formula_77 are definable if there is a formula formula_78 such that "a" is the only element of formula_66 such that formula_80 is true.


title: Model theory

text: In this way, one can study definable groups and fields in general structures, for instance, which has been important in geometric stability theory.


title: Model theory

text: Given a mathematical structure, there are very often associated structures which can be constructed as a quotient of part of the original structure via an equivalence relation. An important example is a quotient group of a group.


title: Model theory

text: One might say that to understand the full structure one must understand these quotients. When the equivalence relation is definable, we can give the previous sentence a precise meaning. We say that these structures are "interpretable".


title: Model theory

text: A key fact is that one can translate sentences from the language of the interpreted structures to the language of the original structure. Thus one can show that if a structure formula_66 interprets another whose theory is undecidable, then formula_66 itself is undecidable.


title: Model theory

text: For a sequence of elements formula_83 of a structure formula_66 and a subset "A" of formula_66, one can consider the set of all first-order formulas formula_86 with parameters in "A" that are satisfied by formula_83. This is called the "complete (n-)type realised by" formula_83 "over A".


title: Model theory

text: If there is an automorphism of formula_66 that is constant on "A" and sends formula_83 to formula_91 respectively, then formula_83 and formula_91 realise the same complete type over "A".


title: Model theory

text: The real number line formula_58, viewed as a structure with only the order relation {<}, will serve as a running example in this section.


title: Model theory

text: Every element formula_95 satisfies the same 1-type over the empty set. This is clear since any two real numbers "a" and "b" are connected by the order automorphism that shifts all numbers by "b-a". The complete 2-type over the empty set realised by a pair of numbers formula_96 depends on their order: either formula_97, formula_98 or formula_99.


title: Model theory

text: Over the subset formula_100 of integers, the 1-type of a non-integer real number "a" depends on its value rounded down to the nearest integer.


title: Model theory

text: More generally, whenever formula_66 is a structure and "A" a subset of formula_66, a (partial) "n-type over A" is a set of formulas "p" with at most "n" free variables that are realised in an elementary extension formula_103 of formula_66.


title: Model theory

text: If "p" contains every such formula or its negation, then "p" is "complete". The set of complete "n"-types over "A" is often written as formula_105. If "A" is the empty set, then the type space only depends on the theory formula_9 of formula_66. The notation formula_108 is commonly used for the set of types over the empty set consistent with formula_9.


title: Model theory

text: If there is a single formula formula_110 such that the theory of formula_66 implies formula_112 for every formula formula_113 in "p", then "p" is called "isolated".


title: Model theory

text: Since the real numbers formula_58 are Archimedean, there is no real number larger than every integer. However, a compactness argument shows that there is an elementary extension of the real number line in which there is an element larger than any integer.


title: Model theory

text: Therefore, the set of formulas formula_115 is a 1-type over formula_100 that is not realised in the real number line formula_58.


title: Model theory

text: A subset of formula_54 that can be expressed as exactly those elements of formula_54 realising a certain type over "A" is called "type-definable" over "A".


title: Model theory

text: For an algebraic example, suppose formula_120 is an algebraically closed field. The theory has quantifier elimination . This allows us to show that a type is determined exactly by the polynomial equations it contains. Thus the set of complete formula_121-types over a subfield formula_122 corresponds to the set of prime ideals of the polynomial ring formula_123, and the type-definable sets are exactly the affine varieties.


title: Model theory

text: If the only types over the empty set that are realised in a structure are the isolated types, then the structure is called "atomic".


title: Model theory

text: On the other hand, no structure realises every type over every parameter set; if one takes all of formula_66 as the parameter set, then every 1-type over formula_66 realised in formula_66 is isolated by a formula of the form "a = x" for an formula_127. However, any proper elementary extension of formula_66 contains an element that is "not" in formula_66. Therefore a weaker notion has been introduced that captures the idea of a structure realising all types it could be expected to realise.


title: Model theory

text: A structure is called "saturated" if it realises every type over a parameter set formula_130 that is of smaller cardinality than formula_66 itself.


title: Model theory

text: While an automorphism that is constant on "A" will always preserve types over "A", it is generally not true that any two sequences formula_83 and formula_91 that satisfy the same type over "A" can be mapped to each other by such an automorphism. A structure formula_66 in which this converse does holds for all "A" of smaller cardinality than formula_66 is called homogeneous.


