title: Venu Srinivasan

text: Srinivasan was appointed as the Honorary Commander of Korean Naval vessel, ROKS Choi Young(DDH-981) for his dedication to enhance the friendship and co-operation between the Republic of Korea and the Republic of India. In December 2014, Srinivasan was conferred an honorary citizenship by the Mayor of Busan Metropolitan City, the 2nd largest city in Korea.


title: Venu Srinivasan

text: Venu Srinivasan has also been criticised on multiple counts when he was the Chairman of Board of Trustees of the Sri Ranganathaswamy temple, Srirangam as head of Thiruppani committee of the Kabaleeswararar Temple, Chennai and a court case is ongoing with regards to unauthorised and illegal demolition of a Siva temple in Thirukurungudi Temple.


title: Venu Srinivasan

text: Widely publicised complaints by Rangarajan Narasimhan, there are multiple FIRs and court cases against Venu Srinivasan:


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Tenali Rama is an Indian Hindi-language historical comedy drama based on the life of the legendary Telugu poet Tenali Ramakrishna, one of the Ashtadiggajas (or the eight honorable poets) at the court of Vijayanagara emperor Krishnadevaraya (C.E. 1509–1529), who is often cited as the greatest Vijayanagara emperor. The series premiered on Sony SAB on 11 July 2017 and went off-air on 13 November 2020.


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: The series was produced by Abhimanyu Singh under the banner of Contiloe Entertainment. The story took a 9-month leap in 2018 followed by a 6-year leap in August 2019 followed again by a 20-year leap and a 4-month leap in February 2020. The series' filming was halted for 4 months (from March to July) due to COVID-19 pandemic and the series was finally completed on 13 November 2020. This show was replaced by another Contiloe Entertainment show, Kaatelal & Sons.


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: RamaKrishna is a poor Brahmin who lived in a village called Tenali. By seeing his wit, wisdom, humor, intelligence and cleverness, a Sadhu tells him to go to the nearby temple of Kaali Mata and chant her name a thousand times so that he can be successful in life. As soon as Rama gets Kaali Mata's blessings, by using his wit, wisdom, humor, intelligence and cleverness, he becomes Legendary poet and royal advisor Pandit Ramakrishna in Krishnadevaraya's court.


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Legendary poet and royal advisor Pandit Ramakrishna in Krishnadevaraya's court uses his timely wit and intelligence to solve even the trickiest problems. His arch-rival Tathacharya (the royal priest), who wants to humiliate him, is often stumped by Ramakrishna's intelligence. Rama is very close to the King, Krishnadevaraya.


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Six years later, Bhaaskara, Ramakrishna's son, is a naughty child and causes his father to be humiliated in the court of Krishnadevaraya multiple times, to which Rama starts punishing Bhaskar for his naughtiness. He stops spoiling Bhaskar like he used to. Later, Bhaskar stops being naughty. Then, Prince Balakumara arrives. Balakumara is Krishnadevaraya's second wife, Tirumalamba's, brother. Balakumara is a spoiled prince who cares a lot about his hair. Bhaskar is in Tathacharya's home to get Tathacharya to forgive him on his father's orders. Bhaskara has to glue together a broken vase. Balakumaran, who is at Tathacharya's home to learn from him, puts on the broken vase as a crown. The vase has glue on it, which causes it to be stuck to Balakumara's hair. Balakumara's hair must be pulled off his head to remove the vase. Balakumara never gets his hair back and is forever angry at Bhaskara, who is blamed for Balakumara's mistake. Bhaskar is then sent to Gurukul (school) for 20 years.


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Three months later, Krishnadevaraya and Ramakrishna have a debate about whether Vijayanagar will end. This is foreshadowing the future.


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Twenty years later, Bhaskar returns from Gurukul. He finds from the reformed Tathacharya that Balakumara has become king after King Krishnadevaray left the kingdom for an unknown reason. Kaikala, Balakumara's uncle and Minister, is the new main antagonist. Bhaskar's family is gone, and Bhaskara tries to find them. He eventually finds his mother, Sharda. He then pretends to be his father, Pandit Rama Krishna, to give justice to people in Vijayanagar. He gives back Tathacharya his position, which he had lost for many years, which causes Tathacharya to become evil again. Eventually, Kaikala is caught trying to kill Balakumar, which causes the former to be put in jail for life. Balakumara's wife and Kaikala's assistant, Sulakshana Devi is the new main antagonist. She eventually gets Balakumara banished from Vijayanagara. She assumes the role of a ruler.


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Four months later, Ramakrishna returns to the position he had before. He stops Sulakshana Devi from being crowned the Empress of Vijayanagara and instead makes it so that in 4 years, Sulakshana Devi's adopted son, Swami, will be crowned emperor of Vijayanagara. Sulakshana Devi, the new Minister Pralayankar (Kaikala's son), Sulakshana Devi's brother Bharkam, and Sulakshana Devi's sister Charulata try to beat Ramakrishna. Krishnadevaray returns with his two queens and punishes Sulakshana Devi by ordering her to find her husband Balakumara who was banished from the kingdom.


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Many people come to get rid of Ramakrishna but he stays put and saves Vijayanagar from various enemies. At last, Ramakrishna realises that the youth in Tenali are going out to achieve their jobs, leaving their native village Tenali, undeveloped. Ramakrishna immediately gets ready to leave back to Tenali, his native village, forsaking Vijayanagara kingdom to help the youth in Tenali and its development. Since then, the people gave him the name "Tenali RamaKrishna" (as a representation of his love towards his native village).


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Ahmad Harhash as Raj Pratap Singh he is the son of Kanta he the owner of the King of her husband (2017) (2020)


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Regarding the series "Tenali Rama", Neeraj Vyas, Senior EVP & Head, Channel SAB and MAX cluster of channels, said, "India has a compelling tradition of both written and oral folklore. Our epics are treasures that teach life lessons via stories. Tenali Rama was a legendary poet of the 15th century. He is immortal, his wit being admired even in today's times. With Tenali Rama's adaptation on SAB, we intend to offer a restored and renewed version of this classic chronicle."


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Krishna Bharadwaj was chosen to play the titular role of Tenali Rama and went bald for it. Speaking on how he got the role, he said, "I have been waiting for something good to come my way. When I received a call for Tenali Rama, I was shocked to be informed that I would have to go bald. But then I decided to give it a try, and it all fell into places. I feel there has been a divine force blessing me for I have managed to sink my teeth into the character so well. I did not do any research nor read about it but I can assure I am doing a good job, even though I do not consider myself so capable. As for the baldness, the first day, I was really upset but now I see Tenali in the mirror and not Krishna, and that takes away the blues."


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: It was reported in June 2017 that Manav Gohil had been cast to play the pivotal role of Krishnadevaraya. Gohil, who worked with SAB TV on "Yam Hain Hum", where he played the titular role, said, "This time it's Krishnadevaraya, a very powerful king that I am portraying. It's a comedy show and I am looking forward to working with a new set of people. The show is "Tenali Rama" and I am so ready to get rolling with this one."


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Veteran actor Pankaj Berry was cast to play the series' antagonist and Tenali Rama's foe frenemy, Tathacharya, who is the royal priest in the court of Emperor Krishnadevaraya, and always creates trouble for Tenali Rama with the help of his fellow disciples, Dhani and Mani. Berry said, "I am very excited to play Tathacharya. It is a very different kind of challenging role, there are different layers to the character even though it's a negative character." It was reported in July 2017 that Sonia Sharma and Priyanka Singh had been cast to play the roles of Krishnadevaraya's wives, Chinna Devi and Tirumalamba, respectively.


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: Shweta Keshri of "India Today" gave the series a positive review, praising Krishna Bharadwaj's portrayal of Tenali Rama, the VFX and special effects of the series, the colourful sets and comic content which "can easily lure viewers to the show and takes you back to the 16th century."


title: Tenali Rama (TV series)

text: "Tenali Rama" was also dubbed in Kannada under the same title and was formerly aired on Dum TV Kannada (formerly called "Dangal Kannada"), but was soon taken off-air due to unknown reasons. The show is freshly dubbed and aired again on Siri Kannada, under the same title.


title: Philippines AirAsia

text: Philippines AirAsia, Inc. is a low-cost airline based at Ninoy Aquino International Airport in Metro Manila in the Philippines. The airline is the Philippine affiliate of AirAsia, a low-cost airline based in Malaysia. The airline started as a joint venture among three Filipino investors and AirAsia Investments Ltd. (later AirAsia Aviation Limited), a subsidiary of AirAsia Berhad.


title: Philippines AirAsia

text: In 2015, both of the Filipino affiliates of AirAsia — AirAsia Zest and AirAsia Philippines were officially consolidated together to form a new brand and corporate identity as Philippines AirAsia.


title: Philippines AirAsia

text: Prior to the 2022 amendment of the Public Service Act of the Philippines which removes foreign ownership restrictions in airlines, the law only allowed a foreign direct investment of up to 40% in Philippine-registered companies. As such, AirAsia Group CEO Tony Fernandes entered into a 60-40 joint venture with Filipino investors Antonio O. Cojuangco, Jr., former owner of Associated Broadcasting Company and owner of Dream Satellite TV, Michael L. Romero, a real estate developer and port operator, and Marianne Hontiveros, a former music industry executive and TV host. The Filipino investors have a 60% stake in the airline, while the remaining 40% belongs to AirAsia Investments Ltd. (later AirAsia Aviation Limited) of Malaysia.


title: Philippines AirAsia

text: AirAsia Philippines was formally launched on 16 December 2010. On 15 August 2011, AirAsia Philippines took delivery of its first brand-new Airbus A320 aircraft. The airline planned to start operations by 2011 but was delayed due to the long duration of processing the new requirements instituted in 2008.


