title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In his "Puritan Choir" thesis, historian J. E. Neale argues that Elizabeth wanted to pursue a conservative policy but was pushed in a radical direction by a Protestant faction in the House of Commons. This theory has been challenged by Christopher Haigh, who argues that Elizabeth wanted radical reform but was pushed in a conservative direction by the House of Lords. Haigh argues that the Act of Uniformity "produced an ambiguous Book of Common Prayer: a liturgical compromise which allowed priests to perform the Church of England communion with Catholic regalia, standing in the Catholic position, and using words capable of Catholic interpretation". This made it easier for priests to "counterfeit" the Mass without risking arrest.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Another historian, Diarmaid MacCulloch, also finds Neale's thesis flawed. At the same time, he calls the idea that the prayer book modifications were concessions to Catholics "absurd", writing that "these little verbal and visual adjustments" would never satisfy Catholic clergy and laity after the loss of "the Latin mass, monasteries, chantries, shrines, gilds and a compulsory celibate priesthood". He argues the modifications were most likely meant to appease domestic and foreign Lutheran Protestants who opposed the memorialist view originating from reformed Zurich. In 1559, Elizabeth was still unsure of the theological orientation of her Protestant subjects, and she did not want to offend the Lutheran rulers of northern Europe by veering too far into the Reformed camp. "It was worthwhile for Elizabeth's government to throw the Lutherans a few theological scraps, and the change also chimed with the queen's personal inclination to Lutheran views on eucharistic presence."


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Historians Patrick Collinson and Peter Lake argue that until 1630 the Church of England was shaped by a "Calvinist consensus". During this time, Calvinist clergy held the best bishoprics and deaneries. Historians John Coffey and Paul C. H. Lim write that the Elizabethan Church "was widely regarded as a Reformed church, but it was anomalous in retaining certain features of late medieval Catholicism", such as cathedrals, church choirs, a formal liturgy contained in the prayer book, traditional clerical vestments and episcopal polity.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: To enforce her religious policies, Queen Elizabeth needed bishops willing to cooperate. Seven bishops, including Cardinal Pole, Mary's Archbishop of Canterbury, died in 1558 and needed to be replaced. The remaining bishops were all Catholics appointed during Mary's reign, and Elizabeth's advisers hoped they could be persuaded to continue serving. Ultimately, all but two bishops (the undistinguished Anthony Kitchin of Llandaff and the absentee Thomas Stanley of Sodor and Man) lost their posts. Most of their replacements were not consecrated until December 1559 or early 1560.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Elizabeth chose Matthew Parker to replace Pole as Archbishop of Canterbury. Parker was a prominent scholar and had served as chaplain to Elizabeth's mother, Anne Boleyn. Also, like Elizabeth, Parker was a Nicodemite—someone who stayed in England during Mary's reign and outwardly conformed to Catholicism. Most of the other posts went to Marian exiles such as Edmund Grindal for London, Richard Cox for Ely, John Jewel for Salisbury, William Barlow for Chichester and John Scory for Hereford. Those exiles with ties to John Calvin's reformation in Geneva were notably excluded from consideration. The Queen never forgave John Knox for writing "The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women", which denounced female monarchs, and the Reformation in Geneva was tainted by association.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In the summer of 1559, the government conducted a royal visitation of the dioceses. The visitation was conducted according to injunctions based on the Royal Injunctions of 1547. These new royal injunctions were meant to fill in the details of the settlement and were to be enforced nationwide by six groups of clerical and lay commissioners. All of the leading clergymen were Protestants and former exiles (Robert Horne, Thomas Becon, Thomas Bentham, John Jewel, Edwin Sandys, and Richard Davies), and they interpreted the injunctions in the most Protestant way possible.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: According to the injunctions, church images that were superstitiously abused were condemned as idolatry, but the commissioners mandated the destruction of all pictures and images. Across the nation, parishes paid to have roods, images and altar tabernacles removed, which they had only recently paid to restore under Queen Mary. They would spend more money on buying Bibles and prayer books and replacing chalices with communion cups (a chalice was designed for the priest alone whereas a communion cup was larger and to be used by the whole congregation).


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The Injunctions offered clarity on the matter of vestments. Clergy were to wear the surplice (rather than cope or chasuble) for services. In 1560, the bishops specified that the cope should be worn when administering the Lord's Supper and the surplice at all other times. Other provisions of the Royal Injunctions were out of step with the Edwardian Reformation and displayed the Queen's conservative preferences. These included injunctions allowing processions to take place at Rogationtide and requirements that clergy receive permission to marry from the bishop and two justices of the peace.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In some instances, the injunctions contradicted the 1559 prayer book. While the prayer book directed the use of ordinary bread for communion, the Injunctions required traditional wafers to be used. There were also conflicting directions for the placement of the communion tables that were to replace stone altars. According to the prayer book, the table should be placed permanently in the chancel oriented east to west. The injunctions ordered the "holy table" to be carried into the chancel during communion services but at all other times to be placed where the altar would have stood. When not in use, it was to be oriented north to south, the same as an altar. These provisions offended many Protestants, and in practice, the Injunctions were often ignored by church leaders.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The Queen was disappointed by the extreme iconoclasm of the Protestants during the visitations. In October 1559, she ordered that a crucifix and candlesticks be placed on the communion table in the Chapel Royal. Later, she decided that roods should be restored in parish churches. Elizabeth's bishops protested both moves as revivals of idolatry, arguing that all images were forbidden by the Second Commandment. In the end, the Queen and the bishops reached an unspoken compromise. She kept her crucifix and candles and dropped her plans to restore roods. In 1560, Bishop Grindal was allowed to enforce the demolition of rood lofts in London. A year later, the Queen herself ordered the demolition of all lofts, but the rood beams were to remain on which the royal arms were to be displayed. The Queen still believed there should be a division between the chancel and the rest of the church.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Many parishes were slow to comply with the injunctions. Many did so out of sympathy with traditional Catholic religion, while others waited to see if this religious settlement was permanent before taking expensive action. Churchwarden accounts indicate that half of all parishes kept Catholic vestments and Mass equipment for at least a decade. Gradually, however, parishes complied as bishops exerted pressure. Most of the parish clergy were Catholics. Through the mid-1650s, there were an estimated 800 clergy who resigned or were deprived for refusal to conform. Most parish clergy kept their posts, but it is not clear to what degree they conformed. The bishops thought that Catholicism was widespread among the old clergy, but priests were rarely removed because of a clergy shortage that began with an influenza epidemic in 1558.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Music in the Church of England was limited to biblical texts and music sung during worship in the early church. Examples of permissible music included metrical psalms and liturgical texts such as the "Te Deum". Although most people were able to sing, worship was dominated by choral liturgies, especially in the cathedrals. During this time, motets were replaced by anthems, and William Byrd's "Great Service" was composed for the royal chapel and cathedrals. Parish churches tended to have less music as Puritan influences argued against using of funds to pay for choristers. Churches employed singers for special occasions, which might be paid with money, wine, or ale and bread. The impressment of boys for service as singers in St. Paul's Cathedral and the royal chapel continued during this period.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Devotional singing at home was shared between family and friends. By far the most popular and reprinted metrical Psalter was Thomas Sternhold's "Whole book of Psalms". Although it was not legally required, it was traditional for virtually all Protestant churches and was also used at home.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The Elizabethan settlement was further consolidated by the adoption of a moderately Protestant doctrinal statement called the Thirty-nine Articles of Religion. While affirming traditional Christian teaching as defined by the first four ecumenical councils, it tried to steer a middle way between Reformed and Lutheran doctrines while rejecting Anabaptist thinking. The Thirty-nine Articles were not intended as a complete statement of the Christian faith but of the position of the Church of England in relation to the Catholic Church and dissident Protestants. In 1571, Convocation finalised the Thirty-nine Articles. It was given statutory force by the Subscription Act, which required all new ministers to affirm their agreement with this confessional statement.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: With the Queen's approval, Convocation also issued a second "Book of Homilies" with sermons on 20 topics. One, "Of the Worthy Receiving of the Sacrament", added more detail to the church's doctrine of the Eucharist, which was described as "spiritual food" and "a ghostly substance and not carnal" made real by faith. This receptionist view had much in common with John Calvin's Eucharistic theology. "Of Common Prayer and Sacraments" taught that although only baptism and the Eucharist were sacraments instituted by Christ other rites such as ordination had a sacramental character.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The settlement of 1559 had given Protestants control of the Church of England, but matters were different at the parish level, where Catholic priests and traditional laity held large majorities. The bishops struggled for decades to impose the prayer book and Injunctions on reluctant parishes. "For a while, it was possible to sustain an attenuated Catholicism within the parish framework, by counterfeiting the mass, teaching the seven sacraments, preserving images of saints, reciting the rosary, observing feasts, fasts, and customs". Over time, however, this "survivalist Catholicism" was undermined by pressures to conform, giving way to an underground Catholicism completely separate from the Church of England.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Gradually, England was transformed into a Protestant country as the prayer book shaped Elizabethan religious life. By the 1580s, conformist Protestants (termed "parish anglicans" by Christopher Haigh and "Prayer Book protestants" by Judith Maltby) were becoming a majority. Efforts to introduce further religious reforms through Parliament or by means of Convocation were consistently blocked by the Queen. The Church of England's refusal to adopt the patterns of the Continental Reformed churches deepened conflict between Protestants who desired greater reforms and church authorities who prioritised conformity.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In the early years of Elizabeth's reign, most Catholics hoped the Protestant ascendancy would be temporary, as it had been prior to Mary's restoration of papal authority. There were priests who conformed to the prayer book while also providing the Mass to their parishioners. Others refused to conform. Large numbers of deans, archdeacons, cathedral canons, and academics (mostly from Oxford but also from Cambridge) lost their positions. In the early years, some 300 Catholics fled, especially to the University of Louvain. From there they wrote and published a large body of Catholic polemical work to counter Protestantism, particularly Thomas Harding, Richard Smyth, and William Allen. They also acted as a "Church government in exile", providing Catholics in England with advice and instructions. In 1568, the English College at Douai was founded to provide a Catholic education to young Englishmen and, eventually, to train a new leadership for a restored Catholic Church in England. Other leading Marian churchmen remained in England to serve as private chaplains to Catholic nobles and gentry. Many became leaders of an underground Catholic Church.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Catholics were forced to choose between attending Protestant services to comply with the law or refusing to attend. Those who refused to attend Church of England services were called recusants. Most Catholics, however, were "church papists"—Catholics who outwardly conformed to the established church while maintaining their Catholic faith in secret. Wealthy church papists attended their parish church but had Mass at home or hired two chaplains, one to perform the prayer book service and the other to perform the Mass. Initially, recusant priests advised the laity to simply abstain from Protestant communion. However, this stance hardened over time. In 1562, the Council of Trent ruled out any outward conformity or Nicodemism for Catholics: "You may not be present at such prayers of heretics, or at their sermons, without heinous offence and the indignation of God, and it is far better to suffer most bitter cruelties than to give the least sign of consent to such wicked and abominable rites." By the late 1560s, recusancy was becoming more common.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In 1569, the Revolt of the Northern Earls attempted to overthrow England's Protestant regime. The rebellion was defeated, but it contributed to a perception that Catholicism was treason. This perception was seemingly confirmed when Elizabeth was excommunicated by Pope Pius V in February 1570. The papal bull "Regnans in Excelsis" released Elizabeth's Catholic subjects from any obligation to obey her. Subsequently, two Catholics, John Felton and John Story, were executed for treason. The discovery of the Ridolfi plot–a Catholic conspiracy to overthrow Elizabeth and place Mary, Queen of Scots on the throne–further alarmed the English government.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: By 1574, Catholic recusants had organised an underground Roman Catholic Church, distinct from the Church of England. However, it had two major weaknesses: membership loss as church papists conformed fully to the Church of England, and a shortage of priests. The latter problem was addressed by establishing seminaries to train and ordain English priests. In addition to the English College at Douai, a seminary was established at Rome and two more established in Spain. Between 1574 and 1603, 600 Catholic priests were sent to England. In 1580, the first Jesuit priests came to England.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The Queen's excommunication and the arrival of the seminary priests brought a change in government policy toward recusants. Before 1574, most laymen were not made to take the Oath of Supremacy and the 12"d" fine for missing a service was poorly enforced. Afterwards, efforts to identify recusants and force them to conform increased. In 1581, a new law made it treason to be absolved from schism and reconciled with Rome and the fine for recusancy was increased to £20 per month (50 times an artisan's wage). Afterwards, executions of Catholic priests became more common, and in 1585, it became treason for a Catholic priest to enter the country, as well as for anyone to aid or shelter him.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The persecution of 1581–1592 changed the nature of Roman Catholicism in England. The seminary priests were dependent on the gentry families of southern England. As the older generation of recusant priests died out, Roman Catholicism collapsed among the lower classes in the north, west and in Wales. Without priests, these social classes drifted into the Church of England and Catholicism was forgotten. By Elizabeth's death, Roman Catholicism had become "the faith of a small sect", largely confined to gentry households.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Leading Protestants within the Church of England were attracted to the Reformed churches of south Germany and Switzerland led by theologians such as John Calvin, Heinrich Bullinger and others. In England, however, Protestants were forced to operate within a church structure unchanged since medieval times with the same threefold orders of bishop, priest and deacon along with church courts that continued to use medieval canon law. In addition, the liturgy remained "more elaborate and more reminiscent of older liturgical forms" and "took no account of developments in Protestant thinking after the early 1550s". According to historian Diarmaid MacCulloch, the conflicts over the Elizabethan Settlement stem from the "tension between Catholic structure and Protestant theology".


