title: Salima Sultan Begum

text: Being an extensive reader, she kept accounts of her encounters with the Emperor and the state of affairs. Salima was, thus, one of the most important ladies in the Mughal court. In 1575, Salima traveled to Mecca to perform the "Hajj" pilgrimage along with her aunt, Gulbadan Begum, and many other Timurid ladies. She was the only wife of Akbar who accompanied the pilgrims. Akbar himself, was dissuaded from traveling only by the pleas of Abu'l Fazl. The high-ranking female party, under the fortunate auspices of Akbar, left Fatehpur Sikri on 15 October 1575 and after taking a year to get to the sea, set sail for Mecca on 17 October 1576. They were said to have spent three and a half years in Arabia and made the "hajj" four times, returning home to Agra in March 1582.


title: Salima Sultan Begum

text: Salima had much influence over Akbar and her step-son, Salim, and wielded major political influence in the Mughal court during both the father-son's respective reigns. She played a crucial role in negotiating a settlement between Akbar and Salim when the father-son's relationship had turned sour in the early 1600s, eventually helping to pave the way for Salim's accession to the Mughal throne. In 1601, Salim had revolted against Akbar by setting up an independent court in Allahabad and by assuming the imperial title of "Salim Shah" while his father was still alive. He also planned and executed the assassination of Akbar's faithful counsellor and close friend, Abu'l Fazl.


title: Salima Sultan Begum

text: This situation became very critical and in the end, it was Salima Sultan Begum and Hamida Bano Begum who pleaded for his forgiveness. Akbar granted their wishes and Salim was allowed to present himself before the Emperor. Salima Begum went to Allahabad to convey the news of forgiveness to the prince. She went with an elephant named Fateh Lashkar, a special horse, and a robe of honour. Salim received her warmly and agreed to go back to Agra with her. The prince was finally pardoned in 1603 through the efforts of his step-mother and his grandmother, Hamida Banu Begum.


title: Salima Sultan Begum

text: During Jahangir's reign, Salima Begum displayed her political influence on several occasions. After the death of Akbar in the year 1605, Salima Sultan Begum alongside Mariam-uz-Zamani and Shakr-un-Nissa Begum secured a pardon for the Khusrau Mirza, the eldest son of Jahangir upon his succession. She also secured a pardon for the powerful Khan-i-Azam, Mirza Aziz Koka. Aziz Koka had been a foster brother of Akbar's and consequently a great favourite in the harem for decades. One of his daughters had married Jahangir's eldest son, Khusrau Mirza, and when Khusrau revolted against his father in 1606, Aziz Koka was discovered to have been in the plot from the very beginning. Aziz Koka would surely have received the death penalty had not Salima Sultan Begum yelled out from behind the screens:


title: Salima Sultan Begum

text: Jahangir was thus constrained to go to the female apartment, and on account of the pressure exercised by revered elderly women of Harem, he finally pardoned him.


title: Salima Sultan Begum

text: Salima died in 1613 in Agra, after suffering from an illness. Her step-son, Jahangir, gives particulars of her birth and descent; her marriages. By his orders, her body was laid in Mandarkar Garden in Agra, which she had commissioned.


title: Salima Sultan Begum

text: Jahangir praises Salima both for her natural qualities and her acquirements, saying "she was adorned with all good qualities. In women, this degree of skill and capacity is seldom found." She creates an impression of herself as a charming and cultivated woman.


title: Annie Lederman

text: Anne Frances Lederman (; born July 20, 1983) is an American comedian and podcast host. She has appeared on the MTV series "Girl Code" and hosted the E! shows "We Have Issues" and "Chelsea Lately", and "@midnight". She is also known as the voice of Cheryl Fawkes in "Grand Theft Auto V". Lederman's comedy has referred to her troubled past, including problems with alcoholism.


title: Annie Lederman

text: Lederman was born in Philadelphia to Abby and Scotty, shortly after midnight on July 20, 1983. Her fraternal twin brother was born minutes before her, on July 19. She is of English, German and Jewish ancestry. Lederman's father worked as a treasurer at the University of Pennsylvania, while her mother did social service work. Lederman was raised a Quaker and attended a Quaker school for her early education.


title: Annie Lederman

text: During her teenage years, Lederman trained to be a Junior Olympic swimmer, but gave up the sport after sustaining a foot injury in a car accident caused by a drunk driver. She subsequently studied at The Crefeld School and was sexually assaulted by a male teacher from the school. The incident led to a trial in which Lederman and another female student testified against him. She subsequently became involved with numerous troubled peers who dealt drugs and participated in other criminal activities. After graduating from high school at seventeen, Lederman spent the following year performing service work, first doing dolphin training in Hawaii before working in Central America for a nonprofit organization helping underprivileged children. She subsequently returned to the United States and worked as a camp counselor for Easterseals, as well as working at organizations helping children with disabilities such as cerebral palsy and spina bifida.


title: Annie Lederman

text: After spending a year doing service work, Lederman enrolled at The College of Santa Fe in Santa Fe, New Mexico, where she intermittently took classes for eight years, majoring in art and counseling. While attending college, Lederman developed a drinking problem, and suffered numerous blackout incidents, one of which included her crashing on a motor scooter and suffering serious injuries. "I wasn't getting wasted to have fun and be drunk," she recalled. "I wanted a fucking break. I hated myself. I just didn't want to be near myself." The college went out of business and closed two weeks after her graduation.


title: Annie Lederman

text: In 2009, Lederman relocated to New York City to pursue a career in comedy, and became sober. Lederman created the YouTube channel Sausage Party Presents with video artist Abbey Luck in 2011. Between 2012 and 2014, she was a regular panelist on the E! series "Chelsea Lately".


title: Annie Lederman

text: In 2013, Lederman provided the voice of Cheryl in the Rockstar video game "Grand Theft Auto V". In 2015, she appeared on the short-lived comedy series "We Have Issues".


title: Annie Lederman

text: In 2018, her comedy routine about dental floss has been widely repeated over the internet. The same year, she had a minor role in "The Long Dumb Road". She enjoys making jokes on social media as well as stand-up, and believes it is easier to make one person laugh at a single joke than sustain a whole audience for an extended period.


title: Annie Lederman

text: On February 16, 2021, Lederman, Khalyla Kuhn & Esther Povitsky launched Trash Tuesday, which they describe on their YouTube channel page as: "It's a podcast. It's a show. It's comedy. It's drama. It's everything you want it to be and more."


title: Annie Lederman

text: "Lederman explains on WTF with Marc Maron that she and her fraternal twin brother were born July 19 and July 20, respectively; she was born shortly after midnight on July 20."


title: Annie Lederman

text: "Lederman explains on WTF with Marc Maron that she and her fraternal twin brother were born July 20 and July 19, respectively; she was born shortly after midnight on July 20."


title: English claims to the French throne

text: From the 1340s to the 19th century, excluding two brief intervals in the 1360s and the 1420s, the kings and queens of England and Ireland (and, later, of Great Britain) also claimed the throne of France. The claim dates from Edward III, who claimed the French throne in 1340 as the sororal nephew of the last direct Capetian, Charles IV. Edward and his heirs fought the Hundred Years' War to enforce this claim, and were briefly successful in the 1420s under Henry V and Henry VI, but the House of Valois, a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty, was ultimately victorious and retained control of France, except for Calais (later lost in 1558) and the Channel Islands (which had historically formed part also of the Duchy of Normandy). English and British monarchs continued to prominently call themselves kings of France, and the French fleur-de-lis was included in the royal arms. This continued until 1801, by which time France no longer had any monarch, having become a republic. The Jacobite claimants, however, did not explicitly relinquish the claim.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: The title was first assumed in 1340 by Edward III of England, the Kingdom of England being ruled by the Plantagenet dynasty at the time. Edward III claimed the throne of France after the death of his uncle Charles IV of France. At the time of Charles IV's death in 1328, Edward was his nearest male relative through Edward's mother Isabella of France. Since the election of Hugh Capet in 987, the French crown had always passed based on male-line relations (father to son until 1316). There was no precedent for someone succeeding to the French throne based on his maternal ancestry, nor had there been a need to. There had been no shortage of sons for more than three centuries from the inception of the House of Capet until the early 14th century, when new precedents concerning female inheritance finally had to be introduced. On the death of Philip IV the Fair's son Louis X in 1316, immediately followed by that of his son John I the Posthumous, it had to be decided whether his young daughter Joan or his brother Philip would succeed to the throne. Philip arranged for his coronation, and became Philip V of France. He was challenged by the supporters of the Princess Joan, daughter of Louis X, on the basis of his right to the throne. In response, he convened an assembly of prelates, barons, and burgesses at Paris, who acknowledged him as their lawful king, and declared that "Women do not succeed to the throne of France." This was later said to have been based on the 5th century Salic law, but it is now known that the Salic Law was only rediscovered later and used by the lawyers of the Valois kings to fortify their masters' title with an additional aura of authenticity.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: At the time of Charles's death in 1328, there was once again a dispute over the succession. Although it had come to be accepted that a woman could not possess the French throne in her own right, Edward III, the nephew of the deceased king and thus the nearest adult male relative, based his claim on the theory that a woman could transmit a right of inheritance to her son. This claim was rejected by French jurists under the principle "Nemo plus juris ad alium transfere potest quam ipse habet" (no one can transfer a greater right to another than he himself has), and the throne was given to the male line heir, Philip, Count of Valois, a first cousin of the deceased king. At the time, Edward paid homage to Philip VI for his Duchy of Aquitaine. In 1337, however, Edward, in his capacity as Duke of Aquitaine, refused to pay homage to Philip. The French king's response was to confiscate what was left of lands in English-held Aquitaine, namely Gascony, thus precipitating the Hundred Years' War and Edward's revival of his claim to the throne and title of King of France in 1340.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: The decision to assume the title of "King of France" was made at the solicitation of his Flemish allies, who had signed a treaty that they would no longer attack the French king. They said that if Edward took the French royal title, then the Flemish would be able to keep their honour, since they would not be attacking the "true King of France" (Edward III).