title: Model theory

text: The real number line is atomic in the language that contains only the order formula_136, since all "n"-types over the empty set realised by formula_83 in formula_58 are isolated by the order relations between the formula_83. It is not saturated, however, since it does not realise any 1-type over the countable set formula_140 that implies "x" to be larger than any integer.


title: Model theory

text: The rational number line formula_44 is saturated, in contrast, since formula_44 is itself countable and therefore only has to realise types over finite subsets to be saturated.


title: Model theory

text: The set of definable subsets of formula_54 over some parameters formula_122 is a Boolean algebra. By Stone's representation theorem for Boolean algebras there is a natural dual topological space, which consists exactly of the complete formula_121-types over formula_122. The topology generated by sets of the form formula_147 for single formulas formula_71. This is called the "Stone space of n-types over A".


title: Model theory

text: This topology explains some of the terminology used in model theory: The compactness theorem says that the Stone space is a compact topological space, and a type "p" is isolated if and only if "p" is an isolated point in the Stone topology.


title: Model theory

text: While types in algebraically closed fields correspond to the spectrum of the polynomial ring, the topology on the type space is the constructible topology: a set of types is basic open iff it is of the form formula_149 or of the form formula_150. This is finer than the Zariski topology.


title: Model theory

text: Constructing models that realise certain types and do not realise others is an important task in model theory.


title: Model theory

text: Not realising a type is referred to as "omitting" it, and is generally possible by the "(Countable) Omitting types theorem":


title: Model theory

text: This implies that if a theory in a countable signature has only countably many types over the empty set, then this theory has an atomic model.


title: Model theory

text: On the other hand, there is always an elementary extension in which any set of types over a fixed parameter set is realised:


title: Model theory

text: However, since the parameter set is fixed and there is no mention here of the cardinality of formula_103, this does not imply that every theory has a saturated model.


title: Model theory

text: In fact, whether every theory has a saturated model is independent of the Zermelo-Fraenkel axioms of set theory, and is true if the generalised continuum hypothesis holds.


title: Model theory

text: An "ultraproduct" is obtained from the direct product of a set of structures over an index set "I" by identifying those tuples that agree on almost all entries, where "almost all" is made precise by an ultrafilter "U" on "I". An ultraproduct of copies of the same structure is known as an "ultrapower".


title: Model theory

text: In particular, any ultraproduct of models of a theory is itself a model of that theory, and thus if two models have isomorphic ultrapowers, they are elementarily equivalent.


title: Model theory

text: Therefore, ultraproducts provide a way to talk about elementary equivalence that avoids mentioning first-order theories at all. Basic theorems of model theory such as the compactness theorem have alternative proofs using ultraproducts, and they can be used to construct saturated elementary extensions if they exist.


title: Model theory

text: A theory was originally called "categorical" if it determines a structure up to isomorphism. It turns out that this definition is not useful, due to serious restrictions in the expressivity of first-order logic. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem implies that if a theory "T" has an infinite model for some infinite cardinal number, then it has a model of size κ for any sufficiently large cardinal number κ. Since two models of different sizes cannot possibly be isomorphic, only finite structures can be described by a categorical theory.


title: Model theory

text: However, the weaker notion of κ-categoricity for a cardinal κ has become a key concept in model theory. A theory "T" is called "κ-categorical" if any two models of "T" that are of cardinality κ are isomorphic. It turns out that the question of κ-categoricity depends critically on whether κ is bigger than the cardinality of the language (i.e. formula_175 + |σ|, where |σ| is the cardinality of the signature). For finite or countable signatures this means that there is a fundamental difference between formula_176-cardinality and κ-cardinality for uncountable κ.


title: Model theory

text: The theory of formula_179, which is also the theory of formula_180, is formula_176-categorical, as every "n"-type formula_182 over the empty set is isolated by the pairwise order relation between the formula_183.


title: Model theory

text: This means that every countable dense linear order is order-isomorphic to the rational number line. On the other hand, the theories of formula_44, formula_58 and formula_43 as fields are not formula_176-categorical. This follows from the fact that in all those fields, any of the infinitely many natural numbers can be defined by a formula of the form formula_188.


title: Model theory

text: formula_175-categorical theories and their countable models also have strong ties with oligomorphic groups:


title: Model theory

text: The equivalent characterisations of this subsection, due independently to Engeler, Ryll-Nardzewski and Svenonius, are sometimes referred to as the Ryll-Nardzewski theorem.


