title: Lynx (web browser)

text: Because Lynx does not support graphics, web bugs that track user information are not fetched, meaning that web pages can be read without the privacy concerns of graphic web browsers. However, Lynx does support HTTP cookies, which can also be used to track user information. Lynx therefore supports cookie whitelisting and blacklisting, or alternatively cookie support can be disabled permanently.


title: Lynx (web browser)

text: As with conventional browsers, Lynx also supports browsing histories and page caching, both of which can raise privacy concerns.


title: Lynx (web browser)

text: Lynx accepts configuration options from either command-line options or configuration files. There are 142 command line options according to its help message. The template configuration file codice_1 lists 233 configurable features. There is some overlap between the two, although there are command-line options such as codice_2 which are not matched in codice_1. In addition to pre-set options by command-line and configuration file, Lynx's behavior can be adjusted at runtime using its options menu. Again, there is some overlap between the settings. Lynx implements many of these runtime optional features, optionally (controlled through a setting in the configuration file) allowing the choices to be saved to a separate writable configuration file. The reason for restricting the options which can be saved originated in a usage of Lynx which was more common in the mid-1990s, i.e., using Lynx itself as a front-end application to the Internet accessed by dial-in connections.


title: Lynx (web browser)

text: Because Lynx is a text-based browser, it can be used for internet access by visually impaired users on a refreshable braille display and is easily compatible with text-to-speech software. As Lynx substitutes images, frames and other non-textual content with the text from codice_4, codice_5 and codice_6 HTML attributes and allows hiding the user interface elements, the browser becomes specifically suitable for use with cost-effective general purpose screen reading software. A version of Lynx specifically enhanced for use with screen readers on Windows was developed at Indian Institute of Technology Madras.


title: Lynx (web browser)

text: Lynx is also useful for accessing websites from a remotely connected system in which no graphical display is available. Despite its text-only nature and age, it can still be used to effectively browse much of the modern web, including performing interactive tasks such as editing Wikipedia.


title: Lynx (web browser)

text: Since Lynx will take keystrokes from a text file, it is still very useful for automated data entry, web page navigation, and web scraping. Consequently, Lynx is used in some web crawlers. Web designers may use Lynx to determine the way in which search engines and web crawlers see the sites that they develop. Online services that provide Lynx's view of a given web page are available.


title: Lynx (web browser)

text: Lynx is also used to test websites' performance. As one can run the browser from different locations over remote access technologies like telnet and ssh, one can use Lynx to test the web site's connection performance from different geographical locations simultaneously. Another possible web design application of the browser is quick checking of the site's links.


title: Lynx (web browser)

text: Lynx was originally designed for Unix-like operating systems. It was ported to VMS soon after its public release and to other systems, including DOS, Microsoft Windows, Classic Mac OS and OS/2. It was included in the default OpenBSD installation from OpenBSD 2.3 (May 1998) to 5.5(May 2014), being in the main tree prior to July 2014, subsequently being made available through the ports tree. Lynx can also be found in the repositories of most Linux distributions, as well as in the Homebrew and Fink repositories for macOS. Ports to BeOS, MINIX, QNX, AmigaOS and OS/2 are also available.


title: Lynx (web browser)

text: The sources can be built on many platforms, e.g., mention is made of Google's Android operating system.


title: Dieter Schwarz

text: Dieter Schwarz (born 24 September 1939) is a German billionaire businessman, and owner of the Schwarz-Gruppe. He is the former chairman and CEO of the supermarket chain Lidl, and the hypermarket chain Kaufland.


title: Dieter Schwarz

text: In 1973, Dieter Schwarz joined the ""Lidl & Schwarz KG"" business of his father Josef Schwarz and opened the company's first discount supermarket, inspired by the brothers Albrecht. After his father died in 1977, he took control of the discount chain. He became CEO and expanded the business outside of Germany.


title: Dieter Schwarz

text: Soon afterwards, Schwarz bought the naming rights for Lidl from an unrelated person named Ludwig Lidl, a former schoolteacher, in order to side-step a legal battle with the co-owner A. Lidl.


title: Dieter Schwarz

text: In 2009, he was estimated to be worth 10 billion euro. As of October 2012, he was estimated to be worth 12 billion euro, an increase from 11.5 billion euro in 2011. In 2013, he was estimated be worth €19.6 billion, and ranked the 24th richest person in the world. As of February 2014, he was ranked as 23rd richest person in the world in the Hurun Report Global Rich List.


title: Dieter Schwarz

text: In June 2021, "Bloomberg Billionaires Index" listed Schwarz as the 61st richest person in the world with an estimated net worth of US$27.3 billion.


title: Dieter Schwarz

text: Since 1999, Schwarz manages his resources through the tax-exempt Dieter Schwarz Foundation (gGmbH, limited liability company with a charitable purpose), when he transferred his shares in Lidl and Kaufland into it, deciding just how much of his profits go into the foundation. The Dieter Schwarz Foundation supports education and daycare facilities for children, for example, as well as science and research projects.


title: Dieter Schwarz

text: In 1963, Schwarz married Franziska Weipert. They live in Heilbronn and have two daughters. Schwarz is known to be very protective of his privacy, in an extent that no media recordings of Schwarz exist and he refuses any kind of interview. Meanwhile, just three photos of him are known to exist in the press or in the image search of Google.


title: Polly Platt

text: Mary Marr "Polly" Platt (January 29, 1939 – July 27, 2011) was an American film producer, production designer and screenwriter. She was the first female art director accepted into Hollywood's Art Director's Guild. In addition to her credited work, she was known as mentor (for which she was honored with Women in Film Crystal Award) as well as an uncredited collaborator and networker. In the case of the latter, she is credited with contributing to the success of ex-husband and director Peter Bogdanovich's early films; mentoring then, first-time director and writer Cameron Crowe, and discovering actors including Cybill Shepherd, Tatum O'Neal, Owen Wilson, Luke Wilson and director Wes Anderson. Platt also suggested that director James L. Brooks meet artist and illustrator Matt Groening. Their subsequent meeting eventually resulted in the satiric animated television series "The Simpsons".


title: Polly Platt

text: Platt was born Mary Marr Platt in Fort Sheridan, Illinois, on January 29, 1939, later choosing to be known as 'Polly'. Her father, John, was a colonel in the Judge Advocate General's Corps of the United States Army, while her mother, Vivian, worked in advertising; she had a brother, John. She moved to Germany at the age of six when her father presided over the Dachau Trials. Platt later returned to the US and attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology, now known as Carnegie Mellon University. In 1960, Platt was married to Phillip Klein, who died in a car accident after eight months of marriage.


title: Polly Platt

text: Platt worked in summer stock theatre as a costume designer in New York and there met Peter Bogdanovich, whom she later married. She co-wrote with him his first movie "Targets" (1968), conceiving the plot outline of a "Vietnam veteran-turned-sniper", and served as production designer on the film. She repeated the latter role on his film "The Last Picture Show" (1971), having made the original suggestion to adapt Larry McMurtry's novel and having recommended Cybill Shepherd for her first film role therein. Despite the breakdown of her marriage to Bogdanovich, Platt was again production designer on "What's Up, Doc?" (1972) and "Paper Moon" (1973). Bogdanovich commented that: "She worked on important pictures and made major contributions. She was unique. There weren't many women doing that kind of work at that time, particularly not one as well versed as she was. She knew all the departments, on a workmanlike basis, as opposed to most producers who just know things in theory." Platt was the first female member of the Art Directors Guild. She was also production designer on "A Star Is Born" (1976).


title: Polly Platt

text: She wrote the screenplay for "Pretty Baby" (1978), for which she was also an associate producer, as well as "Good Luck, Miss Wyckoff" (1979), and "A Map of the World" (1999). She wrote the screenplay for the 1995 Academy Award-winning short film "Lieberman in Love", based on a short story by W. P. Kinsella.


title: Polly Platt

text: Platt worked extensively with James L. Brooks throughout her career. She was the executive vice president of his production company Gracie Films from 1985 to 1995. Platt was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Art Direction for Brooks' film "Terms of Endearment" (1983). She co-produced many of the films he worked on, which Gracie made, including "Broadcast News" (1987), "The War of the Roses" (1989) and "Bottle Rocket" (1996), as well as producing "Say Anything..." (1989) in which she also had a bit part.


title: Polly Platt

text: Platt gave Brooks the nine-panel "Life in Hell" cartoon, "The Los Angeles Way of Death" by cartoonist Matt Groening. She suggested that the two meet and that Brooks produce an animated TV version of Groening's characters; the meeting spawned a series of short cartoons about the Simpson family, which aired as part of "The Tracey Ullman Show" and later became "The Simpsons".


title: Polly Platt

text: In 1994, she was awarded the Women in Film Crystal Award. Brooks said that Platt "couldn't walk into a gas station and get gas without mentoring somebody. Movies are a team sport, and she made teams function. She would assume a maternal role in terms of really being there. The film was everything, and ego just didn't exist." In 2003, she appeared in the BBC documentary film "Easy Riders, Raging Bulls". Platt was working on a documentary about the filmmaker Roger Corman at the time of her death. She was very involved with the Austin Film Festival up until her death, and mentored many filmmakers through her participation in the annual festival, which is geared toward screenwriting and production skill-sharing. According to her daughter, Antonia Bogdanovich, "She came every year, religiously, she was a huge supporter," of the Austin Film Festival, and Platt attended the very first festival.


title: Polly Platt

text: Platt was married to Philip Klein until his death in a car accident in 1959, eight months after they married, and to director Peter Bogdanovich from 1962 to 1971. They divorced after Bogdanovich left her during the filming of "The Last Picture Show" for its lead actress Cybill Shepherd. Platt and Bogdanovich had two children: Antonia and Sashy. Platt later married prop maker Tony Wade; they remained married until his death in 1985. She was stepmother to his two children, Kelly and Jon.


title: Polly Platt

text: The 1984 film "Irreconcilable Differences", starring Ryan O'Neal, Shelley Long and Drew Barrymore, was reportedly loosely based on her marriage to Bogdanovich, and their divorce, and Platt herself confirmed the film "got more right than wrong."


title: Polly Platt

text: Platt's talent as a mentor and film producer was deeply admired by her peers, who felt she should have become a director. She struggled with alcoholism for more than 25 years. Additionally, sexism in the film industry made directing unlikely for her.