title: English claims to the French throne

text: Edward continued to use this title until the Treaty of Brétigny on 8 May 1360, when he abandoned his claims in return for substantial lands in France. After the resumption of hostilities between the English and the French in 1369, Edward resumed his claim and the title of King of France. His successors also used the title until the Treaty of Troyes on 21 May 1420, in which the English recognised Charles VI as King of France, but with his new son-in-law King Henry V of England as his heir (disinheriting Charles VI's son, the Dauphin Charles). Henry V then adopted the title Heir of France instead.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: Henry V and Charles VI died within two months of each other in 1422, and Henry V's infant son (Charles VI's grandson) Henry VI became King of France. He was the only English king who was de facto King of France, rather than using the style as a mere title of pretense. By 1429 Charles VII, with the support of Joan of Arc, had been crowned at Reims and begun to push the English out of northern France. In 1435, an end to the French civil war between Burgundians and Armagnacs allowed Charles to return to Paris the following year, and by 1453 the English had been driven out of their last strongholds in Normandy and Guyenne. The only French territory left to the English was Calais which they held until 1558 and the Channel Islands.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: Following a year-long episode of catatonia on the part of Henry VI of England in 1453 and the subsequent outbreak of the Wars of the Roses (1455–87), the English were no longer in any position to pursue their claim to the French throne and lost all their land on the continent, except for Calais (and, off the mainland but within ancient France, the Channel Islands).


title: English claims to the French throne

text: No treaty has ever explicitly taken the Channel Islands out of the Kingdom of France. The Treaty of Paris of 1259 separated the islands from the Duchy of Normandy but reaffirmed the fact that the king of England was holding them "as peer of France".


title: English claims to the French throne

text: The kings of France maintained a claim over the islands. But they remained under the control of the English kings who ruled them in their quality of "kings of France" until the 1802 Treaty of Amiens.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: There were a few unsuccessful attempts by the French to take the islands, culminating with the Battle of Jersey in 1781.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: Ill feeling between the two nations continued well into the 16th century. Calais was captured by French troops under Francis, Duke of Guise on 7 January 1558. Mary and Philip continued, however, to be styled Queen and King of France for the rest of her reign, as did Mary I's half-sister and successor Elizabeth I, despite her abandonment of her claims to Calais in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis of 1559. Elizabeth I revived England's claims to Calais and took the French port of Le Havre in 1561. French forces ejected the English in 1563, and the Treaty of Troyes (1564), recognised French ownership of Calais, in return for payment to England of 120,000 crowns.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: Elizabeth died childless. Her successor was her cousin Mary, Queen of Scots’ son James VI of Scotland. The thrones of England and Scotland were joined in a dynastic union until 1707. The seven monarchs of this period continued to use the style King/Queen of France, though their claim was merely nominal. None of them was willing to engage in military campaigns for France against the actual Kings of France Henry IV, Louis XIII and Louis XIV of France. Indeed, Charles I married a sister of Louis XIII, and his son Charles II spent much of his exile during the Interregnum in France (at which time, even if not formally abandoning his claim for its throne, he certainly did not emphasise it).


title: English claims to the French throne

text: The Act of Union 1707 declared the joining of the Kingdom of England with the Kingdom of Scotland to a new Kingdom of Great Britain. The Kingdom had four Monarchs until 1801. They also styled themselves Queen/King of France; however, none of them made any official move to depose Louis XIV and his successors, Louis XV and Louis XVI, or the First French Republic that followed them:


title: English claims to the French throne

text: During the French Revolution, the monarchy was abolished on 21 September 1792, replaced with the French Republic. In the War of the First Coalition British–French negotiations were held in Lille from July to November 1797. The French demanded that the English monarch drop the title; James Harris, 1st Earl of Malmesbury was prepared to omit it from the king's signature to the envisaged peace treaty but had not conceded further by the time the talks collapsed. In the Commons' discussion of the negotiations, Sir John Sinclair called the demand "frivolous" and "hardly worth contending for"; William Pitt the Younger called the title "a harmless feather, at most, in the crown of England"; French Laurence called it an "ancient dignity" the ceding of which would lose honour and bring disgrace. In 1800, the Act of Union joined the Kingdom of Great Britain with the Kingdom of Ireland to a new United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. George III chose this opportunity to drop his claim to the now defunct French throne, whereupon the fleurs-de-lis, part of the coat of arms of all claimant Kings of France since the time of Edward III, was also removed from the British royal arms. Britain recognised the French Republic by the Treaty of Amiens of 1802. Dropping the French claim resulted in a change of status for the Channel Islands. The constitutional relationship of the Islands with Great Britain has never been enshrined in a formal constitutional document. Until 1802 this link existed through the Crown's French claim. Starting in 1802 the islands became British Crown dependencies.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: Although the fleurs-de-lys were completely removed from the Royal coat of arms of the United Kingdom, they were later included in the arms of Canada, a British dominion, where they symbolise the heritage of the French Canadians, rather than the former British claim to the French throne.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: While the position of King of France was restored between 1814 and 1848, subsequent British monarchs did not pursue the claim to the French throne, whether of the Kingdom of France or of the French Empire.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: The Jacobite pretenders were the deposed James II of England and his successors, continuing to style themselves "Kings of England, Scotland, France and Ireland" past their deposition in 1689. All four pretenders continued to actively claim the title King of France as well as that of King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 1689 until 1807:


title: English claims to the French throne

text: James II for the last twelve years of his life and his son, the Old Pretender, until the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, were actually pensioners of Louis XIV at the very time they were claiming his title.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: The Jacobite succession has continued since 1807 but none of the eight subsequent holders of the claims has actively pursued it. They continue to be customarily known as "King (or Queen) of France" by the Jacobites.


