title: Advocacy group

text: Advocacy groups also exert influence through channels that are separate from the government or the political structure such as the mass media and through public opinion campaigning. Advocacy groups will use methods such as protesting, petitioning and civil disobedience to attempt to exert influence in Liberal Democracies. Groups will generally use two distinct styles when attempting to manipulate the media – they will either put across their outsider status and use their inability to access the other channels of influence to gain sympathy or they may put across a more ideological agenda. Traditionally, a prime example of such a group were the trade-unions who were the so-called "industrial" muscle. Trade-unions would campaign in the forms of industrial action and marches for workers rights, these gained much media attention and sympathy for their cause. In the United States, the Civil Rights Movement gained much of its publicity through civil disobedience; African Americans would simply disobey the racist segregation laws to get the violent, racist reaction from the police and white Americans. This violence and racism was then broadcast all over the world, showing the world just how one sided the race 'war' in America actually was.


title: Advocacy group

text: Advocacy group influence has also manifested itself in supranational bodies that have arisen through globalisation. Groups that already had a global structure such as Greenpeace were better able to adapt to globalisation. Greenpeace, for example, has offices in over 30 countries and has an income of $50 million annually. Groups such as these have secured the nature of their influence by gaining status as nongovernmental organisations (NGOs), many of which oversee the work of the UN and the EU from their permanent offices in America and Europe. Group pressure by supranational industries can be exerted in a number of ways: "through direct lobbying by large corporations, national trade bodies and 'peak' associations such as the European Round Table of Industrialists".


title: Advocacy group

text: There have been many significant advocacy groups throughout history, some of which could operated with dynamics that could better categorize them as social movements. Here are some notable advocacy groups operating in different parts of the world:


title: Advocacy group

text: On some controversial issues there are a number of competing advocacy groups, sometimes with very different resources available to them:


title: Advocacy group

text: A general theory is that individuals must be enticed with some type of benefit to join an interest group. However, the free rider problem addresses the difficulty of obtaining members of a particular interest group when the benefits are already reaped without membership. For instance, an interest group dedicated to improving farming standards will fight for the general goal of improving farming for every farmer, even those who are not members of that particular interest group. Thus, there is no real incentive to join an interest group and pay dues if the farmer will receive that benefit anyway. For another example, every individual in the world would benefit from a cleaner environment, but environmental protection interest groups do not receive monetary help from every individual in the world.


title: Advocacy group

text: This poses a problem for interest groups, which require dues from their members and contributions in order to accomplish the groups' agendas.


title: Advocacy group

text: Selective benefits are material, rather than monetary benefits conferred on group members. For instance, an interest group could give members travel discounts, free meals at certain restaurants, or free subscriptions to magazines, newspapers, or journals. Many trade and professional interest groups tend to give these types of benefits to their members.


title: Advocacy group

text: A solidary incentive is a reward for participation that is socially derived and created out of the act of association. A selective solidary benefit offered to members or prospective members of an interest group might involve such incentives as "socializing congeniality, the sense of group membership and identification, the status resulting from membership, fun, conviviality, the maintenance of social distinctions, and so on.


title: Advocacy group

text: People who join an interest group because of expressive benefits likely joined to express an ideological or moral value that they believe in, such as free speech, civil rights, economic justice, or political equality. To obtain these types of benefits, members would simply pay dues, and donate their time or money to get a feeling of satisfaction from expressing a political value. Also, it would not matter if the interest group achieved their goal; these members would merely be able to say they helped out in the process of trying to obtain their goals, which is the expressive incentive that they got in the first place. The types of interest groups that rely on expressive benefits or incentives are environmental groups and groups who claim to be lobbying for the public interest.


title: Advocacy group

text: Some public policy interests are not recognized or addressed by a group at all. These interests are labeled latent interests.


title: Advocacy group

text: Much work has been undertaken by academics attempting to categorize how advocacy groups operate, particularly in relation to governmental policy creation. The field is dominated by numerous and diverse schools of thought:


title: Advocacy group

text: Apart from lobbying and other methods of asserting political presence, advocacy groups use social media to attract attention towards their particular cause. A study published in early 2012 suggests that advocacy groups of varying political and ideological orientations operating in the United States are using social media to interact with citizens every day. The study surveyed 53 groups, that were found to be using a variety of social media technologies to achieve organizational and political goals:


title: Advocacy group

text: As noted in the study, "while some groups raised doubts about social media's ability to overcome the limitations of weak ties and generational gaps, an overwhelming majority of groups see social media as essential to contemporary advocacy work and laud its democratizing function."


title: Advocacy group

text: Another 2012 study argued that advocacy groups use social media to reach audiences unrelated to the communities they help and to mobilize diverse groups of people. Mobilization is achieved in four ways:


title: Advocacy group

text: "1). Social media help connect individuals to advocacy groups and thus can strengthen outreach efforts.


title: Advocacy group

text: While these studies show the acceptance of social media use by advocacy groups, populations not affiliated with media advocacy often question the benevolence of social media. Rather than exclusively fostering an atmosphere of camaraderie and universal understanding, social media can perpetuate power hierarchies. More specifically, social media can provide "a means of reproducing power and fulfilling group interest for those possessing excessive power... [having the potential to] indirectly reinforce elitist domination." By excluding those without access to the internet, social media inherently misrepresents populations- particularly the populations in low-income countries. Since media advocacy groups use social media as a way to boost the narratives of these populations, the effect of social media use can be counteractive to well-intentioned goals. Instead of directly amplifying the voices and narratives of historically marginalized populations, social media magnifies their concerns through the perspective of individuals with access to the internet.


title: Advocacy group

text: Since advocacy groups have the agency to control a community's narrative through a social media post, they have the agency to control the deservedness of a community as well. That is, the amount of resources or attention a community receives largely depends on the kind of narrative an advocacy group curates for them on social media.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Doylestown is a borough and the county seat of Bucks County in Pennsylvania. It is located northwest of Trenton, southeast of Allentown, north of center city Philadelphia, and southwest of New York City.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Like most of the region, the area of Doylestown was inhabited by the Lenape people until the arrival of the Europeans.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Doylestown's origins date to March 1745 when William Doyle obtained a license to build a tavern on what is now the northwest corner of Dyers Road and Coryell's Ferry Road (now Main and State Streets). Known for years as "William Doyle's Tavern," its strategic location, at the intersection of the road (now U.S. Route 202) linking Swede's Ford (Norristown) and Coryell's Ferry (New Hope) and the road (now PA Route 611) linking Philadelphia and Easton, allowed the hamlet to grow into a village. The first church was erected in 1815, followed by a succession of congregations throughout the 19th century.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: A second inn, the Sign of the Ship was established in 1774, built diagonally across from the Doyle Tavern. Samuel Flack was innkeeper in 1778.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: As the population of Central and Upper Bucks County grew throughout the 18th and into the 19th century, discontent developed with the county seat's location in Newtown, where it had been since 1725. Eight petitions with a total of 184 signers were submitted to the General Assembly, some as early as 1784, requesting the move of the county seat to Doylestown. Among the signers were Andrew Armstrong, John Armstrong, John Davis, Andrew Denison, Jesse Fell, Joseph Fell, John Ingham (of Ingham Springs), Michael Frederick Kolb, Zebulon M. Pike (of Lumberton), Samuel Preston, Robert Shewell, Walter Shewell, and Fulkerd Sebring. The General Assembly approved the move by an Act on February 28, 1810, and the first Court session was opened on May 11, 1813. An outgrowth of Doylestown's new courthouse was the development of "lawyers row", a collection of Federal-style offices. One positive consequence of early 19th-century investment in the new county seat was organized fire protection, which began in 1825 with the Doylestown Fire Engine Company.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: A post office was established on January 1, 1802. Charles Stewart, the first postmaster, carried letters to recipients in the bell-shaped crown of his high beaver hat as he walked about the village. When Stewart died on February 7, 1804, his son-in-law Enoch Harvey became the next postmaster. On October 9, 1804 Harvey advertised in the "Pennsylvania Correspondent", published in Doylestown, of a list of letters remaining in the post office for Wm. R. Hanna, Esq., Newtown; Doct. Felix Robertson, Bucks County; Robert Wehir, Shamony, Bucks County; Robert A. Farmer, Esq., Birdsborough; Israel Childs, Buckingham.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: A bill to erect Doylestown into a borough was introduced into Legislature in February 1830, but failed, as well as a second attempt in the session of 1832. "An Act to erect the Village of Doylestown, in the County of Bucks, into a Borough" was passed and signed into law by Governor Joseph Ritner on April 16, 1838.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: An electric telegraph station was built in 1846, and the North Pennsylvania Railroad completed a branch to Doylestown in 1856. The first gas lights were introduced in 1854. Because of the town's relatively high elevation and a lack of strong water power, substantial industrial development never occurred and Doylestown evolved to have a professional and residential character.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: During the mid-19th century, several large tracts located east of the courthouse area were subdivided into neighborhoods. The next significant wave of development occurred after the Civil War, when the Magill property to the southwest of the town's core was subdivided for residential lots.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: In 1869, Doylestown established a water works. The first telephone line arrived in 1878, the same year that a new courthouse was erected. 1897 saw the first of several trolley lines connecting Doylestown with Willow Grove, Newtown and Easton. A private sewer system and treatment plant were authorized in 1903. The Borough took over and expanded sewer service to about three-quarters of the town in 1921.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: In the early 20th century, Doylestown became best known to the outside world through the "Tools of the Nation-Maker" museum of the Bucks County Historical Society. Henry Chapman Mercer constructed the reinforced concrete building in 1916 to house his collection of mechanical tools and utensils. Upon his death in 1930, Mercer also left his similarly constructed home Fonthill and adjacent Moravian Pottery and Tile Works, to be operated as a museum. The home was left on the condition that his housekeeper be allowed to live there for the rest of her life. She lived there and gave tours until the mid-1970s.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: In 1916, Doylestown Country Club was established and still operates a private golf course and caddy program.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: By 1931, the advent of the automobile and improved highway service had put the last trolley line out of business as Doylestonians used the automobile as the primary means of travel within the region. The Great Depression took its toll, as many grand old houses constructed a century earlier fell into disrepair. During the 1930s, the Borough also expanded its land area to the north by admission of the tract known as the Doylestown Annex.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: In the decade following World War II, Doylestown's business community boomed. During the 1940s, streets were paved for the first time in two decades and parking meters were introduced downtown in 1948. However, the postwar housing boom did not begin in earnest until the 1950s, when 550 new homes were built. The housing boom continued into the 1960s and 1970s, as more than 1,600 new homes were built during those decades and the Borough's population grew from 5,917 in 1960 to 8,717 in 1980.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: As with many small towns across the country, the growth of the postwar decades also brought a new competitor to the downtown business district, the shopping mall. By the 1960s, the toll could be seen in Doylestown by the numerous vacant buildings and dilapidated storefronts in the center of town. The Bucks County Redevelopment Authority responded with a federal urban renewal scheme that called for the demolition of 27 historic buildings. The local business community objected to such wholesale clearance and responded with its own plan called Operation '64, the Doylestown Plan for Self-Help Downtown Renewal. This private initiative was successful in saving Doylestown's old buildings and historic character, while improving business at the same time. One historic landmark that could not be saved was the 80-year-old courthouse and clock tower, which was replaced by the present county complex in the early 1960s.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: By the end of the 1980s, the downtown business district was again showing the toll of massive new competition from the latest wave of suburban shopping centers, as well as the recession that hit hardest in the northeastern states. In response, the Borough Council established a volunteer group of civic-minded representatives from business organizations, government, and the residential community to begin formulating plans for the downtown area in 1992. This effort resulted in streetscape improvements composed of cast iron street lamps and brick pavers, facade improvements and other beautification efforts, and the establishment of a Main Street Manager Program.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: As the 1990s progressed, the downtown area rebuilt itself largely by turning to an out-of-town audience. Doylestown had long been respected as a bucolic tourist destination. The gentry of Philadelphia and New York, including figures of the Manhattan theater and literary scenes, maintained country estates in the area and often summered there. The Mercer Museum, Moravian Pottery and Tile Works, and the local National Shrine of Our Lady of Czestochowa brought a regular stream of short-term visitors through the area as well. With charitable support, the art deco County Theater was restored and reopened showing art-house fare, and a new main library and art museum were built around the ruins of the old stone jail, across the street from the Mercer Museum. An official "resort town" designation exempted the area from liquor license caps, and empty commercial space began to fill with a dense and vibrant nighttime scene of bars and restaurants.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: This development goes hand in hand with the broader development of the region. As the Philadelphia metropolitan area expanded from southern into central Bucks County, the fields and farms of the communities around Doylestown quickly began to sprout housing developments. This development brought thousands of people to the area, but the neighborhoods created often lacked longstanding institutions or discernible centers. Doylestown, more centrally located than the Delaware River border town of New Hope, which had traditionally served this function, was able to position itself as the regional center of culture and nightlife.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Archival collection and community programming are two functions of the Doylestown Historical Society, established in 1995, whose mission is "to commemorate and preserve the history of Doylestown so that its people, places and events may long be remembered."