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: There were objections over the prayer book, including certain formulas and responses, the sign of the cross in baptism, the surplice and use of a wedding ring in marriage. Throughout her reign, the Queen successfully blocked attempts by Parliament and the bishops to introduce further change. The bishops were placed in the difficult position of enforcing conformity while supporting reform. This was particularly evident between 1565 and 1567 during the Vestments controversy over the refusal of some clergy to wear the clerical dress required by the Royal Injunctions. For many Protestants, clerical vestments symbolised a continued belief in a priestly order separate from the congregation, and could be interpreted by Catholics as affirmation of traditional doctrines. Bishop Jewel called the surplice a "vestige of error". In general, the bishops considered clerical dress adiaphora and tried to find compromise, but the Queen believed that the church—and herself as Supreme Governor—had authority to determine rites and ceremonies. In the end, Archbishop Parker issued a code of discipline for the clergy called the Advertisements, and the most popular and effective Protestant preachers were suspended for non-compliance.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The controversy over dress divided the Protestant community, and it was in these years that the term "Puritan" came into use to describe those who wanted further reformation. Some lost faith in the Church of England as an agent of reform, becoming separatists and establishing underground congregations. Most Puritans, however, remained in the Church of England. These Puritans were not without influence, enjoying the support of powerful men such as the Earl of Leicester, Walter Mildmay, Francis Walsingham, the Earl of Warwick and William Cecil.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In 1572, a bill was introduced in the Queen's 4th Parliament that would allow Protestants, with their bishop's permission, to omit ceremonies from the 1559 prayer book, and bishops would be further empowered to license clergymen to use the French and Dutch stranger church liturgies. Roman Catholics, however, would have no such freedom. The Queen did not approve, disliking any attempt to undermine the concept of religious uniformity and her own religious settlement.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: By 1572, the debate between Puritans and conformists had entered a new phase—church government had replaced vestments as the major issue. While Parliament still met, Thomas Wilcox and John Field published "An Admonition to the Parliament" that condemned "Popish abuses yet remaining in the English Church" and episcopal polity. It called for the church to be organised according to presbyterian polity. In November, "A Second Admonition to Parliament" was published—most likely authored by Thomas Cartwright or Christopher Goodman—which presented a more detailed proposal for church reform along presbyterian lines. John Whitgift of Cambridge University, a leading advocate for conformity, published a reply in October 1572, and he and Cartwright subsequently entered into a pamphlet war. The Admonition Controversy was not a disagreement over soteriology—both Cartwright and Whitgift believed in predestination and that human works played no role in salvation. Rather, the "Admonition's" authors believed that presbyterianism was the only biblical form of church government, whereas Whitgift argued that no single form of church government was commanded in the Bible. Under Field's leadership, the Classical Movement was active among Puritans within the Church of England throughout the 1570s and 1580s. Puritan clergy in this movement organised local presbyteries or classes, from which the movement took its name. Through the 1580s, Puritans were organised enough to conduct what were essentially covert national synods.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In 1577, Whitgift was made Bishop of Worcester and six years later Archbishop of Canterbury. His rise to power has been identified with a "conservative reaction" against Puritanism. It is more accurate to call Whitgift and those like him conformists, since the word "conservative" carries connotations of Catholicism. The majority of conformists were part of the Reformed consensus that included the Puritans; what divided the parties were disputes over church government. Whitgift's first move against the Puritans was a requirement that all clergy subscribe to three articles, the second of which stated that the Prayer Book and Ordinal contained "nothing ... contrary to the word of God". Whitgift's demands produced widespread turmoil, and around 400 ministers were suspended for refusal to subscribe. Under pressure from the Privy Council, Whitgift was forced to accept conditional subscriptions from defiant ministers.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In the Parliaments of 1584 and 1586, the Puritans attempted to push through legislation that would institute a presbyterian form of government for the Church of England and replace the prayer book with the service book used in Geneva. Both attempts failed, mainly because of the Queen's opposition. In response, a group of conformists including Richard Bancroft, John Bridges, Matthew Sutcliffe, Thomas Bilson, and Hadrian Saravia began defending the English Church's episcopal polity more strongly, no longer merely accepting it as convenient but asserting it as divine law.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In response to Bridges' "A Defence of the Government Established in the Church of England for Ecclesiastical Matters", an anonymous Puritan under the pseudonym Martin Marprelate published a series of tracts attacking leading conformist clergy. The 1588 Marprelate Controversy led to the discovery of the presbyterian organisation that had been built up over the years. Its leaders were arrested and the Classical Movement disintegrated. This debacle occurred at the same time that Puritanism's most powerful defenders at Court were dying off. In the aftermath of the conformist assault, the 1590s were relatively free of theological controversy. Once Whitgift had destroyed presbyterian activism, he was content to leave the Puritans alone. Likewise, Elizabethan Puritans abandoned the hopeless cause of presbyterianism to focus on less controversial pursuits.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: In 1603, the King of Scotland inherited the English crown as James I. The Church of Scotland was even more strongly Reformed, having a presbyterian polity and John Knox's liturgy, the "Book of Common Order". James was himself a moderate Calvinist, and the Puritans hoped the King would move the English Church in the Scottish direction. James, however, did the opposite, forcing the Scottish Church to accept bishops and the Five Articles of Perth, all attempts to make it as similar as possible to the English Church.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: At the start of his reign, Puritans presented the Millenary Petition to the King. This petition for church reform was referred to the Hampton Court Conference of 1604, which agreed to produce a new version of the "Book of Common Prayer" that incorporated a few changes requested by the Puritans. The most important outcome of the Conference, however, was the decision to produce a new translation of the Bible, the 1611 King James Version. While a disappointment for Puritans, the provisions were aimed at satisfying moderate Puritans and isolating them from their more radical counterparts.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The Church of England's dominant theology was still Calvinism, but a group of theologians associated with Bishop Lancelot Andrewes disagreed with many aspects of the Reformed tradition, especially its teaching on predestination. Like the Puritans, Andrewes engaged in his own brand of nonconformity. In his private chapel, he added ceremonies and formulas not authorised in the prayer book, such as burning incense. James I tried to balance the Puritan forces within his church with followers of Andrewes, promoting many of them at the end of his reign. This group was led by Richard Neile of Durham and became known as the Durham House group. They looked to the Church Fathers rather than the Reformers and preferred using the more traditional 1549 prayer book. Due to their belief in free will, this new faction is known as the Arminian party, but their high church orientation was more controversial.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: During the reign of Charles I, the Arminians were ascendant and closely associated with William Laud, Archbishop of Canterbury (1633–1645). Laud and his followers believed the Reformation had gone too far and launched a "'Beauty of Holiness' counter-revolution, wishing to restore what they saw as lost majesty in worship and lost dignity for the sacerdotal priesthood." Laudianism, however, was unpopular with both Puritans and Prayer Book Protestants, who viewed the high church innovations as undermining forms of worship they had grown attached to. The English Civil War resulted in the overthrow of Charles I, and a Puritan dominated Parliament began to dismantle the Elizabethan Settlement. Episcopacy was replaced with a semi-presbyterian system. In 1645, the prayer book was made illegal and replaced by the "Directory for Public Worship". The Directory was not a liturgical book but only a set of directions and outlines for services.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The Restoration of the monarchy in 1660 allowed for the restoration of the Elizabethan Settlement as well. The 1662 prayer book mandated by the 1662 Act of Uniformity was a slightly revised version of the previous book. Many Puritans, however, were unwilling to conform to it. Around 900 ministers refused to subscribe to the new prayer book and were removed from their positions, an event known as the Great Ejection. Puritans became dissenters. Now outside the established church, the different strands of the Puritan movement evolved into separate denominations: Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and Baptists.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: The Church of England was fundamentally changed. The "Jacobean consensus" was shattered, and the Church of England began defining itself less broadly. The suppression and marginalisation of Prayer Book Protestants during the 1640s and 1650s had made the prayer book "an undisputed identifier of an emerging Anglican self-consciousness." Historian Judith Maltby writes that Anglicanism as a recognisable tradition "owes more to the Restoration than the Reformation". It was in the period after 1660 that Richard Hooker's thought became influential within the Church of England, as Anglicans tried to define themselves in ways distinct from Protestant dissenters.