title: Polly Platt

text: Platt participated in a 2000 Texasville reunion of some of the cast and crew of "The Last Picture Show". She and Cybill Shepherd had made peace and were on friendly terms. Platt and her children were reconciled with Bogdanovich when she died.


title: Polly Platt

text: Platt died in Manhattan, on July 27, 2011, from amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, aged 72. She was survived by her brother John "Jack" Platt, her two daughters Antonia Bogdanovich and Sashy Bogdanovich, her son-in-law Pax Wassermann, and three grandchildren.


title: Polly Platt

text: Platt was the first female film art director to be accepted into the Art Director's Guild, a membership she required in order to receive credit on studio films. In May 2020, film journalist and podcast producer/writer/host Karina Longworth began the sixth season of the podcast "You Must Remember This" with a focus on the significance of Polly Platt's work within the larger context of late 20th-century U.S. film history. The season, "Polly Platt, The Invisible Woman", includes interviews with family, friends, and colleagues (as well as readings from Platt's unpublished memoir) documenting her (often uncredited) contributions to commercially and critically successful films of the late 1960s and into the early 2000s. Longworth argues that Platt played a pivotal role in the location, casting, and overall visual aesthetic of major films, including but not limited to "Paper Moon", "What's Up, Doc?" and "The Last Picture Show." Actress Maggie Siff voices Platt in the podcast.


title: HQ-16

text: The HQ-16 () is a medium-range surface-to-air missile (SAM) from the People's Republic of China. It is derived from earlier versions of the Russian Buk missile system.


title: HQ-16

text: Development began in 2005, and was reportedly assisted by the Almaz-Antey Corporation. It was initially developed as a naval system. In late-2011, China reported the "co-development between Russia and China" of the missile was complete.


title: HQ-16

text: A ground battery consists of a command post, two multifunction radars, and four to six launchers. Each launcher has six missiles.


title: HQ-16

text: The platform for the HHQ-16, the Type 054A frigate, entered service in 2008. The HQ-16A entered service in 2011.


title: HQ-16

text: Pakistan entered negotiations to purchase the missile in 2015. The LY-80s entered service with the Pakistan Army in March 2017.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards is a 2000 platform game developed by HAL Laboratory and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo 64 (N64). It is the first "Kirby" game to feature 3D computer graphics and follows Kirby as he attempts to reassemble a sacred crystal shattered by Dark Matter. Gameplay is viewed from a 2.5D perspective and is similar to previous "Kirby" titles; the player traverses levels and obtains powers by eating enemies. "Kirby 64" introduces Power Combos, the ability to mix powers to create more powerful ones. In a multiplayer mode, up to four players can compete in three minigames.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: Development began in September 1997. The game was intended for the N64's 64DD add-on, but became a standard N64 title after the add-on failed. HAL initially planned to use the N64 controller's analog stick for "Kirby 64", but switched to the D-pad about a year before release. The game received mostly positive reviews, with praise directed at its colorful visuals and classic style of gameplay. For some critics, the game's low difficulty and short length left them feeling underwhelmed. It was rereleased for the Virtual Console on the Wii and Wii U, as well as the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack in 2008, 2015, and 2022 respectively, and was included in the Wii compilation "Kirby's Dream Collection" (2012). "Kirby 64" was the last traditional home console "Kirby" game until "Return to Dream Land" (2011).


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: "Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards" is a side-scrolling platformer similar to previous games in the "Kirby" series. Its story begins when Dark Matter invades Ripple Star, a planet populated by fairies. The fairy Ribbon flees with a sacred crystal, but Dark Matter shatters it and spreads it across the galaxy. Ribbon lands on Pop Star and meets Kirby, who agrees to help retrieve the shards and defeat Dark Matter. Along the way, they enlist the help of artist Adeleine, King Dedede, and Dedede's minion Waddle Dee, after each of them stumble upon a crystal shard and end up being possessed by Dark Matter, forcing Kirby to battle each of them in order to free them from the Dark Matter's influence.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: Similar to contemporary platformers such as "Pandemonium!" (1996) and "" (1997), "Kirby 64" is a 2.5D platformer; although environments and characters are rendered in 3D computer graphics, gameplay is restricted to a 2D plane. Players control Kirby using the Nintendo 64 controller's D-pad. Like earlier "Kirby" games, Kirby can walk or run, crouch, jump, and inhale enemies or objects to spit them out as bullets. He can fly for a limited time by inflating himself; while flying, Kirby cannot attack or use his other abilities, though he can release a weak puff of air. By eating certain enemies, Kirby can gain one of seven copy abilities, power-ups allowing him to take on the properties the enemy possessed. King Dedede is also playable at certain points, and can use his hammer to break objects Kirby cannot.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: "Kirby 64" introduces Power Combos, the option to combine Kirby's copy abilities. Power Combos can be created by inhaling two enemies at once, by throwing one ability at another, or by spitting an enemy at another. The latter two methods create a colored star that can be collected to obtain the Power Combo. There are 28 possible combinations, which are stronger than normal copy abilities or have added effects. For instance, by combining the "Burn" and "Needle" abilities, Kirby can shoot fire arrows. Players can also mix two of the same abilities, which will increase their power.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: The game takes place across six worlds, which are split into several levels. After the player selects a level, they must navigate it while avoiding enemies and obstacles. If Kirby or King Dedede touches an enemy or hazard, he loses health. Health can be replenished by eating food scattered across levels. If all health is lost or the character falls off the bottom of the screen or gets crushed by a moving object, the player loses a life. Losing all lives results in a game over. Players can earn lives by collecting stars or 1-ups. Shards of the crystal are scattered about levels, and while Power Combos are optional, they are required to collect several of the shards. At the end of each level, players play a bonus game to collect food, stars, or cards with information about enemies. Certain levels feature bosses that the player must defeat to proceed. Players must collect all of the crystal shards to reach the game's final boss and true ending.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: Outside the single-player platforming, a multiplayer game mode can be accessed from the main menu. Here, up to four players can compete in three minigames: 100-Yard Hop, a race to the finish line; Bumper Crop Bump, a competition to collect food; and Checkerboard Chase, a last man standing game. Players can adjust the difficulty level and control Kirby, King Dedede, Adeleine, or Waddle Dee.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: "Kirby 64" was developed by HAL Laboratory as the first game in its "Kirby" series to feature 3D graphics. Development began in September 1997, shortly before "Kirby's Dream Land 3" was released. At the time, 3D graphics were becoming common, so HAL wanted to create a 3D "Kirby" game. According to project manager Takashi Saito, keeping the project on schedule was challenging due to HAL's close attention to detail, so he had to balance creating a quality game with releasing it on time. The development team had to be careful transitioning the series' art style to 3D as they did not want to disappoint "Kirby" devotees. The game was initially developed for the 64DD, a disk-drive add-on for the Nintendo 64 (N64), but became a standard N64 Game Pak after the add-on failed commercially.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: By October 1997, HAL had created a prototype to experiment with "Kirby" in 3D. The studio worked this prototype, which used the N64 controller's analog stick to control Kirby, until about a year before release. Saito said the prototype was nearly finished and "was pretty good," but the team felt they could do better. HAL changed the control configuration from the analog stick to the D-pad because the game was played on a 2.5D plane rather than a 3D one. At Space World in 1999, the developers observed children play with the original setup. They noticed the children would leave the N64 controller on the promotional stand when using the analog stick, and had trouble using the Z shoulder button that was essential in the configuration. Coming up with a new control scheme led to debate since HAL used the Z button prominently in "Super Smash Bros." (1999). The team settled on the D-pad configuration after a successful test with elementary school students.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: The Power Combo game mechanic was conceived to enhance Kirby's abilities and experiment what would happen if copy abilities were mixed. Saito noted the game is designed for all ages and either easy or hard depending on playstyle. If the player relies on Power Combos too much, the game becomes challenging, but is easier if they do not. Originally, there were going to be several playable characters (including Waddle Dee, whose gameplay focused on picking up objects), but only Kirby and King Dedede remained playable in the final game. Ribbon the fairy was initially called Kawashima and conceived as a means to switch the player's character. The N64's technology also made four-player minigames possible. Kirby creator Masahiro Sakurai had little involvement with "Kirby 64" and avoided playing it during development; he feared any comments he made would conflict with HAL's vision.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: Publisher Nintendo announced the game at E3 1999. According to "IGN", "Kirby" representation on the N64 was "long-awaited", as an earlier series game for the system—"Kirby Bowl 64"—had been canceled. "Kirby 64" was released in Japan on March 24, 2000, in North America on June 26, 2000, and in Europe on June 22, 2001. "GameSpot" noted that unlike other "Kirby" games, "Kirby 64" saw release before support for its system ended. Saito commented that he wanted to release the game earlier, but more development time meant more polish. It was the last traditional "Kirby" home console game until "Return to Dream Land" (2011).


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: Nintendo re-released "Kirby 64" for the Virtual Console on the Wii and Wii U in 2008 and 2015, respectively. The game was also included in "Kirby's Dream Collection" (2012), a 20th anniversary compilation of "Kirby" titles for the Wii. "Kirby 64" was re-released on May 20, 2022, on the Nintendo Switch Online + Expansion Pack Service.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: "Kirby 64" received "generally favorable reviews", according to the review aggregator Metacritic. Critics likened it to other 2.5D platformers on the N64 including "Goemon's Great Adventure" (1998) and "Yoshi's Story" (1997), Some felt its gameplay and visuals were reminiscent of older platform games for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Super NES. "Edge" viewed this as a detriment, writing that the game suffered from a lack of innovation in the midst of other Nintendo franchises establishing themselves within the growing 3D game market. They explained, writing: "There is simply not enough originality or longevity on offer for "Kirby 64" to stand out among the wealth of inventive platformers already on the N64." "GameFan" wrote that while it was a nice break from 3D games, "Kirby 64"'s graphics resembled Super NES games and it would soon appear antiquated.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: Critics believed "Kirby 64" lacked in longevity and difficulty. "N64 Magazine" felt the early levels were enjoyable but that later stages became stale, and opined that the game would have benefited from more complex level design. They believed "Kirby 64" had wasted potential and described it as "short-lived and repetitive." "Electronic Gaming Monthly" wrote that "the game's slower pace and low difficulty made it hard to stay interested after a while." Both magazines agreed that attempting to find all the shards added some challenge, but "GameSpot" wrote that even this content could be completed within a three-day rental period. "IGN" and "Hyper" also recommended the game as a rental to older gamers, and only as a purchase for children. The game's "cute" graphics and story elements also influenced critics to recommend the game for children. The minigames were also criticized for adding little to the game's longevity, though they did draw some positive comparisons to "Mario Party".