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: The Doylestown Historic District, Pugh Dungan House, Fonthill, Fountain House, Oscar Hammerstein II Farm, James-Lorah House, Mercer Museum, Moravian Pottery and Tile Works, and Shaw Historic District are listed on the National Register of Historic Places.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the borough has a total area of , all land. Doylestown Borough is bordered by Doylestown Township, except to the northeast where it borders Buckingham Township.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: As of the 2010 census, the borough was 94.8% Non-Hispanic White, 2.3% Black or African American, 0.2% Native American, 1.9% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, and 1.5% were two or more races. 2.8% of the population were of Hispanic or Latino ancestry .


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 8,227 people, 3,952 households, and 1,908 families residing in the borough. The population density was 3,822.5 people per square mile (1,477.4/km²). There were 4,055 housing units at an average density of 1,884.1 per square mile (728.2/km²). The racial makeup of the borough was 95.24% White, 0.30% African American, 0.11% Native American, 1.42% Asian, 0.07% Pacific Islander, 0.43% from other races, and 0.63% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.20% of the population


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: There were 3,952 households, out of which 19.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 39.0% were married couples living together, 7.2% had a female householder with no husband present, and 51.7% were non-families. 44.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 22.8% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 1.98 and the average family size was 2.82.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: In the borough, the population was spread out, with 16.5% under the age of 18, 5.7% from 18 to 24, 28.8% from 25 to 44, 23.5% from 45 to 64, and 25.4% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 44 years. For every 100 females there were 79.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 75.7 males.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: The median income for a household in the borough was $46,148, and the median income for a family was $71,988. Males had a median income of $48,553 versus $31,703 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $32,249. About 2.5% of families and 4.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.7% of those under age 18 and 9.6% of those age 65 or over.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Doylestown Borough is home to three structures designed and built by Henry Chapman Mercer. The Mercer Museum, a structure built in poured concrete, is the home to Mercer's collection of early American artifacts. It also houses a collection known as "Tools of the Nation-Maker", one of the most important of its kind in the world. Bucks County Historical Society also maintains the Spruance Library, a research library, adjoining the museum. Fonthill (also known as "Mercer's Castle") was Mercer's home and houses his collection of artifacts from around the world. The Moravian Pottery and Tile Works is an operational facility utilizing the tools and techniques used by Pennsylvania German potters in the 18th and 19th centuries.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: The former prison, across the street from the Mercer Museum, has been converted into the James A. Michener Art Museum. The borough also boasts a small music conservatory, writers' and artists' organizations, and other cultural activities.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Doylestown is located near the Polish-American Roman Catholic shrine known as the National Shrine of Our Lady of Czestochowa, which houses a painting of the Black Madonna of Częstochowa, Poland.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Doylestown has a council-manager form of government consisting of a "weak" Mayor and a nine-member Borough Council. The Mayor is elected at-large to a term of four years. The Borough Council is divided into three wards, with each ward electing three members to terms of four years. Borough Council is in charge of enacting legislation, raising and spending public money, regulating land use, and providing public services. The council is required to meet once a month to conduct business. The Borough Council contains seven subcommittees.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: As of 2022, the Mayor of Doylestown is Elnora "Noni" West. The Borough Council consists of Council President Jack O'Brien, Council Vice-President Wendy Margolis, Ben Bell, Tim Brennan, Lawrence Browne, Dennis Livrone, Joe Frederick, Jennifer Jarret, and Amy Taylor Popkin.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Doylestown borough is the location of several educational facilities of the Central Bucks School District. The borough contains three elementary schools (Doyle Elementary, Cold Spring Elementary and Linden Elementary), one middle school (Lenape Middle School) and one high school (Central Bucks West) which has long been a football and girls' soccer powerhouse. Bucks County's regional educational service agency, Bucks County Intermediate Unit No. 22, is also located in the borough.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Doylestown Township, which is adjacent to the borough, contains Paul W. Kutz Elementary and also the campus of Delaware Valley University, which is primarily known as an agricultural and science school.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: "The Intelligencer", a daily newspaper serving central and northern Bucks County along with nearby areas of eastern Montgomery County, is headquartered in Doylestown. In 1948, WBUX signed-on with 5,000 watts at 1570 on the AM dial. Today as WISP the station airs an All-Catholic format.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: The main north-south street in Doylestown is Main Street while the main east-west street is State Street, which forms a one-way pair with Oakland Avenue in the downtown area. Pennsylvania Route 611 bypasses Doylestown to the west on a freeway, heading north to Easton and south to Philadelphia. U.S. Route 202 bypasses the center of the borough to the south and heads southwest to Norristown and northeast to New Hope. US 202 follows a parkway alignment from Doylestown southwest to Montgomeryville, with U.S. Route 202 Business serving as a business route to Montgomeryville, passing through New Britain and Chalfont. Pennsylvania Route 313 runs northwest-southeast along the northern edge of Doylestown on Swamp Road and heads northwest to Dublin and Quakertown and southeast to Pennsylvania Route 263 in Furlong, where Swamp Road continues as an unnumbered road towards Newtown. The downtown area of Doylestown has on-street parking and parking lots that are regulated by parking meters during the day Monday through Saturday, with parking free on evenings and Sunday. The borough offers 6-month parking permits that can be used in certain metered spots. Free parking is available at the Bucks County Parking Garage on Broad Street.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: The Lansdale/Doylestown Line of SEPTA Regional Rail connects Doylestown to Center City Philadelphia and many points in between. Doylestown station is the northernmost stop. Doylestown is served by SEPTA City Bus Route 55, which heads south to Warrington, Willow Grove, Abington, Jenkintown and finally the Olney Transportation Center in North Philadelphia.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: There is also intercity bus service provided to Doylestown from a bus stop at the Doylestown station. Trans-Bridge Lines connects Doylestown to New Jersey and the Port Authority Bus Terminal in New York City, with some daily runs extending northward to Bethlehem, Pennsylvania. Greyhound Lines provides intercity bus service to Doylestown along a route running between the Philadelphia Greyhound Terminal and Scranton. Fullington Trailways provides intercity bus service to Doylestown along a route running between the Philadelphia Greyhound Terminal in Philadelphia and Williamsport, serving several places in northern Pennsylvania.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Locally, Doylestown is served by a small public transportation system called the "Doylestown DART" (Doylestown Area Regional Transit). Doylestown DART is a service of Bucks County Transport and consists of a single weekday route and a single Saturday route. Often used by the elderly, it travels to various destinations in Doylestown, including government offices, schools, stores, restaurants, pharmacies, senior residences, and Doylestown Hospital. Bucks County Transport also operates the DART West, which runs weekdays from a connection with the Doylestown DART at Delaware Valley University west to New Britain and Chalfont. The Bucks County Courthouse Shuttle is operated weekdays by Bucks County Transport.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: The Doylestown Airport, a general aviation airport operated by the Bucks County Airport Authority, is located to the north of Doylestown. The nearest airports with commercial air service are the Trenton-Mercer Airport near Trenton, New Jersey, approximately 15 miles (26 km) away, Lehigh Valley International Airport near Allentown, Pennsylvania, approximately 25 miles (40 km) away,