title: Elizabethan Religious Settlement

text: Diarmaid MacCulloch states that Hooker's writings helped to create an "Anglican synthesis". From Hooker, Anglicanism "inherited its belief in the place of reason as an authority for action, its esteem for continuity over the Reformation divide, and a hospitality towards sacramental modes of thought". From the Arminians, it gained a theology of episcopacy and an appreciation for liturgy. From the Puritans and Calvinists, it "inherited a contradictory impulse to assert the supremacy of scripture and preaching". The clash between Calvinists and Arminians was never resolved, and the "seesaw battle between Catholic and Protestant within a single Anglican ecclesiastical structure has been proceeding ever since". The preface to the 1662 prayer book defined the Church of England as a "via media" "between the two extremes of too much stiffness in refusing and of too much easiness in admitting any variation". Although Elizabeth I "cannot be credited with a prophetic latitudinarian policy which foresaw the rich diversity of Anglicanism", her preferences made it possible.


title: 1BR

text: 1BR is a 2019 American horror film written and directed by David Marmor, in his directorial debut. The title is an abbreviation of "one bedroom", commonly seen in real estate listings. The film premiered at Fantasia International Film Festival in July 2019, and was released in the United States in 2020.


title: 1BR

text: An aspiring costume designer moves into a one-bedroom apartment in Los Angeles, unaware that the complex is owned by a cult who use torture to force new residents to join their community.


title: 1BR

text: During the early stages of production, the film's offices were victim of the Skirball Fire in 2017, and were forced to use producer Alok Mishra's home in the San Fernando Valley as the base of operations during filming. The outside exteriors of the apartments were used on-location in Los Angeles, with the indoor scenes being shot on a soundstage.


title: 1BR

text: The film premiered at Fantasia International Film Festival on July 18, 2019. The film had a limited theatrical and VOD release on April 24, 2020, before beginning to stream on Netflix on August 28.


title: 1BR

text: Over its first week of release on Netflix the film was among the top 5 most-streamed films, reaching #1 in the film section of the site.


title: 1BR

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critics consensus reads: ""1BR"s occasionally ordinary storytelling is more than outweighed by tight direction, interesting ideas, and an effective blend of horror and thoughtful drama." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 56 out of 100 based on 8 critic reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: 1BR

text: John DeFore of "The Hollywood Reporter" wrote: "Taken on its own terms, it's a solid if hardly revolutionary thriller that bodes well for the filmmaker's future in genre films."


title: Leader of the House of Commons

text: The leader of the House of Commons is a minister of the Crown of the Government of the United Kingdom whose main role is organising government business in the House of Commons. The leader is generally a member or attendee of the cabinet of the United Kingdom.


title: Leader of the House of Commons

text: The House of Commons devotes approximately three-quarters of its time to debating and explaining government business, such as bills introduced by the government and ministerial statements. The leader of the House of Commons, with the parties' chief whips ("the usual channels"), is responsible for organising government business and providing time for non-government (backbench) business to be put before the House of Commons.


title: Leader of the House of Commons

text: The Osmotherly Rules, which set out guidance on how civil servants should respond to parliamentary select committees, are co-updated by the Office of the Leader of the House of Commons and the Cabinet Office.


title: Leader of the House of Commons

text: The title was not established until about the middle of the nineteenth century, although the institution is much older.


title: Leader of the House of Commons

text: Until 1942, the title was usually held by the prime minister if he sat in the House of Commons, however, in more recent years, the title has been held by a separate politician.


title: Leader of the House of Commons

text: The title holder is not formally appointed by the Crown and the title alone does not attract a salary, so is now usually held in addition to a sinecure, currently Lord President of the Council.


title: Leader of the House of Commons

text: From 1922, when the prime minister was also leader of the House of Commons, day-to-day duties were frequently carried out by a Deputy Leader of the House of Commons. At other times, a deputy leader of the House of Commons was appointed merely to enhance an individual politician's standing within the government.


title: Leader of the House of Commons

text: The title has been in use since 1942, but was not used from the 2019 dissolution of the Second May ministry to 2022, when it was revived by Boris Johnson. This was shortlived however, as it was abolished by Liz Truss after she became Prime Minister a few months later.


title: Nikola Đuričko

text: Active in film, television, and in theater, his first notable role was in 1989, in the film "Poslednji krug u Monci".


title: Nikola Đuričko

text: He has received the Zoran Radmilović Award (2011), Miloš Žutić Award (2015), and the award for Best Actor at the FEST International Film Festival (2021).


title: Nikola Đuričko

text: Ðuričko was born in Belgrade, SR Serbia, SFR Yugoslavia and graduated from the Belgrade University of Arts School of Dramatic Arts. His first notable role was in 1989, in the film "Poslednji krug u Monci".


title: Nikola Đuričko

text: On 7 June 2004 Ðuričko married a woman he had met earlier that year on the set of "The Cordon", where she worked as a production assistant and he had a leading role. Together they have a daughter and a son.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: The Atlantic mackerel (Scomber scombrus), also known as Boston mackerel, Norwegian mackerel, Scottish mackerel or just mackerel, is a species of mackerel found in the temperate waters of the Mediterranean Sea, the Black Sea, and the northern Atlantic Ocean, where it is extremely common and occurs in huge shoals in the epipelagic zone down to about . It spends the warmer months close to shore and near the ocean surface, appearing along the coast in spring and departing with the arrival of colder weather in the fall and winter months. During the fall and winter, it migrates out into deeper and more southern water, seeking warmer temperatures.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: The Atlantic mackerel's body is elongate, steel-blue marked with wavy black lines dorsally and silvery-white ventrally, its snout long and pointed. It possesses two spiny dorsal fins, which are spaced far apart, two pectoral fins, and small caudal and anal fins, also spaced far apart. 4-6 dorsal finlets and 5 anal finlets are typical among members of this species. The fish's body tapers down its length, ending with a large tail fin. Typical size for a mature fish is , but individuals have been caught as large as . The maximum published weight is . Reproduction, which is oviparous, occurs near the shore in the spring and summer, during which a female can produce as many as 450,000 eggs. Juveniles reach sexual maturity at around 2 years of age and can live to be 17.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: A highly commercial species, the Atlantic mackerel is sought after for its meat, which is strong in flavor and high in oil content and omega-3 fatty acids among other nutrients. Nearly 1 million tonnes of Atlantic mackerel are caught each year globally, the bulk of which is sold fresh, frozen, smoked, or canned. Despite its highly commercial status, the Atlantic mackerel is listed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) and global catch has remained sustainable.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: The Atlantic mackerel was first described in 1758 by Swedish zoologist Carl Linnaeus in his 10th edition of Systema Naturae. Linnaeus gave it the scientific name "Scomber scomber" from the Greek word "skombros" meaning "tunny" or "mackerel". Because of its wide distribution, the Atlantic mackerel was independently described 6 more times by 5 different scientists between 1814 and 1863. Its specific name was later changed to "scombrus" by B. B. Collette and C. E. Nauen in 1983. It is differentiated from its congeners in a number of ways, the first being the absence of a swim bladder. Its palatine bone is also wider than other members of its genus and its otolith is oval-shaped where its congeners' are rectangular.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: In the eastern Atlantic Ocean there are three stocks differentiated by location and time at which spawning occurs, but studies have not found any distinct genetic differences between these populations. Genetic differences only start to appear at the transatlantic scale, a fact supported by a lack of migration between western and eastern Atlantic populations, whereas eastern Atlantic stocks are known to converge in certain locations like the Norwegian Sea and North Sea.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: The Atlantic mackerel has an elongate, fusiform body with a long, pointed snout. The eyes are large and covered by an adipose eyelid, while the teeth are small, sharp, and conical. Scales are also small, with the exceptions of those immediately posterior to the head and around the pectoral fins. These small scales give the Atlantic mackerel a velvet-like feel. The two dorsal fins are large and spaced far apart. The second dorsal fin is typically followed by 5 dorsal finlets, though it can have 4 or 6. The anal fin, which originates slightly behind the second dorsal fin, is similar to it in size and shape and is also succeeded by 5 finlets. The fish's body tapers to a slim caudal peduncle, the end of the fish to which the short but broad tail fin is attached. Its body is steel-blue dorsally with wavy black lines running perpendicular to the fish's length. The rest of its body is silvery-white to yellow and may have darker splotches. It can reach sizes of up to and has a common length of . Its maximum published weight is .