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: Although the graphics were criticized for their simplicity and cuteness, they also received significant praise. "N64 Magazine" called the graphics the best aspect of the game and praised the scenery and environments. "Electronic Gaming Monthly" called the colors "bright" and "clean", and "Hyper" wrote that it looked like a picture book with its pastel-like shading. "Nintendo Power" compared the game's cute and colorful look to "Yoshi's Story". "IGN" wrote that "Kirby 64" was "Simple. Cartoony. Colorful. [...] It's a "Kirby" game, and it looks exactly as you'd expect it would." Several critics commended the character animations. "GameSpot" wrote that the characters were lifelike, and "Hyper" felt there was personality in all the characters and enemies.


title: Kirby 64: The Crystal Shards

text: Among retrospective reviews, "Nintendo Life" commented that the game's visuals held up because of their stylized shading and colors, and felt the environments gave a sense of grandeur that other "Kirby" titles rarely capture. "Eurogamer" wrote that it "doesn't do as much with the N64 as it could have done, and remains a perennial second-stringer in the Nintendo pantheon for that very reason, but that's no excuse to dismiss something this engaging and polished." "GamesRadar" listed "Kirby 64" as the sixth best "Kirby" game (in 2012) and the 23rd best N64 game. "USgamer" ranked it as the 13th best traditional "Kirby" game out of 16 in 2017, calling it "uninspired."


title: Queen and I (South Korean TV series)

text: Queen and I () is a 2012 South Korean television series starring Ji Hyun-woo and Yoo In-na. The story centers around obscure actress Choi Hee-jin (played by Yoo In-na, in her first leading role) who falls in love with Kim Bung-do (played by Ji Hyun-woo), a time-traveling scholar from the Joseon Dynasty (1392-1910) who jumps 300 years into the future to the 21st century.


title: Queen and I (South Korean TV series)

text: It was broadcast on cable channel tvN from April 18 to June 7, 2012 on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 23:00 for 16 episodes.


title: Queen and I (South Korean TV series)

text: On the year 1694, Joseon Dynasty: Kim Bung-do (Ji Hyun-woo) is a noble-born scholar and his family's sole survivor after they were massacred in a conspiracy. Kim Bung-do supports the reinstatement of Queen In-hyun, who was deposed due to scheming by royal concubine Lady Jang.


title: Queen and I (South Korean TV series)

text: On the year 2012, modern-day Seoul: Choi Hee-jin (Yoo In-na), an unsuccessful actress, lands her big break when she is cast as Queen In-hyun in the television drama "New Jang Heebin". Due to a mysterious talisman, Kim Bung-do time travels to 2012, where he crosses paths with Choi Hee-jin and falls in love.


title: Queen and I (South Korean TV series)

text: One of the filming locations was Gwanghwamun Plaza, where the two lead characters, Kim Boong-do and Choi Hee-jin share a kiss dubbed the 'Gwanghwamun kiss' against the backdrop of Gwanghwamun.


title: Bogan (film)

text: Bogan () is a 2017 Indian Tamil-language action thriller film written and directed by Lakshman and produced by Prabhu Deva (Prabhu Deva Studios) and Ganesh. The film stars Arvind Swamy and Jayam Ravi in titular roles, with Hansika Motwani, Akshara Gowda, Nassar, Ponvannan and Naren in supporting roles. The film story is about the body swapping of a honest police officer, Vikram (Jayam Ravi) and a thief with astral projection power, Aditya (Aravind Swami). Featuring music composed by D. Imman, the film began production during March 2016 and released on 2 February 2017 and received positive reviews and become a commercial success.


title: Bogan (film)

text: Vikram (Jayam Ravi) is an honest cop who serves as the Assistant Commissioner of Police (ACP) in Chennai. He has a team of police officers, namely, Sathya (Varun), Akshara (Akshara Gowda), and Prasad (Nagendra Prasad). He lives with his parents, elder sister (Sindhu Shyam), and brother-in-law (Prakash Rajan). His family sets up an arranged marriage for him with Mahalakshmi (Hansika).


title: Bogan (film)

text: Vikram is tasked with tracking Aadhithya Maravarman (Arvind Swami), a monarch's son and a crooked thief, who mysteriously became rich by robbing jewels and money. He is also involved in drug trading and pumping business. Aadhithya uses an ancient manuscript, which enables him to access Astral Projection by looking straight at their eyes. While interrogating Aadhithya after catching him , Prasad is killed by Sathya, (whose body is occupied by Aadhithya). When Vikram goes to shoot Aadhithya out of anger, Aadhithya enters Vikram's body and begins impersonating him, while Vikram is unconscious. Aadithya, now in Vikram's body, masks the killing of Vikram's best friend by saying that Sathya and Prasad had personal vengeance. After coming to Vikram's home, Aadhithya comes across Maha. He lusts for her and even pinches her belly in the car, but forgets about her eventually to focus on his revenge on Vikram. Meanwhile, Vikram, who now is trapped in Aadithya's body, is surprised to find himself imprisoned, and gets a visit from Aadithya, who tells him about his plan to make Vikram lose his job and free himself. Afterwards, Vikram manages to convince Sathya that he is not Adithya and escapes from prison. After escaping from the prison, Vikram calls the Chennai City Police Commissioner Rajkumar (Ponvannan) and tells the mishaps of events which occurred. Aadhithya overhears their conversation and kills the superintendent. Aadhitya later kills Akshara when she is informed by Satya. Aadhithya also reveals that he has a confession video which says that Vikram blamed Aadhithya for his father's mistake.


title: Bogan (film)

text: At the same time, Aadhithya unlocks Vikram's police data and takes the video evidence of his father, who Aadithya had impersonated , robbing the bank and threatens to reveal it to the public, but Vikram contacts Professor Chezhiyan (Nassar), Aadhithya's head in archaeology where he gets the manuscript which gives him his power. Chezhiyan thinks that he is being cheated and goes to Aadhithya, but Aadhithya reveals himself to be in Vikram's body, and makes Chezhiyan his bait to catch Vikram while in the complex where Vikram was supposed to meet Chezhiyan. When Aadhithya tracks Chezhiyan, Vikram hides and talks to Chezhiyan, who says that Aadhithya's power is only in his body (in which Vikram is) and in other bodies, his power does not work, so Vikram uses Chezhiyan to take the manuscript from the commissioner's office. Aadhithya later kills Chezhiyan.


title: Bogan (film)

text: Vikram puts a bomb on himself so that Aadhithya may get scared that if his body goes away, he will not be able to use his powers. Vikram and Aadhithya switch over to their original bodies after Vikram threatens to harm Aadithya's body, and Aadhithya pleads with Vikram to diffuse his bomb. Vikram, who had double-crossed Aadhithya, knocks him out, and while taking him to arrest, Aadhithya switches his soul to Vikram's father Arumugam (Aadukalam Naren) and beats Vikram. He then switches to Maha's body, stabs him, and threatens to kill Mahalakshmi if he does not remove his bomb. Vikram defuses the bomb. As Vikram had double-crossed and betrayed him, Aadhithya drives off with the unconscious Mahalakshmi. Vikram chases them and ends up in the coast. A weakened Vikram fights Aadhithya. Aadhithya quickly but brutally beats up Vikram. But Vikram snaps back and fights Aadhithya. Vikram fractured Aadhithya's neck and left hand and returns home with Maha.


title: Bogan (film)

text: In the end, to everyone's horror, Aadhithya survives and glares into the screen, which goes off with the title "Bogan 2 will continue".


title: Bogan (film)

text: Following the commercial success of "Romeo Juliet" (2015), Lakshman and Jayam Ravi announced that they would collaborate for another venture together. In August 2015, Prabhu Deva revealed that his new film studio, Prabhu Deva Studios, would associate with the actor-director pair as the producer and a launch event was held for the film, alongside Deva's other productions "Sometimes" (2017) and "Vinodhan" (2017). Lakshman initially wanted Vijay Sethupathi to portray a second leading role in the film, but his unavailability led him to consider alternate options. After discussing the role with Bobby Simha, Lakshman finalised Arvind Swamy for the role, with the actor being seen with Jayam Ravi again after the success of "Thani Oruvan" (2015). Meanwhile, Hansika Motwani, who starred in "Romeo Juliet", also joined the team of the film during late 2015. Akshara Gowda joined the cast of the film during the first schedule and revealed that she would portray a police officer, while the co-producer Ganesh's nephew Varun and Prabhu Deva's brother Nagendra Prasad also joined the cast.


title: Bogan (film)

text: "Bogan" began production during March 2016 with the team filming sequences in Chennai and Pondicherry during the month. A song titled "Damaalu Dumeelu" featuring Jayam Ravi, Akshara Gowda, Varun and Nagendra Prasad shot first at Binny Mills in Chennai, while a press confirmed that most of "Romeo Juliet"'s technical crew including music director D. Imman, cinematographer Soundararajan, editor Anthony and stunt master Dhilip Subbarayan, would be retained in "Bogan". Lakshman revealed that both Ravi and Arvind Swamy would play "dual-dimensioned" roles of a police officer and a former prince, while Hansika would feature as a homemaker.


title: Bogan (film)

text: In October 2016, the film ran into trouble after an aspiring director, Anthony, alleged that the story of "Bogan" belonged to him. Anthony claimed that he had begun production on a film titled "Halwa" starring Lollu Sabha Jeeva for producer Kasthuri Raja in 2011, and after the film ran into production trouble, he had emailed a copy of the script to "Bogan"'s co-producer, Ganesh, who later chose to make it with Lakshman as director. Anthony later claimed that Ganesh had used goondas to attack him, and that he had turned down Vikraman of the Director’s Association's request for him to take away a compensation package. In reply, Lakshman criticised Anthony and threatened him with legal action for trying to slander the film and his name, and revealed that he had been tipped off by producer Nemichand Jhabak and actress Nayanthara about Anthony's attempts to use his story in a different project. Concluding the issue, Vikraman suggested that Anthony's claims were false and that he had no sympathy for the pair of the directors as the story seemed strongly inspired from the English film "Face/Off" (1997). The film subsequently finished production in early November 2016, after a song choreographed by Sheriff and other patchwork was completed.