title: Model theory

text: In combinatorial signatures, a common source of formula_176-categorical theories are Fraïssé limits, which are obtained as the limit of amalgamating all possible configurations of a class of finite relational structures.


title: Model theory

text: Michael Morley showed in 1963 that there is only one notion of "uncountable categoricity" for theories in countable languages.


title: Model theory

text: Morley's proof revealed deep connections between uncountable categoricity and the internal structure of the models, which became the starting point of classification theory and stability theory.


title: Model theory

text: In particular, complete strongly minimal theories are uncountably categorical. This shows that the theory of algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic is uncountably categorical, with the transcendence degree of the field determining its isomorphism type.


title: Model theory

text: A theory that is both formula_176-categorical and uncountably categorical is called "totally categorical".


title: Model theory

text: A key factor in the structure of the class of models of a first-order theory is its place in the "stability hierarchy".


title: Model theory

text: A theory is called "stable" if it is formula_193-stable for some infinite cardinal formula_193. Traditionally, theories that are formula_175-stable are called "formula_176-stable".


title: Model theory

text: A fundamental result in stability theory is the "stability spectrum theorem", which implies that every complete theory "T" in a countable signature falls in one of the following classes:


title: Model theory

text: A theory of the first type is called "unstable", a theory of the second type is called "strictly stable" and a theory of the third type is called "superstable".


title: Model theory

text: Furthermore, if a theory is formula_176-stable, it is stable in every infinite cardinal, so formula_176-stability is stronger than superstability.


title: Model theory

text: Many construction in model theory are easier when restricted to stable theories; for instance, every model of a stable theory has a saturated elementary extension, regardless of whether the generalised continuum hypothesis is true.


title: Model theory

text: Shelah's original motivation for studying stable theories was to decide how many models a countable theory has of any uncountable cardinality.


title: Model theory

text: If a theory is uncountably categorical, then it is formula_176-stable. More generally, the "Main gap theorem" implies that if there is an uncountable cardinal formula_193 such that a theory "T" has less than formula_215 models of cardinality formula_193, then "T" is superstable.


title: Model theory

text: The stability hierarchy is also crucial for analysing the geometry of definable sets within a model of a theory.


title: Model theory

text: In formula_176-stable theories, "Morley rank" is an important dimension notion for definable sets "S" within a model. It is defined by transfinite induction:


title: Model theory

text: A theory "T" in which every definable set has well-defined Morley Rank is called "totally transcendental"; if "T" is countable, then "T" is totally transcendental if and only if "T" is formula_176-stable.


title: Model theory

text: Morley Rank can be extended to types by setting the Morley Rank of a type to be the minimum of the Morley ranks of the formulas in the type. Thus, one can also speak of the Morley rank of an element "a" over a parameter set "A", defined as the Morley rank of the type of "a" over "A".


title: Model theory

text: There are also analogues of Morley rank which are well-defined if and only if a theory is superstable (U-rank) or merely stable (Shelah's formula_219-rank).


title: Model theory

text: More recently, stability has been decomposed into simplicity and "not the independence property" (NIP).


title: Model theory

text: Simple theories are those theories in which a well-behaved notion of independence can be defined, while NIP theories generalise o-minimal structures.


title: Model theory

text: They are related to stability since a theory is stable if and only if it is NIP and simple, and various aspects of stability theory have been generalised to theories in one of these classes.


title: Model theory

text: Model-theoretic results have been generalised beyond elementary classes, that is, classes axiomatisable by a first-order theory.


title: Model theory

text: Model theory in higher-order logics or infinitary logics is hampered by the fact that completeness and compactness do not in general hold for these logics. This is made concrete by Lindstrom's theorem, stating roughly that first-order logic is essentially the strongest logic in which both the Löwenheim-Skolem theorems and compactness hold. However, model theoretic techniques have been developed extensively for these logics too. It turns out, however, that much of the model theory of more expressive logical languages is independent of Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory.


title: Model theory

text: More recently, alongside the shift in focus to complete stable and categorical theories, there has been work on classes of models defined semantically rather than axiomatised by a logical theory.


title: Model theory

text: One example is "homogeneous model theory", which studies the class of substructures of arbitrarily large homogeneous models. Fundamental results of stability theory and geometric stability theory generalise to this setting.


title: Model theory

text: As a generalisation of strongly minimal theories, quasiminimally excellent classes are those in which every definable set is either countable or co-countable. They are key to the model theory of the complex exponential function.