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: The Atlantic mackerel's native range in the western Atlantic extends from Labrador, Canada to Cape Lookout, North Carolina. In the eastern Atlantic, it can be found from Iceland and Norway to as far south as Mauritania. It is also found in the Mediterranean, Black, and Baltic Seas. Its latitudinal range is 70°N-25°N and its longitudinal range is 77°W-42°E. Its preferred water temperature is above , but Atlantic mackerel are common in waters as cold as and have been found, albeit rarely, in waters. The Atlantic mackerel's common depth range extends from the surface to , but individuals can be found as deep as .


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: Atlantic mackerel are migratory fish, spending the spring and summer closer to shore about out, with juveniles moving closer in to shore than adults. Occasionally, fish will even enter harbors, and those that do are usually juveniles. In the fall and winter they move farther out and farther south to the warmer waters on the edge of the continental shelf. They first come in to land in North America in April at the southern end of their range, but are found along the coast through their entire range by July. They start moving back out to sea again in September and are completely gone from the coast by December. Food availability increases greatly during the summer, and fish reach a peak for fat tissue in August, a mere four months after their lowest point in April.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: The Atlantic mackerel is an active, fast-moving fish that must keep in constant motion to bring in enough oxygen to survive. It swims using short movements of the rear of its body and the caudal fin. Unlike other mackerel, Atlantic mackerel do not leap out of the water unless attempting to escape a predator. They form large schools, consisting of individuals of the same relative size, near the ocean surface during all seasons but winter. Because larger fish have a greater ratio of muscle mass to surface area, schools of larger fish are able to swim more quickly than schools made up of smaller individuals.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: When feeding on larger prey, schools tend to break down into shoals and individuals find food on their own. When consuming plankton, however, Atlantic mackerel form tight aggregations, open their mouths as wide as possible, and extend their operculums, swimming in a tightly packed school that acts like a series of miniature tow nets. Spaced only about the diameter of a single fish's mouth apart, this formation greatly reduces the ability of plankton to evade capture, as a plankton darting out of the way of one fish is likely to end up in the jaws of another. Copepods make up the majority of the Atlantic mackerel's diet, "Calanus finmarchicus" being the most abundant.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: Like other mackerels, reproduction in the Atlantic mackerel is oviparous. Spawning occurs day or night in the spring and summer months, primarily within of shore, though it can occur as far out as . A single female can spawn as many as 450,000 eggs in a spawning season. Eggs mature in batches over the course of a week and are pelagic once released, remaining within of the surface. Time to hatching is dependent on the water temperature, and ranges from 2 days at to 8.5 days at . Most eggs are spawned in waters in temperature, and as such the majority of eggs hatch in about a week. Eggs are anywhere from in size, trending towards smaller as the spawning season goes on. Larvae undergo three developmental stages: the yolk sac stage, the larval stage, and the post-larval stage. Larvae are when they hatch and feed on the yolk sac for about 5 days. During the larval stage, which lasts about a month, larvae grow to in length. They are largely incapable of swimming, instead floating with the current. During the post-larval stage, which occurs over the next 40 days and during which the fish reaches in length, it swims to the surface at night and down to deeper waters during the day. At the end of the post-larval stage, juveniles resemble an adult mackerel in all but size. Schooling behavior occurs around this time.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: Sexual maturity is reached at around 2 years of age, though some fish may reproduce a season earlier or a season later. Though some fish are sexually mature at in length, even by only about half of females will be ready to reproduce. At , 90% of fish are capable of reproduction. An Atlantic mackerel can live for up to 17 years and attain a length of and a weight of .


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: The Atlantic mackerel is of commercial importance to many Atlantic fisheries, which catch it with purse seines, trawls, gill and trammel nets, and trolling lines. Global annual catch is typically in the range of 1 million tonnes, though a 50% spike in 2014 put this number at nearly 1.5 million tonnes. The United Kingdom and Norway bring in the most Atlantic mackerel, with annual catches coming in at over 166,000 tonnes and 160,000 tonnes respectively. There are three stocks in the eastern Atlantic: one in the south, one in the west, and another in the North Sea. There are two populations in the Mediterranean, one in the east and one in the west. In the western Atlantic there are two stocks, one in the north and one in the south, for which assessments are, according to the IUCN, "highly uncertain".


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: Atlantic mackerel outer meat is red meat while inner meat is white, with a strong taste desirable to some consumers. They are sold fresh, frozen, smoked, salted, filleted, or as steaks. The fish is extremely high in oil content, vitamin B, vitamin B, selenium, niacin, and omega 3, a class of fatty acids, containing nearly twice as much of the latter per unit weight as salmon. Unlike the King and Spanish species, Northern Atlantic mackerel are very low in mercury, and can be eaten at least twice a week according to United States Environmental Protection Agency guidelines.


title: Atlantic mackerel

text: Despite its commercial status, the Atlantic mackerel was assessed to be of Least Concern by the IUCN in 2011. Its abundance and extensive range combined with a cyclical increase/decrease in catch mean that it is not currently in danger of going extinct. The IUCN did recommend careful monitoring, however, especially as the effects of climate change may impact population size and distribution. In the northeastern Atlantic, several countries impose minimum landing sizes. In the European Union this size is , Ukraine , Turkey , Romania , and Canada .


title: Justin Bibb

text: Justin Morris Bibb (born April 26, 1987) is an American politician and former non-profit leader serving as the 58th mayor of Cleveland, Ohio since January 2022. Prior to serving as mayor, Bibb was the Co-Chair of Teach for America – Ohio, and a board member for the Greater Cleveland Regional Transit Authority, Destination Cleveland, and LAND Studio.


title: Justin Bibb

text: On January 12, 2021, Bibb announced his candidacy in the 2021 Cleveland mayoral election. In the crowded eight candidate primary, Bibb came in first with 27% of the vote in the September 14th primary, advancing him to the general election alongside the President of Cleveland City Council, Kevin J. Kelley. On November 2, 2021, Bibb won the city's mayoral election, defeating Kelley with a decisive 62% of the vote, becoming Cleveland's 4th African American mayor, and its 2nd youngest.


title: Justin Bibb

text: Bibb was born in Cleveland and grew up in the Mount Pleasant neighborhood on the southeast side. He graduated from Trinity High School in the suburb of Garfield Heights and received early acceptance to American University in Washington, D.C. where he earned a B.A in Urban Studies. During his undergraduate degree, he was awarded a scholarship to study abroad at the London School of Economics where he completed The General Course program in Social Policy and Economics. In 2014, he returned to Cleveland and attended Case Western Reserve University School of Law and Weatherhead School of Management and received his JD and MBA.


title: Justin Bibb

text: Bibb interned for Senator Barack Obama in 2007 and began working in local government in 2011 as Special Assistant for Education & Economic Development for Cuyahoga County, where he established the Cuyahoga County Public Policy Fellowship Program. Bibb spent two years working in corporate strategy for Knowledge Generation Bureau before taking senior positions at Gallup (company), becoming the Head of Global Cities Practice in 2015. After working in New York and Washington, D.C, he returned to Cleveland to serve as Vice President at KeyBank in 2019. He currently serves as the Chief Strategy Officer at Urbanova, a start-up focused on smart cities.


title: Justin Bibb

text: Bibb is a nonprofit leader and co-founded Hack Cleveland in 2014 following the shooting of Tamir Rice to advocate for criminal justice reform using civic technology. Most recently, he founded Cleveland Can't Wait, which is focused on advancing racial equity and economic opportunity in Cleveland's underserved neighborhoods.


title: Justin Bibb

text: Bibb formally announced his candidacy for mayor of Cleveland in early 2021, promising to bring new leadership and a sense of urgency to Cleveland's problems. As the son of a police officer and firefighter, he has pledged to make public safety his number one priority. Three months after launching his committee, Bibb's campaign announced that it had raised $180,000, a significant sum for a first-time candidate and far more than Frank Jackson and others raised in the 2017 primaries. Ryan Puente, former Executive Director, Cuyahoga County, served as Bibb's Campaign Manager.


title: Justin Bibb

text: Bibb had a strong showing at the Cleveland Mayoral Candidates Forum on Criminal Justice held on April 28, 2021. 3,000 valid petition signatures are required to make the ballot for the 2021 Cleveland mayoral election, known as a relatively high hurdle. Bibb filed his petition to run for Cleveland Mayor at the Cuyahoga County Board of Elections on June 10, 2021. Bibb was announced as one of seven candidates to make the ballot on June 16, 2021.


title: Justin Bibb

text: On August 8, 2021, Bibb was endorsed by the editorial board of cleveland.com and The Plain Dealer, Cleveland's major newspaper. On August 18, 2021, Bibb was then endorsed by two former Cleveland mayors, Michael R. White and Jane Campbell.


title: Justin Bibb

text: On September 14, 2021, Bibb placed first in the mayoral primary, advancing him to the November 2 general election alongside City Council President Kevin Kelley. On November 2, 2021, Bibb defeated Kelley in the general election, receiving 62.86 percent of the vote.