title: Philippines AirAsia

text: On 7 February 2012, the airline received its air operator certificate. The airline commenced operations on 28 March 2012 by launching flights from its base at Clark International Airport to Kalibo and Davao City. It partnered with Victory Liner, one of the largest provincial bus companies operating in the Philippines, to provide free shuttle service for inbound and outbound passengers of Clark International Airport. Within that year, in addition to its first two destinations, AirAsia Philippines launched flights to Puerto Princesa, Kuala Lumpur, Hong Kong, Singapore, and Taipei.


title: Philippines AirAsia

text: On 11 March 2013, an agreement was made between AirAsia Philippines to swap shares with Philippine-based airline Zest Airways. Zest Airways received a mix of $16 million cash and a 13% share in AirAsia Philippines, while AirAsia Philippines now owns 85% of Zest Airways, with 49% of its voting rights. The deal closed on 10 May 2013. Due to this agreement, Alfredo Yao of Zest-O Corporation was added as an additional owner of the company. In 2015, both airlines merged to form Philippines AirAsia.


title: Philippines AirAsia

text: The 2013 share swap agreement also gives AirAsia Philippines access to Ninoy Aquino International Airport, allowing further growth of its route network. In September 2013, the airline announced that it will move its operations to NAIA from Clark. The airline however restarted flights from Clark on 27 March 2017.


title: Philippines AirAsia

text: On 30 July 2016, AirAsia Group CEO Tony Fernandes appointed Capt. Dexter Comendador as the new CEO of the company. Comendador joined Philippines AirAsia in 2011 as director of Flight Operations and was promoted to chief operating officer in 2015 before his appointment. Comendador is also famous in the Philippine aviation community as one of the hero pilots of Philippine Airlines Flight 434 who was bombed by the terrorist Ramzi Yousef in 1994.


title: Philippines AirAsia

text: The COVID-19 pandemic has adversely affected Philippines AirAsia's business. Plans for Philippines AirAsia to debut in the Philippine Stock Exchange within 2020 was deferred in March 2020, with the airline management deciding to focus on expanding its domestic operations after a government ban on China and South Korea in response to the worsening health situation threatening 30% of the airlines' revenue.


title: Deacon Frost

text: Deacon Frost is a fictional character appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. He appears in "The Tomb of Dracula", and is an enemy of Blade. In the comics, Deacon Frost was depicted as a tall, white-haired, late middle-aged gentleman with red eyes, and wearing 1860s Germany period clothing. His doppelgänger sported an accent and attire that suggested a Southern preacher.


title: Deacon Frost

text: The character appeared in the 1998 film "Blade" as a young adult instead of an older gentleman, portrayed by Stephen Dorff.


title: Deacon Frost

text: Deacon Frost first appeared in "The Tomb of Dracula" #13 (October 1973), and was created by Marv Wolfman and Gene Colan.


title: Deacon Frost

text: Deacon Frost was allegedly a scientist looking for the key to immortality. For one of his experiments, he kidnapped a young woman in order to inject his victim with the blood of a recently killed vampire. The girl's fiancé broke into the lab, and (in the resulting scuffle) Frost was accidentally injected with the blood himself. The result was that Frost became a vampire but (due to the unusual method of becoming one) he was endowed with a unique characteristic; anyone he turned into a vampire would generate a doppelgänger. He could create an unlimited number of doppelgängers by biting each doppelgänger, and they would all be under his mental control. Frost intended to use this ability to contend for the position of Lord of Vampires, a position that was presently held by Dracula. Frost is the vampire responsible for the death of Blade's mother; Blade's initial mission is to exact revenge against her killer. It was also Frost who turned Hannibal King into a vampire. Blade and King (while initially distrusting each other) eventually teamed up to fight Frost's army of doppelgangers of Blade and King. The two of them managed to defeat and apparently destroy Frost in his underground hideout, stabbing him twice and leaving his body to be consumed as his hideout exploded.


title: Deacon Frost

text: Many years later, Blade encountered a vampire that called itself Deacon Frost. This vampire had a different appearance and personality to the original, and was later identified as being a doppelgänger. The doppelgänger attempted to summon a powerful demon, only to be devoured by said creature. In a later one-shot story set in New Orleans, Frost was encountered yet again, but he appeared as he did in "The Tomb of Dracula". He also confirmed that the previous encounter was indeed an imposter (as Blade suspected) who was created using science and magic. Blade and King, with the help of Brother Voodoo, foiled Frost's attempt to gain control of Garwood Industries through Donna Garth (daughter of Simon Garth the Living Zombie). Frost escaped this encounter vowing revenge. More recently, Frost appeared at the summons of Dracula to defend the Lord of Vampires as he underwent a magical ritual, only to be staked by Blade.


title: Deacon Frost

text: Deacon Frost, like the rest of the vampires, has superhuman strength and the standard powers of a vampire, including the ability to change his appearance and resistance to conventional wounds. Frost was also capable of creating vampiric duplicates of his victims with his bite, which were under his absolute mind control. Even said duplicates, they in turn produced replicas of themselves if they were bitten by Frost again. Ultimately, these beings were able to absorb the original victim into their own body. Extensive knowledge of medicine, physics and chemistry.


title: Deacon Frost

text: Like the rest of the vampires, Deacon Frost needed to drink blood assiduously to survive, he could not expose himself to sunlight without burning, and he was damaged if he was exposed to crucifixes or any other religious symbol wielded by someone with deep faith. In addition, to end his unlife, he must pierce his heart with a wooden stake. Ultimately he does not project any reflections.


title: Deacon Frost

text: While roughhousing, two boys enter the parking garage where Frost is located with his latest creation, a monster called the White Worm. Frost sics the White Worm on the children, then flees when he senses the approach of Blade.


title: Deacon Frost

text: The "Ultimate" version of Deacon Frost appears with a youthful appearance. He has been captured by S.H.I.E.L.D. in order to convince Blade to join Nick Fury's Black ops team.


title: Deacon Frost

text: In the one-shot "The Darkhold: Blade" by Daniel Kibblesmith, presenting an alternate ending to the 1998 "Blade" film, Deacon Frost is successful in his plans at using his power attained as avatar of La Magra to turn billions of humans around the world into vampires.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: No Line on the Horizon is the twelfth studio album by Irish rock band U2. It was produced by Brian Eno, Daniel Lanois, and Steve Lillywhite, and was released on 27 February 2009. It was the band's first record since "How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb" (2004), marking the longest gap between studio albums of their career to that point. The band originally intended to release the songs as two EPs, but later combined the material into a single record. Photographer Anton Corbijn shot a companion film, "Linear", which was released alongside the album and included with several special editions.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: U2 began work on the album in 2006 with record producer Rick Rubin but shelved most of the material from those sessions. In May 2007, the group began new sessions with Eno and Lanois in Fez, Morocco. Intending to write "future hymns"—songs that would be played forever—the group spent two weeks recording in a riad and involved the producers in the songwriting process. Having grown tired of writing in the first-person, lead singer Bono wrote his lyrics from the perspective of different characters. Recording continued at several studios in the United States, United Kingdom, and Ireland through December 2008. The group had intended to release "No Line on the Horizon" in November, but after composing 50 to 60 songs, they delayed the release to continue writing.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Prior to the album's release, U2 claimed that their time in Fez, as well as Eno's and Lanois' involvement, had resulted in a more experimental record than their previous two albums. The band compared the shift in style to that seen between "The Joshua Tree" (1987) and "Achtung Baby" (1991). Upon its release, "No Line on the Horizon" received generally favourable reviews, although many critics noted that it was not as experimental as previously suggested. The album debuted at number one in 30 countries but did not sell as well as anticipated; the band expressed disappointment over the relatively low sales, compared to previous albums, of five million copies. By contrast, the supporting U2 360° Tour from 2009 to 2011 broke the record for the highest-grossing concert tour in history, earning over $736 million.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: In 2006, U2 started work on the follow-up to "How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb" (2004), collaborating with producer Rick Rubin. After U2 guitarist the Edge worked individually with Rubin in Los Angeles, the group spent two weeks in September 2006 completing songs with the producer at Abbey Road Studios in London. Later that year, the band released two songs from these sessions on the compilation album "U218 Singles": a cover of the Skids' "The Saints Are Coming" with Green Day, and "Window in the Skies". In January 2007, lead singer Bono said U2 intended to take their next album in a different musical direction from their previous few releases. He said: "We're gonna continue to be a band, but maybe the rock will have to go; maybe the rock has to get a lot harder. But whatever it is, it's not gonna stay where it is."


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Rubin encouraged a "back to basics" approach and wanted the group to bring finished songs to the studio. This approach conflicted with U2's freeform recording style, by which they improvised material in the studio. The Edge said: "we sort of hadn't really finished the songs. It's typical for us, because it's in the process of recording that we really do our writing." Bassist Adam Clayton said: "once we have a song, we're interested in the atmospherics and the tones and the overdubs and the different stuff you can do with it... things that Rick was not in the slightest bit interested in. He was interested in getting it from embryonic stage to a song that could be mixed and put on a record." They ultimately decided to shelve the material recorded with Rubin, but expressed interest in revisiting it in the future. Rubin said: "I don't know what their perspective was. I thought we had fun."