title: Model theory

text: The most general semantic framework in which stability is studied are abstract elementary classes, which are defined by a "strong substructure" relation generalising that of an elementary substructure. Even though its definition is purely semantic, every abstract elementary class can be presented as the models of a first-order theory which omit certain types. Generalising stability-theoretic notions to abstract elementary classes is an ongoing research program.


title: Model theory

text: Among the early successes of model theory are Tarski's proofs of quantifier elimination for various algebraically interesting classes, such as the real closed fields, Boolean algebras and algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic. Quantifier elimination allowed Tarski to show that the first-order theories of real-closed and algebraically closed fields as well as the first-order theory of Boolean algebras are decidable, classify the Boolean algebras up to elementary equivalence and show that the theories of real-closed fields and algebraically closed fields of a given characteristic are unique. Furthermore, quantifier elimination provided a precise description of definable relations on algebraically closed fields as algebraic varieties and of the definable relations on real-closed fields as semialgebraic sets


title: Model theory

text: In the 1960s, the introduction of the ultraproduct construction led to new applications in algebra. This includes Ax's work on pseudofinite fields, proving that the theory of finite fields is decidable, and Ax and Kochen's proof of as special case of Artin's conjecture on diophantine equations, the Ax-Kochen theorem. The ultraproduct construction also led to Abraham Robinson's development of nonstandard analysis, which aims to provide a rigorous calculus of infinitesimals.


title: Model theory

text: More recently, the connection between stability and the geometry of definable sets led to several applications from algebraic and diophantine geometry, including Ehud Hrushovski's 1996 proof of the geometric Mordell-Lang conjecture in all characteristics In 2001, similar methods were used to prove a generalisation of the Manin-Mumford conjecture.


title: Model theory

text: In 2011, Jonathan Pila applied techniques around o-minimality to prove the André-Oort conjecture for products of Modular curves.


title: Model theory

text: In a separate strand of inquiries that also grew around stable theories, Laskowski showed in 1992 that NIP theories describe exactly those definable classes that are PAC-learnable in machine learning theory. This has led to several interactions between these separate areas. In 2018, the correspondence was extended as Hunter and Chase showed that stable theories correspond to online learnable classes.


title: Model theory

text: Model theory as a subject has existed since approximately the middle of the 20th century, and the name was coined by Alfred Tarski, a member of the Lwów–Warsaw school, in 1954. However some earlier research, especially in mathematical logic, is often regarded as being of a model-theoretical nature in retrospect. The first significant result in what is now model theory was a special case of the downward Löwenheim–Skolem theorem, published by Leopold Löwenheim in 1915. The compactness theorem was implicit in work by Thoralf Skolem, but it was first published in 1930, as a lemma in Kurt Gödel's proof of his completeness theorem. The Löwenheim–Skolem theorem and the compactness theorem received their respective general forms in 1936 and 1941 from Anatoly Maltsev.


title: Model theory

text: The development of model theory as an independent discipline was brought on by Alfred Tarski during the interbellum. Tarski's work included logical consequence, deductive systems, the algebra of logic, the theory of definability, and the semantic definition of truth, among other topics. His semantic methods culminated in the model theory he and a number of his Berkeley students developed in the 1950s and '60s.


title: Model theory

text: In the further history of the discipline, different strands began to emerge, and the focus of the subject shifted. In the 1960s, techniques around ultraproducts became a popular tool in model theory. At the same time, researchers such as James Ax were investigating the first-order model theory of various algebraic classes, and others such as H. Jerome Keisler were extending the concepts and results of first-order model theory to other logical systems. Then, inspired by Morley's problem, Shelah developed stability theory. His work around stability changed the complexion of model theory, giving rise to a whole new class of concepts. This is known as the paradigm shift


title: Model theory

text: Over the next decades, it became clear that the resulting stability hierarchy is closely connected to the geometry of sets that are definable in those models; this gave rise to the subdiscipline now known as geometric stability theory. An example of an influential proof from geometric model theory is Hrushovski's proof of the Mordell–Lang conjecture for function fields.


title: Model theory

text: Finite model theory, which concentrates on finite structures, diverges significantly from the study of infinite structures in both the problems studied and the techniques used. In particular, many central results of classical model theory that fail when restricted to finite structures. This includes the compactness theorem, Gödel's completeness theorem, and the method of ultraproducts for first-order logic. At the interface of finite and infinite model theory are algorithmic or computable model theory and the study of 0-1 laws, where the infinite models of a generic theory of a class of structures provide information on the distribution of finite models.