title: Justin Bibb

text: On January 3, 2022, Bibb was sworn in as the 58th Mayor of Cleveland. He has developed a cabinet that "looks like the city." He has appointed African Americans, Latino Americans, Italian Americans, Irish Americans, and representatives of many other ethnic groups in Cleveland, as well as LGBTQ individuals.


title: Justin Bibb

text: On January 31, 2022, at a press conference at Tower City Center, Bibb announced that for the NBA All-Star Game, hosted in Cleveland that year, all in attendance would have to be vaccinated against COVID-19.


title: Justin Bibb

text: Bibb has laid out some of his biggest initiatives as Mayor, including COVID-19 recovery, safety, crime, economy, equity, and to continue the momentum happening in Cleveland.


title: Justin Bibb

text: On February 22, 2022, Bibb endorsed Rep. Shontel Brown (D) in her effort to win re-election for Ohio's 11th District, a district that represents most of Cleveland's Downtown and East side. The western parts of Cleveland are represented by Rep. Marcy Kaptur (D), who represents Ohio's 9th District.


title: Justin Bibb

text: Bibb's late father, Donald Bibb, was one of the first African American first responders in the streetcar suburb of Cleveland Heights, serving for over 30 years. Donald was a firefighter for the Cleveland Heights Fire Dept. and also served as a police officer for the Cleveland Heights Police Dept., Cuyahoga Community College and the Cleveland Clinic. His mother, Charlene Nichols, is a social worker for seniors.


title: Justin Bibb

text: Bibb's cousin Leon Bibb is an American news anchor and commentator for WKYC in Cleveland. Bibb is also a member of Alpha Phi Alpha.


title: Potcake dog

text: The potcake dog is a mixed-breed dog type found on several Caribbean islands. Its name comes from a traditional local dish of seasoned rice and pigeon peas; overcooked rice that sticks to the bottom of the cooking pot (forming the 'pot cake') is commonly mixed with other leftovers and fed to the dogs. Although appearance varies, potcakes generally have smooth coats, cocked ears, and long faces.


title: Potcake dog

text: Dogs on various Caribbean islands share a common ancestry; many residents of Turks and Caicos were originally from nearby islands and took their dogs with them. Three types may have contributed to development: dogs the Arawak brought with them to the Bahamas; terriers protecting supplies from rodents on ships that arrived in Eleuthera, New Providence, and the Abaco Islands; and dogs from North Carolina that arrived with Loyalists during the American Revolutionary War period. It is also likely that the early Spanish settlers may have introduced their own dogs. As these could have included fighting dogs, the Arawak dogs may have been exterminated. In addition, many breeds were imported in the 20th century which interbred with the local dogs, making the mix of breeds in the potcake dynamic. DNA studies have shown no residue of early dog DNA in today's potcakes. Any such remaining DNA has become inconsequential due to the constant imports of dogs with the arrival of colonizers.


title: Potcake dog

text: The type's name is derived from the term "potcake", which refers to the congealed rice mixture at the bottom of the family cooking pot that Bahamians have traditionally fed dogs In Nassau alone, there are an estimated 5,000 to 8,000 stray potcakes. In the late 1970s, The Bahamas named the type the "Royal Bahamian Potcake". As of February 2011, the Bahamas Kennel Club lists it separately from the mixed-breed dog within Group 9 – Non-Registered.


title: Potcake dog

text: Although described as having a "shepherd-mix" look, the potcake dog's appearance varies by island. It may resemble a typical pariah dog or have hound, mastiff, spaniel, terrier, or retriever characteristics. The type typically has pointed and cocked ears, a long face, and a smooth coat without undercoat, or less commonly, a "shaggy" or rough coat. As a result of their mixed heritage, potcakes vary widely in terms of color, with many being brown, white, black, and far more with mixed coats.


title: Potcake dog

text: On average, a potcake dog will stand approximately at the withers. Healthy dogs typically weigh from , while strays may weigh only .


title: Potcake dog

text: According to Jane Parker-Rauw, potcake dogs are intelligent, loyal, calm, and resilient. Unlike many dog breeds, potcakes are able to eat many foods that would be upsetting to most dogs. Their stomachs are incredibly hardy. However, they tend to wander if not properly confined or supervised.


title: Potcake dog

text: The number of stray potcake dogs on the Turks and Caicos Islands has apparently increased, despite spay-and-neuter programmes designed to minimise their numbers. Because the territory is dependent on tourism, officials consider the dogs nuisances, and police have shot and poisoned them. Strays have a median age of three years. In the Bahamas, misconceptions about spaying and neutering dissuade residents from altering their pets. According to The Bahamas Advocates for Animal Rights group, there are 11,000 unowned dogs in New Providence. Forty-five percent of tourists report seeing roaming dogs, though two percent state they were "scared" by their presence.


title: Potcake dog

text: Local organizations adopt out stray potcake dogs to alleviate the overpopulation problem. In 2005, Turks and Caicos-based rescue organization Potcake Place became a registered charity. They run a puppy socialization program in which tourists take available potcakes on walks. Puppies are vaccinated and sent on airlifts to adopters worldwide. Additionally, several no-kill US shelters and nonprofit animal rescues accept potcake puppies. The Humane Society of Grand Bahama, located in Freeport, ships them to Florida on ferries.


title: Potcake dog

text: The canine charity OutPaws airlifted 1,001 potcakes from the Caribbean to Denver, Colorado, in 2013, and placed them all for adoption to Colorado families. The 1001st potcake wandered into camp shortly before the take-off of the plane, and was included in the group.


title: Potcake dog

text: In September 2019, the Humane Society of Grand Bahama was hit by Hurricane Dorian. The shelter was flooded by a storm surge and over 100 potcakes and potcats were lost. The remaining animals were sent to the US for medical treatment and to be eventually adopted out to new homes.


title: Potcake dog

text: Rescue organizations, Bruno Project http://brunoproject.org and HelpAWS http://helpaws.com operates in St. Lucia, running high volume spay/neuter clinics, as well as rescuing strays, providing medical care, and finding them homes in Canada and the USA.


title: Potcake dog

text: A potcake dog named Amigo is the mascot of the Humane Society of Grand Bahama and the BEKIND Campaign, a collaboration with the HSUS to bring greater attention to animal welfare issues. He was also an Ambassador of Hope for homeless animals until his death due to cancer in 2007. Amigo has appeared on MSNBC, Fox News, and CNN, and received the Ambassador of Goodwill and Hollywood Life Breakthrough of the Year 2007 awards. In 2009, he was one of four potcake dogs honoured in a series of commemorative stamps.


title: Potcake dog

text: Potcake dogs Daisy and Dusty, born in Providenciales and owned by Andy LoCascio, are trained to locate fish through scent on the water and distant cries of feeding sea birds. They have been featured on television and in magazines, including "Northeast Boating Magazine".


title: Charlie Stayt

text: Charles Jeffaries "Charlie" Stayt (born 19 June 1962) is a British newsreader and broadcaster. He is a journalist with the BBC as a presenter for "BBC Breakfast".


title: Charlie Stayt

text: Stayt was born on 19 June 1962 in Gloucester, in the West of England. He has two older siblings. He was educated at Wycliffe College, a co-educational part-boarding independent school in Stonehouse, Gloucestershire, before going to Birmingham Polytechnic.


title: Charlie Stayt

text: Stayt started his career on a commercial radio station in his home town of Gloucester. Before moving into television, he worked on radio in London, hosting Capital Radio's news programme, "The Way It Is" and also reporting for LBC and BBC Radio 5 Live.


title: Charlie Stayt

text: Stayt began his TV career working for ITN in 1995, then joined "Five News" as a reporter before presenting the network's prime-time bulletins and half-hour live debate programmes. He anchored Five News' coverage of the events of 11 September 2001 and spent a total of ten years at ITN, both as a correspondent and a presenter. He has also been a presenter for Sky News. He has hosted live "reality TV" shows "Jailbreak", and "Are You Telepathic".


title: Charlie Stayt

text: Stayt joined "BBC Breakfast" in 2006, initially as a relief presenter, but in December 2007, he was confirmed as its Friday–Sunday presenter. Since January 2008, he has been the weekend presenter for "BBC Breakfast", the early morning news programme broadcast on BBC One and BBC News. He moved with the programme to Salford and presents the programme Thursday-Saturday with Naga Munchetty, as well as standing in for main weekday host Dan Walker.


title: Charlie Stayt

text: In August 2016, Stayt appeared in Dictionary Corner on Channel 4's "Countdown" for a number of episodes.


title: Charlie Stayt

text: In 1995, Stayt married Anne Fiona Breckell, with whom he has two children, Phoebe Senara (b. 1997) and Jake Hamilton (b. 2000). He lives in Twickenham, southwest London.


title: 1C Company

text: 1C Company (, ) is a Russian software developer, distributor and publisher based in Moscow. It develops, manufactures, licenses, supports and sells computer software, related services and video games.


title: 1C Company

text: In Russia, 1C is considered a leader in business software for its comprehensive business software suite (Russian: 1С:Предприятие, 1C:Predpriyatie). 1C is known as a video game developer and publisher. Titles produced by the company include "IL-2 Sturmovik", "King's Bounty", "Men of War" and the "Space Rangers" series.


title: 1C Company

text: 1C was founded in 1991 by Boris Nuraliev in Moscow, Russia. In 1992, the company published <nowiki>"1C:Accounting"</nowiki> (), a bookkeeping software. The simplicity, wealth of customization options and its reach through the wide network of dealers, who were entitled to 50% of the sales income, made it possible for the 1C:Accounting software to become the most widespread accounting program across Russia and former USSR states.


title: 1C Company

text: In 1999, the first game developed by 1C was published - "". 1C also acquired company. In 2006, 1C announced that their trademark was considered "well-known" by Rospatent as an intellectual property status in Russia.