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: U2 subsequently began working with Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois in May 2007. Bono, who had accepted an invitation to the World Sacred Music Festival in Fez, Morocco, invited his bandmates to attend. Bono also invited Eno and Lanois, hoping they would collaborate with the band as full songwriting partners in recording an album of "futuristic spirituals" or "future hymns"—songs that would be played forever. For two weeks, U2, Eno, and Lanois rented the riad of the hotel Riad El Yacout in Fez and turned it into a makeshift recording studio, occasionally recording with an oud player and local percussionists.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Recording during the festival exposed the group to Hindu and Jewish music, Sufi singing and Joujouka drums. The exotic influences inspired them to pursue a more experimental sound. Clayton said the music they heard in Fez "had a primitivism ... but there was an other-worldly feel, there was that connection with that Arabic scale." Eno insisted that drummer Larry Mullen Jr. use an electronic drum kit. The band described many of the tracks conceived in these sessions as unsuitable for radio airplay or for playing live. The open-air riad allowed the group to hear birdsong, as captured in the introduction to "Unknown Caller". The songs "Moment of Surrender", "White as Snow", "No Line on the Horizon" and "Unknown Caller" were written at this time; each track was recorded in one take. In total, the band recorded approximately 10 songs during the two weeks. The Edge said of their time with Eno and Lanois in Fez, "it became very clear almost immediately that this was gonna be a very fruitful experiment." He called it "a very freeing experience" that "reminded [him] in many ways of early on and why [they] got into a band in the first place. Just that joy of playing." When the topic of who would produce the record was broached, Lanois suggested, "[the album is] kind of producing itself, so let's just go with the people we have", cementing him and Eno in the roles.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: After leaving Fez, the band recorded in Hanover Quay Studios in Dublin, Platinum Sound Recording Studios in New York City, and Olympic Studios in London. Steve Lillywhite was brought in to produce a few tracks during these subsequent sessions. In pre-release interviews, U2 compared the extent of their expected shift in musical style to that of "Achtung Baby". The band scaled back these experimental pursuits, however; Mullen noted: "at a certain stage, reality hits, and you go, 'What are we gonna do with this stuff?' Are we going to release this sort of meandering experimentation, or are we gonna knock some songs out of this?" Bono shared this opinion, stating, "We went so far out on the Sufi singing and the sort of ecstatic-music front, that we had to ground it and find a counterpoint." Eno commented that many of "the more contemplative and sonically adventurous songs" had been dropped, attributing the lack of African-inspired music to its sounding "synthetic" and unconvincing when paired with other songs.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Clayton filmed the band's progress during the album's production; these videos were added to the subscribers' section of U2.com. On 16 August 2008, an eavesdropping fan recorded several songs playing from Bono's beach house in Èze, France. These "beach clips" were uploaded to YouTube, but removed at Universal Music's request. In November 2008, the Edge confirmed the album's working title as "No Line on the Horizon" and noted that the band had to move quickly to complete mixing to meet the new February release date. In an interview with "Q", the group revealed that rapper will.i.am had worked with them on the track "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight".


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: In December 2008, U2 recorded at Olympic Studios in London, putting the finishing touches to the album and making several changes to its content. The group had planned to release the material as two extended plays, titled "Daylight" and "Darkness", but during these sessions decided to compile the best songs onto one album. The band struggled to complete "Stand Up Comedy", a song they had been working on since the Fez sessions 16 months previously. The song had been through multiple iterations and titles, including "For Your Love" and "Stand Up". U2 dropped "Winter", a song Eno had urged them to complete, as well as "Every Breaking Wave", which they removed to reduce the album's running time. "Winter" appears in the accompanying Anton Corbijn film "Linear" and the 2009 war film "Brothers". Both songs had been mentioned in pre-release album reviews.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: The band changed many of the tracks' names during recording, retitling "French Disco" to "Magnificent" and "Crazy Tonight" to "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight". "Chromium Chords" became "Tripoli", and finally "Fez – Being Born". The band considered "Fez – Being Born" and "Get On Your Boots" as album openers, but ultimately decided on "No Line on the Horizon". At the end of the sessions, the band chose to include "White as Snow", a quiet song about a dying soldier in Afghanistan, to balance out the earlier, rockier tunes. With the exception of this track, U2 had tried to keep the theme of war out of the album. In early December 2008, Clayton stated, "this is definitely the last week of recording. But then again, last week was definitely the last week of recording, and the week before that." The final sessions ended later that month. "No Line on the Horizon" is dedicated to Rob Partridge, who signed the band's first record deal in 1980 and died of cancer in late 2008.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: In February 2009, Bono stated that by the end of the year, U2 would release an album consisting of unused material from the "No Line on the Horizon" sessions. Bono labelled it "a more meditative album on the theme of pilgrimage". Provisionally titled "Songs of Ascent", it would be a sister release to "No Line on the Horizon", similar to "Zooropa"s relationship to "Achtung Baby". In June 2009, Bono said that although nine tracks had been completed, the album would only be released if its quality surpassed that of "No Line on the Horizon". A December 2009 report stated that U2 had been working in the studio with the goal of a mid-2010 release. The band revealed that the first single was intended to be "Every Breaking Wave".


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Over time, the album continued to be delayed. In April 2010, U2's manager Paul McGuinness confirmed that the album would not be finished by June, but indicated that a release "before the end of the year [was] increasingly likely." In October 2010, Bono stated that their new album would be produced by Danger Mouse, and that 12 songs had been completed. He also noted that U2 were working on a potential album of club music in the spirit of "U2's remixes in the 1990s". Around the same time, McGuinness said the album was slated for an early 2011 release. In February 2011, he said that the album was almost complete and had a tentative release date of May 2011, although he noted that "Songs of Ascent" was no longer the likely title. The "Songs of Ascent" project ultimately did not come to fruition and has not been released; its evolution and apparent abandonment are examined in the book "The Greatest Albums You'll Never Hear". Clayton said, "We thought there was more material left over from "No Line"... we now feel a long way from that material."


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: After numerous delays, U2 digitally released their thirteenth album, "Songs of Innocence", on 9 September 2014 in a surprise release. The band appeared the same day at an Apple Inc. product launch event to announce the album and reveal it was being released to all iTunes Store customers at no cost.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: In October 2014, Bono said that "Songs of Ascent" "will come" and that the group views it as the third release in a possible trilogy of albums.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: During the Hanover Quay sessions in 2008, Bono indicated that he had become "tired of [writing in] the first-person", leading him to write songs from the perspective of different characters. He invented "a traffic cop, a junkie [and] a soldier serving in Afghanistan." Although each character tells a personal story, the underlying theme of the album is peripheral vision, events taking place in the wider world, "just at the edges". Bono described it as "central to the understanding of this album". Nevertheless, as the characters narrate there is an intentional "shutting out" of the wider world, so that the focus remains on their "personal epiphanies". The narrative the group originally planned for the album was broken up in the sessions' final weeks with their changes to the track listing. Bono revealed that numbers were significant in many of the songs, and that the album was split into thirds; he described the first section as "a whole world unto itself, and you get to a very ecstatic place", and the second as "a load of singles". The final third is composed of songs that are "unusual territory" for the band.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: "No Line on the Horizon" stemmed from Mullen's experiments with different drum beats; Eno sampled and manipulated the patterns, and the rest of the band began to play over the beats. The lyrical idea of a place "where the sea meets the sky and you can't tell the difference between the two" and the vocal delivery were both present from the start. Bono noted that the theme behind the song was infinity, and that the track was inherently optimistic. "Magnificent" is an up-tempo song that begins with a synthesiser line by Eno. The band wanted a track that felt euphoric, and the melody, created from a series of chord changes during a jam, was worked on continuously by Bono. The setting in the lyrics was described by Lanois as "New York in the 50s", written from the perspective of "a Charlie Parker kind of figure". The song has been described as "echo[ing] "The Unforgettable Fire"s opening track 'A Sort of Homecoming' in its atmospheric sweep".


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: The drug addict character appears in the songs "Moment of Surrender" and "Unknown Caller". "Moment of Surrender", improvised and recorded by U2, Eno, and Lanois in a single take, demonstrates gospel influences. Eno and Lanois said the song is the closest to the group's original concept for an album of future hymns. Eno noted, "Apart from some editing and the addition of the short cello piece that introduces it, the song appears on the album exactly as it was the first and only time we played it." In the song, the addict is having a crisis of faith. In "Unknown Caller", the character is suicidal and, while using his phone to buy drugs, begins receiving cryptic text messages with technology-inspired directions. The track was developed early in the Fez sessions. The guitar solo at the song's conclusion was taken from the backing track.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Eno developed "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight" during the Fez sessions, under the working title "Diorama". U2 reworked it with Steve Lillywhite during a break from recording with Eno and Lanois. Some of the lyrics were influenced by Barack Obama's presidential campaign, while others referenced Bono. Album reviews described the song as a joyous pop rock composition. "Get On Your Boots" stemmed from a guitar riff The Edge created and recorded at his home. At 150 beats per minute, the song is one of the fastest the band have recorded. "Rolling Stone" called it a "blazing, fuzzed-out rocker that picks up where 'Vertigo' left off." Thematically, the song is about Bono taking his family on vacation to France and witnessing warplanes flying overhead at the start of the Iraq War. The chant "let me in the sound" was developed late in the recording sessions and became a motif throughout parts of the album.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: "Stand Up Comedy" went through numerous iterations; at one point, Lanois noted, "that song was about six different songs". In its original concept, the track featured mandolins playing in a Middle Eastern beat. The riff was altered and a chorus of "for your love" was introduced. This version was discarded as the band came up with a new riff and lyrics, only retaining the "for your love" vocal. U2 liked the result at the end of the sessions, but felt that the song would appear too "crafted"; they instead chose an older mix for inclusion on the album. Several of the song's lyrics, including the line, "Be careful of small men with big ideas", relate to Bono's self-mockery. The guitar sound from the experimental "Fez" portion of "Fez – Being Born" was developed while the band recorded "The Saints Are Coming" during the Rick Rubin sessions. Lanois edited the part, adding a beat developed by Eno, before playing it for the group. The sounds of a Moroccan marketplace were also added. The faster section of the song, "Being Born", was altered into the same key as "Fez" and Lanois placed the two sections together, creating the one song. The "let me in the sound" chant from "Get On Your Boots" is included at the beginning of the track.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: "White as Snow" focuses on the soldier character's last thoughts as he dies from the wounds suffered from an improvised explosive device. The song is based on the traditional hymn "Veni, veni, Emmanuel"; the idea to base the song on a public domain melody was suggested to Lanois by Newfoundland musician Lori Anna Reid. "Breathe" is set on 16 June, an intentional reference to James Joyce's novel "Ulysses". U2 worked on an earlier version of the song for a long time before they scrapped it and re-recorded it with Lillywhite. Two sets of lyrics were also present; one about Nelson Mandela, and the other "more surreal and personal". The band decided to use the latter. "Cedars of Lebanon", written from the perspective of a journalist covering a war overseas, was created in a similar manner to "Fez – Being Born". The song's melody was based on a sample of "Against the Sky", a track Eno and Lanois had collaborated on with Harold Budd for the 1984 album "The Pearl"; the group noted that the ambience of the song was "like a direct throwback to the early 80s". The final verse is a condemnation of the Iraq War.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: At the music industry trade fair Midem in 2008, Paul McGuinness said "No Line on the Horizon" would be ready for release in October 2008. Lanois corroborated that in June 2008, stating the album should be ready in 3–4 weeks. He said, "We're just finishing the vocals. Bono's in great form, singing fantastic." On 3 September 2008, U2.com posted an article in which Bono revealed that the new album would be out "in early 2009", also noting that "around 50–60 songs" had been recorded in the sessions. It was later confirmed the album would be released on 27 February 2009 in Ireland, 2 March in the UK, and 3 March in North America. The gap between "How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb" and "No Line on the Horizon" release was the longest of the band's career to that point.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Universal Music Group took extreme measures to prevent the album from leaking, offering pre-release listening sessions for critics instead of sending out review copies. However, Universal Music Australia's online music store, getmusic.com.au, accidentally released the album for digital sale on 18 February 2009, almost two weeks before the scheduled release date. The complete album appeared on the website for a short time before it was removed, and the accidental sale led to the album's being leaked and shared across the Internet. U2 reacted to the leak with some positivity. The Edge stated, "The one good thing about that is a lot of our fans have already given us their thumbs up. Even though it was fans getting it for free."