title: Bogan (film)

text: The makers of the film initially announced 7 October 2016 as the tentative release date of the film, but were unable to complete the film as early as they had expected. A second proposed release date of 23 December 2016 was also postponed after the makers were affected by the 2016 Indian banknote demonetisation issue. Further dates of 26 January and 9 February were also scheduled to avoid a clash with Studio Green's big budget "Si3" (2017), but after "Singam 3" was moved to 9 February, the makers of "Bogan" confirmed that they would release the film on 2 February 2017. The satellite rights of the film were sold to Sun TV.It was dubbed into Hindi as the same title in 2018 and premiered on Star Gold.


title: Bogan (film)

text: In their review of "Bogan", The Hindu concluded that it was "a fair-enough popcorn thriller, anchored by a terrific Arvind Swamy" and stated that it was an improvement from Lakshman's previous film. Sify.com provided a positive review stating that the film was "entertaining and engaging" and that "Lakshman proves that he is a director with substance and can make good commercial entertainers" and that ""Bogan" is his breakthrough film and he is here to stay as a filmmaker". The reviewer added that "overall, "Bogan" is worthy of a watch for its new theme, rich visuals and music, fantastic performances by Jayam Ravi and Arvind Swamy and fine making by Lakshman". In contrast, another critic on Sify.com stated, "On paper, "Bogan" comes across as a great story ideaone that involves soul-swappingbut when translated on screen, it becomes one of those films which has a shaky start, impresses midway and then loses steam towards the end trying to play to the gallery." Similarly, the critic from The Times of India added Lakshman "gives us a thriller that begins well and is engaging for the most part, before losing some intensity towards the end".


title: Bogan (film)

text: The film's soundtrack is scored by D. Imman. The audio rights of the film were acquired by Sony Music India, and the complete album was released on 3 December 2016. Actor Arvind Swamy recorded a song for the film as a playback singer for the first time in his career, after having previously recited lines for songs in "Iruvar" (1997) and "Thani Oruvan" (2015). Anirudh Ravichander also recorded a song titled "Damaal Dumeel", which was released earlier than the soundtrack as a single, following the success of the song "Dandanakka" from his previous work with Imman in Lakshman's "Romeo Juliet" (2015). Luksimi Sivaneswaralingam from Canada and Inno Genga from the United Kingdomboth Tamil people of Sri Lankan originwere given the opportunity by Imman to sing in the film, while established singers including Shankar Mahadevan, Shreya Ghoshal and Vijay Prakash also worked on the album.


title: Microform

text: Microforms are scaled-down reproductions of documents, typically either films or paper, made for the purposes of transmission, storage, reading, and printing. Microform images are commonly reduced to about 4% or of the original document size. For special purposes, greater optical reductions may be used.


title: Microform

text: Three formats are common: microfilm (reels), microfiche (flat sheets), and aperture cards. Microcards, also known as "micro-opaques", a format no longer produced, were similar to microfiche, but printed on cardboard rather than photographic film.


title: Microform

text: Using the daguerreotype process, John Benjamin Dancer was one of the first to produce microphotographs, in 1839.


title: Microform

text: He achieved a reduction ratio of 160:1. Dancer refined his reduction procedures with Frederick Scott Archer's wet collodion process, developed in 1850–51, but he dismissed his decades-long work on microphotographs as a personal hobby and did not document his procedures. The idea that microphotography could be no more than a novelty was an opinion shared in the 1858 "Dictionary of Photography", which called the process "somewhat trifling and childish".


title: Microform

text: Microphotography was first suggested as a document preservation method in 1851 by the astronomer James Glaisher, and in 1853 by John Herschel, another astronomer. Both men attended the 1851 Great Exhibition in London, where the exhibit on photography greatly influenced Glaisher. He called it "the most remarkable discovery of modern times", and argued in his official report for using microphotography to preserve documents.


title: Microform

text: A pigeon post was in operation while Paris was besieged during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–1871. The chemist Charles-Louis Barreswil proposed the application of photographic methods with prints of a reduced size. The prints were on photographic paper and did not exceed 40 mm, to permit insertion in the pigeon's quill.


title: Microform

text: The developments in microphotography continued through the next decades, but it was not until the turn of the century that its potential for practical usage was applied more broadly. In 1896, Canadian engineer Reginald A. Fessenden suggested microforms were a compact solution to engineers' unwieldy but frequently consulted materials. He proposed that up to 150,000,000 words could be made to fit in a square inch, and that a one-foot cube could contain 1.5 million volumes.


title: Microform

text: In 1906, Paul Otlet and Robert Goldschmidt proposed the "livre microphotographique" as a way to alleviate the cost and space limitations imposed by the codex format. Otlet's overarching goal was to create a World Center Library of Juridical, Social and Cultural Documentation, and he saw microfiche as a way to offer a stable and durable format that was inexpensive, easy to use, easy to reproduce, and extremely compact. In 1925, the team spoke of a massive library where each volume existed as master negatives and positives, and where items were printed on demand for interested patrons.


title: Microform

text: In the 1920s microfilm began to be used in a commercial setting. New York City banker George McCarthy was issued a patent in 1925 for his "Checkograph" machine, designed to make micrographic copies of cancelled checks for permanent storage by financial institutions. In 1928, the Eastman Kodak Company bought McCarthy's invention and began marketing check microfilming devices under its "Recordak" division.


title: Microform

text: Between 1927 and 1935, the Library of Congress microfilmed more than three million pages of books and manuscripts in the British Library; in 1929 the Social Science Research Council and the American Council of Learned Societies joined to create a Joint Committee on Materials for Research, chaired for most of its existence by Robert C. Binkley, which looked closely at microform's potential to serve small print runs of academic or technical materials. In 1933, Charles C. Peters developed a method to microformat dissertations, and in 1934 the United States National Agriculture Library implemented the first microform print-on-demand service, which was quickly followed by a similar commercial concern, Science Service.


title: Microform

text: In 1935, Kodak's Recordak division began filming and publishing "The New York Times" on reels of 35 millimeter microfilm, ushering in the era of newspaper preservation on film. This method of information storage received the sanction of the American Library Association at its annual meeting in 1936, when it officially endorsed microforms.


title: Microform

text: Harvard University Library was the first major institution to realize the potential of microfilm to preserve broadsheets printed on high-acid newsprint and it launched its "Foreign Newspaper Project" to preserve such ephemeral publications in 1938. Roll microfilm proved far more satisfactory as a storage medium than earlier methods of film information storage, such as the Photoscope, the Film-O-Graph, the Fiske-O-Scope, and filmslides.


title: Microform

text: The year 1938 also saw another major event in the history of microfilm when University Microfilms International (UMI) was established by Eugene Power. For the next half century, UMI would dominate the field, filming and distributing microfilm editions of current and past publications and academic dissertations. After another short-lived name change, UMI was made a part of ProQuest Information and Learning in 2001.


title: Microform

text: Systems that mount microfilm images in punched cards have been widely used for archival storage of engineering information.


title: Microform

text: For example, when airlines demand archival engineering drawings to support purchased equipment (in case the vendor goes out of business, for example), they normally specify punch-card-mounted microfilm with an industry-standard indexing system punched into the card. This permits automated reproduction, as well as permitting mechanical card-sorting equipment to sort and select microfilm drawings.


title: Microform

text: Aperture card mounted microfilm is roughly 3% of the size and space of conventional paper or vellum engineering drawings. Some military contracts around 1980 began to specify digital storage of engineering and maintenance data because the expenses were even lower than microfilm, but these programs are now finding it difficult to purchase new readers for the old formats.


title: Microform

text: Microfilm first saw military use during the Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71. During the Siege of Paris, the only way for the provincial government in Tours to communicate with Paris was by pigeon post. As the pigeons could not carry paper dispatches, the Tours government turned to microfilm. Using a microphotography unit evacuated from Paris before the siege, clerks in Tours photographed paper dispatches and compressed them to microfilm, which were carried by homing pigeons into Paris and projected by magic lantern while clerks copied the dispatches onto paper.


title: Microform

text: Additionally, the US Victory Mail, and the British "Airgraph" system it was based on, were used for delivering mail between those at home and troops serving overseas during World War II. The systems worked by photographing large amounts of censored mail reduced to thumb-nail size onto reels of microfilm, which weighed much less than the originals would have. The film reels were shipped by priority air freight to and from the home fronts, sent to their prescribed destinations for enlarging at receiving stations near the recipients, and printed out on lightweight photo paper. These facsimiles of the letter-sheets were reproduced about one-quarter the original size and the miniature mails were then delivered to the addressee. Use of these microfilm systems saved significant volumes of cargo capacity needed for war supplies. An additional benefit was that the small, lightweight reels of microfilm were almost always transported by air, and as such were delivered much more quickly than any surface mail service could have managed.


title: Microform

text: Libraries began using microfilm in the mid-20th century as a preservation strategy for deteriorating newspaper collections. Books and newspapers that were deemed in danger of decay could be preserved on film and thus access and use could be increased. Microfilming was also a space-saving measure. In his 1945 book, "The Scholar and the Future of the Research Library", Fremont Rider calculated that research libraries were doubling in space every sixteen years. His suggested solution was microfilming, specifically with his invention, the microcard. Once items were put onto film, they could be removed from circulation and additional shelf space would be made available for rapidly expanding collections. The microcard was superseded by microfiche. By the 1960s, microfilming had become standard policy.


title: Microform

text: In 1948, the Australian Joint Copying Project started; the intention to film records and archives from the United Kingdom relating to Australia and the Pacific. Over 10,000 reels were produced, making it one of the largest projects of its kind.