title: 1C Company

text: In 2008 1C declared its plan of transforming into a large multisectoral holding company. Part of its growth strategy was establishing joint ventures with leading and promising enterprises within the IT industry.


title: 1C Company

text: In May 2005, 1C bought Cenega Publishing, a Prague-based publisher and distributor. This arm was rebranded 1C Publishing EU in May 2007. 1C Publishing EU uses the trade name 1C Entertainment since late 2018.


title: 1C Company

text: In 2008, 1C declared it would become a holding company, stating it would establish joint ventures with companies within the IT industry. In October 2011, Baring Vostok Capital Fund acquired a 9% stake of 1C.


title: 1C Company

text: By 2015, according to the founder and head of the company Boris Nuraliev, the number of subsidiaries and joint ventures of 1C is about 200 companies.


title: 1C Company

text: In April 2016, 1C bought out 27.06% in Megaplan and increased its stake in the company to 99%. In August of the same year, a controlling stake was acquired in the restaurant business automation service Quick Resto. In October, 1C announced the purchase of a controlling stake in the developer of the cloud-based CRM system amoCRM.


title: 1C Company

text: In September 2016, 1C, together with ASCON, created the Renga Software company - the Russian developer of the Renga integrated BIM system.


title: 1C Company

text: In April 2022 1C Poland was sanctioned by Poland as part of the sanctions against the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine


title: 1C Company

text: Universal bookkeeping and tax calculation software with Russian Accounting Standards-compliant reporting. In 2018 a new IAS-compliant version was released.


title: 1C Company

text: • 1C:Accounting – the most popular accounting software in Russia. According to various estimates, the software is used by 80-90% of Russian companies.


title: 1C Company

text: Provides management accounting, planning, and sales data analysis. It automates trade, financial, and warehouse operations, elevating wholesale and retail companies.


title: 1C Company

text: All-in-one business application combining accounting, cloud banking, order management, inventory, project and time tracking.


title: 1C Company

text: The platform is a business application development tool. uses a Domain Driven Design approach to provide the specific tools needed to develop business software. All code-based development is done using a high-level domain-specific language, the source code is genuinely open. platform allows create applications for different operation systems (Windows, Linux, MacOS) and use its as a Cloud services or On-premise. Considered as an alternative development tools instead of the С language family and other integrated development environments (IDE).


title: 1C Company

text: 1C began distributing third party games in 1996. In 1997, they published "", which was the best-selling title in Russia during September 1999. 1C has a long history of funding independent developers and producing a great deal of very successful Russian games. 1C works as a publisher and producer with over 30 independent development studios and has produced over 100 projects for PC and consoles, including titles like "Hard Truck", "King of the Road", "Rig'n'Roll", "Space Rangers", "Soldiers: Heroes of World War II", "Faces of War", "Men of War" and "Men of War: Assault Squad" series, "Fantasy Wars", "Death to Spies", "King's Bounty" series, "Ancestors Legacy" and "Deep Sky Derelicts".


title: 1C Company

text: One successful series of combat flight simulators 1C publishes is the "IL-2 Sturmovik" series, first developed by Maddox Games of Oleg Maddox in 2001 and commercially traded under the brand "1C:Maddox Games", a division of 1C Company.


title: 1C Company

text: The company has also developed other games such as "Theatre of War" (2006), several entries in the "Men of War" franchise as of 2009 and "Royal Quest" (2015).


title: 1C Company

text: The company is also the largest distributor in Russia, publishing titles of most accomplished international publishers such as Activision Blizzard, Bethesda Game Studios, Take-Two Interactive, Ubisoft, Warner Bros. Interactive Entertainment. 1C owns two local distribution companies, "1C-SoftClub" () (, formerly known as SoftClub) and the previously independent Russian company "Buka Entertainment" (), which are also market leaders in the distribution of videogames hardware for companies like Sony Computer Entertainment according to 1C. 1C also owns a video games retail chain similar to retail chains like GameStop, named "1C-Interest" (), which has 30 stores in 22 cities inside Russia.


title: 1C Company

text: According to 1C, the company has established an international presence in 2005 by buying a group of distribution companies in Central Europe like the small games publisher <nowiki>"Cenega Publishing"</nowiki> (), later renamed to 1C Publishing EU based in Czech Republic. Since the purchase, the Cenega group has been transformed into a company for distribution, production and service under the name of 1C Entertainment, with over 400 people employed in Poland, Czech Republic, and Hungary. <nowiki>"QLOC"</nowiki> () a subsidiary Cenega is a premium service company, providing porting, co-developing, testing and localization services to development studios and publishers. While <nowiki>"</nowiki>1C Online Games<nowiki>"</nowiki> is the publishing and development arm of 1C Entertainment group the company states.


title: 1C Company

text: 1С:Enterprise business software suite is used for management and business accounting automation in more than 2,000,000 organizations, including major corporations and governmental entities. This system is number one in the Russian ERP market with the largest number of automated workplaces.


title: 1C Company

text: Measured by installations, 1C is the leader, with about 5 million users according to 1C Founder Boris Nuraliev in an interview.


title: 1C Company

text: 1C:Enterprise consists of two parts: 1C:Enterprise platform and business applications (1C Applied Solutions). 1C:Enterprise platform (framework) is for rapid development, deployment and flexible customization of business automation applications in the cloud, mobile and classic desktop environments. It is suitable to build scalable applications for small, medium and large organizations.


title: 1C Company

text: 1C:Enterprise, version 8 was released in 2004 and all following versions were called "1C:Enterprise 8". The current version of 1C:Enterprise platform is 8.3.18.


title: 1C Company

text: 1CFresh - an online platform for technology to develop, publish and manage cloud technologies and services based on 1C:Enterprise software, combining several cloud applications developed by 1C.


title: 1C Company

text: According to 1C the company provides its services through a network of partnerships consisting of more than 10,000 long-term partners in 25 countries.


title: 1C Company

text: One of the business strategies of 1C on the Russia IT market and several other countries is a franchising business model. About 7000 franchisees in 750 cities of Russia and neighboring countries provide comprehensive service for business automation, deployment, customization and support of 1C:Enterprise-based systems, consulting, user training, etc. 250+ of them have certified its QoS as ISO 9001-compliant.


title: 1C Company

text: In 2017 it was reported that 1C maintained a sizeable lead in RBС's publication, for the «Top-50 most popular brands in Russia».


title: 1C Company

text: According to Forbes Russia's estimates, the company controls around 12% of the turnover generated by all franchise businesses in Russia.


title: 1C Company

text: 1C is the official distributor of over 100+ software vendors of the likes of ABBYY, Acronis, Aladdin, ALT Linux, Ascon, Entensys, ESET, Famatech, Ideco, Infowatch, Kaspersky Lab, Magix, Microsoft, Movavi, nanoCAD, Oxygen Software, Panda Security, Paragon Mobile, Paragon Software, Redline Software, SmartLine, and others. 1C offers a number of titles of software for office and home use.


title: Luxoft

text: Luxoft, a DXC Technology Company, is represented in 21 countries with 17 000+ employees globally. Luxoft is headquartered in Zug, Switzerland.


title: Luxoft

text: In 2000, Luxoft was established under the direction of Dmitry Loschinin. In 2008, it acquired ITC Networks in Bucharest. In 2013, Luxoft was listed on the New York Stock Exchange, following an initial public offering of 4.1 million shares at $17.00 per ordinary share. UBS Limited, Credit Suisse Securities (USA) LLC, J.P. Morgan Securities LLC, VTB Capital plc and Cowen and Company, LLC were the joint book-running managers for the offering. In January 2019, Luxoft was acquired by DXC Technology. Luxoft enabled Switzerland's first Blockchain based e-vote platform with the City of Zug and Hochschule Luzern's Blockchain Lab. In 2010, Luxoft established a development center in Kraków, Poland. Since 2018, Luxoft has been present in Italy (Turin), through the acquisition of the Objective Software site. In January 2019, DXC Technologie of Tyson Corner (Virginia) announced the acquisition of Luxoft Holding.