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: The cover art for "No Line on the Horizon" is a photograph of Lake Constance, taken by Japanese photographer Hiroshi Sugimoto; titled "Boden Sea", it is one of 200 pictures in his "Seascapes" collection. The image was the inspiration for Bono's lyrics on the track "No Line on the Horizon". Sugimoto and U2 struck a deal in which the band could use the photograph as the cover art and Sugimoto could use "No Line on the Horizon" in his future projects; Sugimoto's only stipulation was that no text could be placed on top of the image. Original releases had an equals sign superimposed in the middle of the album cover, but later releases featured only the image. AMP Visual, who designed the equals sign, stated that it represents "a form of title for the album, from the universal language of mathematics," taking inspiration from the album's theme of "universal balance and contrast, of night and day." Continuing the mathematical theme that the equals sign established, the packaging of the digipak special edition features a "little hidden code" in the form of a piece of the Fibonacci sequence.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: "Boden Sea" had previously been used by Richard Chartier and Taylor Deupree for their 2006 album "Specification.Fifteen". The album covers are similar, though "No Line on the Horizon" has a white border around the image, and "Specification.Fifteen" has a box at the top of the cover with the names of the artists and the album. Deupree called U2's cover "nearly an exact rip-off" and stated that for the band to obtain the rights to the image it was "simply a phone call and a check." Sugimoto refuted both of these claims, calling the use of the same photograph a coincidence and stating that no money was involved in the deal with U2.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: "No Line on the Horizon" was released in five physical formats, three of which—the digipak, magazine, and box formats—were limited editions. The standard jewel case release contained a 24-page booklet. The vinyl release was pressed on two black discs and contained a 16-page booklet. The digipak release had a 36-page booklet and a poster, which was also included in the box release. A 60-page magazine was included in the magazine release. "Linear" was a downloadable feature in the digipak and magazine formats, and was a bonus DVD in the box release, which also contained a 64-page hardcover book.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: The album was made available for pre-order on the iTunes Store on 19 January 2009, the day "Get On Your Boots" premiered on radio. iTunes album pre-orders contained bonus tracks unavailable with any other version. Digital versions were available from Amazon.com in MP3 format, and from U2.com in MP3 and FLAC formats.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Continuing a campaign by U2 to reissue all of their records on vinyl, "No Line on the Horizon" was reissued on 22 February 2019 on two 180-gram vinyl discs to commemorate its 10th anniversary. Two reissued editions—black vinyl and a limited-edition "ultra-clear" vinyl—include the album on three sides, with remixes of "Magnificent" and "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight" on side four.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: "Linear", a film directed by Anton Corbijn, is included with the digipak, magazine, box, and deluxe iTunes editions of the album. The idea for the film originated from a U2 video shoot in June 2007, during which Corbijn asked the band to remain still while he filmed them to create a "photograph on film"; the band did not move but the objects around them did. Impressed, the band believed that the online album listening experience could be enhanced with moving imagery. In May 2008, they commissioned Corbijn to create the film. Corbijn has claimed that "Linear" is not a music video but "a new way to listen to a record" and "a new way to use film to connect to music".


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: The film is based on a story by Corbijn and Bono, and includes several of the characters Bono created for the album. The plot focuses on a Parisian motorcycle officer, played by Saïd Taghmaoui; the character has become disillusioned with his life and the conflict between immigrants and the police in the city, causing him to leave to see his girlfriend in Tripoli. The song order in the film is representative of "No Line on the Horizon"s as it was in May 2008.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: To promote "No Line on the Horizon", U2 performed "Get On Your Boots" at the 51st Grammy Awards, the 2009 BRIT Awards, and the 2009 Echo Awards, although the album was not eligible for awards at any of the ceremonies. The band later appeared on French television and radio on 23 February 2009, and on 26 February they taped a segment for "Friday Night with Jonathan Ross", which was aired the next day. On 27 February, U2 made an appearance on a Live Lounge session for BBC Radio 1, followed by a mini-concert on the roof of Broadcasting House. On the week of 2 March 2009, U2 appeared on CBS-TV's "Late Show with David Letterman" for five consecutive nights, the first time a musical guest had performed for an entire week on the show. The group performed "Breathe", "Magnificent", "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight", "Beautiful Day", and "Get On Your Boots". On 3 March, Michael Bloomberg, Mayor of New York City, added a street sign reading "U2 Way" at 53rd Street in Manhattan, for the week that U2 performed on the "Late Show". U2 also performed at Fordham University on 6 March 2009 for an appearance on ABC-TV's "Good Morning America". From 9 to 11 March, the band participated in "U2 3 Nights Live", a series of radio interviews and performances that were broadcast across North America and streamed live on U2.com.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: From 11 to 17 February 2009, U2.com hosted a promotion where 4,000 fans could win a 7-inch single collector's edition box set that contained all four of the singles released from "No Line on the Horizon". An alternate version of the title track, "No Line on the Horizon 2", debuted on RTÉ 2XM on 12 February 2009; it was later used as the B-side for the first single, "Get On Your Boots". The full album began streaming on the group's MySpace page on 20 February 2009, and on U2.com a few days later.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Four singles were planned from the album, although only three were released. The first single, "Get On Your Boots", was released as a digital download on 19 January 2009, and in a physical format on 16 February 2009. The iTunes store held the exclusive digital download rights to the single for the first 24 hours. The second single, "Magnificent", was released on 4 May 2009. The third single, "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight", was released on 7 September 2009.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: "No Line on the Horizon" received generally favourable reviews. At Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album received an average score of 72, based on 30 reviews. David Fricke of "Rolling Stone" gave it a five-star score and called it "[U2's] best, in its textural exploration and tenacious melodic grip, since 1991's "Achtung Baby"." In his review for "Blender", Rob Sheffield stated "The days are gone when U2 were trying to keep it simple—at this point, the lads have realized that over-the-top romantic grandiosity is the style that suits them, so they come on like the cosmic guitar supplicants they were born to be." "Uncut" magazine's Andrew Mueller commented, "It's U2's least immediate album—but there's something about it that suggests it may be one of their most enduring." Jeff Jensen of "Entertainment Weekly" graded it an "A−" and called the album "an eclectic and electrifying winner, one that speaks to the zeitgeist the way only U2 can and dare to do." BBC Music reviewer Chris Jones said, "There's plenty to rejoice about here" while noting that the "symbiotic relationship with Brian Eno (and Daniel Lanois) seems to have reached the point of imperceptibility." "NME" contributor Ben Patashnik called the album "a grand, sweeping, brave record that, while not quite the reinvention they pegged it as, suggests they've got the chops to retain their relevance well into their fourth decade as a band."


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: In a less enthusiastic review, "Time Out Sydney" felt that the album is unfortunately Brian Eno's new album rather than U2's: "for all that's new, there's no way that you'll mistake it for another band." "Pitchfork" reviewer Ryan Dombal gave a score of 4.2 out of 10, stating, "the album's ballyhooed experimentation is either terribly misguided or hidden underneath a wash of shameless U2-isms." Cameron Adams of the "Herald Sun" gave a rating of three and a half stars, comparing it to the 1990s albums "Zooropa", "Pop", and "Original Soundtracks 1" while stating "This is no blockbuster ... It's the least immediate U2 album in years, but one that diehard fans will enjoy living with". Madeleine Chong of MTV Asia wrote that, "Although U2 should be lauded for their efforts at constant reinvention and pushing the envelope in the rock genre, ["No Line on the Horizon"] possesses neither the iconic qualities of "The Joshua Tree" or the radical yet relevant magnetism of "Achtung Baby"." "Toronto Star" music critic Ben Rayner called the songs boring, adding that the ambience introduced by Eno and Lanois was "often all these vague, hook-deficient songs have going for them." Rob Harvilla of "The Village Voice" gave the album a mixed review and wrote that its songs "will remind you of other, much better songs, but in a way that only makes you want to go and listen to those other songs instead." Josh Tyrangiel of "Time" magazine also gave it an unfavourable review, calling the effort "unsatisfied" and "mostly restless, tentative and confused."