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Philadelphia International Airport in Philadelphia, approximately 30 miles (48 km) away and Newark Liberty International Airport in Newark, New Jersey, approximately 50 miles (80 km) away.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: The Doylestown Community Bike & Hike System consists of over of trails and side paths for pedestrians and bicycles serving both the borough of Doylestown and Doylestown Township. The system was founded in 1992 to improve mobility for pedestrians and bicyclists in and around the Doylestown area. The Doylestown Community Bike & Hike System has connections to the US 202 Parkway Trail following the US 202 parkway to Montgomeryville; future trail connections are planned to Peace Valley Park and other points in the area. BicyclePA Route S passes through Doylestown, following Court Street, the one-way pair of Oakland Avenue eastbound and State Street westbound, Main Street, and Green Street through the borough.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Electricity and natural gas in Doylestown is provided by PECO Energy Company, a subsidiary of Exelon. The Doylestown Borough Water Department provides water to the borough and some surrounding areas. Bucks County Water and Sewer owns and operates the sewer system in Doylestown. Trash and recycling collection in Doylestown is provided by the borough's Public Works department.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: Doylestown Health operates the Doylestown Hospital on West State Street serving the borough and surrounding areas in the northern suburbs of Philadelphia. The hospital was founded in 1923. Doylestown Hospital consists of 232 beds and offers an emergency room along with various inpatient and outpatient services including cancer care, a stroke center, a chest pain center, and maternity services.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, Doylestown has a Hot-summer, Humid continental climate ("Dfa"). "Dfa" climates are characterized by at least one month having an average mean temperature ≤ , at least four months with an average mean temperature ≥ , at least one month with an average mean temperature ≥ and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. Although most summer days are slightly humid in Doylestown, episodes of heat and high humidity can occur with heat index values > . Since 1981, the highest air temperature was on July 22, 2011, and the highest daily average mean dew point was on December 8, 2016. The average wettest month is July which corresponds with the annual peak in thunderstorm activity. Since 1981, the wettest calendar day was on September 16, 1999. During the winter months, the average annual extreme minimum air temperature is . Since 1981, the coldest air temperature was on January 22, 1984. Episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < . The average annual snowfall (Nov-Apr) is between and . Ice storms and large snowstorms depositing ≥ of snow occur once every few years, particularly during nor’easters from December through February.


title: Doylestown, Pennsylvania

text: According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Doylestown would have a dominant vegetation type of Appalachian Oak ("104") with a dominant vegetation form of Eastern Hardwood Forest ("25"). The plant hardiness zone is 6b with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of . The spring bloom typically begins by April 11 and fall color usually peaks by October 30.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: The Scorch Trials is a 2010 young adult post-apocalyptic dystopian science fiction novel written by American author James Dashner and the second book, fourth chronologically, in "The Maze Runner" series. The novel was published on 18 September 2010 by Delacorte Press. It follows "The Maze Runner", and is followed by "The Death Cure". A was released on 18 September 2015 by 20th Century Fox.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: Thomas is sleeping in the dormitory with the other teenagers, known as the Gladers, who escaped from the Maze in the previous book and had been brought by a group of rescuers. Thomas is woken by a telepathic communication with Teresa, the only girl from the Glade, who is afraid.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: As Thomas wakes up, he finds that the facility is being attacked by Cranks, aggressive zombie-like people that have been infected by a plague known as the Flare. The disease attacks the brain and causes victims to lose their humanity, rendering them violent and insane creatures. Cranks were normal citizens before the Flare, when they became crazed zombie-like killers.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: Thomas and the others escape into the facility's common area and discover that their rescuers are dead. They also find that Teresa is missing from her room, and in her place is a boy, Aris Jones. Aris explains he escaped from a similar Maze experiment, Group B, in which he was the only male. The boys then discover tattoos on their necks that assign them specific roles and fates.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: The Gladers re-enter the common area and find that the bodies of their rescuers have disappeared. Since nothing has changed, the Gladers almost die of starvation. Thomas takes a rest and after waking up, he finds Minho with an apple. They also find a scientist from WICKED, Janson. He is described by the boys as Rat Man because of his rat-like appearance, and he explains WICKED has been studying them to try to find a cure for the Flare. He tells them they have been infected with the Flare and in two weeks must get through the Scorch, the most burned-out section of the Earth after the sun flares, to find a safe haven and get the cure. To get into the Scorch, the Gladers go through a Flat Trans, which is a type of portal that closes five minutes after the set hour.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: The Gladers travel to the Scorch through the Flat Trans and find themselves in a tunnel filled with metal slicing mechanisms that kills at least two Gladers and nearly kills Winston. They escape into the desert and find a building in which a girl is screaming. Thomas discovers that the screaming is artificial and enters the building to find Teresa, who kisses him and tells him that he needs to stay away from her.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: As the Gladers search for supplies, Thomas begins to recover memories of the relationship that he had with Teresa before his memories were removed. They travel to a distant city, but are caught in a lightning storm that wipes out half of the group and kills Winston and Jack. They take refuge in a building and find a group of Cranks led by a man named Jorge. Minho attacks Jorge and sentences him to death before Thomas talks him out of it. Thomas also convinces Jorge and his second-in-command, the teenage girl Brenda, to help the Gladers escape in exchange for some of the cure. Thomas and Brenda get separated from the rest of the group, and Thomas discovers a message written all over the city that says that he is the real leader. After a quick meal, the group is attacked and separated. Thomas and Brenda are then suddenly captured by another group of Cranks, who get them high on drugs and hallucinating. Brenda tries to kiss Thomas before they pass out, but he refuses her advances because of his feelings for Teresa and insults her, saying that she could never be Teresa.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: Minho rescues them with the help of the other Gladers, but Thomas is shot in the shoulder with a rusty bullet that leads to an infection. Thomas's wounds get worse, and WICKED takes him aboard a flying vehicle, called a Berg, to heal his infection. A healed Thomas is returned to the Gladers, where Thomas explains that WICKED never wanted him to get shot and considers him very important to its plans. Thomas later receives a telepathic message from Teresa that warns him something terrible is about to happen, and she cannot help him.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: The Gladers come across Group B, now led by Teresa. Group B takes Thomas prisoner, and Teresa says that she plans to kill him. Some of the other Group B girls tell Thomas that Teresa had never liked him and that their earlier kiss had been against her will. The girls, Harriett and Sonya, tell Thomas that they are not going to kill him and that Teresa is unhappy about the situation.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: Later, Teresa comes to Thomas with Aris. Teresa and Aris kiss, and she explains that she has been manipulating Thomas all along. They lock Thomas in a room, where he passes out. While unconscious, he remembers some of his past relationship with Teresa and Aris before he entered the Maze. Eventually, Thomas is rescued by Aris and Teresa, who explain that they were forced by WICKED to make Thomas feel totally betrayed and that if they had not complied, WICKED would have killed him. Thomas is conflicted and no longer trusts them.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: The Gladers and Group B reach the place that the safe haven is supposed to be as another lightning storm approaches. However, they are attacked by monsters created by WICKED until another Berg arrives from WICKED. They fight their way on board. WICKED, however, will allow either Jorge or Brenda to board, and the one not chosen to stay will be killed. Thomas chooses Brenda in the hope that WICKED will take whoever he does not choose. When it fails to do so, he overpowers the guard and forces him at gunpoint to allow both of them to remain on the Berg. The guard agrees and tells them that it was yet another test.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: Later, as they rest, Teresa communicates telepathically with Thomas, who awakens separated from his friends in a plain white room and after he was left in isolation for a long time. Teresa tells him telepathically that the others are being told he has succumbed to the Flare. Still not trusting her, Thomas tells Teresa to leave him alone. She tells him "WICKED is good" before she cuts off communication.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: The epilogue is in the form of an email from Chancellor Ava Paige, who writes that WICKED will soon tell the Gladers whether or not they are immune to the Flare.


title: The Scorch Trials

text: On October 11, 2013, it was reported that Fox had acquired the rights to "The Scorch Trials". A screenplay was to be written by T.S. Nowlin, with director Wes Ball supervising the scriptwriting. The film was titled "Maze Runner: The Scorch Trials". On 25 July 2014 Ball announced at San Diego Comic-Con International that they wanted to start shooting in Fall 2014 should its predecessor become a success when it hit the theaters in September 2015; also unveiling a concept image at the conference – which implied that he will be directing the sequel as well. However, two weeks prior to the film's release 20th Century Fox decided to move ahead with the sequel and pre-production as well as prepping the sets began in early September 2014 in New Mexico. Director Wes Ball was set to return, as were actors Dylan O'Brien, Ki Hong Lee, Thomas Brodie-Sangster, Kaya Scodelario. On 26 September 2014, "The Hollywood Reporter" reported that Aidan Gillen was signed in to play the antagonist, Rat Man in the sequel. On 1 October 2014, it was announced that Rosa Salazar and Jacob Lofland had signed to play Brenda and Aris Jones, respectively. On 3 October 2014, it was announced that Giancarlo Esposito was to play Jorge in the film. Creature designer Ken Barthelmey designed the creatures for the film. The first official trailer was released on 19 May 2015.


title: Kristin Booth

text: Kristin Booth (born August 28, 1974) is a Canadian actress, born in Kitchener, Ontario. She graduated with Honours BFA from Ryerson Theatre School at Ryerson Polytechnic University in 1997.