title: English claims to the French throne

text: In addition two failed claimants to the throne of England were also styled King of France. They are usually omitted from regnal lists.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The economy of Colombia is the fourth largest in Latin America as measured by gross domestic product. Colombia has experienced a historic economic boom over the last decade. Throughout most of the 20th century, Colombia was Latin America's 4th and 3rd largest economy when measured by nominal GDP, real GDP, GDP (PPP), and real GDP at chained PPPs. Between 2012 and 2014, it became the 3rd largest in Latin America by nominal GDP. As of 2018, the GDP (PPP) per capita has increased to over US$14,000, and real gross domestic product at chained PPPs increased from US$250 billion in 1990 to nearly US$800 billion. Poverty levels were as high as 65% in 1990, but decreased to under 30% by 2014, and 27% by 2018. They decreased by an average of 1.35% per year since 1990.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Petroleum is Colombia's main export, representing over 45% of Colombia's exports. Manufacturing represents nearly 12% of Colombia's exports, and grows at a rate of over 10% a year. Colombia has the fastest growing information technology industry in the world, and has the longest fibre optic network in Latin America. Colombia also has one of the largest shipbuilding industries in the world outside Asia.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Modern industries like shipbuilding, electronics, automobile, tourism, construction, and mining, grew dramatically during the 2000s and 2010s. However, most of Colombia's exports are still commodity-based. Colombia is Latin America's 2nd-largest producer of domestically made electronics and appliances, following Mexico. Colombia had the fastest-growing major economy in the Western world in 2014, behind only China worldwide.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Since the early 2010s, the Colombian government has shown interest in exporting modern Colombian pop culture to the world (which includes video games, music, films, television shows, fashion, cosmetics, and food) as a way of diversifying the economy and entirely changing the image of Colombia. This has inspired a national campaign, similar to the Korean Wave. Colombia is only behind Mexico in cultural exports, and is already a regional leader in cosmetic and beauty exports.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The number of tourists in Colombia grows by over 12% every year. Colombia is projected to have over 15 million tourists by 2023.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: European explorers reached what is now Colombian territory as early as 1510 in Santa María Antigua del Darién (in present-day Chocó department). For the next couple of decades Colombia, and South America in general, remained largely unexplored. From 1533 to 1600, Europeans began expeditions into the interior of current Colombia. The in of these expeditions was mainly to conquer new lands and exploit village resources. Legends of El Dorado that reached Spaniard explorers continued to fuel exploration and raiding of Indian villages.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: In the 17th century, Spanish conquerors explored Colombia and made the first settlements, and this was the beginning of Colombia's modern economic history. Major conquistadors from this period were Pedro de Heredia, Gonzalo Jimenez de Quesada, Sebastián de Belalcazar, and Nikolaus Federmann.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: During the 16th and 17th centuries, the colonial settlements in Colombia served purposes of extraction of precious metals and other natural resources, and later slavery trade. This economic arrangement left the Colony with little room for building solid institutionality for economic development. The main non-extractive institutions emerging in this centuries were the fortified port of Cartagena and the Viceroyalty of New Granada. Cartagena developed military defenses mainly out of necessity from frequently having to deal with pirate attacks. A primitive form of colonial administration was organized in Santa fé de Bogotá with the Viceroyalty of New Granada, especially under the tenure of José Solís Folch de Cardona (1753–1761), who conducted a census and built roads, bridges and aqueducts.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Following the Thousand Days' War (1899–1902), Colombia experienced a coffee boom that catapulted the country into the modern period, bringing the attendant benefits of transportation, particularly railroads, communications infrastructure, and the first major attempts at manufacturing.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombia's consistently sound economic policies and aggressive promotion of free trade agreements in recent years have bolstered its ability to weather external shocks. Real GDP has grown more than 4% per year for the past three years, continuing almost a decade of strong economic performance.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: In 1990, the administration of President César Gaviria Trujillo (1990–94) initiated economic liberalism policies or "apertura economica" and this has continued since then, with tariff reductions, financial deregulation, privatization of state-owned enterprises, and adoption of a more liberal foreign exchange rate. Almost all sectors became open to foreign investment although agricultural products remained protected.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The original idea of his then Minister of Finance, Rudolf Homes, was that the country should import agricultural products in which it was not competitive, like maize, wheat, cotton and soybeans and export the ones in which it had an advantage, like fruits and flowers. In ten years, the sector lost 7,000 km to imports, with a critical impact on employment in rural areas. Still, this policy makes food cheaper for the average Colombian than it would be if agricultural trade were more restricted.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Until 1997, Colombia had enjoyed a fairly stable economy. The first five years of liberalization were characterized by high economic growth rates of between 4% and 5%. The Ernesto Samper administration (1994–98) emphasized social welfare policies which targeted Colombia's lower income population. These reforms led to higher government spending which increased the fiscal deficit and public sector debt, the financing of which required higher interest rates. An over-valued peso inherited from the previous administration was maintained.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The economy slowed, and by 1998 GDP growth was only 0.6%. In 1999, the country fell into its first recession since the Great Depression. The economy shrank by 4.5% with unemployment at over 20%. While unemployment remained at 20% in 2000, GDP growth recovered to 3.1%. Unemployment in 2020 has improved compared to two decades ago to 12.20%.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The administration of President Andrés Pastrana Arango, when it took office on 7 August 1998, faced an economy in crisis, with the difficult internal security situation and global economic turbulence additionally inhibiting confidence. As evidence of a serious recession became clear in 1999, the government took a number of steps. It engaged in a series of controlled devaluations of the peso, followed by a decision to let it float. Colombia also entered into an agreement with the International Monetary Fund which provided a $2.7 billion guarantee (extended funds facility), while committing the government to budget discipline and structural reforms.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: By early 2000 there had been the beginning of an economic recovery, with the export sector leading the way, as it enjoyed the benefit of the more competitive exchange rate, as well as strong prices for petroleum, Colombia's leading export product. Prices of coffee, the other principal export product, have been more variable.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Economic growth reached 3.1% during 2000 and inflation 9.0%. Inflation by 2021 has stabilized at 3.30%. Colombia's international reserves remained stable at around $8.35 billion in the year 2000 growing to $58.57 billion by 2021, and Colombia has successfully remained in international capital markets. Colombia's total foreign debt at the end of 1999 was $34.5 billion with $14.7 billion in private sector and $19.8 billion in public sector debt. Major international credit rating organizations had dropped Colombian sovereign debt below investment grade, primarily as a result of large fiscal deficits, which current policies are seeking to close. As of 2021 Colombia has recovered its investment grade rating.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Former president Álvaro Uribe (elected 7 August 2002) introduced several neoliberal economic reforms, including measures designed to reduce the public-sector deficit below 2.5% of GDP in 2004. The government's economic policy and controversial democratic security strategy have engendered a growing sense of confidence in the economy, particularly within the business sector, and GDP growth in 2003 was among the highest in Latin America, at over 4%. This growth rate was maintained over the next decade, averaging 4.8% from 2004 to 2014.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombia's President Iván Duque withdrew a controversial tax reform bill following four weeks of huge protests across the country starting 28 April 2021.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: In the early 21st century, the Colombian economy grew in part because of austere government budgets, focused efforts to reduce public debt levels, an export-oriented growth strategy, an improved security situation in the country, and high commodity prices. Growth slowed to 1.4 percent in 2017, and then increased to 3.3 percent in 2019.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: President Uribe, who was in office from 2002 to 2010, examined opportunities including reforming the pension system, reducing high unemployment, achieving congressional passage of a fiscal transfers reform, and exploring for new oil or producing ethanol. Colombia's Gini coefficient, a measure of inequality, was one of the highest in South America. International and domestic financial analysts warned of the growing central government deficit, which hovered at 5% of GDP. Nonetheless, confidence in the economy grew.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: coffee, cut flowers, bananas, rice, tobacco, corn, sugarcane, cocoa beans, oilseed, vegetables; forest products; shrimp


title: Economy of Colombia

text: textiles, food processing, oil, clothing and footwear, beverages, chemicals, cement; gold, coal, emeralds, shipbuilding, electronics, home appliance, and furniture.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombian pesos (COP) per US dollar – 2,243.6 (2008), 2,013.8 (2007), 2,358.6 (2006), 2,320.75 (2005), 2,628.61 (2004)