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: "No Line on the Horizon" was nominated in the Best Rock Album category at the 52nd Grammy Awards in 2010. The song "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight" was nominated for Best Rock Performance by a Duo or Group With Vocals and Best Rock Song. The cut song "Winter" was nominated for Best Original Song at the 67th Golden Globe Awards for its role in the film "Brothers". "Rolling Stone" ranked "No Line on the Horizon" the best album of the year and the 36th-best album of the decade, and "Moment of Surrender" as the best song of the year and the 36th-best song of the decade. The "Irish Independent" placed it fourth on their list of the year's top Irish albums, while "Time" listed the song "No Line on the Horizon" as the third-best of 2009.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: "No Line on the Horizon" opened with strong sales, debuting at number one in thirty countries, including Australia, Belgium, Canada, France, Ireland, Japan, the Netherlands, Portugal, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Within one week of release, the album was certified platinum in Brazil, a record for the country. In the United States, it was U2's seventh number-one album; first-week sales exceeded 484,000, the band's second-highest figures after "How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb". In the United Kingdom, the album sold 157,928 copies in its first week to become U2's tenth number-one album, making them the fifth-most-successful act on the UK Albums Chart. By June 2009, over five million copies had been sold worldwide. Globally it was the seventh-highest-selling album of 2009.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Sales of the album stalled midway through 2009. By October, just over one million copies had been sold in the US, the group's lowest in more than a decade. Through March 2014, the album's lifetime sales in the country totaled 1.1 million copies. In the UK, the record sold less than a third of "How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb"s figures, and a quarter of "All That You Can't Leave Behind"s. Global sales of "No Line on the Horizon" remained at five million copies through September 2010. The album did not generate a hit single; ABC noted that sales of "How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb" had been propelled by the track "Vertigo" which, although not a chart success, had become well known to the public from its use in iPod commercials.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Following the release of "No Line on the Horizon", U2 staged a worldwide stadium tour, titled the U2 360° Tour. Beginning on 30 June 2009 in Barcelona, the tour visited Europe, North America, Oceania, Africa and South America from 2009 to 2011 and comprised 110 shows. The concerts featured a 360-degree stage that the audience surrounded. To accommodate this, a large four-legged structure nicknamed "The Claw" was built above the stage. At 50 meters (165 feet) tall, it was the largest stage ever constructed and twice the size of the previous largest set, which was used on The Rolling Stones' A Bigger Bang Tour. The idea for the stage had been proposed to the group by the set designer Willie Williams at the end of the Vertigo Tour in 2006. The design was intended to overcome the staid traditional appearance of outdoor concerts where the stage was dominated by speaker stacks on either side. Despite grossing over US$311 million from 44 shows over its first two legs, the tour was barely breaking even, with production costs of approximately US$750,000 per day. In 2010, U2's scheduled headline appearance at the Glastonbury Festival 2010 and their North American leg were postponed until the following year after Bono suffered a serious back injury. By its conclusion in July 2011, U2 360° had set records for the highest-grossing concert tour with $736 million in ticket sales, and for the highest-attended tour with 7.3 million tickets sold.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: During the first leg of the tour in Europe, the band typically played songs from "No Line on the Horizon" early in the set. "Breathe", "No Line on the Horizon", "Get On Your Boots" and "Magnificent" were played as the opening quartet, while "Unknown Caller" and a remixed arrangement of "I'll Go Crazy If I Don't Go Crazy Tonight" appeared close to the halfway point. "Moment of Surrender" closed every show. U2 made minor changes to the setlists for the second leg of the tour. "No Line on the Horizon" was performed later in the concerts, while "Unknown Caller" was dropped for several weeks before being revived towards the end of the leg. The band did not play "Stand Up Comedy", "Fez – Being Born", "White as Snow", or "Cedars of Lebanon" at any point in 2009. The 25 October 2009 concert at the Rose Bowl in Pasadena, California, U2's penultimate concert of 2009, was filmed and streamed live over YouTube. The shoot used 27 high definition cameras; the concert was released on DVD and Blu-ray as "U2 360° at the Rose Bowl" on 3 June 2010.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Eight months after "No Line on the Horizon"s release, Bono said he was disappointed with the album's sales. Regarding the lack of commercial appeal, Bono said, "We weren't really in that mindset. We felt that the 'album' is almost an extinct species, and we [tried to] create a mood and feeling, and a beginning, middle and an end. And I suppose we've made a work that is a bit challenging for people who have grown up on a diet of pop stars." Clayton agreed that the album's commercial reception must be "challenged" but said, "the more interesting challenge is, 'What is rock 'n' roll in this changing world?' Because, to some extent, the concept of the music fan—the concept of the person who buys music and listens to music for the pleasure of music itself—is an outdated idea." The Edge predicted that, despite its lack of a big hit, "No Line on the Horizon" would grow on listeners over time. He noted that the reaction to the songs in the live setting made U2 believe that the material was connecting with the fans, adding, "There's a lot of records that make great first impressions. There might be one song that gets to be big on the radio, but they're not albums that people ... play a lot. This is one that I gather from talking to people. ... Four months later, they're saying, 'I'm really getting into the album now. McGuinness believed that the conditions of the music market were more responsible for the low sales than any decline in U2's popularity.


title: No Line on the Horizon

text: Lillywhite believed that the African influences had not translated well onto the album, remarking: "It's a pity because the whole idea of Morocco as a big idea was great. When the big idea for U2 is good, that is when they succeed the most, but I don't think the spirit of what they set out to achieve was translated. Something happened that meant it did not come across on the record." The Edge concurred, admitting that the group erred by "starting out experimental and then trying to bring it into something that was more accessible". He added, "I think probably we should have said, 'It's an experimental work. That's what it is.'" Mullen refers to the album as "No Craic on the Horizon" and said, "It was pretty fucking miserable. It turns out that we're not as good as we thought we were and things got in the way." He attributed the release of "Get On Your Boots" as the album's lead single as "the beginning of the end," as the album would not recover from the song's negative reception. The band played fewer songs from "No Line on the Horizon" as the 360° Tour went on, which Mullen calls "a little bit of a defeat."


title: Malleolus

text: Each leg is supported by two bones, the tibia on the inner side (medial) of the leg and the fibula on the outer side (lateral) of the leg. The medial malleolus is the prominence on the inner side of the ankle, formed by the lower end of the tibia. The lateral malleolus is the prominence on the outer side of the ankle, formed by the lower end of the fibula.


title: Malleolus

text: The word "malleolus" (), plural "malleoli" (), comes from Latin and means "small hammer". (It is cognate with "mallet".)


title: Malleolus

text: The medial malleolus is found at the foot end of the tibia. The medial surface of the lower extremity of tibia is prolonged downward to form a strong pyramidal process, flattened from without inward - the medial malleolus.


title: Malleolus

text: The lateral malleolus is found at the foot end of the fibula, of a pyramidal form, and somewhat flattened from side to side; it descends to a lower level than the medial malleolus.


title: Malleolus

text: A major structure that is located between the lateral malleolus and the Achilles tendon is the sural nerve.


title: Malleolus

text: A bimalleolar fracture is a fracture of the ankle that involves the lateral malleolus and the medial malleolus. Studies have shown that bimalleolar fractures are more common in women, people over 60 years of age, and patients with existing comorbidities.


title: Malleolus

text: A trimalleolar fracture is a fracture of the ankle that involves the lateral malleolus, the medial malleolus, and the distal posterior aspect of the tibia, which can be termed the posterior malleolus. The trauma is sometimes accompanied by ligament damage and dislocation.


title: The Rain People

text: The Rain People is a 1969 American film written and directed by Francis Ford Coppola, starring Shirley Knight, James Caan and Robert Duvall. Coppola's friend and fellow director George Lucas worked as an aide on this film, and made a short 1968 documentary titled "Filmmaker" about the making of the film. The film also won the Golden Shell at the 1969 San Sebastian Film Festival.


title: The Rain People

text: Natalie Ravenna leaves her husband sleeping at home and sets off on a road trip in a family station wagon. She visits her parents who are quite upset with her.


title: The Rain People

text: At a gas station, Natalie makes a collect phone call to her husband and tells him she's pregnant. He is thrilled with the news, but she tells him that she's not ready to come back and needs time away from him.


title: The Rain People

text: She gives a ride to a strapping young man, Killer, who had been a college football star but had sustained a serious head injury and was given one thousand dollars to leave the school. On their first night together, in Natalie’s motel room, she orders Killer around and makes him show her his muscular body. She tells him she is pregnant and had given him the ride to have a one-night affair with him, but then she sends him to his own room.


title: The Rain People

text: Natalie drives Killer to the home of a one-time girlfriend of his whose father had once promised him a job, but that family wants nothing to do with him and Natalie takes him with her when she drives away. While they travel west she twice comes close to finding him work and a place to stay, only to decide that Killer would be taken advantage of. She also twice leaves him at the side of the road, only to change her mind.


title: The Rain People

text: During a subsequent collect call from a payphone days later her husband pleads with her to return home, saying he will do anything to make her happy. Killer angers her by destroying the phone cord, but they continue travelling together.


title: The Rain People

text: Natalie is stopped by a motorcycle highway patrolman, Gordon, and receives a speeding ticket. Gordon invites her back to his trailer, and she agrees. He proves to be an unstable widower and father who mistreats his young daughter. After sending her outside so he and Natalie can have sex, he reveals the death of his wife to Natalie. Meanwhile, his daughter and Killer talk and wander the trailer park together. When Natalie tries to leave, Gordon attempts to force her to stay and prepares to rape her. Killer tries to stop Gordon by beating him, which Natalie tries and fails to stop. Gordon's daughter shoots Killer dead, leaving Natalie holding his body, sobbing, as park residents arrive and watch.