title: Model theory

text: Prominent application areas of FMT are descriptive complexity theory, database theory and formal language theory.


title: Model theory

text: Any set theory (which is expressed in a countable language), if it is consistent, has a countable model; this is known as Skolem's paradox, since there are sentences in set theory which postulate the existence of uncountable sets and yet these sentences are true in our countable model. Particularly the proof of the independence of the continuum hypothesis requires considering sets in models which appear to be uncountable when viewed from "within" the model, but are countable to someone "outside" the model.


title: Model theory

text: The model-theoretic viewpoint has been useful in set theory; for example in Kurt Gödel's work on the constructible universe, which, along with the method of forcing developed by Paul Cohen can be shown to prove the (again philosophically interesting) independence of the axiom of choice and the continuum hypothesis from the other axioms of set theory.


title: Model theory

text: In the other direction, model theory is itself formalised within Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory. For instance, the development of the fundamentals of model theory (such as the compactness theorem) rely on the axiom of choice, and is in fact equivalent over Zermelo-Fraenkel set theory without choice to the Boolean prime ideal theorem. Other results in model theory depend on set-theoretic axioms beyond the standard ZFC framework. For example, if the Continuum Hypothesis holds then every countable model has an ultrapower which is saturated (in its own cardinality). Similarly, if the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis holds then every model has a saturated elementary extension. Neither of these results are provable in ZFC alone. Finally, some questions arising from model theory (such as compactness for infinitary logics) have been shown to be equivalent to large cardinal axioms.


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: The Hebrew Bible contains a number of references to rape and other forms of sexual violence, both in the Law of Moses, its historical narratives and its prophetic poetry.


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: Until well into the 20th century, most translators and commentators did not recognise any texts in the Hebrew Bible as containing acts of rape, that is, sexual actions performed without the consent of both participants. Some narratives such as those of Samson and Delilah (Judges 16) and Shechem and Dinah (Genesis 34) were even interpreted to be love stories (e.g. about elopement) rather than rape stories. An example of a rare exception to this is a claim by Thomas Paine, who asserted in "The Age of Reason" (1795) that Numbers 31 portrayed Moses as ordering the Israelites to kill all Midianites except the virgin girls, whom they could keep for what Paine termed "debauchery": "Among the detestable villains that in any period of the world would have disgraced the name of man, it is impossible to find a greater than Moses, if this account be true. Here is an order to butcher the boys, to massacre the mothers, and debauch the daughters." In "An Apology for the Bible" (1796), Richard Watson, the Bishop of Llandaff, sought to refute Paine's arguments: "I see nothing in this proceeding, but good policy, combined with mercy. (...) The women-children were not reserved for the purposes of debauchery, but of slavery." In any case, Paine was not so much focused on sexual violence in particular; this example was part of his general critique of Christian ethics. Johannes Pedersen's work "Israel, Its Life and Culture" (1926, 1940), commonly cited by scholars for information about Israelite sexual mores, never mentioned rape, only 'forbidden degrees of relationship'. Several Bible passages, which were later widely recognised as 'rape texts', were referred to by Pedersen as 'inappropriate marriage arrangements'.


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: It was not until the late 1970s, with the emergence of the anti-rape movement due to second-wave feminism, that feminist scholars reached the consensus that some texts in the Hebrew Bible referred to rape, such as the Levite's concubine and the Benjamites seizing the virgins of Jabesh-Gilead and Shiloh as gang rapes (Judges 19–21). However, they also initially disagreed whether some narratives such as Dinah (Genesis 34) and Hagar depicted sexual violence or not. Some of the most notable works in this formative era in the study of biblical rape literature were:


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: With regards to the Hebrew Bible's attitude to rape, particularly the sex laws in Deuteronomy chapters 20 to 22, two schools of thought have emerged. In one camp are scholars such as Richard Elliott Friedman and Shawna Dolansky, who concerning "Women's Status" in "The Bible Now" (2011) wrote: "What should not be in doubt is the biblical view of rape: it is horrid. It is decried in the Bible's stories. It is not tolerated in the Bible's laws." In the other camp are scholars such as Harold C. Washington, who in "'Lest he die in the battle and another man take her': Violence and the construction of gender in the laws of Deuteronomy 20–22" (1998) concluded: "The laws do not interdict sexual violence; rather they stipulate the terms under which a man may commit rape."