title: Luxoft

text: In January 2019, Luxoft was acquired by DXC Technology. According to the information from SEC database, DXC Technology now owns 83% of Luxoft shares. The eventual close of the deal was in June 2019.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The 1988 Armenian earthquake, also known as the Spitak earthquake (, ), occurred on December 7 at with a surface wave magnitude of 6.8 and a maximum MSK intensity of X ("Devastating"). The shock occurred in the northern region of Armenia (then part of the Soviet Union) which is vulnerable to large and destructive earthquakes and is part of a larger active seismic belt that stretches from the Alps to the Himalayas. Activity in the area is associated with tectonic plate boundary interaction and the source of the event was slip on a thrust fault just to the north of Spitak. The complex incident ruptured multiple faults, with a strike-slip event occurring shortly after the initiation of the mainshock. Between 25,000 and 50,000 were killed and up to 130,000 were injured.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Seismologists thoroughly studied the effects of the Spitak event, including the mainshock and aftershock fault rupture mechanisms, and were on site setting up temporary seismometers before the end of 1988. Earthquake engineering experts scrutinized building construction styles and found fault in the poorly constructed apartments and other buildings that were built during the Era of Stagnation under the rule of Leonid Brezhnev. The cities of Spitak, Leninakan (Gyumri) and Kirovakan (Vanadzor) were greatly affected with large losses of life and devastating effects to buildings and other structures. A number of the smaller outlying villages away from the larger population centers were also severely affected.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Despite the tensions of the Cold War, Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev formally asked the United States for humanitarian help within a few days of the earthquake, the first such request since the late 1940s. One hundred and thirteen countries sent substantial amounts of humanitarian aid to the Soviet Union in the form of rescue equipment, search teams and medical supplies. Private donations and assistance from non-governmental organizations also had a large part of the international effort. While transporting some of these supplies to the region, a Soviet aircraft carrying 9 crew members and 69 military personnel, and a transport plane from Yugoslavia, were both destroyed in separate incidents. In support of the relief effort, recording artists united to produce several music-related contributions for the victims of the quake. A song was produced by a duo of French composers (including Charles Aznavour) and a studio album that featured songs donated by mainstream rock bands was released from the Rock Aid Armenia effort by the British music industry.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Beginning with late 1987 the Caucasus region was experiencing a surge in political turmoil with large and near constant demonstrations being held in the capital of Yerevan beginning in February 1988. For the fifteen months prior to the earthquake and at times up to hundreds of thousands of protesters, represented by the Karabakh Committee, were demanding both democracy and the unification of Nagorno-Karabakh (administered by Soviet Azerbaijan but disputed autonomous territory with a 76% Armenian majority and a 23% Azerbaijani minority in 1989) in the mountains of the Karabakh region. The unrest and the opposition movement began in September 1988 with negotiations between the Karabakh Committee and Gorbachev taking place throughout most of 1989. The relationship between the Soviet authorities and the Armenian society took a turn for the worse in March and the developments climaxed in November when a state of emergency was declared, along with a nighttime curfew, and a mass movement of up to 50,000 Armenians fleeing ethnic violence in events such as the Sumgait Pogrom arrived from Azerbaijan.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The source of the event was a fault rupture south of the Caucasus Mountains, a mountain range that has been produced by the convergence of the Arabian and the Eurasian tectonic plates. The range is situated along an active seismic belt that stretches from the Alps in southern Europe to the Himalayas in Asia. The seismicity along this belt is marked by frequent major earthquakes from the Aegean Sea, through Turkey and Iran, and into Afghanistan. Though the recurrence of seismic events in Armenia does not reach the high frequency that is seen in other segments of this zone, rapid crustal deformation there is associated with active thrust faulting and volcanic activity. Mount Ararat, a dormant volcano, lies to the south of the quake's epicenter in Turkey.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The earthquake occurred along a known thrust fault striking parallel to the Caucasus range and dipping to the north-northeast. Bruce Bolt, a seismologist and a professor of earth and planetary science at the University of California, Berkeley, walked the length of the fault scarp in 1992 and found that the vertical displacement measured along most of the length with the southwest end reaching . During the earthquake, the northeast-facing side of the Spitak section rode up and over the southwest-facing side.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Waveform modeling established that the faulting originated at a depth of with the epicenter on the Alavar thrust fault on the slopes of the Lesser Caucasus mountains north of Mount Aragats. The mainshock produced surface rupture and propagated to the west with a separate strike-slip sub-event occurring two seconds later that propagated to the southeast. Going westward the fault split into two branches, a north-dipping reverse fault (north branch) and a right slip fault (south branch), but neither produced surface rupture. A total of five sub-events occurred in the first eleven seconds and an aftershock measuring 5.8 (local magnitude) occurred four minutes and twenty seconds later.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Some of the strongest shaking occurred in industrial areas with chemical and food processing plants, electrical substations, and power plants. The Metsamor Nuclear Power Plant, around from the epicenter, experienced only minor shaking and no damage occurred there, but was eventually closed for a period of six years due to vulnerability concerns. It was reopened in 1995 in order to relieve Armenia of a major energy blockade imposed by Azerbaijan due to the First Nagorno-Karabakh War, amid criticism of lack of training, political instability in the Caucasus region, and accusations that the plant was of inadequate design.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Many buildings did not hold up to the shaking of the earthquake and those that did collapse often lacked any survival space, but lack of effective medical care and poor planning also contributed to the substantial scope of the disaster. Buildings that didn't collapse featured well-maintained masonry and skeletal components that were joined together adequately in a way that allowed for the building to resist seismic waves. Most bridges and tunnels and other public infrastructure withstood the earthquake but hospitals did not fare well. Most collapsed, killing two-thirds of their doctors, destroying equipment and medicine, and reducing the capacity to handle the critical medical needs in the region.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The Soviet news media and government officials soon began to discuss the apparent substandard construction styles that had caused so many of Armenia's buildings to collapse. Gorbachev, in a TV interview several weeks after his expedited return from New York City, said that the concrete blocks had been built with more than enough sand but too little concrete, and suggested that the concrete had been stolen. , deputy chairman of the state building committee, stated that many newer homes collapsed as well and that he was beginning an investigation into the matter and that criminal charges would be brought. The official communist party newspaper "Pravda" said that poor construction, like other issues of neglect in the Soviet system, could be blamed on the Era of Stagnation from the era of Leonid Brezhnev.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: A team of earthquake and engineering experts from the United States spent a period of time in Armenia in December 1988 and January 1989. The group, including a structural engineer who specialized in seismic-resistant designs, agreed that building inadequacies were the primary reason why the strong (but not huge) earthquake was so damaging, although the freezing temperatures also played a role in the unusually high death toll. The earthquake death toll was by far the highest worldwide in the 1980s and third-highest worldwide in the period 1971–2003 (33 years). The engineers who scrutinized the damaged buildings and the rescue workers who had dismantled the buildings while extricating survivors ascribe both design shortcomings and improper construction methods for the failure of the buildings. The Soviets had modified their construction style to accommodate the known seismic risk in the area, but they acknowledged to the team that many of the buildings were not built to withstand an earthquake of that magnitude. An engineer with the team stated that the regulations for the area mandated that buildings be required to stand up against events measuring seven or eight on the twelve-degree Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale. The earthquake's effects were assessed at ten on that seismic scale.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The three cities closest to the fault rupture experienced different levels of damage. Both Leninakan and Kirovakan were roughly equidistant from the shock, yet Leninakan had greater damage. This may be explained by a sedimentary layer that is present beneath the city. The Earthquake Engineering Research Institute's team compared building damage in each city and observed similar results when comparing stone buildings four stories or less in height, but for taller frame-stone buildings, 62% were destroyed at Leninakan while only 23% collapsed at Kirovakan. While on-site during aftershock monitoring, the US research team verified the presence of soil amplification effects when pronounced differences in readings were observed when compared with nearby rock sites. Uneven distribution of the seismic energy may have also contributed to the fluctuation in damage.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: In late December the last of the survivors that were able to be extricated were pulled from the fallen buildings, rescue operations ceased, and the cleanup began, beginning with the destruction of buildings that were too heavily damaged to be repaired. Six friends were in the basement of a nine-story building relocating barrels when it came down around them on December 7. Their injuries were minor, but one person did suffer a broken arm. They supposedly sustained themselves on the food supplies—fruit salad, pickles, and smoked ham—that were available in the basement for 35 days before their rescue in January, but this turned out to be a hoax.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The area where Armenia lies is of interest to seismologists and geologists because of the relatively early stage of continental collision occurring there and because the earthquake's strong aftershock sequence and significant surface faulting presented scientists with an environment to study reverse faulting. Twelve days after the mainshock a French-Soviet team installed a temporary seismic network in the epicentral area to record aftershock activity (a separate expedition from the United States also visited the site). The initial portion of work included nearly a full week setting up the seismometers and optimizing their operation and, with that complete, two full weeks of continuous operation was then completed with twenty six seismometers covering an area over 1,500 km. The final stage concluded with seven weeks (through the end of February 1989) of continued monitoring with a reduced capacity of twenty units.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The instrumentation included ten smoked paper analog seismometers that were configured to allow for 48 hours of continuous single-component data recording. Six digital recorders built by the Institut de Physique du Globe de Strasbourg were also used to record signals from three-component seismometers. Eight of the selected sites were equipped with a vertical component velocity transducer along with an FM telemetry link to transfer data back to a central station where a three-component unit was stationed. There the seismic signals were digitized, along with an internal time signal and an external DCF77 time signal, and stored on magnetic tape. The tapes were then played back and the P-wave and S-wave arrival times were used to automatically determine aftershock locations. Approximately two hundred aftershocks were recorded each day for the first several days of the expedition and at the end of the recording period in February the equipment was still picking up around 100 shocks per day. The team then set out to determine an accurate velocity model using data from the more accurate telemetry network. The soviet geophysicists detonated 100 kilograms of TNT in a hole drilled near the mainshock epicenter and the resulting shock waves were detected and used to help pinpoint a more accurate crustal velocity value of 5.3 to 5.4 km/s.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The epicenters of the recorded aftershocks formed a relatively narrow band. On the east end the events were shallow while on the western side, where the majority of the larger aftershocks were concentrated, the hypocenters were up to deep. The shocks at the southeastern segment indicated right-lateral strike-slip movement along a nearly vertical fault and may have been related to the Alavar fault. Moving westward closer to the central segments though, a transition of the fault type was becoming apparent, where an almost equal distribution of reverse fault mechanisms was observed as the strike-slip type. The east-central segment coincided with the surface breaks between Spitak and Gekhasar, while the west-central portion's break was concealed under an anticline and was not visible at the surface. Along the western segments, the fault split into two branches with one to the southwest and the other to the northwest.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Buildings and other structures were extensively damaged during the earthquake, but roadways and railways also experienced disturbances. Many case histories pertaining to liquefaction in sandy soil exist, but few exist with respect to gravel and gravelly sands. In certain situations, gravelly sands may liquefy in a similar fashion as saturated sands. The first well-documented case of liquefaction in gravelly sands was in regard to the 1983 Borah Peak earthquake in the United States. Several investigations of that event took place in the 1980s and early 1990s and the primary conclusions were that a critical condition for liquefaction to occur in that type of soil was the presence of a low permeable crust that did not allow pore water pressures to subside and that the assessment method and associated standard penetration test values used with sandy soils also applied to gravelly soils.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Three locations between Spitak and Nalband (to the west) that were within several kilometers of the fault were examined for ground disturbances and each site was scrutinized for the effects of liquefaction. The first site was on the highway that linked the three most damaged cities and was adjacent to a tributary of the Pambak river where the water table was close to the surface. The highway's embankment failed, and though the site was repaired immediately, the resulting damage to the highway caused considerable delay in getting people and supplies into and out of the area following the disaster. Numerous sand boils were seen in the region northwest of Spitak including within of the failed embankment. A second site that was close to the fault, also near the Pambak river and with similar soil deposits, did not experience liquefaction, though it would have experienced the same high peak ground accelerations as the failed highway embankment.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Avant-garde musician Pierre Schaeffer led a 498-member French rescue team to look for survivors in Leninakan, and worked there until all foreign personnel were asked to leave after the plan to bulldoze what was left of the ruins was formulated. The total number of volunteer rescue personnel in Leninakan totalled 2,000, with teams from Austria, Canada, Switzerland, the United States, Poland and Yugoslavia. Nikolai Ryzhkov, the then Chairman of the Council of Ministers, was awarded the National Hero of Armenia for his work in rebuilding the city following the earthquake.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Seventy-eight people were killed while on a relief mission to Leninakan when a Soviet Ilyushin Il-76 crashed on approach to the airport there. Nine crew and 69 military personnel were on board the plane that struck a helicopter in foggy conditions at the small airport that was overrun with rescue flights. In the days following the earthquake, the normally quiet airstrip was receiving up to 180 flights per day carrying food, medical supplies, and disaster management experts. Those who were killed on the plane were planning to join an estimated 20,000 soldiers and 85,000 civil defense workers in rescue efforts by searching for survivors, supplying food and water, and setting up sanitation facilities in the region. At the Yerevan airport, western pilots reported a breakdown in air traffic control communications, with flight controllers not delivering the necessary flight navigation instructions, allowing for a critical lack of separation as foreign planes made their way into the area.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: A second air transport incident occurred the following day at Yerevan (capital of the Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic) when an Antonov An-12 from Yugoslavia crashed, killing all seven crew on board. The crash was blamed on the pilots' failure to properly adjust the altimeter following a miscommunication with the air traffic controllers.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: A group of French recording artists and actors came together with the French writer and composer Charles Aznavour to record the 1989 song "Pour toi Arménie" (For you Armenia). Aznavour, together with Armenian-French composer Georges Garvarentz, formed a foundation called "Aznavour for Armenia" and composed the song as a call for help for the Armenians. It took six weeks from the creation of the song to completion of the disc and with almost two million copies sold, the foundation was able to build 47 schools and three orphanages for the victims of the disaster. Rock Aid Armenia, also known in earlier stages as Live Aid Armenia, was a humanitarian effort by the British music industry to raise money to help those affected by the earthquake. A monument, "Armenian Earthquake", expressing the appreciation of the Armenian people for assistance from the U.S. was erected in Washington, D.C. in 1990.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Gorbachev set aside 5 billion rubles (about US$8 billion) in funds for a start on what would likely be a recovery cost that would exceed the cleanup bill for the 1986 nuclear and radiation accident in Ukraine. While foreign doctors did assist with the Chernobyl incident, the Soviet relief effort after the earthquake was augmented by the largest foreign cooperation since World War II. That deluge of western aid was a byproduct of the disaster that may have had a positive effect on Soviet Union–United States relations. The cost of rebuilding would be a severe obstacle for Perestroika, Gorbachev's plan for economic restructuring. Another adverse effect of the disaster was that the Armenians were already distrustful of Gorbachev's dismissal of their claims to the disputed territory of Nagorno-Karabakh, which the Armenians had been contesting with neighboring Azerbaijan.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The world responded rapidly to the disaster in Leninakan and Spitak, with much of Europe sending cargo aircraft loaded with medical supplies, rescue equipment, and trained personnel to assist in the recovery, and even more reinforcement coming in from Latin America and the Far East. Mikhail Gorbachev was in New York on his first day of visits with Ronald Reagan and George H. W. Bush at the time of the earthquake, and once the scale of the disaster was realized, a quick departure was made back to Armenia, with the Kremlin formally asking for American help. Washington immediately responded with offers of doctors, medical equipment, and rescue teams, and by the first weekend the first US plane arrived in Yerevan with search and rescue teams and detection dogs.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The French arrived in Armenia in the late evening on Friday, December 9, and relieved the exhausted Armenian workers who then returned to Yerevan. Japan sent a monetary gift of $9 million while Italy had plans to build a prefabricated village for the victims, and West Germany offered to send more than a dozen heavy cranes. The Americans donated generously as well, with Washington dispatching eight official planeloads of official relief aid plus a Lockheed C-141 Starlifter from Italy. Private donations from the United States were also significant. Chrysler chairman Lee Iacocca arranged for a fund drive, and in Chicago (one of five major Armenian population centers in the US) the community raised $800,000 and donated of supplies.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: American businessman and philanthropist Armand Hammer, well known to the Soviet Union for his financial pursuits and humanitarian ties, left Los Angeles for Armenia onboard a Boeing 727 loaded with of medical supplies that were provided by the American Red Cross. Hammer, known for his decades of work with the Occidental Petroleum Corporation, had spoken with Gorbachev prior to leaving and was carrying with him $1 million in relief funds. Half of those funds were from World Vision International, a California-based relief and development umbrella organization and the other half were his own personal donation. The flight also carried Robert Seiple (president of World Vision) and a UCLA doctor who had worked in the aftermath of the 1985 Mexico City earthquake.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: Red tape inevitably held up some of the rescue efforts and criticism of the perceived flawed processes soon followed. The newspaper "Pravda" complained that the lack of cranes meant that "seconds and hours are being lost—that means lives." The paper also stated that too many Soviet personnel were giving advice and not enough people were actually searching. The daily newspaper "Sotsialisticheskaya Industriya" noted that there were families living out in the open even while there was an abundance of tents available. Health minister Yevgeniy Chazov urged the creation of a governmental body to assist with disaster management. Baxter International, an American health care company with headquarters in Deerfield, Illinois, designed and built a flying medical lab set up with 20 dialysis machines to be used with victims suffering from crush syndrome (trauma associated with building collapses), but were unable to get started for four days until the visas were available. With the hospitals destroyed and their limited knowledge of the care requirements, the Soviets were not well-equipped to deal with the cases of crush syndrome. Author and professor of geopolitics Pierre Verluise detailed in his 1995 book "Armenia in Crisis: The 1988 Earthquake", how a French doctor and director of a Leninakan hospital described that he had seen one hundred victims suffering from the syndrome each day during the first three days. In order to prevent kidney failure or death, the treatment requires prompt hospitalization, and, according to the doctor, the victims were not receiving adequate medication and dialysis and, as a result, most died before the arrival of the first foreign dialysis machines.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: In February 1989 one hundred construction workers were assembling temporary housing for themselves in Leninakan with a plan to start on the local population's housing by the end of the month, though schools and factories were also on the list of facilities to be rebuilt. Deputy chairman of a city building and architecture council said that updated building codes like those in the United States were being drafted (along with a strict requirement that the new protocols be respected) and that the new buildings would be no taller than four stories and would be located away from areas with the highest seismic risk. Other officials decided that the town would be relocated several kilometers to the southwest.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: As of July 1989, about $500 million in donations had been delivered to the Armenians from 113 countries. Most of those funds went into the initial relief work and medical care plus the beginning portion of the rebuilding phase. Yuri S. Mkhitarian, an Armenian State Building Committee official, gave an updated damage report that included some of the outlying communities away from the population centers stating that 342 villages were damaged and another 58 were destroyed. The negative effect the earthquake had on the economy of Armenia was apparent. Mkhitarian said that 130 factories were destroyed and 170,000 people were out of work. Officials acknowledged that the work to complete the rebuilding may take up to five years or longer, a supposition that more than doubled Gorbachev's estimate of two years. At that time 20 projects had completed the planning process and some had been approved and construction started. In Leninakan, there was a need for 18 new hospitals, 12 of which could be funded with the assistance of the republics of the Soviet Union, but foreign help would be required to build six additional facilities. Boris Karapetyan, director of earthquake studies at the Yerevan Polytechnical Institute, said of the difficult rebuilding process "Coordination is a major, major problem. This is a massive undertaking, and foreign involvement is both a necessary and a complicating factor. We need foreign assistance—and there is no doubt about that—but our friends do not know the local conditions and propose things that cannot or should not be built in an earthquake-prone region."