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The following table shows the main economic indicators in 1980–2019 (with IMF staff stimtates in 2020–2025). Inflation below 5% is in green.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: On 8 June 2020, the newly formed Employment Mission "(Misión de Empleo)" met for the first time to discuss labor reforms that it intended to propose to Congress. Some of these reforms had been desired for years, and others had come into starker view during the coronavirus pandemic.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombia is one of the 5 largest producers in the world of coffee, avocado and palm oil, and one of the 10 largest producers in the world of sugarcane, banana, pineapple and cocoa.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombia produced, in 2018, 36.2 million tons of sugarcane (7th largest producer in the world), 5.8 million tons of palm oil (5th largest producer in the world), 3.7 million tons of banana (11th largest producer in the world) and 720 thousand tons of coffee (4th largest producer in the world, behind Brazil, Vietnam and Indonesia). Although its neighbor Brazil is the largest producer of coffee in the world (3.5 million tons produced in the same year), the advertising carried out by the country for decades suggests that Colombian coffee is of higher quality, which generates greater added value to the country's product. In the same year, Colombia produced 3.3 million tons of rice, 3.1 million tons of potato, 2.2 million tons of cassava, 1.3 million tons of maize, 900 thousand tons of pineapple, 670 thousand tons of onion, 527 thousand tons of tomato, 419 thousand tons of yam, 338 thousand tons of mango, 326 thousand tons of avocado, in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products such as orange, tangerine, lemon, papaya, beans, carrot, coconut, watermelon etc.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The share of agriculture in GDP has fallen consistently since 1945, as industry and services have expanded. However, Colombia's agricultural share of GDP decreased during the 1990s by less than in many of the world's countries at a similar level of development, even though the share of coffee in GDP diminished in a dramatic way. Agriculture has nevertheless remained an important source of employment, providing a fifth of Colombia's jobs in 2006.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The most industrially diverse member of the five-nation Andean Community, Colombia has four major industrial centers—Bogota, Medellin, Cali, and Barranquilla, each located in a distinct geographical region. Colombia's industries include textiles and clothing, particularly lingerie, leather products, processed foods and beverages, paper and paper products, chemicals and petrochemicals, cement, construction, iron and steel products, and metalworking. Its diverse climate and topography permit the cultivation of a wide variety of crops. In addition, all regions yield forest products, ranging from tropical hardwoods in the hot country to pine and eucalyptus in the colder areas.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Cacao beans, sugarcane, coconuts, bananas, plantains, rice, cotton, tobacco, cassava, and most of the nation's beef cattle are produced in the hot regions from sea level to 1,000 meters elevation. The temperate regions—between 1,000 and 2,000 meters—are better suited for coffee; cut flowers; maize and other vegetables; and fruits such as citrus, pears, pineapples, and tomatoes. The cooler elevations—between 2,000 and 3,000 meters—produce wheat, barley, potatoes, cold-climate vegetables, flowers, dairy cattle, and poultry.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: In Colombia, the exploitation and breeding of cattle is carried out on small farms and large farms. Black-eared white, casanareño, coastal with horns, romosinuano, chino santandereano and hartón del Valle, are the Colombian breeds with the highest production.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: In 2013, livestock occupied 80% of productive land in Colombia. The livestock sector is one of the most outstanding in areas such as Caribbean Region, where seven departments have livestock as their primary vocation. Also in Antioquia, where there is the largest cattle inventory in the country, the department had that year 11% of the head of cattle in Colombia, and according to the livestock inventory, in 2012 Antioqueños counted around 2,268,000 head of cattle.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Also in 2013, the bovine herd in Colombia reached 20.1 million head of cattle, of which 2.5 million (12.5%) were milking cows. In addition, the country's total milk production was 13.1 million liters.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: On the other hand, the increase in imports of pork meat, the high prices of inputs and the slowdown in the national economy, produced a crisis in the raising of pork in Colombia in 2015.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The World Bank lists the main producing countries each year, based on the total value of production. According to the 2019 list, Colombia has the 46th most valuable industry in the world (US$35.4 billion), behind Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela and Argentina, but ahead of Peru and Chile.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Although Colombia has been producing domestic appliances since the 1930s, it wasn't until the late 1990s that Colombian corporations began exporting to neighboring countries. One of Colombia's largest producers of domestic appliances, HACEB has been producing refrigeration since 1940. Some domestic corporations include: Challenger, Kalley, HACEB, Imusa, and Landers. In 2011, Groupe SEB acquired Imusa as a form to expand to the Latin American market. Colombia also manufactures for foreign companies as well, such as Whirlpool and GE. LG has also been interested in building a plant in Colombia. Colombia is also Latin America's 3rd largest producer of appliances behind Mexico and Brazil and is growing rapidly.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombia is a major producer of electronics in Latin America, and is South America's 2nd largest high-tech market. Colombia is also the 2nd largest producer and exporter of electronics made by domestic companies in Latin America. Since the early 2000s, major Colombian corporations began exporting aggressively to foreign markets. Some of these companies include: Challenger, PcSmart, Compumax, Colcircuirtos, and Kalley. Colombia is the first country in Latin America to manufacture a domestically made 4K television. In 2014, the Colombian Government launched a national campaign to promote IT and Electronic sectors, as well as investing in Colombia's own companies. Although innovation remains low on the global scale, the government sees heavy potential in the high tech industry and is investing heavily in education and innovation centers all across the nation. Because of this, Colombia could become a major global manufacturer of electronics and play an important role in the global high tech industry in the near future. In 2014, the Colombian government released another national campaign to help Colombian companies have a bigger share of the national market.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Construction recently has played a vital role in the economy, and is growing rapidly at almost 20% annually. As a result, Colombia is seeing a historic building boom. The Colombian government is investing heavily in transport infrastructure through a plan called "Fourth Generation Network". The target of the Colombian government is to build 7,000 km of roads for the 2016–2020 period and reduce travel times by 30% and transport costs by 20%. A toll road concession program will comprise 40 projects, and is part of a larger strategic goal to invest nearly $50bn in transport infrastructure, including: railway systems; making the Magdalena river navigable again; improving port facilities; as well as an expansion of Bogotá's airport. Long-term plans include building a national high-speed train network, to vastly improve competitiveness.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombia is well-endowed with minerals and energy resources. It has the largest coal reserves in Latin America, and is second to Brazil in hydroelectric potential. Estimates of petroleum reserves in 1995 were . It also possesses significant amounts of nickel, gold, silver, platinum, and emeralds.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The country was the 12th largest producer of coal in the world in 2018. In 2019, Colombia was the 20th largest petroleum producer in the world, with 791 thousand barrels / day. In mining, Colombia is the world's largest producer of emerald.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The discovery of of high-quality oil at the Cusiana and Cupiagua fields, about east of Bogotá, has enabled Colombia to become a net oil exporter since 1986. The Transandino pipeline transports oil from Orito in the Department of Putumayo to the Pacific port of Tumaco in the Department of Nariño. Total crude oil production averages ; about is exported. The Pastrana government has significantly liberalized its petroleum investment policies, leading to an increase in exploration activity. Refining capacity cannot satisfy domestic demand, so some refined products, especially gasoline, must be imported. Plans for the construction of a new refinery are under development.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: While Colombia has vast hydroelectric potential, a prolonged drought in 1992 forced severe electricity rationing throughout the country until mid-1993. The consequences of the drought on electricity-generating capacity caused the government to commission the construction or upgrading of 10 thermoelectric power plants. Half will be coal-fired, and half will be fired by natural gas. The government also has begun awarding bids for the construction of a natural gas pipeline system that will extend from the country's extensive gas fields to its major population centers. Plans call for this project to make natural gas available to millions of Colombian households by the middle of the next decade.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: As of 2004, Colombia has become a net energy exporter, exporting electricity to Ecuador and developing connections to Peru, Venezuela and Panama to export to those markets as well. The Trans-Caribbean pipeline connecting western Venezuela to Panama through Colombia is also under construction, thanks to cooperation between presidents Álvaro Uribe of Colombia, Martín Torrijos of Panama and Hugo Chávez of Venezuela. Coal is exported to Turkey.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The oil pipelines are a frequent target of extortion and bombing campaigns by the National Liberation Army (ELN) and, more recently, the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC). The bombings, which have occurred on average once every 5 days, have caused substantial environmental damage, often in fragile rainforests and jungles, as well as causing significant loss of life. In April 1999 in Cartagena de Indias, Clinton's Secretary of Energy Bill Richardson spoke before investors from the United States, Canada and other countries. He expressed his government's willingness to use military aid to support the investment that they and their allies were going to make in Colombia, especially in strategically important sectors like mining and energy.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: In 2001 there were 170 attacks on the Caño Limón–Coveñas pipeline. The pipeline was out of operation for over 200 days of that year; the government estimates that these bombings reduced Colombia's GDP by 0.5%. The government of the United States increased military aid, in 2003, to Colombia to assist in the effort to defend the pipeline. Occidental Petroleum privately contracted mercenaries who flew Skymaster planes, from AirScan International Inc., to patrol the Cano Limon-Covenas pipeline. Many of these operations used helicopters, equipment and weapons provided by the U.S. military and anti-narcotics aid programs.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Mining and natural exploitation has had environmental consequences. The region of Guajira is undergoing an accelerated desertification with the disappearances of forests, land, and water sources, due to the increase in coal production. Social consequences or lack of development in resource rich areas is common. 11 million Colombians survive on less than one dollar a day. Over 65% of these live in mining zones. There are 3.5 million children out of school, and the most critical situation is in the mining zone of Choco, Bolivar, and Sucre.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Economic consequences of privatization and liberal institutions have meant changes in taxation to attract foreign investment. Colombia will lose another $800 million over the next 90 years that Glencore International operates in El Cerrejon Zona Media, if the company continues to produce coal at a rate of 5 million tons/year, because of the reduction of the royalty tax from 10 to 15% to .04%. If the company, as is plausible, doubles or triples its production, the losses will be proportionally greater. The operational losses from the three large mining projects (El Cerrejon, La Loma, operated by Drummond, and Montelíbano, which produces ferronickel) for Colombia to more than 12 billion.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Coal production has grown rapidly, from 22.7 million tons in 1994 to 50.0 million tons in 2003. Over 90% of this amount was exported, making Colombia the world's sixth largest coal exporter, behind Australia, China, Indonesia, South Africa and Russia. From the mid-1980s the center of coal production was the Cerrejón mines in the Guajira department. However, the growth in output at La Loma in neighboring Cesar Department made this area the leader in Colombian coal production since 2004. Production in other departments, including Boyacá, Cundinamarca and Norte de Santander, forms about 13% of the total. The coal industry is largely controlled by international mining companies, including a consortium of BHP, Anglo American and Glencore at Cerrejón, and Conundrum Company at La Loma, which is undergoing a lawsuit in the U.S. District Court in Alabama for union assassinations and alleged paramilitary links.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: In 1990, to attract foreign investors and promote trade, an experiment from the International Monetary Fund known as "La Apertura" was adopted by the government, this policy was to modernize different sectors of the economy to increase the overall efficiency of production so as to bring down prices to internationally competitive levels. Although the analysis of the results are not clear, the fact is that the agricultural sector was severely impacted by this policy.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: In 1991 and 1992, the government passed laws to stimulate foreign investment in nearly all sectors of the economy. The only activities closed to foreign direct investment are defense and national security, disposal of hazardous wastes, and real estate—the last of these restrictions is intended to hinder money laundering. Colombia established a special entity—Converter—to assist foreigners in making investments in the country. Foreign investment flows for 1999 were $4.4 billion, down from $4.8 billion in 1998.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Major foreign investment projects underway include the $6 billion development of the Cusiana and Cupiagua oil fields, development of coal fields in the north of the country, and the recently concluded licensing for establishment of cellular telephone service. The United States accounted for 26.5% of the total $19.4 billion stock of non-petroleum foreign direct investment in Colombia at the end of 1998.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: On 21 October 1995, under the International Emergency Economic Powers Act (IEEPA), President Clinton signed an Executive Order barring U.S. entities from any commercial or financial transactions with four Colombian drug kingpins and with individuals and companies associated with the traffic in narcotics, as designated by the Secretary of the Treasury in consultation with the Secretary of State and the Attorney General. The list of designated individuals and companies is amended periodically and is maintained by the Office of Foreign Asset Control at the Department of the Treasury, tel. (202) 622-0077 (ask for Document #1900). The document also is available at the Department of Treasury web site.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombia is the United States' fifth-largest export market in Latin America—behind Mexico, Brazil, Venezuela, and Argentina—and the 26th-largest market for U.S. products worldwide. The United States is Colombia's principal trading partner, with two-way trade from November 1999 through November 2000 exceeding $9.5 billion--$3.5 billion U.S. exports and $6.0 billion U.S. imports. Colombia benefits from duty-free entry—for a 10-year period, through 2001—for certain of its exports to the United States under the Andean Trade Preferences Act. Colombia improved protection of intellectual property rights through the adoption of three Andean Pact decisions in 1993 and 1994, but the U.S. remains concerned over deficiencies in licensing, patent regulations, and copyright protection.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The petroleum and natural gas coal mining, chemical, and manufacturing industries attract the greatest U.S. investment interest. U.S. investment accounted for 37.8% ($4.2 billion) of the total $11.2 billion in foreign direct investment at the end of 1997, excluding petroleum and portfolio investment. Worker rights and benefits in the U.S.-dominated sectors are more favorable than general working conditions. Examples include shorter-than-average working hours, higher wages, and compliance with health and safety standards above the national average.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The services sector dominates Colombia's GDP, contributing 58 percent of GDP in 2007, and, given worldwide trends, its dominance will probably continue. The sector is characterized by its heterogeneity, being the largest for employment (61 percent), in both the formal and informal sectors.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Since the early 2010s, the Colombian government has shown interest in exporting modern Colombian pop culture to the world (which includes video games, music, movies, TV shows, fashion, cosmetics, and food) as a way of diversifying the economy and changing the image of Colombia. In the Hispanic world, Colombia is only behind Mexico in cultural exports at US$750 million annually, and is already a regional leader in cosmetic and beauty exports.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Tourism in Colombia is an important sector in the country's economy. Colombia has major attractions as a tourist destination, such as Cartagena and its historic surroundings, which are on the UNESCO World Heritage List; the insular department of San Andrés, Providencia y Santa Catalina; Santa Marta, Cartagena and the surrounding area. Fairly recently, Bogotá, the nation's capital, has become Colombia's major tourist destination because of its improved museums and entertainment facilities and its major urban renovations, including the rehabilitation of public areas, the development of parks, and the creation of an extensive network of cycling routes. With its very rich and varied geography, which includes the Amazon and Andean regions, the llanos, the Caribbean and Pacific coasts, and the deserts of La Guajira, and its unique biodiversity, Colombia also has major potential for ecotourism.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The direct contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP in 2013 was COP11,974.3mn (1.7% of GDP). This is forecast to rise by 7.4% to COP12,863.4mn in 2014. This primarily reflects the economic activity generated by industries such as hotels, travel agents, airlines and other passenger transportation services (excluding commuter services). But it also includes, for example, the activities of the restaurant and leisure industries directly supported by tourists. The direct contribution of Travel & Tourism to GDP is expected to grow by 4.1% pa to COP19,208.4mn (1.8% of GDP) by 2024.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Eco-tourism is very promising in Colombia. Colombia has vast coastlines, mountainous areas, and tropical jungles. There are volcanoes and waterfalls as well. This makes Colombia a biodiverse country with many attractions for foreign visitors.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: The Colombian coffee growing axis (Spanish: Eje Cafetero), also known as the Coffee Triangle (Spanish: Triángulo del Café), is a part of the Colombian Paisa region in the rural area of Colombia, which is famous for growing and production of a majority of Colombian coffee, considered by some as the best coffee in the world. There are three departments in the area: Caldas, Quindío and Risaralda. These departments are among the smallest departments in Colombia with a total combined area of 13873 km (5356 mi), about 1.2% of the Colombian territory. The combined population is 2,291,195 (2005 census).