title: Microform

text: Around the same time, Licensed Betting Offices in the UK began using microphotography as a means of keeping compact records of bets taken. Betting shop customers would sometimes attempt to amend their betting slip receipt to attempt fraud, and so the microphotography camera (which also generally contained its own independent time-piece) found use as a definitive means of recording the exact details of each and every bet taken. The use of microphotography has now largely been replaced by digital 'bet capture' systems, which also allow a computer to settle the returns for each bet once the details of the wager have been 'translated' into the system by an employee. The added efficiency of this digital system has ensured that there are now very few, if indeed any, betting offices continuing to use microfilm cameras in the UK.


title: Microform

text: Visa and National City use microfilm (roll microfilm and fiche) to store financial, personal, and legal records.


title: Microform

text: Source code for computer programs was printed to microfiche during the 1970s and distributed to customers in this form.


title: Microform

text: Additionally, microfiche was used to write out long casework for some proofs such as the four color theorem.


title: Microform

text: Desktop readers are boxes with a translucent screen at the front on to which is projected an image from a microform. They have suitable fittings for whatever microform is in use. They may offer a choice of magnifications. They usually have motors to advance and rewind film. When coding blips are recorded on the film a reader is used that can read the blips to find any required image.


title: Microform

text: Portable readers are plastic devices that fold for carrying; when open they project an image from microfiche on to a reflective screen. For example, with M. de Saint Rat, Atherton Seidell developed a simple, inexpensive ($2.00 in 1950), monocular microfilm viewing device, known as the "Seidell viewer", that was sold during the 1940s and 1950s.


title: Microform

text: A microfilm printer contains a xerographic copying process, like a photocopier. The image to be printed is projected with synchronised movement on to the drum. These devices offer either small image preview for the operator or full size image preview, when it is called a reader printer. Microform printers can accept positive or negative films and positive or negative images on paper. New machines allow the user to scan a microform image and save it as a digital file: see the section below on digital conversion.


title: Microform

text: 105 × 148 mm flat film is used for microimages of very large engineering drawings. These may carry a title photographed or written along one edge. Typical reduction is about 20, representing a drawing that is 2.00 × 2.80 metres, that is 79 × 110 in. These films are stored as microfiche.


title: Microform

text: 16 mm or 35 mm film to motion picture standard is used, usually unperforated. Roll microfilm is stored on open reels or put into cassettes. The standard lengths for using roll film is 30.48 m (100 ft) for 35 mm rolls, and 100 ft, 130 ft and 215 feet for 16 mm rolls. One roll of 35 mm film may carry 600 images of large engineering drawings or 800 images of broadsheet newspaper pages. 16 mm film may carry 2,400 images of letter-sized images as a single stream of microimages along the film set so that lines of text are parallel to the sides of the film or 10,000 small documents, perhaps cheques or betting slips, with both sides of the originals set side by side on the film.


title: Microform

text: Aperture cards are Hollerith cards into which a hole has been cut. A 35 mm microfilm chip is mounted in the hole inside of a clear plastic sleeve or secured over the aperture with adhesive tape. They are used for engineering drawings in all engineering disciplines. There are libraries of these containing over 3 million cards. Aperture cards may be stored in drawers or in freestanding rotary units.


title: Microform

text: A microfiche is a sheet of flat film, 105 × 148 mm in size, the same size as the international standard for paper size ISO A6. It carries a matrix of microimages. All microfiche are read with their text parallel to the long side of the fiche. Frames may be landscape or portrait in orientation. Along the top of the fiche a title may be recorded for visual identification.


title: Microform

text: The most commonly used format is a portrait image of about 10 × 14 mm. Office-size papers or magazine pages require a reduction of 24 or 25 in size. Microfiche are stored in open-top envelopes, which are put in drawers or boxes as file cards or fitted into pockets in purpose-made books.


title: Microform

text: Ultrafiche (also "ultramicrofiche") is an exceptionally compact version of a microfiche or microfilm, storing analog data at much higher densities. Ultrafiche can be created directly from computers using appropriate peripherals. They are typically used for storing data gathered from extremely data-intensive operations such as remote sensing.


title: Microform

text: To create microform media, a planetary camera is mounted with the vertical axis above a copy that is stationary during exposure. High volume output is possible with a rotary camera which moves the copy smoothly through the camera to expose film which moves with the reduced image. Alternatively, it may be produced by computers, i.e. COM (computer output microfilm).


title: Microform

text: Normally microfilming uses high resolution panchromatic monochrome stock. Positive color film giving good reproduction and high resolution can also be used. Roll film is provided 16, 35 and 105 mm wide in lengths of 30 metres (100 ft) and longer, and is usually unperforated. Roll film is developed, fixed and washed by continuous processors.


title: Microform

text: Sheet film is supplied in ISO A6 size. This is either processed by hand or using a dental X-ray processor. Camera film is supplied ready mounted in aperture cards. Aperture cards are developed, fixed and washed immediately after exposure by equipment fitted to the camera.


title: Microform

text: Early cut sheet microforms and microfilms (to the 1930s) were printed on nitrate film, which poses high risks to their holding institutions, as nitrate film is chemically unstable and a fire hazard. From the late 1930s to the 1980s, microfilms were usually printed on a cellulose acetate base, which is prone to tears, vinegar syndrome, and redox blemishes. Vinegar syndrome is the result of chemical decay and produces "buckling and shrinking, embrittlement, and bubbling". Redox blemishes are yellow, orange or red spots 15–150 micrometres in diameter created by oxidative attacks on the film, and are largely due to poor storage conditions.


title: Microform

text: The simplest microfilm camera that is still in use is a rail mounted structure at the top of which is a bellows camera for 105 x 148 mm film. A frame or copy board holds the original drawing vertical. The camera has a horizontal axis which passes through the center of the copy. The structure may be moved horizontally on rails.


title: Microform

text: In a darkroom a single film may be inserted into a dark slide or the camera may be fitted with a roll film holder which after an exposure advances the film into a box and cuts the frame off the roll for processing as a single film.


title: Microform

text: For engineering drawings, a freestanding open steel structure is often provided. A camera may be moved vertically on a track. Drawings are placed on a large table for filming, with centres under the lens. Fixed lights illuminate the copy. These cameras are often over high. These cameras accept roll film stock of 35 or 16 mm.


title: Microform

text: For office documents a similar design may be used but bench standing. This is a smaller version of the camera described above. These are provided either with the choice of 16 or 35 mm film or accepting 16 mm film only. Non adjustable versions of the office camera are provided. These have a rigid frame or an enveloping box that holds a camera at a fixed position over a copy board. If this is to work at more than one reduction ratio there are a choice of lenses.


title: Microform

text: Some cameras expose a pattern of light, referred to as blips, to digitally identify each adjacent frame. This pattern is copied whenever the film is copied for searching.


title: Microform

text: A camera is built into a box. In some versions this is for bench top use, other versions are portable. The operator maintains a stack of material to be filmed in a tray, the camera automatically takes one document after another for advancement through the machine. The camera lens sees the documents as they pass a slot. Film behind the lens advances exactly with the image.


title: Microform

text: Special purpose flow cameras film both sides of documents, putting both images side by side on 16 mm film. These cameras are used to record cheques and betting slips.


title: Microform

text: All microfiche cameras are planetary with a step and repeat mechanism to advance the film after each exposure. The simpler versions use a dark slide loaded by the operator in a dark room; after exposure the film is individually processed, which may be by hand or using a dental X-ray processor. Cameras for high output are loaded with a roll of 105 mm film. The exposed film is developed as a roll; this is sometimes cut to individual fiche after processing or kept in roll form for duplication.


title: Microform

text: Equipment is available that accepts a data stream from a mainframe computer. This exposes film to produce images as if the stream had been sent to a line printer and the listing had been microfilmed. Because of the source one run may represent many thousands of pages.


title: Microform

text: Within the equipment character images are made by a light source; this is the negative of text on paper. COM is sometimes processed normally. Other applications require that image appears as a conventional negative; the film is then reversal processed. This outputs either 16 mm film or fiche pages on a 105 mm roll.


title: Microform

text: Because listing characters are a simple design, a reduction ratio of 50 gives good quality and puts about 300 pages on a microfiche. A microfilm plotter, sometimes called an aperture card plotter, accepts a stream that might be sent to a computer pen plotter. It produces corresponding frames of microfilm. These produce microfilm as 35 or 16 mm film or aperture cards.


title: Microform

text: All regular microfilm copying involves contact exposure under pressure. Then the film is processed to provide a permanent image. Hand copying of a single fiche or aperture card involves exposure over a light box and then individually processing the film. Roll films are contact exposed via motor, either round a glass cylinder or through a vacuum, under a controlled light source. Processing may be in the same machine or separately.


title: Microform

text: Silver halide film is a slow version of camera film with a robust top coat. It is suitable for prints or for use as an intermediate from which further prints may be produced. The result is a negative copy. Preservation standards require a master negative, a duplicate negative, and a service copy (positive). Master negatives are kept in deep storage, and duplicate negatives are used to create service copies, which are the copies available to researchers. This multi-generational structure ensures the preservation of the master negative.


title: Microform

text: Diazo-sensitised film for dye coupling in ammonia gives blue or black dye positive copies. The black image film can be used for further copying.


title: Microform

text: Vesicular film is sensitised with a diazo dye, which after exposure is developed by heat. Where light has come to the film remains clear, in the areas under the dark image the diazo compound is destroyed quickly, releasing millions of minute bubbles of nitrogen into the film. This produces an image that diffuses light. It produces a good black appearance in a reader, but it cannot be used for further copying.


title: Microform

text: Modern microfilming standards require that a master set of films be produced and set aside for safe storage, used only to make service copies. When service copies get lost or damaged, another set can be produced from the masters, thus reducing the image degradation that results from making copies of copies.


title: Microform

text: These conversions may be applied to camera output or to release copies. Single microfiche are cut from rolls of 105 mm film. A bench top device is available that enables an operator to cut exposed frames of roll film and fit these into ready made aperture cards.


title: Microform

text: Transparent jackets are made A5 size each with 6 pockets into which strips of 16 mm film may be inserted (or fewer pockets for 35 mm strips), so creating microfiche jackets or jacketed microfiche. Equipment allows an operator to insert strips from a roll of film. This is particularly useful as frames may be added to a fiche at any time. The pockets are made using a thin film so that duplicates may be made from the assembled fiche.