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The Soviets and an American group of architects each devised separate outlines for rebuilding the town of Spitak. Following an invitation by the Soviets for a critique of their plan, the American proposal was ultimately accepted as the way forward. The new plan would deviate from Soviet styles that were found to be rigid and outdated and would mirror characteristics of the local culture. For many years following World War II the Soviets practiced a methodical top-down approach to urban planning and building, constructing a large number of uniformly built row style apartment units, and the Soviets plan for rebuilding Spitak did not diverge from that approach. The Soviet's grid plan road scheme was found to not take into account the hillside at the new city's location, and the American plan included finer details of how commercial centers and government facilities were grouped together in an open and communal style.


title: 1988 Armenian earthquake

text: The Tsaghkadzor earthquake on October 20, 1827, was centered about southeast of Spitak and had a maximum intensity of VIII on the Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale. While that shock may have been related to the Pambak-Sevan fault, the October 22, 1926 Leninakan earthquake to the west of the 1988 event also had a maximum intensity of MSK VIII.


title: Skoal (tobacco)

text: Skoal is a brand of smokeless tobacco. Skoal is produced by the U.S. Smokeless Tobacco Company (USSTC), which is a subsidiary of Altria. It is considered a high-priced product within the dipping tobacco market. Skoal was first produced by USSTC in 1934. "Skoal" is an Anglicisation of "skål", a term used often in Scandinavia to announce a toast of friendship, with connotations of well-wishing.