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombia's geography, with three cordilleras of the Andes running up the country from south to north, and jungle in the Amazon and Darién regions, represents a major obstacle to the development of national road networks with international connections. Thus, the basic nature of the country's transportation infrastructure is not surprising. In the spirit of the 1991 constitution, in 1993 the Ministry of Public


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Works and Transportation was reorganized and renamed the Ministry of Transportation. In 2000 the new ministry strengthened its role as the planner and regulator within the sector.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: Colombia was a pioneer in promoting airlines in an effort to overcome its geographic barriers to transportation. The Colombian Company of Air Navigation, formed in 1919, was the second commercial airline in the world. It was not until the 1940s that Colombia's air transportation began growing significantly in the number of companies, passengers carried, and kilometers covered. In the early 2000s, an average of 72 percent of the passengers transported by air go to national destinations, while 28 percent travel internationally. One notable feature is that after the reforms of the beginning of the 1990s, the number of international passengers tripled by 2003. In 1993 the construction, administration, operation, and maintenance of the main airports transferred to departmental authorities and the private sector, including companies specializing in air transportation. Within this process, in 2006 the International Airport Operator (Opain), a Swiss-Colombian consortium, won the concession to manage and develop Bogotá's El Dorado International Airport. El Dorado is the largest airport in Latin America in terms of cargo traffic (33rd worldwide), with 622,145 metric tons in 2013, second in terms of traffic movements (45th worldwide) and third in terms of passengers (50th among the busiest airports in the world). In addition to El Dorado, Colombia's international airports are Palo Negro in Bucaramanga, Simón Bolívar in Santa Marta, Cortissoz in Barranquilla, Rafael Núñez in Cartagena, José María Córdova in Rionegro near Medellín, Alfonso Bonilla Aragón in Cali, Alfredo Vásquez Cobo in Leticia, Matecaña in Pereira, Gustavo Rojas Pinilla in San Andrés, and Camilo Daza in Cúcuta. In 2006 Colombia was generally reported to have a total of 984 airports, of which 103 had paved runways and 883 were unpaved. The Ministry of Transportation listed 581 airports in 2007, but it may have used a different methodology for counting them.


title: Economy of Colombia

text: After a large crisis in 1999, poverty in Colombia has had a decreasing trend. The share of Colombians below the income-based poverty line fell from 50% in 2002 to 28% in 2016. The share of Colombians below the extreme income-based poverty line fell from 18% to 9% in the same period. Multidimensional poverty fell from 30% to 18% between 2010 and 2016.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The London Borough of Haringey (pronounced , same as Harringay) is a London borough in North London, classified by some definitions as part of Inner London, and by others as part of Outer London. It was created in 1965 by the amalgamation of three former boroughs. It shares borders with six other London boroughs. Clockwise from the north, they are: Enfield, Waltham Forest, Hackney, Islington, Camden, and Barnet.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey covers an area of more than . Some of the more familiar local landmarks include Alexandra Palace, Bruce Castle, Jacksons Lane, Highpoint I and II, and Tottenham Hotspur Football Club. The borough has extreme contrasts: areas in the west, such as Highgate, Muswell Hill and Crouch End are among the most prosperous in the country; in the east of the borough, some wards are classified as being among the most deprived 10% in the country. Haringey is also a borough of contrasts geographically. From the wooded high ground around Highgate and Muswell Hill, at , the land falls sharply away to the flat, open low-lying land beside the River Lea in the east. The borough includes large areas of green space, which make up more than 25% of its total area.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In the Last Glacial Maximum, Haringey was at the edge of a huge glacial mass that reached as far south as Muswell Hill. There is evidence of both Stone Age and Bronze Age activity.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In the Iron Age and Roman periods, Haringey was peopled by a Celtic tribe called the Catuvellauni, whose extensive lands centred on Hertfordshire and Middlesex. The Romans' presence is evidenced chiefly by the roads they built through the area. Tottenham High Road was part of the main Roman thoroughfare of Ermine Street. There have also been Roman finds in the borough which suggests possible Roman settlement.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In the 5th and 6th centuries after the Saxon invasions the settlement of Haeringehaia was founded; its name coming from the Old English "haeringe" meaning a "meadow of hares".


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey remained a rural area until the 18th century when large country houses close to London became increasingly common. The coming of the railways from the mid-nineteenth century onwards led to rapid urbanisation; by the turn of the century much of Haringey had been transformed from a rural to an urbanised environment.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The borough has its roots in the Ancient Parishes of Tottenham (which covered most of the borough) and Hornsey in the south-west; and adopted the name Haringey which was an alternative name for Hornsey. These two parishes were probably formed by the end of the 12th century and maintained the same boundaries from that point on. Tottenham was part of the Edmonton Hundred, with Hornsey a part of the Ossulstone Hundred, and subsequently the Finsbury Division when Ossulstone was sub-divided. Both parishes were a part of Middlesex.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Wood Green was a chapelry within Tottenham, but population growth led to it becoming a separate ecclesiastical parish in 1866 and an independent civil parish in 1894. Wood Green, Tottenham and Hornsey became Municipal Boroughs in 1900, inheriting the boundaries of the pre-existing parishes, except in that South Hornsey was transferred to the Metropolitan Borough of Stoke Newington.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The borough in its modern form was founded in 1965, from the former Municipal Borough of Hornsey, the Municipal Borough of Wood Green and the Municipal Borough of Tottenham. The new borough became part of the new Greater London Council. However, some legacy of the historic municipal divisions survives to the present day, with the relative prosperity of the different parts of the borough still split broadly along the old boundary lines.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The town hall is Haringey Civic Centre on Wood Green High Road. It was opened in 1958. It is a listed building.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Although much of the building is now unused, the Civic Centre is the official seat of Haringey Council and contains the council chambers.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The names "Haringey", "Harringay" and "Hornsey" in use today are all different variations of the same Old English: "Hæringeshege". Hæring was a Saxon chief who lived probably in the area around Hornsey. "Hæringeshege" meant Hæring's enclosure and evolved into "Haringey", "Harringay" and "Hornsey".


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The official heraldic arms were granted on 10 May 1965, after the mergers of the former Municipal Borough of Hornsey, the Municipal Borough of Wood Green and the Municipal Borough of Tottenham. Unlike most other London boroughs, it was decided not to create arms based on the charges in the coats of arms of the former boroughs. The coat of arms contains black and gold, representing stability, a cogwheel for industry and a rising sun for the new borough.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The borough has a simple badge described as "Eight Rays" [as in the arms]. A flag is used which looks like a banner of arms but with the tinctures reversed, so that it has eight black rays on a yellow field. The rays are also a symbol of the world's first regular high-definition television transmissions in 1936 from the mast of Alexandra Palace, one of the landmarks in the Borough of Haringey.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The arms is used in the mayoral regalia of the borough. The mayoral chain has the heraldic achievement hanging in a badge made out of 18 k gold and enamel, with the text "The London Borough of Haringey MCMLXV". The chain has stylized H's and hares sitting within laurel wreaths. The hares represent the name of the borough, since Haringey is believed to mean "a meadow of Hares".