title: Microform

text: Another type of conversion is microform to digital. This is done using an optical scanner that projects the film onto a CCD array and captures it in a raw digital format. Until early in 21st century, since the different types of microform are dissimilar in shape and size, the scanners were usually able to handle only one type of microform at a time. Some scanners would offer swappable modules for the different microform types. The latest viewer/scanner can accept any microform (roll, fiche, opaque cards, fiche, or aperture cards). Software in an attached PC is then used to convert the raw capture into a standard image format for immediate or archival uses.


title: Microform

text: The physical condition of microfilm greatly impacts the quality of the digitized copy. Microfilm with a cellulose acetate base (popular through the 1970s) is frequently subject to vinegar syndrome, redox blemishes, and tears, and even preservation standard silver halide film on a polyester base can be subject to silvering and degradation of the emulsion—all issues which affect the quality of the scanned image.


title: Microform

text: Digitizing microfilm can be inexpensive when automated scanners are employed. The Utah Digital Newspapers Program has found that, with automated equipment, scanning can be performed at $0.15 per page. Recent additions to the digital scanner field have brought the cost of scanning down substantially so that when large projects are scanned (millions of pages) the price per scan can be pennies.


title: Microform

text: Modern microform scanners utilize 8 bit gray shade scanning arrays and are thus able to provide quite high quality scans in a wealth of different digital formats: CCITT Group IV which is compressed black & white -bitonal, JPG or JPEG which is gray or color compression, bitmaps which are not compressed, or a number of other formats such as PDF, LZW, GIF, etc. These modern scanners are also able to scan at "Archival" resolution up to or above 600 dpi.


title: Microform

text: For the resulting files to be useful, they must be organized in some way. This can be accomplished in a variety of different ways, dependent on the source media and the desired usage. In this regard, aperture cards with Hollerith information are probably the easiest since image data can be extracted from the card itself if the scanner supports it. Often, the digital image produced is better than the visual quality available prescan. Some types of microfilm will contain a counter next to the images; these can be referenced to an already existing database. Other microfilm reels will have a 'blip' system: small marks next to the images of varying lengths used to indicate document hierarchy (longest: root, long: branch, short: leaf). If the scanner is able to capture and process these then the image files can be arranged in the same manner. Optical character recognition (OCR) is also frequently employed to provide automated full-text searchable files. Common issues that affect the accuracy of OCR applied to scanned images of microfilm include unusual fonts, faded printing, shaded backgrounds, fragmented letters, skewed text, curved lines and bleed through on the originals. For film types with no distinguishing marks, or when OCR is impossible (handwriting, layout issues, degraded text), the data must be entered in manually, a very time-consuming process.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Mark Steven Kirk (born September 15, 1959) is a retired American politician and attorney who served as a United States senator from Illinois from 2010 to 2017, and as the United States representative for Illinois's 10th congressional district from 2001 to 2010. A member of the Republican Party, Kirk describes himself as socially liberal and fiscally conservative.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Born in Champaign, Illinois, Kirk graduated from Cornell University, the London School of Economics, and Georgetown University Law Center. He practiced law throughout the 1980s and 1990s. He joined the United States Navy Reserve as a Direct Commission Officer in the Intelligence career field in 1989 and was recalled to active duty for the 1999 NATO bombing of Yugoslavia. He participated in Operation Northern Watch in Iraq the following year. He attained the rank of Commander and retired from the Navy Reserve in 2013.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk was elected to the House in 2000. During his fifth term in November 2010, he won two concurrent elections: to finish the final months of former Senator Barack Obama's term and to serve the next six-year term. He was sworn in on November 29, 2010 and began a six-year Senate term on January 3, 2011. In January 2012, Kirk suffered a stroke; almost a full year passed before he returned to his senatorial duties. In 2016, Kirk ran for re-election to a second full term, but was defeated by Democratic challenger Tammy Duckworth.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk was born in Champaign, Illinois, the son of Judith Ann (Brady) and Francis Gabriel "Frank" Kirk. After graduating from New Trier East High School in 1977 he attended Blackburn College in Carlinville, Illinois, for two years, before briefly attending Autonomous University of Mexico and subsequently transferring to Cornell University, where he graduated "cum laude" with a B.A. in History. While at Cornell University, Kirk served as the president of the Seal and Serpent social fraternity. Kirk later obtained a master's degree from the London School of Economics and a Juris Doctor (J.D.) from Georgetown University Law Center.


title: Mark Kirk

text: While Kirk was an undergraduate student at Cornell University he held a work–study job supervising a play group at the Forest Home Chapel nursery school. After getting his master's degree, Kirk taught for one year at a private school in London. He later stated in speeches and interviews that he had been a nursery and middle school teacher. A leader at the church which housed the nursery school expressed her belief that Kirk overstated his role there, saying Kirk was "just an additional pair of hands to help a primary teaching person." In discussing problems in the educational system early in his congressional career, Kirk addressed the brevity of his teaching career: "I did leave the teaching profession, but if we had addressed some of the teacher development issues, which I want to raise with you, I might have stayed."


title: Mark Kirk

text: After college, Kirk worked in Congressman John Porter's office, ultimately becoming chief of staff. After leaving Capitol Hill in 1990, he worked at the World Bank and as an aide at the State Department on the Central American peace process. Kirk spent two years practicing international law and four years as counsel to the House International Relations Committee.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In 1999, Kirk was recalled to active duty in Operation Allied Force for the bombing of Yugoslavia. He served from April 10 to June 6, 1999, as the intelligence officer of VAQ-209. VAQ-209 was combined with three other EA-6B squadrons to form an ad hoc unit called Electronic Attack Wing Aviano, Italy. VAQ-140 had tactical command of the combined unit. In May 2000, the National Military Intelligence Association bestowed the organization's Vice Admiral Rufus L. Taylor Award to Intelligence Division Electronic Attack Wing Aviano, Italy.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In March and April 2000, Kirk trained with an EC-130 squadron based in Turkey. Kirk took a flight over Iraq as part of Operation Northern Watch, which enforced a no-fly zone over the northern section of Iraq. In a speech on the floor of the House in 2003, Kirk stated: "The last time I was in Iraq I was in uniform, flying at 20,000 feet, and the Iraqi Air Defense network was shooting at us". Kirk later clarified his statement, indicating that there is no record of his aircraft being fired upon and that he had incorrectly recalled the incident.


title: Mark Kirk

text: During his tenure in the military, Kirk was twice counseled by the Pentagon, after incidents in which he was accused of conducting political business while on duty. On one occasion Kirk commented on Rod Blagojevich's arrest and posted a tweet while on duty with the Navy in Afghanistan. According to the Pentagon, Kirk was required to sign a statement acknowledging he knew the rules before returning to active duty. Kirk denied that he had ever improperly mixed politics with his military service.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk served three individual two-week reserve deployments in Afghanistan, with the latest concluding in September 2011.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk retired from the Navy Reserve in May 2013, after 23 years of service. A formal military retirement ceremony was held for Kirk on 16 Dec 2014.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In the official photograph of his retirement ceremony, Kirk is displaying the following medals: the Defense Meritorious Service Medal, the Joint Services Commendation Medal, the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal, the Joint Service Achievement Medal, the Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal, the National Defense Service Medal and the Global War on Terrorism Service Medal, as well as the Navy Unit Commendation and the Navy Meritorious Unit Commendation with Service Star (representing two awards of the decoration). His uniform also displays the Navy Information Dominance Officer badge and the Office of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Identification Badge.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In 2010, Kirk corrected statements he had made about being awarded "Navy Intelligence Officer of the Year" after it was brought to the media's attention by his Democratic opponent, Alexi Giannoulias. In a 2002 House committee hearing recorded by C-SPAN, Kirk said, "I was the Navy's Intelligence Officer of the Year", an achievement he said gave him special qualifications to discuss national security spending. In May 2010, "The Washington Post" reported that Kirk's claim to having been named the Navy's "Intelligence Officer of the Year" was erroneous. The National Military Intelligence Association gave the Vice Admiral Rufus L. Taylor Award to the entire Intelligence Division Electronic Attack Wing at Aviano. Kirk was the lead intelligence officer for VAQ-209, one of the four squadrons assigned to the Electronic Attack Wing. VAQ-140 had tactical command. Kirk later apologized for this and other errors, including a claim made by his office of having participated in Operation Desert Storm when in fact he did not.


title: Mark Kirk

text: On June 7, 2010, Medal of Honor recipient and advocate of Veteran's benefits, Allen Lynch, deemed Mark Kirk's apologies adequate, and further commented: "To me, in my opinion, it's just a bunch of nit picking. Plus, he's done a Christ ton for veterans. So I think this is being blown way out of proportion".


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk worked on the staff of John Porter, the congressman for Illinois's 10th congressional district. From 1991 to 1993, Kirk was the Special Assistant to the Assistant Secretary of State in the U.S. State Department. Kirk was an attorney for Baker & McKenzie from 1993 to 1995. In 1995 Kirk was named as a counsel to the House International Relations Committee. He remained counsel to the House International Relations Committee until 1999.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk was elected in 2000 to succeed the retiring Porter. He won with 51% of the vote against Democrat Lauren Beth Gash, and was reelected by comfortable margins in 2002 and 2004. He defeated Democrat Dan Seals by a seven points in 2006, defeating him again by the same margin in a 2008 rematch.


title: Mark Kirk

text: During his time in the House, Kirk compiled a centrist voting record, tending to vote more liberally on social issues and more conservatively on foreign policy issues.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk was a member of the House Iran Working Group, the founder and co-chair of the House U.S.-China Working Group, the co-chair of the Congressional Caucus on Armenian Issues, the co-chair of the Albanian Issues Caucus in ex Yugoslavia, and chair of The Tuesday Group, a group of moderate Republicans in the U.S. House. During his House tenure, he was a member of the House Appropriations Committee.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk was responsible for an amendment in 2004 which requires the Congressional Budget Office to annually publish a comparison of projected spending on entitlements with actual spending for the previous year. He also fought against spending on the Alaska "bridge to nowhere" and pushed for reforms in the intelligence community.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In 2005, Kirk stated that he was not opposed to the immigration process in the United States discriminating against young Arab males from "terrorist-producing states". He stated, "I think that when we look at the threat that's out there, young men between, say, the ages of 18 and 25 from a couple of countries, I believe a certain amount of intense scrutiny should be placed on them."