title: Kristin Booth

text: Kristin Booth grew up in Kinkora, near the Shakespeare festival town of Stratford, Ontario. She made her professional acting debut when she was 12, playing an orphan in a summer stock production of "Annie". Her first starring role in a movie came with the 2003 heist film "Foolproof" opposite Ryan Reynolds. In 2008 she made a breakthrough with two performances, as a desperate crack whore in "This Beautiful City" and a comic turn as part of an ensemble cast of "Young People Fucking", for which she was given the Genie Award for best supporting actress. Starting in 2014, she appears in the Hallmark original movie series "Signed, Sealed, Delivered" as Shane McInerney, a techie postal employee.


title: Kristin Booth

text: In 2018, Booth was one of four actresses who filed lawsuits against Albert Schulz, for sexual harassment allegations related to their time working with him at Soulpepper Theatre.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: Charlotte Drake (also known as Charlotte DiLaurentis) is a fictional character created by I. Marlene King for the American television series "Pretty Little Liars" and its spin-off web series "Pretty Dirty Secrets".


title: Charlotte Drake

text: Introduced in the third season under the pseudonym CeCe Drake, Charlotte was a friend and mentor to main character Alison DiLaurentis before DiLaurentis' disappearance. After moving back to Rosewood two years later, Drake took over Mona Vanderwaal's reign as "A", an anonymous figure that blackmails, stalks and tortures the main characters of the franchise. Under another anonymous identity known as Red Coat, Drake created and led "the A-Team", a group of people who helped "A" in their schemes.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: During the sixth season, Charlotte is revealed to be Alison's cousin and adoptive sister. After being unmasked as "A", Drake revealed she was assigned male at birth as "Charles DiLaurentis" and underwent gender reassignment surgery in her youth. Drake was eventually murdered by Mona Vanderwaal.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: It was reported that Vanessa Ray was cast to portray CeCe Drake, who was later known to be Charlotte DiLaurentis. When Ray was announced to start filming again for "Pretty Little Liars" fourth season, she spoke about returning, stating: "It's so fun to do, and what a crazy character I get to play. She's sort of a sociopath. I think she's so weird because she's, like, 22 but hangs out with high-schoolers. It's like, 'Hey, girl! Get a life!'" Drake was characterized as a "beyond-charismatic twenty-something blonde stylist at a boutique that has one heel in the present, one in the past." "Pretty Little Liars" executive producer Oliver Goldstick stated that Drake acted as a mentor to Alison DiLaurentis, teaching her "the wicked ways of the world." Drake's is described as having a sociopathic personality: controlling, charming, seductive, dominant, and extremely intelligent. The character was also described by Ray as "off-the-wall, self-centered, bizarre fashionista."


title: Charlotte Drake

text: Charlotte Drake, born as Charles Drake, was born to Mary Drake in Radley Sanitarium, a mental institution. Placed under the care of her mother's identical twin sister, Jessica DiLaurentis, Drake was raised as the sister of Jessica's kids, Jason and Alison. However, after an incident where she unintentionally harmed Alison, Charlotte herself was institutionalized at Radley. She received frequent visits from Jessica but was neglected by her adoptive father, Kenneth DiLaurentis, who was angry over Charlotte being transgender. At 12 years old, Charlotte witnessed fellow patient Bethany Young push patient Marion Cavanaugh (mother to Toby Cavanaugh) off the roof of Radley. Bethany blamed Charlotte for the murder and Jessica paid off a young Officer Wilden to make sure the death was ruled a suicide. Charlotte was briefly friends with Lucas Gottesman as a child.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: Charlotte eventually underwent gender reassignment surgery and would frequently sneak out of Radley to befriend Alison while using the fake name "CeCe Drake." She also "dated" her adoptive brother, Jason, in an effort to get closer to him and Alison, however she refused any physical interaction due to her knowledge of their true blood relation. Charlotte, acting as Alison's best friend, often taught her to act cruel to others. Drake was friends with Detective Darren Wilden who later began a sexual relationship with Alison, leading Alison to have a pregnancy scare. Charlotte dedicated herself to math as a way to escape reality, which allowed her to attend classes at the University of Pennsylvania.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: On Labor Day Weekend, the night of Alison's disappearance, Bethany Young stole Charlotte's clothes and snuck out of Radley to attack Jessica. In an effort to stop her, Charlotte broke out as well and hit Bethany over the head with a rock. However, to her horror, she discovered she accidentally hit Alison and Jessica buried Alison out of panic, believing Alison to be dead.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: Charlotte begins visiting Mona Vanderwaal after Mona becomes a patient at Radley, and soon takes over as "A" in Mona's spot.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: Though her face is unseen to the audience, the character makes her first appearance in the season 2 finale "Unmasked" as a stranger wearing a red bathrobe (initially thought to be a red coat) who pays a visit to Mona Vanderwaal following her admission to Radley Sanitarium.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: Charlotte is seen in various A and Red Coat disguises in the third season before making her first official appearance as CeCe Drake in "Crazy". In the episode, Charlotte introduces herself as CeCe Drake, an old friend of Alison's and ex-girlfriend of Jason, to the main characters of the series - Aria Montgomery, Spencer Hastings, Hanna Marin and Emily Fields (who are collectively known as "the Liars.")


title: Charlotte Drake

text: During "The Kahn Game", CeCe reveals to Spencer and Aria that she was a student at UPenn and invites them to a frat party. Later, CeCe challenges Eric Kahn to a game of "Truth or Dare". During "Single Fright Female", CeCe begins planning a fashion show. She also recalls to Spencer how she and Alison once pulled a cruel prank on Emily's girlfriend, Paige Culvers.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: Drake appears in "Out of the Frying Pan, Into the Inferno" where she answers the Liars' questions about her friendship with Alison and in "What Becomes of the Broken-Hearted" where she hires Aria as a photographer for her boutique. In this same episode, Jason relays a flashback to Emily of the night Alison disappeared. He recalls seeing 'Alison' near his house, but when he called her name, it was CeCe who turned her head around.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: During "Hot Water", Detective Darren Wilden temporarily arrests CeCe to question her after finding out she's been talking about Alison's pregnancy scare. This leads CeCe to leave Rosewood.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: After again appearing in various disguises to stalk the Liars, CeCe makes her first official fourth season appearance during "Bring Down the Hoe" where she is seen in an apartment filled with pictures of Alison DiLaurentis and the Liars dating back to Halloween in 2008.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: After Darren Wilden is murdered, the Liars suspect CeCe. In "Now You See Me, Now You Don't", CeCe is revealed as Red Coat. CeCe attempts to escape by grabbing onto a rope, only for it to snap. After an accidental fall from a high platform to the ground, CeCe disappears. According to Travis in "Love ShAck, Baby", CeCe was last spotted in Maryland on the run from the authorities.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: During the season finale 'A' Is for Answers", CeCe is detained by Detective Gabriel Holbrook and questioned about Wilden's homicide. She confesses to knowing who murdered Bethany Young (the girl buried in Alison's grave) and that Alison is still alive.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: In "Escape from New York", CeCe is taken away and knocks a cop unconscious before stealing his car and heading off to New York to ask Alison for a favor. Alison offers her a plane ticket to France and CeCe leaves the country (although we later learn she secretly stayed behind to continue manipulating the Liars as "A.") In "How the 'A' Stole Christmas", CeCe returns to Rosewood to secretly meet with Alison.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: During the first half of the sixth season, Charlotte's history as Charles and "CeCe" is explored before eventually being revealed in "Game Over, Charles" when Charlotte is unmasked as "Big A." She is eventually stopped by the Liars before she can commit suicide and declares the ending to her reign as "A".


title: Charlotte Drake

text: In the following episode, "Of Late I Think of Rosewood", it is revealed that Charlotte spent the subsequent five years under medical care at the Welby State Psychiatric Hospital. Despite the Liars' hesitation to testify in favor of Charlotte's release from the hospital, the girls (aside from Aria) ended up lying for Alison and stated that they were no longer traumatized by the events Charlotte put them through. The court approves Charlotte's release and she returns home with Alison. However, she is discovered to have been murdered later that night.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: A later episode reveals Charlotte's killer to be Mona Vanderwaal. After discovering Charlotte was not better and still planned on hurting the Liars, the two had gotten in a fight and Charlotte was thrown against a metal staple and thrown off the local church roof.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: The seventh and final season continues to explore the aftermath of Charlotte's murder. Charlotte is seen during flashbacks throughout the season.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: A flashback in "Hit and Run, Run, Run" shows Alison and Charlotte feuding the night of Charlotte's murder. Another flashback during "Wanted: Dead or Alive", shows Charlotte enlisting Jenna Marshall's help to track down Mary Drake, Charlotte's birth mother.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: The concluding events of the season reveals that Charlotte had a younger sister, Alex Drake, who was the secret identical twin sister of Spencer Hastings (making both Alex and Spencer the younger maternal half-sisters of Charlotte). The two became friends after Alex was found by Wren Kingston, and Alex Drake later took over as "Uber A" to find Charlotte's murderer.


title: Charlotte Drake

text: The character (as CeCe Drake) was initially well received by critics. Riley Sky of "Dropkick Divas Media" gave a positive review, saying, "as charming and manipulative as Alison DiLaurentis was, we get to see where Ali got those sociopathic qualities in CeCe Drake. CeCe possesses a charm eerily similar to Alison’s. While Ali "may" be dead, CeCe gives us a refreshing look at how Ali's life would have looked. This beyond-charismatic twenty-something blonde stylist that sure does have one heel in the present, one in the past, CeCe leaves us wanting more."


title: Charlotte Drake

text: However, the character's later reveal as the transgender Charlotte and second "A" was met with a polarizing reception. Some television critics described it as "harmful", "transphobic", and as "a negative stereotype about trans people." One article stated that "a TV show adding a transgender character would be something to celebrate, since there is not nearly enough trans representation in media" but that the show "got it all wrong." Several other reviewers were also concerned because "the twist played into a long history of pop culture linking sociopathic behavior with transgender individuals."