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: There are 19 wards in Haringey. Although they bear the names of long-established local areas, many have boundaries which do not exactly match the locally-understood boundaries of those areas.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Since its creation, Haringey has always been a Labour borough, except during the three years following the Conservative landslide of 1968.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Times, however, have certainly changed, and no Conservative candidate has won a local government seat in Haringey since 1998. In fact the only Conservative presence on the council during this time was the 10 months that former Mayor, Cllr Alan Dobie spent sitting as a Conservative following his defection after being deselected in July 2009.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: For several years, Haringey Council was the subject of nationwide criticism over its handling of the welfare of young children, in connection with the murder of Victoria Climbié and the death of Baby P. George Meehan, Council leader at the time of both the Victoria Climbie inquiry and the death of Baby P, resigned after a "damning" examination of Social Services caused by the Baby P case. He and Liz Santry, cabinet member for Children's Services, initially refused to resign at a Full Council meeting. All Labour Councillors voted for them to remain in their posts. Sharon Shoesmith, who was sacked on 8 December 2008 without any compensation package over the Baby P affair, was successful in her case of unfair dismissal and received compensation from the council. Cllr Claire Kober became leader of Haringey Council on 10 December 2008.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In March 2009, the council's overall performance was assessed in an Audit Commission review as among the fourth worst in the whole country, and the worst in London. Its previous three stars were reduced to one.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: From a majority of only 3 in 2006, Labour increased their majority to 11 at the May 2010 local elections, winning 34 seats to the Liberal Democrats' 23. In the May 2014 local elections, Labour went on to make significant gains, particularly in the West of the borough, gaining seats as far west as Muswell Hill and Fortis Green.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In the local elections of May 2014 Labour substantially increased its majority up to 39 seats over the Liberal Democrats, ahead by 48 seats to 9. That dominance was extended in August 2016, when former opposition leader, Cllr Sarah Elliott, crossed the floor to join Labour. This was the third time that Haringey Lib Dem Councillors had crossed to Labour, following the defections of councillors Catherine Harris and Ali Demirci late in 2007. In January 2010, Brian Haley became the first ever Haringey Labour councillor to defect to the Liberal Democrats.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In November 2017, Haringey hit the headlines again with bitter recriminations following hard fought selection battles for candidacies for Labour seats at the 2018 Council election. In an unprecedented change, 23 of the 49 sitting Labour Councillors either retired, decided not to stand after losing a trigger ballot, or were deselected as candidates from their seats by Labour Party members.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The media highlighted a number of reasons for this change including a poisonous attitude in the local party, the influence of Momentum, the impact of the Haringey Development Vehicle, and the expressed will of the local members.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In May 2018 the Liberal Democrats increased their representation on the council from 8 to 15, controlling the wards of Crouch End, Highgate, Fortis Green, Alexandra, and Muswell Hill. Group leader Liz Morris was quoted as saying that Labour had failed to win the "hearts and minds of residents", but Labour retained the majority of seats on the council.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey is a borough of contrasts geographically. From the wooded high ground around Highgate and Muswell Hill, at , the land falls sharply away to the flat, open low-lying land beside the River Lea in the east. 60 hectares within the borough are designated as part of the Metropolitan Green Belt.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey shares borders with six other London boroughs. Clockwise from the north, they are: Enfield, Waltham Forest, Hackney, Islington, Camden, and Barnet. It covers an area of more than . Some of the more familiar local landmarks include Alexandra Palace, Bruce Castle and Tottenham Hotspur Football Club.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey has of parks, recreation grounds and open spaces which make up more than 25% of its total area. They include both smaller local areas and large green areas which provide an amenity for Londoners beyond the borough's boundaries. Local Nature Reserves and a number of conservation areas can also be found in the borough. The borough is also home to five distinct ancient woods. These are Highgate Woods, Queen's Wood, Coldfall Wood, Bluebell Wood and North Wood.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The borough has achieved Green Flag status for 25 of its parks, meaning they are judged to be welcoming, safe and well-managed, with active community involvement.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Amongst the larger open spaces are: Finsbury Park, Alexandra Park, Highgate Wood, Coldfall Wood and the Lee Valley Park.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: According to the GLA's population projections for 2018, the current population of Haringey is 282,904 residents.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey is the 6th most deprived borough in London, and the 30th most deprived local authority in England (out of 326). Within the borough there are extreme contrasts: neighbourhoods in some of the western wards, such as Highgate, Muswell Hill and Crouch End are among the most prosperous in the country; in the east of the borough, many neighbourhoods are classified as being among the most deprived in the country.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The population grew by 17.7% between the 2001 and 2011 Censuses, and is projected to have grown by a further 11% between 2011 and 2018.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The male to female ratio in Haringey is 50:50. While the age structure is similar to that of London, the borough has a slightly larger proportion of residents aged 20–44, and a slightly smaller proportion of residents aged 65+.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: According to the GLA Population Estimate for 2018, 33.6% of the borough's population are White British, 25.9% are "Other White", 8.2% are of Black African heritage, and 5.8% are of Black Caribbean heritage. Haringey is also home to several smaller Asian communities.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: 44% of the population are Christian, 12% are Muslim and 3% Jewish. The Muslim population is centred in the middle of the borough around Harringay, while the Jewish community is largest on the western edges of the borough in Highgate, Crouch End and Muswell Hill (where members are predominately Orthodox, Reform and Liberal), and in the Seven Sisters ward in the east of the borough which is home to South Tottenham's largest Jewish community, who make up 18.1% of the population of the ward.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey is a religiously diverse borough, with large populations of all major world religions. 2018 estimate populations were as follows:


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: There are approximately 114,313 dwellings in Haringey. Of those: 43% are owner occupied; 29% are rented from the local authority or a housing association; and 24% are rented from a private landlord.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The local council and housing associations provide just over 27,000 affordable homes. As of Q4 2017 there were 3,002 households living in temporary accommodation in Haringey.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey has 64 primary (including infant and junior) schools, 11 secondary schools, a City Academy, 5 special schools and a pupil support centre. In addition, there are off site provision and study support centres for children and young people with additional needs.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The number of pupils in Haringey Schools as at January 2017 was 41,550 (including nursery age children). This total was made up as follows:


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In 2014 Haringey Council contacted OFSTED and the police after video footage emerged showing multiple incidents where primary age children at the Harris Primary Academy Coleraine Park, in Tottenham, were physically restrained or "dragged around", each by either two or three members of staff. An executive from the National Association of Head Teachers described it as "horrible" to see a "really distressed" child restrained in this way. The school's policy requires any use of restraint to be notified to the parents in writing, but this had not happened. The school issued a statement saying that physical restraint is only used when pupils present a risk to themselves or others, and that it can make it possible for them to continue in mainstream education rather than being permanently excluded.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The local authority is Haringey London Borough Council. Haringey Council has been the subject of nationwide criticism over its handling of the welfare of young children in connection with the murder of Victoria Climbié in 2000 and the death of Peter Connelly in 2007. In March 2009, Haringey Council's performance was placed by the Audit Commission in the bottom four of the country and the worst in London. In December 2009, Haringey's performance was placed by Ofsted in the bottom nine in the country for children's services. A later series of positive Ofsted inspections culminated in the service being taken out of 'special measures' by the government in February 2013.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: NHS services provide healthcare for all residents of Haringey. There are 52 General Practices across the borough as of 2022. These are grouped into eight Primary Care Networks with Haringey GP Federation covering the entire borough. In addition to Primary Care the population is cared for by several hospitals including the North Middlesex University Hospital, Homerton Hospital, Whittington Hospital and St Ann's Hospital. In addition, there are numerous Health & Social Care providers across the borough.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In 2016, there were 12,150 businesses in Haringey employing a total of 66,000 people. This accounted for 1.3% of all employment in London.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey's economy is dominated by small businesses with 93.9% of businesses employing fewer than 10 people.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The principal shopping areas in the borough are Wood Green and Turnpike Lane, Muswell Hill, Crouch End, Harringay and Tottenham Hale.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Haringey is situated within the growth corridor connecting London with Stansted, Cambridge and Peterborough.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: Tottenham Hotspur Football Club, currently in the FA Premier League, play at Tottenham Hotspur Stadium, which is located in the borough on Tottenham High Road. The borough also has two Non-League football clubs, Haringey Borough F.C. and Greenhouse London F.C., who both play at Coles Park.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: London Skolars are a rugby league team that compete in Kingstone Press League 1. They play at New River Stadium in Wood Green, Haringey. The annual Middlesex 9s rugby league tournament also takes place at the New River Stadium.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: The borough's ice hockey team, the Haringey Greyhounds, currently play at Alexandra Palace. Alexandra Palace has also hosted other events including the PDC World Darts Championship and a number of Boxing events.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: During the 1970s, 80s and 90s, the Haringey Athletic Club were at the forefront of a new generation of inner city athletes producing many Olympians. They have since been amalgamated into the Enfield and Haringey Athletic Club. London Heathside, formed in 2000 following the merger of North London AC and Muswell Hill Runners, are also based at the London Marathon Athletics Track at Finsbury Park.


title: London Borough of Haringey

text: In March 2011, the main forms of transport that residents used to travel to work were: underground, metro, light rail, tram, 23.5% of all residents aged 16–74; driving a car or van, 11.3%; bus, minibus or coach, 11.3%; train, 4.7%; on foot, 4.1%; work mainly at or from home, 3.6%; bicycle, 3.2%.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: Everything Is Illuminated is a 2005 American biographical comedy-drama film, written and directed by Liev Schreiber and starring Elijah Wood and Eugene Hütz. It was adapted from the novel of the same name by Jonathan Safran Foer, and was the debut film of Liev Schreiber both as a director and as a screenwriter.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: Jonathan Safran Foer, a young American Jew, goes on a quest to Ukraine to find the woman, Augustine, who saved his grandfather, Safran Foer, during the Holocaust in a small Ukrainian town called Trachimbrod that was wiped off the map when the Nazis liquidated Eastern European shtetls.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: His guides, who drive up from Odessa to meet Jonathan as he arrives at the train station in Lviv, are a cranky, seemingly antisemitic grandfather, his wound-up dog named Sammy Davis Jr. Jr., and his enthusiastic grandson, Alex, who constantly chatters with a unique command of English and a passion for American pop culture that keeps the arduous journey lighter. These guides have been escorting wealthy Americans in search of their roots for decades. They are generally not very knowledgeable about the subject of finding Jews, and usually just attempt to scam them by taking them on long journeys. However, after hearing Jonathan's compelling story, they decide they actually want to help him.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: Along the way in Volhynia, as they travel in search of the shtetl in the region around Lutsk, they have a series of misadventures, many of them humorous and based on the culture shock Jonathan experiences as an American tourist in Ukraine.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: Traveling through much of rural western Ukraine, the three men eventually find Augustine's sister, Lista. She lives by herself in a house in the midst of a great sunflower field, isolated from technology and from news of the outside world. Lista tells them that Augustine was killed by Nazi soldiers after her father refused to spit on the Torah. And she leads them to the site where the town had been.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: The next night Alex's grandfather quietly kills himself. Through flashbacks, it was revealed he was Jewish. During the massacre of the Jews of his town in the Holocaust, he was shot and thrown into a mass grave. But hours later, he regained consciousness and crawled out of the pit alive, and managed to survive the war himself by hiding his identity as a Jew. He abandoned this identity permanently, symbolically walking away from it.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: Jonathan returns home to America after saying farewell to Alex, to whom he has grown close. They strike up a correspondence.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: Both Jonathan and Alex sprinkle soil gathered from the site of the massacre on their respective grandfathers' graves. Alex's grandfather is given a Jewish tombstone.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: The score for "Everything Is Illuminated" features eight original tracks composed by Paul Cantelon, along with songs by Russian ska punk band Leningrad, Arkady Severny, Csókolom, Tin Hat Trio, and Gogol Bordello, whose lead singer Eugene Hütz plays Alex. The band members of Gogol Bordello play the band in the train station where the character Alex has come to meet his US client, Jonathan Foer. DeVotchKa's single "How It Ends" is featured in the trailer, but not in the official soundtrack.


title: Everything Is Illuminated (film)

text: "American Chronicle" counted the film among the "rare films that encapsulate the emotion of discovery and drama with humor", while "Time Out New York" called it Liev Schreiber's "unbelievably assured debut as a director". Roger Ebert praised the film, assigning it 3 and a half stars out of 4, and suggested that one might well see it a second time, as he did, "to understand the journey it takes".