title: The Rain People

text: At the time, Duvall and Caan lived with each other and were doing a few films together. Later, they and Coppola teamed for the film "The Godfather".


title: The Rain People

text: The film features about 2-minutes and 44 seconds of footage filmed on the streets of Chattanooga, Tennessee amid the city's annual Armed Forces Parade. A majority of the clips were shot near the main intersection of what is today Martin Luther King Boulevard and Market Street.


title: The Rain People

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film four stars out of four and compared Natalie Ravenna's quest to that of the Peter Fonda character in "Easy Rider", and called them both "lineal descendants of the most typical American searcher of them all, Huckleberry Finn." He concluded: "It's difficult to say whether his film is successful or not. That's the beautiful thing about a lot of the new, experimental American directors. They'd rather do interesting things and make provocative observations than try to outflank John Ford on his way to the Great American Movie."


title: The Rain People

text: According to "TVGuide.com": "This odd odyssey was not a hit, even though over the years it has been regarded as one of Coppola's more personal pictures and has attained a limited following." Margarita Landazuri writes on "Turner Classic Movies": "It has acquired a cult status as an early feminist film for its provocative treatment of a woman seeking her own identity." The work currently has an 82% approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes. In 2015, David Canfield named "The Rain People" as one of Coppola's five best films, calling it "hypnotic".


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: Enter the Gungeon is a 2016 bullet hell roguelike game developed by Dodge Roll and published by Devolver Digital. Set in the firearms-themed Gungeon, gameplay follows four player characters called Gungeoneers as they traverse procedurally generated rooms to find a gun that can "kill the past". The Gungeoneers fight against bullet-shaped enemies, which can be fought using both conventional and exotic weapons found while playing. "Enter the Gungeon" features a permadeath system, causing the Gungeoneers to lose all obtained items and start again from the first level upon death. Between playthroughs, players can travel to an area called the Breach, where they can both converse with non-player characters and unlock new items that are randomly encountered while playing.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: Development on "Enter the Gungeon" started in 2014, when four Mythic Entertainment employees left the company to form Dodge Roll. Lead designer Dave Crooks gained inspiration for the term "Gungeon" after listening to the soundtrack for the game "Gun Godz". Dodge Roll designed and playtested each individual room of the Gungeon's levels, and used procedural generation to randomly assemble them into a playable configuration. Many of the guns were inspired from earlier games such as "Mega Man" and "Metroid," while other mechanics were implemented in order to encourage players to utilize the layouts of levels.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: "Enter the Gungeon" was released on April 5, 2016 for Linux, macOS, Playstation 4, and Windows 10, while ports for Xbox One and Nintendo Switch were released in April and December 2017. By June 2020, it had sold over three million copies. The game received positive reviews on release, with critics favorably comparing it to "The Binding of Isaac" and "Nuclear Throne". Reviewers praised the creativity and designs of the guns, while also commentating on the game's difficulty. After launch, Dodge Roll developed and released several content updates. A platform game sequel called "Exit the Gungeon" was released in 2019.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: "Enter the Gungeon" is a top-down bullet hell shooter with roguelike elements. The player takes control of one of four player characters, the Marine, Convict, Hunter, or Pilot (collectively called the "Gungeoneers"), who must reach the bottom of the Gungeon to find a magical gun that is described in-game as having the ability to "kill the past". Although each Gungeoneer starts out with items and weapons that are unique to the character, they can all shoot guns, knock over tables to provide cover, and dodge attacks by performing a "dodge roll" that allows them to be temporarily incapable of losing health. The player also has a limited number of "Blanks" which can be used to delete all enemy projectiles in a room. Combat is heavily reliant upon memorizing patterns of enemy behavior, and using both cover and dodge rolls to avoid bullets.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: The Gungeon is made up of five different floors, each having roughly twenty rooms inside. The layout and rewards of each level are procedurally generated from a number of pre-created rooms and are inhabited by bullet-shaped enemies called Gundead. To defeat Gundead, the player must use a wide variety of guns and items; they can be obtained by unlocking chests or through shops and boss fights. As players slay enemies, they occasionally obtain in-game currencies called bullet casings and keys; the former can be spent at shops in exchange for guns, and the latter can be used to unlock chests. Obtained guns can range from conventional pistols and rifles, to more exotic firearms such a unicorn horn that fires rainbows or a mailbox that shoots envelopes. Each level ends with a random boss that must be slain to advance to the next floor. Similar to other roguelikes, "Enter the Gungeon" has a permadeath system; If the player dies, they lose all items and guns obtained on a playthrough and must start again at the first floor.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: As the player progresses through multiple playthroughs, they may encounter non-player characters (NPCs) inside the Gungeon. Once encountered, NPCs either set up shop inside the Gungeon, or travel to the Breach, a hub world. At the Breach, the player can unlock new items that randomly generate inside the Gungeon, or can talk with NPCs to accept services and quests. Both actions involve spending an in-game currency acquired from defeating bosses, with unlocked guns increasing the weapon options available on a playthrough.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: Development on "Enter the Gungeon" started in 2014, with four Mythic Entertainment employees leaving the company to fulfill their own project just before the company would shut down later that year. According to developer Dave Crooks, he had been listening to the soundtrack to the game "Gun Godz" by Vlambeer, and the name "Gungeon" came to him the next day. Crooks presented the name "Enter the Gungeon" to his fellow team members, and they created the game's lore over a lunch meeting. They then spent the next few weeks developing prototypes of the game mechanics. Though Crooks stated that "The Binding of Isaac" was one of the game's biggest influences, they also were influenced by "Nuclear Throne", "Spelunky", "Dark Souls", and "Metal Gear Solid".


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: Dungeons in the game are generated in a procedural manner, but Dodge Roll found it was better to handcraft the individual rooms, playtesting those individually, and then using their random generation to connect these rooms into a dungeon. The designs of the guns took place over the two years of development, with most of the designs by team artist Joe Harty; several of the guns are inspired by other video games and video game systems, including the NES Zapper and guns similar to those appearing in games such as "Mega Man", "Metroid", "Shadow Warrior", and "Serious Sam". The boss character designs were made by a combination of ideas from Crooks and Harty, which were then presented to the gameplay programmer David Rubel to determine appropriate bullet hell patterns associated with that idea.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: The dodge roll mechanic was inspired by trying to include a similar mechanic of "Ikaruga" that enabled a player to easily dodge numerous bullets simultaneously, and took the ideas used in the "Dark Souls" series to have the character dodge out of the way from attacks. The team loved this mechanic and decided to name their studio after it. Similarly, they included usable environmental features such as flipping tables or bringing chandeliers down onto enemies to encourage the player to interact with and use the environment to their own advantage. At one point Dodge Roll had included an active reload feature, similar to "Gears of War" in which pressing a controller button at the right time during a reload would increase the damage the reloaded bullets would do, but instead decided to limit this to a power-up that can be collected, finding that players were already distracted enough by everything else going on in the game and that felt the moment of tension when the player had to wait for the gun to reload was critical to gameplay.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: In December 2014, at PlayStation Experience, the game was officially announced and followed by an announcement trailer. Throughout 2015, the game went to multiple conventions, including E3 2015, where, during the PC Gaming Show, the co-op feature of the game was revealed. On March 2, 2016, it was announced that the game would release on April 5, 2016. The game was set to receive free post-release content, such as more weapons, enemies, and levels. The first of these, the "Supply Drop" update, which added several new guns, enemies, and room layouts, was released for free on January 26, 2017. A port to the Xbox One, including cross-buy and cross-play support for Windows 10, was released a year later on April 5, 2017. A version for the Nintendo Switch was released in North America and Europe on December 14 and 18, 2017 respectively. A second major update, "Advanced Gungeons & Draguns", was released on July 19, 2018 for all platforms, which among additional weapons and enemies, was aimed to provide means to play the game that are friendlier to inexperienced players, but still offer more challenge for others.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: While Dodge Roll had been working on a third major update, the team decided by November 2018 to cancel it so to focus their efforts on a new game. The developers stated that the amount of time they had to put into get "Advanced Gungeons & Draguns" brought the total time they had been working on the game to five years. Each new gun they added had to be tested against other effects already in the game, which also wore out the development team. Dodge Roll released a final free patch, "A Farewell to Arms", in April 2019 to fix lingering bugs and provide one last set of content updates. Versions for cloud-streaming services Google Stadia and Amazon Luna were released in December 2020 and in September 2021, respectively.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: According to the review aggregator website Metacritic, Enter The Gungeon received "generally favorable reviews" Critics frequently compared the game to "The Binding of Isaac", and "Nuclear" "Throne". "Destructoid" drew comparisons between the dungeons of "Zelda" and the difficulty of "Nuclear Throne", saying "While it doesn’t totally reinvent the twin-stick shooter, it has all but perfected it." "Game Informer" recommended the game to fans of both roguelikes and twin-stick shooters, saying it exceeded both "The Binding of Isaac" and "Nuclear Throne." Nintendo Life called it one of the best indie games on the Nintendo Switch, while "USgamer" considered it one of the best roguelike twin-stick shooters.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: Reviewers praised the variety and creativity of guns and items, but were disappointed by the frequent generation of conventional weapons. Game Informer said that discovering new guns made each playthrough enjoyable, while "Eurogamer" called the guns "wondrously exotic" Although considering most conventional guns too similar to each other, "IGN" enjoyed the pop culture references, designs, and sound effects of the weaponry.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: The difficulty of the game was frequently mentioned. "Destructoid" said that the enemies of the lower floors were very challenging, and "PC Gamer" called the bosses "the hardest things I've ever encountered." "The Escapist" found the learning curb of the game's mechanics to be generally fair, but considered some of the enemies and bosses frustrating. While previously yearning for easier levels of difficulty, "Electronic Gaming Monthly" considered it helpful for teaching players how to improve their skills. Likewise, both "Rock Paper Shotgun" and "Nintendo World Report" considered their troubles with gameplay to be the result of a lack of skill, and accredited the game for not having its difficulty be based upon an imbalance of mechanics.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: "Enter the Gungeon" sold more than 200,000 copies within its first week across all platforms, with Steam Spy suggesting that 75% of these sales were made on Steam. By January 2017, the game had sold more than 800,000 units across all platforms, according to Devolver Digital. Total sales across all platforms exceeded 3 million by January 2020.