title: Charlotte Drake

text: However, praise was given to Vanessa Ray's performance. "Entertainment Weekly"'s Isabella Biedenharn called her "fantastic" and "compelling." "The A.V. Club" reviewer LaToya Ferguson wrote that the choice of having CeCe Drake being "A"/Charles was "the best decision" instead of choosing Wren. To her, it could have turned out worse, alluding to the Gossip Girl's reveal. Ferguson applauded Vanessa Ray's emotional performance, "reminding the audience (and characters) why they were drawn to CeCe in the first place." She highlighted how CeCe manages to make her wrongdoings acceptable, almost redeeming herself.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: Short-barreled rifle broadly refers to any rifle with an unusually short barrel. The term carbine describes a production rifle with a reduced barrel length for easier handling in confined spaces. Concern about concealment for illegal purposes has encouraged regulations specifying minimum barrel lengths and overall lengths.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: Barrel length is measured from the end of the muzzle to the front of the breechface, typically by inserting a measuring rod into the barrel. Barrel length may partially comprise a permanently attached muzzle accessory (such as a recoil compensator or flash suppressor). Overall length is measured between the extreme ends of the gun, along a centerline which passes through the middle of the barrel. For rifles fitted with folding or telescoping stocks (such as U.S. Carbine M1A1), US Federal guidelines state that measurement is performed with the stock unfolded as intended for use as a rifle. Some states – such as California and Michigan – measure overall length with the stock folded.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: Short-barreled rifles can be created through end-user modification by trimming down a larger rifle, by building a rifle with an original barrel shorter than , or by adding a shoulder stock to a handgun which is fitted with a barrel shorter than , which would legally redefine it as a rifle rather than a handgun. In the United States, each of these processes must legally be accompanied by ATF registration.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: Many older handguns originally designed with shoulder stocks, such as broomhandle Mausers, Lugers, Browning Hi-Power and Inglis as well as many lever action Winchesters with 14 to 15.5 inch barrels, are considered relics instead of NFA restricted, and not regulated by federal SBR rules; however, they may still be subject to local laws. The ATF maintains a list of Curio & Relic of gun models and serial number ranges. While they are not considered NFA devices under the 1934 National Firearms Act, most are regulated by the Gun Control Act of 1968. Those made before 1899 and exempt in the ATF Curio and Relic list, are also exempt from the GCA.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: When used as designed, a pistol brace should only support the firearm by the shooter's forearm. According to the ATF, putting the pistol brace against one's shoulder does not constitute a redesign of the brace. It is based upon the item's manufacturer design and intent. This means registration is not required if a shooter intends to use a brace as a stock. Other jurisdictions, such as Canada, do not tend to have such rules.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: The United States' regulation of short-barreled rifles was the result of the National Firearms Act of 1934 which also imposed restrictions on short barreled shotguns, suppressors and machine guns. Short-barreled rifle (SBR) is a legal designation in the United States, referring to a shoulder-fired, rifled firearm, made from a rifle, with a barrel length of less than or overall length of less than , or a handgun fitted with a buttstock and a barrel of less than 16 inches length. In the United States, an SBR is an item regulated by the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives (ATF) as a Title II weapon. In the absence of local laws prohibiting ownership, American civilians may own an SBR provided it is registered with the ATF, and a $200 tax is paid prior to taking possession of or creating the firearm.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: It is a federal felony to possess an SBR in the USA unless it is registered with the ATF to the person who possesses it. Class 2 manufacturers, Class 3 dealers, and government agencies can transfer these firearms, tax exempt. The individual buyer or owner is responsible for paying the $200 tax when purchasing, manufacturing, or transferring an SBR. They must also notify the ATF when transporting it across state lines.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: As a result of the Supreme Court decision in "United States v. Thompson/Center Arms Company", 504 U.S. 505 (1992), it is not illegal to possess a "kit" allowing a handgun to be fitted with a buttstock and with barrels both under and over the 16 inch minimum for a rifle, so long as the firearm is only assembled into legal (handgun with no buttstock, rifle with buttstock and 16 inch or longer barrel) configurations. Assembling the firearm into an NFA-regulated configuration (rifle with buttstock but barrel shorter than 16 inches) would be a violation of the National Firearms Act.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: Canadian regulations prohibit firearms adapted from a rifle or shotgun by sawing, cutting or any other alteration to an overall length less than or a barrel length less than . Handguns with a barrel length less than are also prohibited.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: Semi-automatic, centerfire firearms with a barrel shorter than are restricted. Any firearm that can be fired in a configuration where the overall length is shorter than is restricted. Possessing a restricted firearm requires additional licensing beyond that required for non-restricted firearms.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: United Kingdom regulations include among prohibited, without authority, firearms breechloading rifles with an overall fixed length less than or with a barrel length less than . All such weapons are considered small firearrms and are covered in general prohibition by s5 of the Firearms Act 1968.


title: Short-barreled rifle

text: Legally, most Australian legislation prescribes a minimum allowable barrel length which is typically about for rifles.


title: Red soil

text: Red soil is a type of soil that typically develops in warm, temperate, and humid climates and comprise approximately 13% of Earth's soils. It contains thin organic and organic-mineral layers of highly leached soil resting on a red layer of alluvium. Red soils contain large amounts of clay and are generally derived from the weathering of ancient crystalline and metamorphic rock. They are named after their rich red color, which can vary from reddish brown to reddish yellow as a result of their high iron content. Red soil can be good or poor growing soil depending on how it is managed. It is usually low in nutrients and humus and can be difficult to cultivate due to its low water holding capacity; however, the fertility of these soils can be optimized with liming and other farming techniques.


title: Red soil

text: Red soils are an important resource because they make up such a large portion of farmland on the earth. In countries such as China, India, and Greece where there are large amounts of red soil, understanding the soil's properties are crucial to successful agriculture. Red soil properties can vary across regions and may require different management practices to achieve the best results.


title: Red soil

text: Red soils include multiple soil types (e.g ultisols, alfisols, oxisols) that are classified as red soil when they develop a distinct reddish color, which can vary from reddish brown to reddish yellow due to their high iron content. In general, red soils possess some characteristics of a good growing soil . They are generally acidic soils, which can be positive for agriculture, but in this case often causes a lack of sufficient nutrients. These soils are also prone to frequent drought in drier regions.


title: Red soil

text: Red soils are generally derived from the weathering of crystalline and metamorphic rock in areas of high rainfall. Red soil contains large amounts of clay and thin organic and organic-mineral layers of highly leached soil resting on an alluvium red layer. The composition and agricultural properties of red soil varies across regions. One type of red soil may be considered infertile in one region but nutrient-rich in another. There is not a singular composition that classifies all red soils.


title: Red soil

text: Red soils are typically difficult for crop cultivation because high leaching leads to low water holding capacity, low nutrients, low organic matter (humus), and acidification. Fluctuations in the concentration of iron within red soil are found to have significant implications on its fertility and growth properties. The fertility of red soils can be improved with various farming techniques.


title: Red soil

text: The process of soil liming helps to raise the pH of acidic soils. Because red soils are generally acidic in nature, liming is a useful farming technique to allow crops that don't tolerate acidic environments to thrive in red soil. However, modern research suggests that liming may have long-term environmental consequences on the soil. The systematic overflow of water through the soil gets into the organic matter of relevant sophgate of the soil.


title: Red soil

text: Red soils are often deficient in nitrogen, which limits the growth properties of the large majority of red soil. Phosphorus and potassium can also become limited after the land has been harvested repeatedly. Nutrient application techniques introduce more of these lacking nutrients to the soil and allow them to restore chemicals that had diminished over time.


title: Red soil

text: Another management practice that can be used to improve the fertility of red soil is incorporating greater organic matter into the soil. Some strategies employed to practice this include the use of organic manure, and establishing proper tillage systems for the land.


title: Red soil

text: The rotation of crops grown in red soil can significantly help to limit some of the compositional issues mentioned previously. Crop rotation helps to increase the content of organic matter, minimize the nitrogen deficiency, and help avoid pests that damage the crops.


title: Red soil

text: Red soil resources are estimated to cover 102 million hectare (1,020,000 square kilometeres) of land in tropical and subtropical regions of China. The primary areas of distribution are Hainan, Guangdong, and Yunnan among other agricultural regions.


title: Red soil

text: Red soils in have a significant role in the agriculture in Greece as well. They fall into two groups: residual soil forming in place from parent rock, and soil forming in deep sedimentary deposits. The residual red soils in Greece tend to be less than a meter in depth and form on sloping hillsides. Like other red soils in the Mediterranean, they tend to form in limestone. The red soils that form in deep sediments are widespread in the lowlands of Greece, occurring on gently sloping terrain. Taxonomically, the Greek red soils belong to Rhodoxeralfs (red alfisol), Palexeralfs (well aged alfisols), Xerochrepts (xeric inceptisol), and Orthents.


title: Red soil

text: Red soils denote the largest soil group of India, covering an area of about 350,000 sq.km (10.6% of India's area) across the Peninsula. India is rich with red soils in their southern, eastern, and northern regions. There, the soil appears yellow in its hydrated form. This soil, also known as the omnibus group, have been developed over Archaean granite, gneiss and other crystalline rocks, the sedimentaries of the Cuddapah and Vindhayan basins and mixed Dharwarian group of rocks. In the uplands of India, the red soils are thin, poor and gravelly, sandy, or stony and porous, light-colored soils on which food crops like bajra can be grown. In contrast, on the lower plains and valleys they are rich, deep, dark colored fertile loam which, under irrigation, can produce excellent crops like cotton, wheat, pulses, tobacco, jowar, linseed, millet, potatoes and fruits.