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford Madox Ford (né Joseph Leopold Ford Hermann Madox Hueffer ( ); 17 December 1873 – 26 June 1939) was an English novelist, poet, critic and editor whose journals "The English Review" and "The Transatlantic Review" were instrumental in the development of early 20th-century English and American literature.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford is now remembered for his novels "The Good Soldier" (1915), the "Parade's End" tetralogy (1924–1928) and "The Fifth Queen" trilogy (1906–1908). "The Good Soldier" is frequently included among the great literature of the 20th century, including the Modern Library 100 Best Novels, "The Observer"′s "100 Greatest Novels of All Time", and "The Guardian"′s "1000 novels everyone must read".


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford was born in Wimbledon in London to Catherine Madox Brown and Francis Hueffer, the eldest of three; his brother was Oliver Madox Hueffer and his sister was Juliet Hueffer, the wife of David Soskice and mother of Frank Soskice. Ford's father, who became music critic for "The Times", was German and his mother English. His paternal grandfather was first to publish Westphalian poet and author Annette von Droste-Hülshoff. He was named after his maternal grandfather, the Pre-Raphaelite painter Ford Madox Brown, whose biography he would eventually write. His mother's older half-sister was Lucy Madox Brown, the wife of William Michael Rossetti and mother of Olivia Rossetti Agresti.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: In 1889, after the death of their father, Ford and Oliver went to live with their grandfather in London. Ford attended the University College School in London, but never studied at university. In November 1892, at 18, he became a Catholic, "very much at the encouragement of some Hueffer relatives, but partly (he confessed) galled by the 'militant atheism and anarchism' of his English cousins."


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: In 1894, Ford eloped with his school girlfriend Elsie Martindale. The couple were married in Gloucester and moved to Bonnington. In 1901, they moved to Winchelsea. They had two daughters, Christina (born 1897) and Katharine (born 1900). Ford's neighbours in Winchelsea included the authors Joseph Conrad, Stephen Crane, W.H. Hudson, Henry James in nearby Rye, and H.G. Wells.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: In 1904, Ford suffered an agoraphobic breakdown due to financial and marital problems. He went to Germany to spend time with family there and undergo treatments.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: In 1909, Ford left his wife and set up home with English writer Isobel Violet Hunt, with whom he published the literary magazine "The English Review". Ford's wife refused to divorce him and he attempted to become a German citizen to obtain a divorce in Germany. This was unsuccessful. A reference in an illustrated paper to Violet Hunt as "Mrs. Ford Madox Hueffer" gave rise to a successful libel action being brought by Mrs. Ford in 1913. Ford's relationship with Hunt did not survive the First World War.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford used the name of Ford Madox Hueffer, but changed it to Ford Madox Ford after World War I in 1919, partly to fulfil the terms of a small legacy, partly "because a Teutonic name is in these days disagreeable", and possibly to avoid further lawsuits from Elsie in the event of his new companion, Stella, being referred to as "Mrs Hueffer".


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Between 1918 and 1927, he lived with Stella Bowen, an Australian artist 20 years his junior. In 1920, Ford and Bowen had a daughter, Julia Madox Ford.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: In the summer of 1927, "The New York Times" reported that Ford had converted a mill building in Avignon, France into a home and workshop that he called "Le Vieux Moulin". The article implied that Ford was reunited with his wife at this point.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: In the early 1930s, Ford established a relationship with Janice Biala, a Polish-born artist from New York, who illustrated several of Ford's later books. This relationship lasted until the late 1930s.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford spent the last years of his life teaching at Olivet College in Olivet, Michigan. He was taken ill in Honfleur, France, in June 1939 and died shortly afterward in Deauville at the age of 65.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: One of Ford's most famous works is the novel "The Good Soldier" (1915). Set just before World War I, "The Good Soldier" chronicles the tragic expatriate lives of two "perfect couples", one British and one American, using intricate flashbacks. In the "Dedicatory Letter to Stella Ford” that prefaces the novel, Ford reports that a friend pronounced "The Good Soldier" “the finest French novel in the English language!” Ford pronounced himself a "Tory mad about historic continuity" and believed the novelist's function was to serve as the historian of his own time. However, he was dismissive of the Conservative Party, referring to it as "the Stupid Party."


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford was involved in British war propaganda after the beginning of World War I. He worked for the War Propaganda Bureau, managed by C. F. G. Masterman, along with Arnold Bennett, G. K. Chesterton, John Galsworthy, Hilaire Belloc and Gilbert Murray. Ford wrote two propaganda books for Masterman; "When Blood is Their Argument: An Analysis of Prussian Culture" (1915), with the help of Richard Aldington, and "Between St Dennis and St George: A Sketch of Three Civilizations" (1915).


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: After writing the two propaganda books, Ford enlisted at 41 years of age into the Welch Regiment of the British Army on 30 July 1915. He was sent to France. Ford's combat experiences and his previous propaganda activities inspired his tetralogy "Parade's End" (1924–1928), set in England and on the Western Front before, during and after World War I.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford wrote dozens of novels as well as essays, poetry, memoirs and literary criticism. He collaborated with Joseph Conrad on three novels, "The Inheritors" (1901), "Romance" (1903) and "The Nature of a Crime" (1924, although written much earlier). During the three to five years after this direct collaboration, Ford's best known achievement was "The Fifth Queen" trilogy (1906–1908), historical novels based on the life of Catherine Howard, which Conrad termed, at the time, "the swan song of historical romance."


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford's poem "Antwerp" (1915) was praised by T.S. Eliot as "the only good poem I have met with on the subject of the war".


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford's novel "Ladies Whose Bright Eyes" (1911, extensively revised in 1935) is a Time travel novel, like Twain's classic "A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's Court", only dramatising the difficulties, not the rewards, of such idealised situations.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: When the Spanish Civil War broke out, Ford took the side of the left Republican faction, declaring: "I am unhesitatingly for the existing Spanish Government and against Franco’s attempt—on every ground of feeling and reason...Mr Franco wishes to establish a government resting on the arms of Moors, Germans, Italians. Its success must be contrary to world conscience." His opinion of Mussolini and Hitler was likewise negative, and he offered to sign a manifesto against Nazism.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: In 1908, Ford founded "The English Review". Ford published works by Thomas Hardy, H. G. Wells, Joseph Conrad, Henry James, May Sinclair, John Galsworthy and William Butler Yeats; and debuted works of Ezra Pound, Wyndham Lewis, D. H. Lawrence and Norman Douglas. Ezra Pound and other Modernist poets in London in the teens particularly valued Ford's poetry as exemplifying treatment of modern subjects in contemporary diction. In 1924, he founded "The Transatlantic Review", a journal with great influence on modern literature. Staying with the artistic community in the Latin Quarter of Paris, Ford befriended James Joyce, Ernest Hemingway, Gertrude Stein, Ezra Pound and Jean Rhys, all of whom he would publish (Ford was the model for the character Braddocks in Hemingway's "The Sun Also Rises"). Basil Bunting worked as Ford's assistant on the magazine.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: As a critic, Ford is known for remarking "Open the book to page ninety-nine and read, and the quality of the whole will be revealed to you." George Seldes, in his book "Witness to a Century", describes Ford ("probably in 1932") recalling his writing collaboration with Joseph Conrad, and the lack of acknowledgment by publishers of his status as co-author. Seldes recounts Ford's disappointment with Hemingway: "'and he disowns me now that he has become better known than I am.' Tears now came to Ford's eyes." Ford says, "I helped Joseph Conrad, I helped Hemingway. I helped a dozen, a score of writers, and many of them have beaten me. I'm now an old man and I'll die without making a name like Hemingway." Seldes observes, "At this climax Ford began to sob. Then he began to cry."


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Hemingway devoted a chapter of his Parisian memoir "A Moveable Feast" to an encounter with Ford at a café in Paris during the early 1920s. He describes Ford "as upright as an ambulatory, well clothed, up-ended hogshead."


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: During a later sojourn in the United States, Ford was involved with Allen Tate, Caroline Gordon, Katherine Anne Porter and Robert Lowell (who was then a student). Ford was always a champion of new literature and literary experimentation. In 1929, he published "The English Novel: From the Earliest Days to the Death of Joseph Conrad", a brisk and accessible overview of the history of English novels. He had an affair with Jean Rhys, which ended acrimoniously, which Rhys fictionalised in her novel "Quartet".