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: Scholars such as Susanne Scholz (2021) have pointed out that the meanings of words in the Hebrew Bible always depend on their context, and Bible translators or commentators often misinterpret terms, miss important nuances, or use euphemisms for sexual violence. Even in modern English, the verb 'to rape' doesn't necessarily always refer to sexual violence, but could be used metaphorically to describe being subjected to a deeply unpleasant yet non-sexual experience. Similarly, a Hebrew verb such as "anah" usually means 'to rape, to force/violate sexually', but in some non-sexual contexts is best translated as 'to oppress', 'to weaken', and so on. On the other hand, normally non-sexual words may sometimes describe something sexual; a verb such as "'āšaq" usually means 'to crush, to destroy, to oppress', but in one particular Bible verse (Isaiah 23:12) may actually mean 'to rape' in connection with the term 'virgin daughter', as the latter has a special sexual meaning. Biblical Hebrew is also full of euphemisms and sexual slang that may be difficult for modern readers to understand. 'To lie with', 'to know', 'to come to', and 'to uncover the nakedness of' are such examples which, in particular contexts, mean 'to have sex'. Such phrases don't necessarily imply that this sex is forced by one person upon another, and could actually describe consensual sex, but especially if the context of the narrative adds forms of coercion (such as violence and intimidation) upon someone, or claims that this serves as a 'punishment', then 'to rape' becomes a plausible translation. Likewise, nouns such as 'skirts', 'nakedness' and 'shame' may be euphemisms for 'women's genitals'.


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: In Genesis 9:22, just after the Genesis flood narrative, it is written that Ham, a son of Noah, "saw" his father's "nakedness", a phrase which elsewhere in the Hebrew Bible can mean "had sex with". Some interpretations conclude that Ham had sex with Noah, perhaps even "sodomised" him in his sleep. The same explanations are found in three Greek translations of the Bible, which replace the word "see" in verse 22 with another word denoting homosexual relations. Because of what happened, Noah put a curse on Ham's son Canaan and his descendents, the Canaanites.


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: Genesis 19 features an attempted gang rape. Two angels arrive in Sodom, and Lot shows them hospitality. However, the men of the city gathered around Lot's house and demanded that he give them the two guests so that they could rape them. In response to this, Lot offers the mob his two virgin daughters instead. The mob refuses Lot's offer, but the angels strike them with blindness, God eventually destroys the city, and Lot and his family escape.


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: Genesis 19 goes on to relate how Lot's daughters get him drunk and have sex with him. As a result, the eponymous ancestors of Moab and Ammon, recurring enemies of Israel, were born. A number of commentators describe their actions as rape. Esther Fuchs (2003) suggests that the text presents Lot's daughters as the "initiators and perpetrators of the incestuous 'rape'."


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: Gerda Lerner (1986) has suggested that because the Hebrew Bible takes for granted Lot's right to offer his daughters for rape, we can assume that it reflected a historical reality of a father's power over them.


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: In Genesis 34, Shechem had sex with Dinah, but how this text is to be exactly translated and understood is the subject of scholarly controversy. Most modern scholars claim that it describes rape, and many modern translations render it as 'raped' (or with similar verbiage of sexual forcing), while some earlier commentators also proposed elopement.


title: Rape in the Hebrew Bible

text: Mary Anna Bader (2006) notes the division between verses 2 and 3, and writes that "It is strange and upsetting for the modern reader to find the verbs 'love' and 'dishonor' together, having the same man as their subject and the same woman as their object." Later, she writes that "The narrator gives the reader no information about Dinah's thoughts or feelings or her reactions to what has taken place. Shechem is not only the focalizor but also the primary actor…The narrator leaves no room for doubt that Shechem is the center of these verses. Dinah is the object (or indirect object) of Shechem's actions and desires." Frank M. Yamada (2008) argues that the abrupt transition between Genesis 34:2 and 34:3 was a storytelling technique due to the fact that the narrative focused on the men, a pattern which he perceives in other rape narratives as well, also arguing that the men's responses are depicted in a mixed light. "The rape of Dinah is narrated in a way that suggests there are social forces at work, which complicate the initial seal violation and will make problematic the resulting male responses. […] The abrupt transition from rape to marriage, however, creates a tension in the reader's mind…the unresolved issue of punishment anticipates the response of Simeon and Levi."