title: Shipunov 2A42

text: The Shipunov 2A42 is a Soviet/Russian 30 mm autocannon. It is built by the Tulamashzavod Joint Stock Company.


title: Shipunov 2A42

text: The 30 mm 2A42 autocannon was developed as a replacement for 2A28 Grom and has a dual feed. One is for HE-T and the other for AP-T rounds. The gunner can select one of two rates of full automatic fire, low at 200 to 300 rds/min and high at 550 to 800 rds/min. According to the manufacturer, effective range when engaging ground targets such as light armoured vehicles is 1,500 m while soft-skinned targets can be engaged out to 4,000 m. Air targets can be engaged flying at low altitudes of up to 3,000 m at subsonic speeds and up to a slant range of 2,500 m. In addition to being installed in a two-person turret on the BMP-2 mechanised infantry combat vehicle, this gun is also fitted in the BMD-2 airborne combat vehicle, BMD-3 airborne combat vehicle and BTR-90 (or GAZ-5923) (8 × 8) armoured personnel carrier. A small number of these have now entered service. More recently, the 30 mm 2A42 cannon has been installed in a new turret and fitted onto the roof of the BTR-T heavy armoured personnel carrier based on a modified T-54/T-55 MBT chassis. The cannon is also the main armament of BMPT (Tank Support Fighting Vehicle). It is also used for various armament projects from various manufacturers. The design bureau for the 30 mm 2A42 cannon is the KBP Instrument Design Bureau.


title: Shipunov 2A42

text: The 2A42 autocannon has also been used on the BMPT and Bumerang-BM, and on unmanned remote controlled weapon station turrets on the new Russian infantry fighting vehicles, Kurganets-25, VPK-7829 Bumerang. and T-15 Armata.


title: Shipunov 2A42

text: The 2A42 fires 30×165 ammunition, a cartridge introduced in the 1970s in the Soviet Union to replace previous 30 mm autocannon cartridges. Other weapons using this size of cartridge case include the 2A38, 2A38M, and 2A72 autocannons for various vehicle, helicopter and air defence applications, as well as numerous single-, dual- and six-barrel naval and air force cannons. The 2A42, 2A38, 2A38M, and 2A72 fire percussion-primed ammunition; the naval and aerial cannons use electrical priming, and therefore their ammunition is not interchangeable with the land-based ammunition types, despite the same cartridge case size.


title: Shipunov 2A42

text: Originally three basic types of ammunition were developed in the Soviet Union for the land-based weapons: high-explosive incendiary, high-explosive fragmentation with tracer, and an armour-piercing ballistic capped with tracer. Later a sub-caliber armour-piercing round was introduced, and today also countries other than Soviet Union/Russia manufacture 30 x 165 percussion-primed ammunition. The main types of ammunition are summarized in the table below:


title: Shipunov 2A42

text: The 2A72 30mm autocannon, designed by KBP Instrument Design Bureau, is a lighter, less complex cousin of the 2A42, with a longer barrel. While the latter has 578 parts, 2A72 has only 349 parts, allowing it to weigh only 84 kg (with 36 kg barrel). 2A72 use long recoil principle, resulted in lower recoil (7t instead of 20), but lower rate of fire (300-330 instead of 550). 2A72 is used in:


title: Shipunov 2A42

text: The 2A38 and 2A38M are 30mm twin-barrel autocannons, Gast-type. They are mainly used on air defense vehicles like 2K22 Tunguska and Pantsir-S1. It weighs 195 kg and has a maximum rate of fire of 2500 rd/min.


title: Shipunov 2A42

text: The Ordnance Factory Medak in India has developed the Medak gun and CRN 91 Naval Gun out of this platform.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Hurricane Ike () was a powerful tropical cyclone that swept through portions of the Greater Antilles and Northern America in September 2008, wreaking havoc on infrastructure and agriculture, particularly in Cuba and Texas. Ike took a similar track to the 1900 Galveston hurricane. The ninth tropical storm, fifth hurricane, and third major hurricane of the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season, Ike developed from a tropical wave west of Cape Verde on September 1 and strengthened to a peak intensity as a Category 4 hurricane over the open waters of the central Atlantic on September 4 as it tracked westward. Several fluctuations in strength occurred before Ike made landfall on eastern Cuba on September 8. The hurricane weakened prior to continuing into the Gulf of Mexico, but increased its intensity by the time of its final landfall in Galveston, Texas, on September 13 before becoming an extratropical storm on September 14. The remnants of Ike continued to track across the United States and into Canada, causing considerable damage inland, before dissipating on the next day.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Ike was blamed for at least 195 deaths. Of these deaths, 74 were in Haiti, which was already trying to recover from the impact of three storms (Fay, Gustav, and Hanna) that had made landfall the same year. Seven people were killed in Cuba. In the United States, 113 people were reported killed, directly or indirectly, and 16 were still missing as of August 2011. Due to its immense size, Ike caused devastation from the Louisiana coastline all the way to the Kenedy County region near Corpus Christi, Texas. In addition, Ike caused flooding and significant damage along the Mississippi coastline and the Florida Panhandle. Damages from Ike in U.S. coastal and inland areas are estimated at $30 billion (2008 USD), with additional damage of $7.3 billion in Cuba, $200 million in the Bahamas, and $500 million in the Turks and Caicos, amounting to a total of at least $38 billion in damage. At the time, the hurricane was the second-costliest in United States history. The search-and-rescue operation after Ike was the largest search-and-rescue operation in Texas history.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: The origins of Hurricane Ike can be traced back to a well-defined tropical wave first identified by the National Hurricane Center  just within the western coast of Africa on August 28. Despite the development of a low-pressure area associated with the wave and signs of organization within favorable conditions near the Cape Verde Islands, the system was only able to generate intermittent thunderstorm activity. The broad low-pressure continued to track westward and was considered to have become sufficiently organized to be classified as a tropical depression at 06:00 UTC on September 1. By this time the cyclone had tracked west of Cape Verde. Although post-analysis indicated that the depression reached tropical storm strength at 12:00 UTC that day, operationally the NHC began issuing advisories on Ike three hours later, by which time the system had already gained numerous curved rainbands and well-established outflow. Over the next few hours, Ike developed additional rainbands, but failed to develop a centralized area of convection due to the presence of dry air to the storm's south and its location in an area with only marginally favorable sea surface temperatures. These factors were also responsible for Ike's slow developmental trend that began after formation.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Ike's gradual strengthening began to quicken early on September 3, with the strengthening of an intense rainband around the center of the storm. At roughly 15:00 UTC that day, microwave imaging indicated that a primordial eye was developing within the intensifying tropical storm. Tracking northwestward, the NHC upgraded Ike to hurricane status at 18:00 UTC based on objective satellite intensity estimates and the appearance of the eye on visible satellite imagery. During this time, Ike was centered east-northeast of the Leeward Islands and was tracking west-northwestward as a result of a weakened subtropical ridge to its northeast. Ike's placement in an area with virtually no wind shear allowed for the hurricane to undergo explosive intensification despite unfavorable upper-level winds to its north, reaching major hurricane strength six hours after its designation as a hurricane. At 06:00 UTC on September 4, Ike peaked with maximum sustained winds of and a minimum barometric pressure of , making the storm a Category 4 on the Saffir–Simpson hurricane wind scale. After peaking in strength, a ridge of high pressure to the storm's west strengthened, causing Ike to track towards the southwest—a path unusual for the time of year. However, this track also brought the storm into an area of strong wind shear, causing the storm to become asymmetric in structure late on September 4 and weaken, briefly dropping below major hurricane status on September 6 while east of Grand Turk Island. Although wind shear abated and allowed for reintensification, Ike would fluctuate in strength over the next few days. After passing near the Turks and Caicos Islands, Ike made its first landfall on Inagua in the Bahamas at 13:00 UTC on September 7 with winds of .