title: Enter the Gungeon

text: A sequel, "Exit the Gungeon" was developed by Dodge Roll and originally released for iOS devices through Apple Arcade on September 19, 2019, Whereas "Enter the Gungeon" has the player attempt to reach the lowest level of the Gungeon, "Exit the Gungeon" requires the player to escape from the Gungeon as it is collapsing. The game plays similarly to "Enter the Gungeon," but is based on a platform game rather than a top-down dungeon crawler. In 2019, the arcade spin-off "Enter the Gungeon: House of the Gundead" was announced, and was released in 2022.


title: Once Bitten (1985 film)

text: Once Bitten is a 1985 American teen horror comedy film, starring Lauren Hutton, Jim Carrey, and Karen Kopins. Carrey has his first major lead role playing Mark Kendall, an innocent and naïve high school student who is seduced in a Hollywood nightclub by a sultry blonde countess (Hutton), who unknown to him is a centuries-old vampire. While the movie underperformed at the box office, it has since become a cult classic.


title: Once Bitten (1985 film)

text: Being 400 years old, the Countess has collected a stable of young men and women who accompany her on her centuries-old journey through eternal life and youth. Though she is immortal, she is required to drink the blood of a young male virgin three times by Halloween each year to keep her immortality and youthful appearance. She finds this task increasingly and extremely hard, since attractive young male virgins are almost impossible to find in the 1980s, particularly in hedonistic cities, in this case, Los Angeles, California.


title: Once Bitten (1985 film)

text: Meanwhile, virgin high school student Mark Kendall wants to have sex, but is being put off by his girlfriend Robin Pierce. One night, Mark and his best friends Jamie and Russ go into a singles bar in Hollywood. Mark meets the Countess, goes back to her mansion and after she seduces him, passes out when she bites his thigh. When he wakes up, she pretends they have had sex and tells him that he is now hers. Mark does not know what she means and, over the next few days, begins showing strange behaviors: having strange dreams, avoiding direct sunlight, and even drinking blood (from raw meat). After the Countess gets a second bite, Robin notices Mark's odd behavior and confronts the Countess during a dance-off at the high school's Halloween dance.


title: Once Bitten (1985 film)

text: While it appears that Robin has won back Mark, this is only temporary. The Countess kidnaps Robin to lure Mark to her mansion for a final bite before her deadline expires, and it is up to Robin, Jamie, and Russ to stop her. Eventually, to save Mark from the Countess's clutches, Robin and Mark have sex in a coffin while being chased by the Countess's minions, thereby taking Mark's virginity, bringing him back to normal. This renders him useless to the Countess as she has to drink virgin blood. Defeated, the Countess then begins to grow old and decrepit before their eyes. The Countess's assistant, Sebastian, tells her not to worry as there are other virgins in the world despite the fact that the Countess doubts she will find another virgin. The movie ends with Mark and Robin continuing to have sex in the coffin.


title: Once Bitten (1985 film)

text: The film was released on November 15, 1985 on 1,095 screens, and opened at number one at the U.S. box office, grossing $4,025,657 for the weekend. It eventually earned around $10 million in the United States and Canada.


title: Once Bitten (1985 film)

text: "Once Bitten" received polarizing response from critics; on review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 10% based on 10 reviews, with an average score of 3.3/10. On Metacritic, the film received a score of 64 based on 4 reviews, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Once Bitten (1985 film)

text: Janet Maslin of "The New York Times" wrote that it "has a lot more stylishness than wit." Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" called it an "extreme rarity" for its subtle and hilarious sexual humor in a teen film. Rita Kempley of "The Washington Post" described it as "a sappy, sophomoric sex farce" that uses dated humor.


title: Once Bitten (1985 film)

text: The film was released on VHS by Vestron Video in 1986, by Video Treasures in 1995, again by Hallmark Home Entertainment, and by MGM Home Entertainment in 1999. It was released on DVD by MGM Home Entertainment on August 26, 2003. It was re-released on DVD on July 17, 2007, in a Totally Awesome 80s Double Feature Pack, by 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment, along with "Vampire's Kiss".


title: Once Bitten (1985 film)

text: "Once Bitten" was released on DVD once again by TGG Direct on January 25, 2011, in a comedy four-pack with "Easy Money", "Throw Momma from the Train", and "Blame It on Rio". Scream Factory released the film on Blu-Ray on February 10, 2015, with the audio enhanced to 5.1 surround sound. The film is available online for streaming rentals and downloads though Amazon Prime Video, iTunes, and Vudu.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (11 May 1752 – 22 January 1840) was a German physician, naturalist, physiologist, and anthropologist. He is considered to be a main founder of zoology and anthropology as comparative, scientific disciplines. He was also important as a race theorist.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: He was one of the first to explore the study of the human being as an aspect of natural history. His teachings in comparative anatomy were applied to his classification of human races, of which he claimed there were five, Caucasian, Mongolian, Malayan, Ethiopian, and American. He was a member of what modern historians call the Göttingen School of History.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach's peers considered him one of the great theorists of his day, and he was a mentor or influence on many of the next generation of German biologists, including Alexander von Humboldt.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach was born at his family house in Gotha. His father was Heinrich Blumenbach, a local school headmaster; his mother was Charlotte Eleonore Hedwig Buddeus. He was born into a well-connected family of academics.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach was educated at the Illustrious Gymnasium in Gotha before studying medicine, first at Jena and then at Göttingen. He was recognized as a prodigy by the age sixteen in 1768. He graduated from the latter in 1775 with his M.D. thesis "De generis humani varietate nativa" ("On the Natural Variety of Mankind", University of Göttingen, which was first published in 1775, then re-issued with changes to the title-page in 1776). It is considered one of the most influential works in the development of subsequent concepts of "human races."


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: It contained the germ of the craniological research to which so many of his subsequent inquiries were directed.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach was appointed extraordinary professor of medicine and inspector of the museum of natural history in Göttingen in 1776 and ordinary professor in 1778. His contributions soon began to enrich the pages of the "Medicinische Bibliothek", of which he was editor from 1780 to 1794, with various contributions on medicine, physiology, and anatomy. In physiology, he was of the school of Albrecht von Haller, and was in the habit of illustrating his theory by a careful comparison of the animal functions of man with those of other animals. Following Baron Cuvier's identification, Blumenbach gave the woolly mammoth its first scientific name, "Elephas primigenius" (first-born elephant), in 1799.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: His reputation was much extended by the publication of his "Institutiones Physiologicae" (1787), a condensed, well-arranged view of the animal functions, expounded without discussion of minute anatomical details. Between its first publication and 1821, it went through many editions in Germany, where it was the general textbook of the science of physiology. It was translated into English in America by Charles Caldwell (Philadelphia 1798), and in London by John Elliotson (1807).


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: He was perhaps still more extensively known by his "Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie" ("Handbook of comparative anatomy"), which passed through numerous German editions from its appearance in 1805 to 1824. It was translated into English in 1809 by the surgeon Sir William Lawrence, and again, with improvements and additions, by William Coulson in 1827. This manual, though slighter than the subsequent works of Cuvier, Carus, and others, and not to be compared with such later expositions as that of Gegenbaur, was long esteemed for the accuracy of the author's own observations, and his just appreciation of the labors of his predecessors.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Although the greatest part of Blumenbach's life was passed at Göttingen, in 1789 he visited Switzerland, and gave a curious medical topography of that country in the "Bibliothek". He was in England in 1788 and 1792. He was elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society of London in 1793 and a Foreign Honorary Member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1794. In 1798, he was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society. In 1808 he became a correspondent, living abroad, of the Royal Institute of the Netherlands. In 1827 this changed to associated member. In 1812 he was appointed secretary to the Royal Society of Sciences at Göttingen, in 1816 was appointed physician to the royal family in Hanover () by the prince regent, in 1821 was made a knight-commander of the Guelphic Order, and in 1831 was elected a member of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. In celebration of his doctoral jubilee (1825) traveling scholarships were founded to assist talented young physicians and naturalists. In 1813, he was elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences. In 1835 he retired. Blumenbach died in Göttingen in 1840.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach explored the biodiversity of humans mainly by comparing skull anatomy and skin color. His work included a description of sixty human crania (skulls) published originally in fascicules as "Decas craniorum" (Göttingen, 1790–1828). This was a founding work for other scientists in the field of craniometry. He established a five-part naming system in 1795 to describe what he called "generis humani varietates quinae principes, species vero unica" (five principle varieties of humankind, but one species). In his view, humans could be divided into varieties (only in his later work he adopted the term “races”, which had been introduced by others) but he was aware that a clear separation was difficult: "“All national differences in the form and colour of the human body [. . .] run so insensibly, by so many shades and transitions one into the other, that it is impossible to separate them by any but very arbitrary limits.”".