title: Mark Kirk

text: In 2006, Kirk pushed for an expansion of O'Hare and worked with Rahm Emanuel on a package to clean up Lake Michigan.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In June 2008, Kirk introduced H.R. 6257 to reinstate the assault weapons ban of 1994. The bill was co-sponsored by fellow Republicans: Mike Castle, Mike Ferguson, Ileana Ros-Lehtinen, and Chris Shays. Four years earlier, in February 2004, Kirk had been among 11 Republican and 129 Democratic co-sponsors of H.R. 3831 to reauthorize the ban. Both bills died in committee.


title: Mark Kirk

text: On July 20, 2009, Kirk announced his candidacy for the U.S. Senate election for the seat held by Roland Burris, which had been held by Barack Obama before his election as president. On February 2, 2010, Kirk won the Republican primary with 56.6 percent of the vote; no other candidate had as much as 20 percent. He ran against Democratic nominee Alexi Giannoulias, Green Party nominee LeAlan Jones, and Libertarian nominee Mike Labno. During the Illinois U.S. Senate election campaign in 2010, Kirk and Giannoulias were in a hotly contested debate. Kirk defeated Giannoulias in the election for the full six-year term, getting 48% to Giannoulias's 46%. During the campaign, Kirk said he had previously voted for emissions trading legislation "because it was in the narrow interests of my congressional district", but that as a representative of the entire state of Illinois, "I would vote no on that bill."


title: Mark Kirk

text: In 2012, Kirk's ex-wife accused him of concealing a payment of $143,000 to a former girlfriend, Dodie McCracken, who had worked on his 2010 U.S. Senate campaign. The Federal Election Commission dismissed allegations that the Kirk campaign had hidden the payments, saying they did not need to be disclosed because the girlfriend worked as a subcontractor on the campaign.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In June 2013, Kirk confirmed that he was planning to run for re-election. In November 2014, Kirk reiterated his plans to seek re-election. Kirk defeated fellow Republican James Marter in the primary election. He faced Democratic Congresswoman Tammy Duckworth in the general election.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk's campaign purchased television air time to advertise his opposition to admitting refugees to the United States "until it can be done safely".


title: Mark Kirk

text: In a televised debate on October 27, 2016, Kirk responded to Duckworth's comment about her own military service and her ancestors' military service by saying, "I'd forgotten that your parents came all the way from Thailand to serve George Washington." Rep. Duckworth is a military combat veteran who lost both legs while piloting a helicopter during the Iraq war. Her mother was a Thai immigrant and her father's ancestors came to America before the Revolutionary War. Due to his comments, the Human Rights Campaign revoked their endorsement of Kirk and switched it to Duckworth, saying his comments were "deeply offensive and racist." It was the first endorsement the HRC has ever withdrawn.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk is a moderate Republican. Kirk was sworn in on November 29, 2010, as the junior U.S. senator from Illinois. Kirk sat at the Senate's coveted Candy Desk for several years. Kirk is considered to be a social moderate and fiscal conservative. On June 7, 2016, Kirk withdrew his initial support for businessman and presumptive Republican nominee Donald Trump in the 2016 presidential election due to his "past attacks on Hispanics, women and the disabled like me." Kirk said he would write-in former CIA Director David Petraeus. Kirk was ranked as the 6th most bipartisan member of the U.S. Senate during the 114th United States Congress, and the fourth most bipartisan member of the U.S. Senate from the American Midwest (after Indiana Senator Joe Donnelly, Ohio Senator Rob Portman, and Iowa Senator Chuck Grassley) in the Bipartisan Index created by The Lugar Center and the McCourt School of Public Policy that ranks members of the United States Congress by their degree of bipartisanship (by measuring the frequency each member's bills attract co-sponsors from the opposite party and each member's co-sponsorship of bills by members of the opposite party).


title: Mark Kirk

text: In his first year in the Senate, Kirk worked along with U.S. Senator Dick Durbin (D–IL) to help mediate a dispute between airlines serving O'Hare International Airport and the City of Chicago in order to keep the O'Hare modernization project on schedule. It is estimated the project would create 200,000 jobs and add $18 billion to the regional economy when completed.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk and Durbin also worked together to bring $186 million in federal funds to support improved rail service from Chicago to St. Louis. The money was originally rejected by the state of Florida but reallocated to Illinois.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk authored legislation, entitled the Lincoln Legacy Infrastructure Development Act, that sought to eliminate barriers and encourage private investment in roads, transit, airport and rail. Several of the provisions in the legislation would later become law under the Moving Ahead for Progress in the 21st Century Act (P.L. 112–114), including provisions to eliminate barriers to public-private partnerships for public transportation projects and a boost for the Transportation Infrastructure Finance and Innovation Act (TIFA) program.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Along with then-Senator Carl Levin (D-MI), Kirk co-chaired the Senate's Great Lakes Task Force, and on June 26, 2013, the two introduced the Great Lakes Ecological and Economic Protection Act (GLEEPA). This legislation authorizes more funds to the Great Lakes Restoration Initiative in their efforts to restore wetlands, control invasive species, and regulate dumping of sewage and other industrial byproducts into the Great Lakes watershed. It also re-authorizes the Environmental Protection Agency's Great Lakes national Program Office and Great Lakes Legacy Act, which addresses dumping of toxic waste. Kirk had introduced similar legislation before, and Kirk had been a longstanding supporter of efforts to keep invasive Asian Carp out of the Great Lakes ecosystem.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In 2016, Kirk suggested that Iran should be required to provide reports about how funds made available through sanctions relief were used to ensure that money was not ending up in the hands of Hezbollah or the Iranian military.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In May 2016, Kirk petitioned the Treasury Department to be more aggressive towards Qatar's financing of terrorism. In a letter to Secretary of the Treasury Jacob Lew, Kirk urged Lew to make Qatar comply with the "Jeddeh Communique", which committed Qatar, along with other nations, to combat terrorism finance. The letter outlined ways in which Qatar was not meeting the expectations outlined in the agreement by harboring US Treasury Department Specially Designated Global Terrorists (SDGTs) such as Khalifa Muhammad Turki al-Subaiy and Abd al-Rahman bin Umayr al-Nu'aymi, both of whom are known terror financiers. Qatar is widely recognized to be a major source of funding for al Qaeda, Hamas, the Taliban, and ISIS.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk appointed a sovereign debt advisory board to help research the unfunded obligations and unpaid bills contributing to Illinois' debt crisis. He later produced a Report on Illinois Debt highlighting the unsustainable debt the state continued to hold and the need for pension reform. Kirk introduced legislation entitled No State Bailouts, S. Res. 188, along with 14 other U.S. Senators, which would ban federal bailouts of financially struggling states. Illinois State Treasurer Dan Rutherford endorsed the legislation.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk and Representative Bob Dold (R–IL-10) (who succeeded him in his House seat) introduced bipartisan legislation to expand qualifications for ending federal pension payouts to elected officials convicted of corruption. The bicameral provision expanded current law to include an additional 22 crimes, and the bill was included in the STOCK Act signed by the President in April 2012.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk is pro-choice. In 2015, he was one of two Republicans to oppose a ban on abortions after 20 weeks. Kirk opposes Republican Party efforts to defund Planned Parenthood. In September 2015, Kirk and Senator Durbin were thanked by the presidents of the Planned Parenthood Action Fund and Planned Parenthood Illinois Action for their opposition to such measures. He has a lifetime 75% grade from Planned Parenthood and an 80% rating in 2015 from NARAL Pro-Choice America, both organizations that support legal abortion access. Conversely, he had a 55% score from the pro-life Campaign for Working Families which opposes abortion. The pro-life group, Illinois Right to Life, gave Kirk a 0% rating.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In May 2010, Kirk voted against the repeal of Don't Ask, Don't Tell. In December 2010, Kirk joined seven other Senate Republicans in voting in favor of the policy's repeal. In 2015, he was one of 11 Senate Republicans who voted to offer social security benefits to same-sex couples living in states where same-sex marriage was not yet recognized.


title: Mark Kirk

text: On April 2, 2013, Kirk became the second sitting Republican U.S. Senator to support same-sex marriage, joining Ohio Senator Rob Portman. He was given a 100% score from the Human Rights Campaign, which supports same-sex marriage and LGBT rights, and a 100% score by PFLAG or Parents, Families, and Friends of Lesbians and Gays.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk is a cosponsor and strong supporter of the Employment Non-Discrimination Act (ENDA) and in November 2013 became one of several Republicans to vote in favor of the law, which would prohibit employment discrimination on the basis of sexual orientation and gender identity.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In January 2016, Kirk became the first Republican U.S. Senator to co-sponsor the Equality Act, which would make sex, sexual orientation and gender identity among the prohibited categories of discrimination or segregation under the 1964 Civil Rights Act.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In April 2014, the United States Senate debated the Minimum Wage Fairness Act (S. 1737; 113th Congress). The bill would amend the Fair Labor Standards Act of 1938 (FLSA) to increase the federal minimum wage for employees to $10.10 per hour over the course of a two-year period. The bill was supported by President Barack Obama and many Democratic Senators, but opposed by Republicans in the Senate and House. Kirk said he would not vote for the bill or a related compromise bill.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk voted in April 2014 to extend federal funding for unemployment benefits. Federal funding had been initiated in 2008 and expired at the end of 2013.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In March 2015, Kirk voted for an amendment to establish a deficit-neutral reserve fund to allow employees to earn paid sick time.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk is the only Republican U.S. Senator to receive an "F" rating from the National Rifle Association. In 2015, he received a lifetime achievement award from the Illinois Council Against Handgun Violence. He supports background checks for gun sales, and in 2013 was the only Republican senator to vote for an assault weapons ban.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In 2011, Kirk was one of only two Republicans to oppose legislation to detain American citizens indefinitely.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In the aftermath of the downing of a Malaysian Airlines flight by missiles over Ukraine in 2014, Kirk called for an investigation into the possibility of outfitting commercial airliners with missile defense systems.


title: Mark Kirk

text: After the death of U.S. Supreme Court Justice Antonin Scalia in 2016, Kirk was the first Republican U.S. Senator to publicly state that President Barack Obama's eventual replacement nominee for the Supreme Court should get a hearing and a vote. Other Republicans believed the next president should nominate a replacement for Scalia. In April 2016, Kirk met with Obama's nominee, Merrick Garland, and circulated a memo to his Republican colleagues encouraging them to meet with him as well.