title: Hurricane Ike

text: After passing over Inagua, the development of a double eyewall—a feature that usually denotes the beginning of an eyewall replacement cycle—slightly weakened Ike late on September 7. However, the hurricane was able to reintensify and reach Category 4 intensity for a final time before making landfall near Cabo Lucrecia on the coast of Holguín Province in Cuba by 00:00 UTC the next day. Although Ike remained well-defined for most of its crossing of eastern Cuba, the hurricane's core had become disrupted by the time it had reached the Caribbean Sea after spending a few hours over land. Over the next day, Ike tracked westward, paralleling the southern coast of Cuba without much intensification; at times the center of the hurricane was within of the island. At around 14:00 UTC on September 9, Ike made a second Cuban landfall, this time on Punta La Capitana in Pinar del Rio, with winds of . Roughly six hours later, the hurricane emerged into the Gulf of Mexico as a slightly weakened system.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Despite tracking back over water, Ike's prolonged interaction with Cuba had greatly disrupted the system's core, and instead of quickly strengthening and coalescing, the storm's wind field instead grew and only gradual intensification ensued. Due to the storm's comparatively small inner core and intensity of the outer rainbands, an eyewall replacement cycle took place, preventing Ike from rapidly intensifying. At around the same time, a high-pressure area strengthened to the hurricane's north, steering the cyclone further west than initially anticipated. Moving over the warm waters of the Loop Current, Ike reached a secondary minimum in barometric pressure on 00:00 UTC with an estimate of ; though winds would continue to strengthen afterward, the storm's pressure would rise. By late on September 12, Ike had reached the western edge of the nearby high-pressure area and began to curve northward. The formation of an eye just prior to landfall resulted in a slight increase in winds, and at 0700 UTC on September 13, Ike made landfall on the northeast end of Galveston Island in Texas, with a minimum barometric pressure of and sustained winds of , making Ike a Category 2 hurricane. After tracking inland, Ike weakened as it sped northward and later northeastward, weakening to tropical storm status east of Palestine, Texas late on September 13 and later becoming a powerful extratropical cyclone on September 14 over the Ozarks. A more steady weakening phase ensued, and after tracking across southern Ontario and Quebec, the remnants of Ike were absorbed by another extratropical low near the St. Lawrence River, on September 15.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Fearing a repeat of Hurricane Donna in 1960, the overseas branch of the British Red Cross began preparing contingency plans for 2,000 families considered to be at risk from Ike. A group of 260 Chinese construction workers stuck on Middle Caicos after the passage of Hurricane Hanna were evacuated by the British Red Cross. Immediately before the storm struck, 348 people on Grand Turk were put into emergency shelters.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: On September 5, Florida Governor Charlie Crist declared a state of emergency in advance of Ike's arrival, (which was expected to be as early as September 8). Authorities in Key West issued a mandatory evacuation for all visitors for September 6. The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) positioned supplies, and emergency response crews in Florida and along the Gulf Coast.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Florida Keys officials began evacuations on the low-lying chain of islands in phases, starting at the end in Key West by 8 am Sunday and continuing throughout the day—at noon for the Middle Keys, and at 4 pm for the Upper Keys, including Key Largo. Visitors were told to leave on Saturday. Overall 15,000 tourists evacuated, but the storm stayed to the south, only causing minor beach erosion.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: On September 7, The Texas Water/Wastewater Agency Response Network (TXWARN) activated its 700-member utility mutual aid network and began coordination with the State Emergency Operations Center and the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality (TCEQ) to begin preparations and notifications to utilities to prepare for Ike. State rural water associations activated mutual aid networks to prepare for the landfall of Ike while still providing assistance to areas affected by Hurricane Gustav. The Texas Rural Water Association held meetings with state agencies on September 9, to plan for landfall along the Texas Gulf Coast.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: On September 11, forecasting models began to show Ike making landfall just south of Galveston. City Manager Steven LeBlanc late Wednesday issued a mandatory evacuation order for the low-lying west end of Galveston Island. Later, the mandatory evacuation order was extended to the entire island of Galveston, as well as low-lying areas around Houston, Texas. Mandatory evacuations were also ordered for Jefferson, Orange, and Chambers counties located east of Houston. Voluntary evacuations were in effect for Hardin and Tyler as well as Newton and Jasper counties. Residents evacuating ahead of Ike were received by emergency workers in the Dallas/Fort Worth(DFW) Metroplex where they were provided a place of refuge, medical treatment, and provisions. In addition to the orders of local and state officials, federal officials were thoroughly involved in evacuation decisions. On September 10, U.S. President George W. Bush made an emergency declaration for Texas, making more federal help available for preparations and evacuations. More than one million people evacuated in advance of Hurricane Ike, but more than 100,000 people did not.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: At 8:19 pm (CDT) September 11, the National Weather Service in Houston/Galveston, Texas issued a strongly worded bulletin, regarding storm surge along the shoreline of Galveston Bay. The bulletin advised that residents living in single-family homes in some parts of coastal Texas faced "certain death" if they did not heed orders to evacuate. Reports said as many as 40 percent of Galveston's citizens did not pay attention to the warnings. It was feared to be much the same in Port Arthur, and it was predicted that low-lying areas between Morgan City, Louisiana and Baffin Bay, Texas, particularly those areas east of Ike's projected eye landfall would experience the greatest damage from storm surges of up to .


title: Hurricane Ike

text: The price of gas increased in the expectation of damage to some of the numerous oil refineries along the South Texas coast, or at least delays in production from the oil and gas platforms in the Gulf of Mexico. 14 oil refineries shut down production and nearly 150 oil tankers and cargo ships waited off-shore as every port from Lake Charles, Louisiana to Corpus Christi, Texas shut down in preparation for the storm.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Power was lost throughout Grand Turk Island, an estimated 80%–95% of the houses there were damaged, 20% of which was a total loss. There was also significant structural damage to roofs and buildings containing health services resulting in the disruption of most health services. The local pharmacy roof collapsed, destroying the area's prescription drug supply, the police station, and the prison was significantly damaged and local supplies facilities were either damaged or destroyed. A two-year-old cruise ship terminal on Grand Turk owned by Carnival Cruise Lines was significantly damaged. Water and electricity were also disrupted but since have been restored. Meanwhile, in South Caicos, 95% of the houses were also damaged, with over one-third significantly damaged or destroyed. Damage also occurred on other islands, mostly agricultural or the fishing industry, but in general, the damage was minor.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Buildings on the islands have been severely weakened and 750 people have lost their homes. Due to the extent and magnitude of damage and affected the population, the Government of the Turks and Caicos declared Grand Turk and South Caicos Islands disaster areas.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: In Great Inagua Island, The Bahamas, eighty percent of houses sustained damage with almost a third of them having significant damage. The local Morton Salt factory was damaged and shut down operations. A few outlining islands suffered minor damage and no casualties were reported. Overall damage from the Turks and Caicos and The Bahamas was estimated between $50 million and $200 million.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: The outer bands of Ike caused additional flooding in Haiti, which was already devastated by Hanna and also hit hard by Fay and Gustav. The last bridge still standing into the city of Gonaïves was washed away, slowing relief in the community considerably and creating a deep humanitarian and food crisis in the hard-hit region. 74 deaths were reported in Haiti from Ike, most of which were in the coastal community of Cabaret which was swept away by floodwaters and mudslides. Haitian Prime Minister Michèle Pierre-Louis called for help at the end of the week, saying that four storms in three weeks have left over 550 dead and as many as one million homeless. She also said that parts of Gonaïves were so severely damaged that the city may have to be rebuilt elsewhere. Two additional deaths were reported in the Dominican Republic.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: About 2.6 million Cubans, a fourth of the population, were evacuated ahead of Ike. In Baracoa, 200 homes were reported to be destroyed and waves were running high and peaked at in different areas of Cuba. The Category 4 hurricane made landfall on September 8 on the north coast of eastern Cuba in the province of Holguín near Puerto de Sama, with sustained winds of about , causing widespread flooding and damage to the eastern provinces. It passed across the central provinces of Holguín, Las Tunas, and Camagüey, emerging over the sea to the south of Cuba during the day. Ike dropped to Category One intensity by the time it crossed the island. It then followed the southern coast of Cuba and crossed the western end of the island in Pinar del Río Province, close to the path taken by Hurricane Gustav ten days previously. The western areas of Cuba, already devastated by just 10 days before Ike hit, suffered additional major flooding from the rain and storm surge. The sugar cane crop was devastated, with over destroyed. The banana, yucca, coffee, and corn crops also suffered significant damage. Alongside Gustav, they were described as the "worst ever" storms by Cuban officials.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: In total, seven people were killed in Cuba from Ike due to drowning or collapsing structures. Over 300,000 houses were damaged, with an estimated 43,000 a total loss. The combined damage estimate from Ike and Gustav, and succeeding Paloma is about $9.7 billion (USD), with $7.3 billion of that from Ike, making Ike the most destructive hurricane in Cuban history at the time. It was later surpassed by Hurricane Irma almost exactly nine years later.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Due to the intensity of the storm, Texas closed many of its chemical plants and oil refineries. Because much of the United States oil refining capacity is located in Texas, the closings caused a temporary increase in the prices of gasoline, home heating oil, and natural gas. Increases were particularly high in North Carolina, especially in the mountains, where average prices were as much as 60 cents higher than the national average. The closing of refineries so soon after Hurricane Gustav, and the time required to restart production, also resulted in shortages of gasoline in such places as the Carolinas and Tennessee, partly as a result of panic buying. 113 direct and indirect deaths have been reported in the US, including 85 in Texas (18 direct), eight in Louisiana, one in Arkansas, two in Tennessee, one in Kentucky, seven in Indiana, four in Missouri, two in Illinois, two in Michigan, seven in Ohio and one in Pennsylvania. As of August 2011, 16 people remain unaccounted for, 11 of them in the Galveston area. On September 15, 2008, the United States Congress held a moment of silence for those who died in the hurricane.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: On September 11, the MV "Antalina", a cargo ship, was among the ships that left Port Arthur to avoid the hurricane. The ship had a crew of 22 and carried a cargo of petroleum coke. On September 12, the ship's engine failed, and the ship was adrift from the shore. The crew unsuccessfully attempted to repair the engine and requested to be evacuated by the Coast Guard, but the rescue mission was aborted because weather conditions were not within the safety parameters. The crew was forced to ride out the storm but kept in contact with the Coast Guard. The ship successfully rode out the storm and all 22 crew members were uninjured. On September 13, a tugboat was dispatched to return the vessel to port.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: The storm surge ahead of Ike blew onshore of Louisiana well ahead of Ike's predicted landfall in Texas on September 13. Areas in coastal south-central and southwestern Louisiana, some of which were flooded by Gustav, were re-flooded as a result of Ike. Some areas that had not yet recovered from Gustav power outages received additional outages. The hardest-hit areas were in and around Cameron Parish, with nearly every square inch of the coastline in that area was flooded heavily, reaching as far north as Lake Charles, nearly 30 miles inland. Hundreds of people had to be rescued, including 363 people who were rescued by Louisiana Department of Wildlife and Fisheries Search and Rescue teams in conjunction with the Louisiana National Guard and the U.S. Coast Guard.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: One person was killed in a flooded bayou in Terrebonne Parish, and a wind-related death was reported near Houma. Two other deaths took place in a car crash in the evacuation phase in Iberville Parish, and two other storm-related deaths in Jefferson Davis Parish that were ruled as deaths by natural causes.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: On the morning of September 13, 2008, the eye of Hurricane Ike approached the upper Texas coast, making landfall at 2:10 am CDT over the east end of Galveston Island, with a high storm surge, and travelled north up Galveston Bay, along the east side of Houston