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Ford is best remembered for his novels "The Good Soldier" (1915), the "Parade's End" tetralogy (1924–1928) and "The Fifth Queen" trilogy (1906–1908). "The Good Soldier" is frequently included among the great literature of the 20th century, including the Modern Library 100 Best Novels, "The Observer"′s "100 Greatest Novels of All Time", and "The Guardian"′s "1000 novels everyone must read". The "Parade's End" tetralogy was made into an acclaimed BBC/HBO 5 part TV series in 2012, starring Benedict Cumberbatch and scripted by Tom Stoppard.


title: Ford Madox Ford

text: Anthony Burgess described Ford as the "greatest British novelist" of the 20th century. Graham Greene was also a great admirer, and more recently Julian Barnes who has written essays about Ford and his work. Professor Max Saunders is the author of an authoritative biography of Ford, published in two volumes by Oxford University Press in 1996, as well as the editor for some of Ford's oeuvre reissued by the Carcanet Press.


title: Giovane Élber

text: Élber de Souza (born 23 July 1972), commonly known as Giovane Élber, is a Brazilian former professional footballer who played as a striker.


title: Giovane Élber

text: A prolific goalscorer in various clubs, Élber's career was mostly spent in Germany, where he represented most notably Bayern Munich (six full seasons), scoring a total of 133 league goals in 260 matches for three clubs.


title: Giovane Élber

text: At the age of 18 he signed for A.C. Milan in 1990, Élber went almost unnoticed during his one-year spell with the Serie A side.


title: Giovane Élber

text: Subsequently, he moved to Switzerland Grasshopper Club Zürich, initially on loan. He immediately started showing displays of offensive talent at his new club, namely in a 1992–93 UEFA Cup tie against Sporting Clube de Portugal where, after a 1–2 home loss, he was influential in the club's 4–3 aggregate win, scoring twice.


title: Giovane Élber

text: After more than 50 official goals for Grasshoppers, Élber signed with VfB Stuttgart of Germany in the 1994 summer. He scored in his Bundesliga debut, a 2–1 home win against Hamburger SV, and finished his debut season with eight goals, which would be the only campaign he netted in single digits for the following seven years.


title: Giovane Élber

text: In the 1996–97 season, Élber netted 20 official goals for Stuttgart, 17 in the league, and three in the cup, including both against FC Energie Cottbus in the final (2–0 win). At Stuttgart he formed the so-called "magic triangle" (German: "Magisches Dreieck") with Krassimir Balakov and Fredi Bobic.


title: Giovane Élber

text: The following summer, he moved to fellow league team Bayern Munich where, save for one year, he was always crowned the club's top scorer (Carsten Jancker prevented that honour); additionally, he was instrumental in the conquest of four leagues, the 2000–01 UEFA Champions League, scoring in both legs in the semi-finals against Real Madrid, and the 2001 Intercontinental Cup, whilst winning the "Torjägerkanone" award for 2002–03 with 21 goals; the Bavarians won the double.


title: Giovane Élber

text: 31-year-old Élber then spent the vast majority of the 2003–04 campaign (played four matches with Bayern) in France with Olympique Lyonnais, replacing compatriot Sonny Anderson who had left for Spain. In the 2003–04 UEFA Champions League, he scored against his former club Bayern Munich to win 2–1 in Germany. Later on, he scored in a 2–2 draw against Porto in the quarter-finals; however, Lyon were eliminated from the competition after losing 4–2 on aggregate.


title: Giovane Élber

text: Eventually, he helped the club to the third of its seven consecutive Ligue 1 accolades, but then suffered a severe fibula and tibia injury which put him out of action for more than one year.


title: Giovane Élber

text: He made his comeback to professional football in Germany with Borussia Mönchengladbach, whom he joined in January 2005.


title: Giovane Élber

text: In January 2006, after nearly 15 years of absence, Élber returned to his country, finishing his career at Cruzeiro. After an emotional announcement, he retired from the club three months before the end of the season on 9 September, after injuries and the loss of his father.


title: Giovane Élber

text: Due to stiff competition, Élber could not translate his club form to the Brazilian national team. In his first year of international play, 1998, he scored six goals in as many games, but would only collect nine more caps in the following three years.


title: Giovane Élber

text: In the 1991 FIFA World Youth Championship, Élber scored four in six matches as the under-20s lost to hosts Portugal, on penalties.


title: Giovane Élber

text: After announcing his retirement he then returned to Bayern, where he began working for the club as a scout, searching in his country for young talents.


title: Giovane Élber

text: Élber works as a pundit for German television station Das Erste. He provided expert analysis during the 2013 FIFA Confederations Cup and reappeared in this capacity during the 2014 FIFA World Cup.


title: Giovane Élber

text: He is mostly referred to as "Giovane Élber" (sometimes also mistakenly as "Giovanni Élber"), which is a German variation of his Italian nickname "il giovane Élber" ("the young Élber").


title: Vehicle armour

text: Military vehicles are commonly armoured (or armored; see spelling differences) to withstand the impact of shrapnel, bullets, shells, rockets, and missiles, protecting the personnel inside from enemy fire. Such vehicles include armoured fighting vehicles like tanks, aircraft, and ships.


title: Vehicle armour

text: Civilian vehicles may also be armoured. These vehicles include cars used by officials (e.g., presidential limousines), reporters and others in conflict zones or where violent crime is common. Civilian armoured cars are also routinely used by security firms to carry money or valuables to reduce the risk of highway robbery or the hijacking of the cargo.


title: Vehicle armour

text: Armour may also be used in vehicles to protect from threats other than a deliberate attack. Some spacecraft are equipped with specialised armour to protect them against impacts from micrometeoroids or fragments of space debris. Modern aircraft powered by jet engines usually have them fitted with a sort of armour in the form of an aramid composite kevlar bandage around the fan casing or debris containment walls built into the casing of their gas turbine engines to prevent injuries or airframe damage should the fan, compressor, or turbine blades break free.


title: Vehicle armour

text: The design and purpose of the vehicle determines the amount of armour plating carried, as the plating is often very heavy and excessive amounts of armour restrict mobility. In order to decrease this problem, some new materials (nanomaterials) and material compositions are being researched which include buckypaper, and aluminium foam armour plates.


title: Vehicle armour

text: "Rolled homogeneous armour" is strong, hard, and tough (does not shatter when struck with a fast, hard blow). Steel with these characteristics are produced by processing cast steel billets of appropriate size and then rolling them into plates of required thickness. Rolling and forging (hammering the steel when it is red hot) irons out the grain structure in the steel, removing imperfections which would reduce the strength of the steel. Rolling also elongates the grain structure in the steel to form long lines, which enable the stress the steel is placed under when loaded to flow throughout the metal, and not be concentrated in one area.


title: Vehicle armour

text: "Aluminium" is used when light weight is a necessity. It is most commonly used on APCs and armoured cars. While certainly not the strongest metal, it is cheap, lightweight, and tough enough that it can serve as easy armour.


title: Vehicle armour

text: Wrought "iron" was used on ironclad warships. Early European iron armour consisted of 10 to 12.5 cm of wrought iron backed by up to one meter of solid wood. It has since been supplemented by steel due to steel being significantly stronger.


title: Vehicle armour

text: Titanium has almost twice the density of aluminium, but can have a yield strength similar to high strength steels, giving it a high specific strength. It also has a high specific resilience and specific toughness. So, despite being more expensive, it finds an application in areas where weight is a concern, such as personal armour and military aviation. Some notable examples of its use include the USAF A-10 Thunderbolt II and the Soviet/Russian-built Sukhoi Su-25 ground-attack aircraft, utilising a bathtub-shaped titanium enclosure for the pilot, as well as the Soviet/Russian Mil Mi-24 attack helicopter.


title: Vehicle armour

text: Because of its high density, depleted uranium can also be used in tank armour, sandwiched between sheets of steel armour plate. For instance, some late-production M1A1HA and M1A2 Abrams tanks built after 1998 have DU reinforcement as part of the armour plating in the front of the hull and the front of the turret, and there is a program to upgrade the rest (see Chobham armour).


title: Vehicle armour

text: "Plastic metal" was a type of vehicle armour originally developed for merchant ships by the British Admiralty in 1940. The original composition was described as 50% clean granite of half-inch size, 43% of limestone mineral, and 7% of bitumen. It was typically applied in a layer two inches thick and backed by half an inch of steel.


title: Vehicle armour

text: Plastic armour was highly effective at stopping armour piercing bullets because the hard granite particles would deflect the bullet, which would then lodge between plastic armour and the steel backing plate. Plastic armour could be applied by pouring it into a cavity formed by the steel backing plate and a temporary wooden form.


title: Vehicle armour

text: Some main battle tank (MBT) armour utilises polymers, for example polyurethane as used in the "BDD" applique armour applied to modernized T-62 and T-55.


title: Vehicle armour

text: Bulletproof glass is a colloquial term for glass that is particularly resistant to being penetrated when struck by bullets. The industry generally refers to it as "bullet-resistant glass" or "transparent armour".


title: Vehicle armour

text: Bullet-resistant glass is usually constructed using a strong but transparent material such as polycarbonate thermoplastic or by using layers of laminated glass. The desired result is a material with the appearance and light-transmitting behaviour of standard glass, which offers varying degrees of protection from small arms fire.


title: Vehicle armour

text: The polycarbonate layer, usually consisting of products such as Armormax, Makroclear, Cyrolon, Lexan or Tuffak, is often sandwiched between layers of regular glass. The use of plastic in the laminate provides impact-resistance, such as physical assault with a hammer, an axe, etc. The plastic provides little in the way of bullet-resistance. The glass, which is much harder than plastic, flattens the bullet and thereby prevents penetration. This type of bullet-resistant glass is usually 70–75 mm (2.8–3.0 in) thick.


title: Vehicle armour

text: Bullet-resistant glass constructed of laminated glass layers is built from glass sheets bonded together with polyvinyl butyral, polyurethane or ethylene-vinyl acetate. This type of bullet-resistant glass has been in regular use on combat vehicles since World War II; it is typically about 100–120 mm (3.9–4.7 in) thick and is usually extremely heavy.