title: Mark Kirk

text: In February 1998, Kirk met Kimberly Vertolli, a Naval Intelligence Officer, while the two were on duty together at the Pentagon. The two married in 2001 and divorced in 2009.


title: Mark Kirk

text: On January 21, 2012, at age 52, Kirk suffered an ischemic stroke caused by a damaged blood vessel in his neck. Two days later, he underwent neurosurgery at Northwestern Memorial Hospital in Chicago; a piece of his cranium was temporarily removed to lessen any danger from the brain swelling process. He underwent follow-up surgery two days after that to remove more of his skull and some damaged brain tissue. He suffered significant left-sided weakness and spent several months at an inpatient physical rehabilitation center.


title: Mark Kirk

text: On May 1, 2012, Kirk was sent home from the rehabilitation center. A statement from his family said he would continue to work on rehabilitation on an outpatient basis, but that he had progressed enough to be able to move home with his family. A week later, Kirk's staff released a video showing Kirk walking on a treadmill and down a hallway at the Rehabilitation Institute of Chicago as doctors worked with him to help fully regain the use of his left side. A second video was released in August, showing Kirk was living at his Fort Sheridan, Illinois home, and while his left side still showed impairment, Kirk was walking without aid. On November 4, he participated in a "SkyRise Chicago" challenge to climb the stairs of Willis Tower, successfully completing 37 floors.


title: Mark Kirk

text: On January 3, 2013, Kirk returned to the Capitol for the first time since his stroke in time for the start of the 113th Congress. He was escorted up the Capitol steps by Vice President and President of the Senate Joe Biden.


title: Mark Kirk

text: Kirk returned to his role as Senator, at times using a cane or wheelchair for assistance. He cites his public role as motivation to return to work and to serve as an example for families suffering from stroke and his stroke itself as motivation to improve early stroke detection and rehabilitation.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: Camilo Cienfuegos Gorriarán (; 6 February 1932 – 28 October 1959) was a Cuban revolutionary born in Havana. Along with Che Guevara, Fidel Castro, Juan Almeida Bosque, and Raúl Castro, he was a member of the 1956 "Granma" expedition, which launched Fidel Castro's armed insurgency against the government of Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista. He became one of Castro's top guerrilla commanders, known as the "Hero of Yaguajay" after winning a key battle of the Cuban Revolution. His signature weapons were a M1921AC Thompson and a modified M2 carbine.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: He was appointed head of Cuba's armed forces shortly after the victory of Castro's rebel army in 1959. He was presumed dead when a small plane he was traveling in disappeared during a night flight from Camagüey to Havana later that year. Many have speculated and conspiracies have arisen concerning his mysterious disappearance. Cienfuegos, whose name translates in English to "a hundred fires," is revered in Cuba as a hero of the Revolution, with monuments, memorials, and an annual celebration in his honor.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: Camilo Cienfuegos, born on 6 February 1932 in Havana's Lawton district, grew up in a working-class family that had emigrated from Spain prior to the civil war of 1936–39. His father, a tailor who worked a small shop in Havana, had left-wing political principles.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: Artistically inclined since early youth, Camilo enrolled in the Escuela Nacional de Bellas Artes "San Alejandro" in 1950, but left his studies soon after due to financial problems. During this period he started working as a tailor apprentice in "El Arte," a fashion store in downtown Havana.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: Around 1948 he became involved in politics, initially taking part in popular protests against rising bus-fares. In April 1953, Cienfuegos and a friend traveled to the U.S. on 29-day visitors' visas in search of work. They spent several months working low-paying jobs in New York City, Chicago, and San Francisco until immigration officials took them into custody and returned them to Cuba via Mexico. While in New York, Cienfuegos became involved with a Cuban political exile group and wrote a few articles for its newspaper, "La Voz de Cuba" ("The Voice of Cuba").


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: In personality, writes one historian, Cienfuegos "exemplified the quintessential native, male, urban Cuban with his sense of humor, great interest in dancing and baseball, good looks, love of women, and overall "joie de vivre"". Rufo López-Fresquet, who served as Minister of Finance for the first fourteen months of the revolutionary government, described him as "a happy-go-lucky, adventuresome sort".


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: In 1954, Cienfuegos became an active member of the underground student movement against autocratic President Fulgencio Batista. On 5 December 1955, the eve of the anniversary of the death of 19th-century Cuban independence hero Antonio Maceo, soldiers opened fire on Cienfuegos and other students who were returning to their Havana university after placing a wreath on Maceo's monument. Cienfuegos later described this as the moment in which he pledged himself to freeing Cuba from the Batista dictatorship. Jobless and harassed by police, he left Cuba in March 1956 and again traveled to the US, where he worked in Miami and San Francisco for a few weeks before heading to Mexico, intent on joining a small Cuban rebel army being organized by Fidel Castro. On arriving in Mexico, Cienfuegos befriended Castro and began training with the rebels. He was one of the 82 revolutionaries who set sail for Cuba aboard the "Granma" in November 1956.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: Cienfuegos was not as "politically sophisticated" as the Castros or Guevara, and has been described as "ideologically an unknown quantity". He was not particularly dogmatic. On the question of tactics, he departed from many others in the revolutionary movement in rejecting violence and revenge. In October 1958, when a Cuban Masonic organization expressed concern that someone captured by the rebels might be tortured and killed, he replied:


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: The "Granma" arrived in Cuba on 2 December. After three days of swamps and mangroves, the rebels were surprised by Batista's forces at Alegría de Pío. The surviving rebels escaped in small dispersed groups and wandered for weeks in the Sierra Maestra mountains. Cienfuegos was one of the twelve who survived to rejoin Castro a month later.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: In 1957, he became one of the leaders of the revolutionary forces, appointed to the rank of "Comandante". In 1958, after the collapse of the government's Operation Verano, Cienfuegos was put in command of one of three columns which headed west out of the mountains with the intention of capturing the provincial capital city of Santa Clara. Che Guevara was in command of another column and Jaime Vega was in command of the third. Vega's column was ambushed and defeated by Batista's forces.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: Cienfuegos' and Guevara's columns reached the central provinces, where they combined their efforts with other groups. Cienfuegos' column attacked an army outpost at Yaguajay and, after a tough fight, forced the garrison to surrender on 30 December 1958. This earned him the nickname "The Hero of Yaguajay." Cienfuegos then advanced against Santa Clara in conjunction with Guevara's forces, and the other non-Castro forces from the Escambray front. Together, the two columns captured Santa Clara on 31 December. Most of the defenders surrendered without firing their weapons. Batista fled Cuba the next day, leaving the guerrilla fighters victorious. At a rally on 8 January 1959, Castro interrupted his speech to ask Cienfuegos ""¿Voy bien, Camilo?"" ("Am I doing all right, Camilo?") His response ""Vas bien, Fidel"" ("You're doing fine, Fidel") was taken up by the crowd and became a slogan of the revolution.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: For the next several months, Cienfuegos served as Chief of Staff of the Cuban Army, helped defeat several anti-Castro uprisings, and played a role in implementing the regime's agrarian reforms.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: Huber Matos, military chief of Camagüey province, had complained to Fidel Castro that communists were being allowed to occupy leadership positions in the revolutionary government and the army. Finding Castro unwilling to discuss his concerns, Matos, on 19 October, sent a letter to Castro resigning his command. Castro the next day denounced Matos. He sent troops to occupy key positions in Camagüey, expecting incorrectly that Matos would lead a revolt, and named Cienfuegos to take command and to arrest Matos. Matos pleaded with Cienfuegos to listen to his concerns, but Cienfuegos assured him it could be worked out and arrested Matos on 21 October.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: On the late evening of 28 October 1959, Cienfuegos' Cessna 310 ('FAR-53') disappeared over the Straits of Florida during a night flight, returning from Camagüey to Havana. An immediate search lasted several days, but the plane was not found. By mid-November, the search was called off and Cienfuegos was presumed lost at sea. He quickly became a hero and martyr for the Cuban revolution. Cienfuegos' disappearance remains unexplained. There is some debate in regard to Cienfuegos' death, although the Cuban government's sanctioned historians do not believe that there was any foul play by the government. There is speculation that Fidel was responsible, which Matos believed is the case. Despite the fact of Cienfuegos' evidently exceptional loyalty to Castro, he hesitantly supported the arrest of his friend Matos only days earlier. Che Guevara, who was close to Cienfuegos and named his son Camilo in his honor, dismissed the notion of Castro's involvement. Others offer the possibility that a Cuban air force fighter plane mistook Cienfuegos' plane for a hostile intruder and shot it down. In the words of U.S. Ambassador Philip Bonsal, Cienfuegos enjoyed Havana's nightlife and he "may have had a penchant for friendships and associations deemed undesirable by some of his more austere revolutionary comrades". There has also been speculation that Cienfuegos faked his death and fled to the US, as some speculate it may have been to Ybor City in Tampa.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: Cuba has named a socialist award, the Order of Cienfuegos, after him. On 28 October, school children throughout Cuba throw flowers into the sea or a river to honor Camilo Cienfuegos, repeating the spontaneous tribute of the Cubans who tossed flowers into the ocean when they heard his plane had been lost over the Cuba Florida Strait. Camilo is also remembered on the 20 Cuban peso bill and the 20 Cuban convertible peso bill. He was also pictured on the 40-cent coins, now discontinued.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: The University of Matanzas bears the name "Camilo Cienfuegos". A series of military high schools for students aged 11 to 17 are named the Camilo Cienfuegos Schools. Its graduates receive priority admission to cadet schools. The neighborhood known until 1950 as "Central Hershey," in the municipality of Santa Cruz del Norte, Havana, was renamed Central Camilo Cienfuegos.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: A museum dedicated to Cienfuegos –the Monumento y MuseoCamilo Cienfuegos– was built after his death in Yaguajay, at the site of the barracks of the Batista's forces during the 1958 battle. The museum includes a diorama of the battle, as well as material relating to Cienfuegos' life before, during, and after the revolution. A large statue of him stands in front of the museum.


title: Camilo Cienfuegos

text: In the 2008 film "Che", the character of Cienfuegos was "played with great verve" by Santiago Cabrera.