title: Hurricane Ike

text: People in low-lying areas who had not heeded evacuation orders, in single-family one- or two-story homes, were warned by the weather service that they faced "certain death" from the overnight storm surge. Nearly 16,000 families in the Galveston-Houston area stayed in temporary shelters under federal housing programs, while 1700 were referred for assistance but could not be reached or were refused aid.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: leaving millions without power (estimates range from 2.8 million to 4.5 million customers). Grocery store shelves in the Houston area were empty for weeks in the aftermath of the storm.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: In Galveston, by 4 pm CDT (2100 UTC) on September 12, the rising storm surge began overtopping the 17-ft (5.2 m) Galveston Seawall, which faces the Gulf of Mexico; waves had been crashing along the seawall earlier, from 9 am CDT.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Although Seawall Boulevard is elevated above the shoreline, many areas of town slope down behind the seawall to the lower elevation of Galveston Island.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Even though there were advance evacuation plans, Mary Jo Naschke, spokesperson for the city of Galveston, estimated that (as of Friday morning) a quarter of the city's residents paid no attention to calls for them to evacuate, despite predictions that most of Galveston Island would suffer heavy flooding from storm tide. By 6 pm Friday night estimates varied as to how many of the 58,000 residents remained, but the figures of remaining residents were in the thousands.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Widespread flooding included downtown Galveston: six feet (2 m) deep inside the Galveston County Courthouse, and the University of Texas Medical Branch, the primary hospital in Galveston county, was dealt significant damage due to flooding. The wide-scale flooding caused failures to all the facilities systems and allowed mold to invade all the buildings. Tourist attractions on the island suffered various degrees of damage. The Lone Star Flight Museum suffered massive damage, as the storm surge washed through the airport and hangars with about of water; however, Moody Gardens was built with storms in mind and was able to withstand the worst of the storm.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: In Houston, windows also broke in downtown buildings, including the 75-story JP Morgan Chase Tower, and Reliant Stadium lost part of its roof. As a result of the high wind and eyewall that passed directly through the city, power outages were a major problem. Some residents were without electricity for over a month. Because the storm system moved rapidly and did not linger over Houston, flooding was not a major problem for most of the city, as it normally is in a storm event, as a result of the relatively flat topography.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: On Bolivar Peninsula, Texas, dozens of people were rescued as flood waters exceeded 12 feet (3.7 m) above sea level in advance of the hurricane. Many residents, some trapped by high water on the road at Rollover Pass and others elsewhere along Bolivar Peninsula were not rescued. The peninsula bore the brunt of Ike's right-front quadrant, historically the worst part of a hurricane, and experienced catastrophic damage with the worst being between Rollover Pass and Gilchrist, Texas – west of High Island. Estimates of lost homes in the peninsula were around 80%.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: The Southeast Texas communities of Bridge City on Sabine Lake and large areas of nearby Orange ( from the center of landfall) were inundated by the storm surge which traveled as much as inland from the coast. Bridge City mayor Kirk Roccaforte estimated that only about 14 homes (later updated to around two dozen) in the city were unaffected by the surge. Ike also caused widespread wind damage throughout southeast Texas, but was not bad due to Hurricane Rita striking the region in 2005 and Hurricane Humberto in 2007.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: NASA's Johnson Space Center suffered minor roof damage to Mission Control and minor cosmetic damage to some of its other buildings. NASA's operations at Ellington Field also sustained roof and awning damage, and one hangar was severely damaged.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: On September 14, after Ike became extratropical and was enhanced by an upper-level shortwave trough, a major wind event took place across the lower and middle Ohio Valley and lower Great Lakes, and significant rainfall and flooding took place to the west. The St. Louis Metropolitan Area experienced hurricane conditions, with Ike's remnants inflicting severe damage to homes. Several areas in Illinois and Indiana, already flooded by the frontal boundto the north, saw significant additional rainfall. Due to flooding in Chicago, Todd Stroger declared a state of emergency for Cook County due to flooding of the Des Plaines River. Hurricane-force wind gusts were reported to the east of the centre across parts of Kentucky, Indiana, Ohio, and Pennsylvania with significant wind damage including structural damage to buildings and trees. The Louisville area declared a state of emergency due to major damage and power outages, and the Louisville International Airport was closed temporarily. A LG&E spokesperson said that this was the worst power outage in 30 years. Later in the day, a statewide state of emergency was declared in Kentucky by Governor Steve Beshear. Cincinnati-Northern Kentucky International Airport was also temporarily shut down, and the control tower was evacuated. In Cincinnati, numerous reports of roof damage and uprooted trees were called in to law enforcement, and on September 15, most of the schools in Hamilton County, Butler County, and Warren County had classes canceled because of power outages, some of which lasted seven days.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Wind gusts of were recorded in both Cincinnati and Columbus, which is equivalent to sustained wind levels found in a Category 1 hurricane. Additionally, a state of emergency was declared in Ohio. Damages in Ohio was originally estimated at $553 million with 131,000 insurance claims filed in the first few days following the storm. The overall total damage in Ohio exceeded $1.1 billion, tying the 1974 Xenia tornado as the costliest storm in Ohio's history. Also in Salem, Indiana, and Scottsburg, Indiana, wind gusts up to were recorded. In Indiana, high winds caused more than 200,000 customers to be without power throughout the state. Wind gusts of were recorded at Indianapolis International Airport.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Coming into Indianapolis, on September 14, Ike also caused disruptions to the first-ever motorcycle Grand Prix held in Indianapolis, stopping both the 125cc and MotoGP races after two-thirds of the race distance, and causing the cancellation of the 250cc race. In Arkansas, about 200,000 customers lost power as a result of the winds, the worst power loss in that state since an ice storm in 2000. In the Louisville area, over 300,000 customers were without power — the worst power outage in the utility's history. The Cincinnati metropolitan area was hard hit as well, with over 927,000 customers losing power in that region. A Duke Energy spokesperson said "We have never seen anything like this. Never. We're talking about 90 percent of our customers without power." There were so many power outages and so few workers available Duke Energy was thinking of sending workers from their base in Charlotte, North Carolina. Many homes and business were without power for 3–7 days. Cincinnati Public Schools cancelled classes for students for at least three days for all schools. In the Dayton, Ohio area 300,000 of 515,000 Dayton Power & Light Co. customers lost power at some point following severe wind storms on the afternoon of September 14, according to a company spokesperson. Also hard hit were central Ohio (with over 350,000 customers losing power) and northeastern Ohio (with over 310,000 customers losing power), as well as Illinois (49,000), Missouri (85,000), and western Pennsylvania (with over 180,000 customers losing power). In western Kentucky, outside crews had to be brought in from as far away as Mississippi to restore power. In Indiana, about 350,000 customers lost power statewide, mainly in the southern part of the state. In New York State, over 100,000 customers were reported without power. In total, 28 deaths have been blamed on Ike in the inland states.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: In Ontario, Ike's remnants brought a record amount of rain on Sunday, September 14, in the Windsor region. It was closely following a slow-moving frontal system that had drenched the city the day before, dumping of rain and breaking the old record of in 1979, according to Environment Canada. Most damage in the Windsor area with Ike was confined to downed power lines and toppled tree branches with the wind gusts reaching , with spotty street flooding that made driving completely treacherous in some areas. Highways were washed out in the Bruce Peninsula, and trees were uprooted in London, Ontario. The storm continued to cause wind and rain damage as it continued east along the St. Lawrence River leaving around 25,000 customers without electricity, especially in Belleville, Brockville, Bancroft, Peterborough, Bowmanville, Huntsville, and Timmins.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: In Quebec, regions to the north of the Saint Lawrence River received to of rainfall (Hautes-Laurentides, Haute-Mauricie, Réserve faunique des Laurentides, Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean, Charlevoix and Côte-Nord). Maximum rainfall was recorded between Lac-St-Jean and the Réserve faunique des Laurentides with a station recording more than of rain Along the river, the amount were more in the and range, except in Quebec City area which received almost , most of it between 7:00 pm and 8:00 pm. This rain caused small inundations, storm drain overflows, and closed one major highway. In Montreal, high humidity levels pushed by the system caused electrical malfunction one of the lines of the subway, stranding over 25,000 commuters. High winds up to caused, at their worst, over 25,000 households to lose electricity in Montreal, Laval, Estrie and Montérégie and when it reached the Magdalen Islands, it had enough strength to cause a sailboat, the "Océan", to sink. Its six passengers were rescued by a helicopter of the Canadian Coast Guard.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: The "Ike Spike" in gasoline prices was quite severe in Canada, with gas prices rising anywhere from 15 to 20 cents per liter.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Ike's remnants combined with an unusual depression that affected southwestern Iceland on September 17, three days after Ike became extratropical. The storm produced waves along southwest coasts of the island. Rainfall peaked near close to Reykjavík. Wind gusts were measured up to . Strong winds on the backside of the system produced a large dust storm in northern areas of the island.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: Due to the damage brought by Ike in the Turks and Caicos Islands, the insular government declared the islands of Grand Turk and South Caicos as disaster areas. Damage on the islands was surveyed immediately following the hurricane's passage by a CDERA assessment team from Jamaica. Following the occurrence of extensive power outages, the Caribbean Electric Utilities Services Cooperation offered to support the restoration of power services. The British HMS Iron Duke (F234) was sent to the islands to assist in recovery efforts, and personnel from the British Red Cross were also dispatched.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: After Hurricane Ike, many residents applied to FEMA for loans and FEMA trailers. Many residents were forced to wait several weeks until their trailers arrived. Some waited for up to two months, living in hotels, in homes of relatives several miles away, or in their homes, with no power or running water. Many residents were angry at the response that FEMA gave to the problem. Texas state leaders also accused FEMA of foot dragging and insensitivity.


title: Hurricane Ike

text: $3.1 billion in federal aid was eventually allocated to Texas by the Department of Housing and Urban Development. It was supposed to be used to repair single-family homes of lower and middle-class income families, but as of 2011 only 10% of those funds were released, while the rest were held up because of "state bureaucracy".