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach's classification of the single human species into five varieties (later called "races") (1793/1795):


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach assumed that all morphological differences between the varieties were induced by the climate and the way of living and he emphasized that the differences in morphology were so small, gradual and transiently connected that it was not possible to separate these varieties clearly. He also noted that skin color was unsuitable for distinguishing varieties. Although Blumenbach did not propose any hierarchy among the five varieties, he placed the Caucasian form in the center of his description as being the most “primitive” or “primeval” one from which the other forms “degenerated.” In the 18th century, however, these terms did not have the negative connotations they possess today. At the time, “primitive” or “primeval” described the ancestral form, while “degeneration” was understood to be the process of change leading to a variety adapted to a new environment by being exposed to a different climate and diet. Hence, he argued that physical characteristics like skin color, cranial profile, etc., depended on geography, diet, and mannerism. Further anatomical study led him to the conclusion that 'individual Africans differ as much, or even more, from other Africans as from Europeans'.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Like other monogenists such as Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon, Blumenbach held to the "degenerative hypothesis" of racial origins. Blumenbach claimed that Adam and Eve were Caucasian inhabitants of Asia (see Asia hypothesis), and that other races came about by degeneration from environmental factors such as the sun and poor diet. Thus, he claimed, Negroid pigmentation arose because of the result of the heat of the tropical sun, while the cold wind caused the tawny colour of the Eskimos, and the Chinese were fair-skinned compared to the other Asian stocks because they kept mostly in towns protected from environmental factors. He believed that the degeneration could be reversed in a proper environmental control and that all contemporary forms of man could revert to the original Caucasian race.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Moreover, he concluded that Africans were not inferior to the rest of mankind 'concerning healthy faculties of understanding, excellent natural talents and mental capacities'.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: He did not consider his "degenerative hypothesis" as racist and sharply criticized Christoph Meiners, an early practitioner of scientific racialism, as well as Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring, who concluded from autopsies that Africans were an inferior race. Blumenbach wrote three other essays stating non-white peoples were capable of excelling in arts and sciences in reaction against racialists of his time. At his time, Blumenbach was perceived as anti-racist and he strongly opposed the practice of slavery and the belief of the inherent savagery of the coloured races.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: In his dissertation, Blumenbach mentioned the name "Simia troglodytes" in connection with a short description for the common chimpanzee. This dissertation was printed and appeared in September 1775, but only for internal use in the University of Göttingen and not for providing a public record. The public print of his dissertation appeared in 1776. Blumenbach knew that Carl Linnaeus had already established a name "Homo troglodytes" for a badly known primate, and in 1779 he discussed this Linnean name and concluded correctly that Linnaeus had been dealing with two species, a human and an orangutan, neither of which was a chimpanzee, and that by consequence the name "Homo troglodytes" could not be used. Blumenbach was one of the first scientists to understand the identities of the different species of primates, which were (excluding humans) orangutans and chimpanzees. (Gorillas were not known to Europeans at this time). In Opinion 1368 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature (ICZN) decided in 1985 that Blumenbach's view should be followed, and that his "Simia troglodytes" as published by Blumenbach in 1779 shall be the type species of the genus "Pan" and, since it was the oldest available name for the common chimpanzee, be used for this species. However, the commission did not know that Blumenbach had already mentioned this name in his dissertation. Following the rules of the ICZN Code the scientific name of one of the most well-known African animals, currently known as "Pan troglodytes", must carry Blumenbach's name combined with the date 1776.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach shortly afterward wrote a manual of natural history entitled "Handbuch der Naturgeschichte"; 12 editions and some translations. It was published first in Göttingen by J. C. Dieterich in 1779/1780. He was also one of the first scientists to study the anatomy of the platypus, assigning the scientific name "Ornithorhynchus paradoxus" to the animal, being unaware George Shaw had already given it the name "Platypus anatinus". However, "Platypus" had already been shown to be used for the scientific name for a genus of Ambrosia beetles so Blumenbach's scientific name for the genus was used.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach made many contributions to the scientific debates of the last half of the 18th century regarding evolution and creation. His central contribution was in the conception of a "vis formativus" or "Bildungstrieb", an inborn force within an organism that led it to create, maintain, and repair its shape.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Enlightenment science and philosophy essentially held a static view of nature and man, but vital nature continued to interrupt this view, and the issue of life, the creation of life and its varieties, increasingly occupied attention and "starting in the 1740s the concept of vital power reentered the scene of generation ... there must be some 'productive power' in nature that enabled unorganized material to generate new living forms."


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Georges-Louis Leclerc, comte de Buffon wrote an influential work in 1749, "Natural History", that revived interest in vital nature. Buffon held that there were certain penetrating powers which organised the organic particles that made up the living organism. Erasmus Darwin translated Buffon's idea of organic particles into "molecules with formative propensities" and in Germany Buffon's idea of an internal order, "moule interieur" arising out of the action of the penetrating powers was translated into German as "Kraft" (power).


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: The German term for vital power or living power, "Lebenskraft", as distinct from chemical or physical forces, first appeared with Medicus's on the Lebenskraft (1774). Scientists were now forced to consider hidden and mysterious powers of and in living matter that resisted physical laws – warm-blooded animals maintaining a consistent temperature despite changing outside temperatures, for example.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: In 1759, Caspar Friedrich Wolff, a German embryologist provided evidence for the ancient idea of epigenesis, that is preformed life, that is a chick out of unformed substance and his dispute with von Haller brought the issue of life to the forefront of natural science and philosophy. Wolff identified an "essential power" ("essentliche Kraft", or "vis essentialis") that allowed structure to be a result of power, "the very power through which, in the vegetable body, all those things which we describe as life are effected."


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: While Wolff was not concerned to name this vital organising, reproducing power, in 1780 Blumenbach posited a formative drive ("nisus formativus" or "Bildungstrieb") responsible for biological "procreation, nourishment, and reproduction," as well as self-development and self-perfection on a cultural level.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach held that all living organisms "from man down to maggots, and from the cedar to common mould or mucor," possess an inherent "effort or tendency which, while life continues, is active and operative; in the first instance to attain the definite form of the species, then to preserve it entire, and, when it is infringed upon, so far as this is possible, to restore it." This power of vitality is "not referable to any qualities merely physical, chemical, or mechanical."


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach compared the uncertainty about the origin and ultimate nature of the formative drive to similar uncertainties about gravitational attraction: "just in the same way as we use the name of attraction or gravity to denote certain forces, the causes of which however still remain hid, as they say, in Cimmerian darkness, the formative force (nisus formativus) can explain the generation of animals."


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: At the same time, befitting the central idea of the science and medicine of dynamic polarity, it was also the physiological functional identity of what theorists of society or mind called "aspiration." "Blumenbach's Bildungstrieb found quick passage into evolutionary theorizing of the decade following its formulation and in the thinking of the German natural philosophers (p. 245)


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: One of Blumenbach's contemporaries, Samuel Hahnemann, undertook to study in detail how this generative, reproductive and creative power, which he termed the "Erzeugungskraft" of the "Lebenskraft" of living power of the organism, could be negatively affected by inimical agents to engender disease.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Kant is said by several modern authors to have relied on Blumenbach's biological concept of formative power in developing his idea of organic purpose.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Kant wrote to Blumenbach in 1790 to praise his concept of the formative force ("Bildungstrieb"). However, whereas Kant had a heuristic concept in mind, to explain mechanical causes, Blumenbach conceived of a cause fully resident in nature. From this he would argue that the "Bildungstrieb" was central to the creation of new species. Though Blumenbach left no overt indications of sources for his theory of biological revolution, his ideas harmonize with those of Bonnet and especially with those of his contemporary Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803), and it was Herder whose ideas were influenced by Blumenbach.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach continued to refine the concept in his "De nisu formativo et generationis negotio" ('On the Formative Drive and the Operation of Generation', 1787) and in the second edition (1788) of the "Handbuch der Naturgeschichte": 'it is a proper force ("eigentliche Kraft"), whose undeniable existence and extensive effects are apparent throughout the whole of nature and revealed by experience'. He consolidated these in the second edition of "Über den Bildungstrieb".


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach had initially been an advocate of Haller's view, in contrast to those of Wolff, that the essential elements of the embryo were already in the egg, he later sided with Wolff.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach provided evidence for the actual existence of this formative force, to distinguish it from other, merely nominal terms.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: The way in which the Bildungstrieb differed, perhaps, from other such forces was in its comprehensive architectonic character: it directed the formation of anatomical structures and the operations of physiological processes of the organism so that various parts would come into existence and function interactively to achieve the ends of the species.


title: Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

text: Blumenbach was regarded as a leading light of German science by his contemporaries. Kant and Friedrich Schelling both called him "one of the most profound biological theorists of the modern era. In the words of science historian Peter Watson, "roughly half the German biologists during the early nineteenth century studied under him or were inspired by him: Alexander von Humboldt, Carl Friedrich Kielmeyer, Gottfried Reinhold Treviranus, Heinrich Friedrich Link, Johann Friedrich Meckel, Johannes Illiger, and Rudolph Wagner."


title: Point of no return

text: The point of no return (PNR or PONR) is the point beyond which one must continue on one's current course of action because turning back is dangerous, physically impossible or difficult, or prohibitively expensive. The point of no return can be a calculated point during a continuous action (such as in aviation). A particular irreversible action (such as setting off an explosion or signing a contract) can be a point of no return.


title: Point of no return

text: The phrase "point of no return" originated as a technical term in air navigation to refer to the time and/or location during a flight at which the aircraft no longer has enough fuel to return to its originating airfield. Important decisions may need to be made prior to the point of no return, since it will be unsafe to turn around and fly back if the pilot changes their mind after that point. Otherwise, it may correspond to the aircraft's maximal safe range in a situation where the only possible landing site "is" the takeoff site, for example in the case of an aircraft attached to an aircraft carrier that is underway and distant from any airfield. In those conditions, an aircraft must always have enough fuel for a return flight, so the "point of no return" may represent the point before which the pilot "must" return or else risk catastrophe.


title: Point of no return

text: It can also mean the instance in which an aircraft taxis down a runway, gaining a certain speed, and must become airborne in lieu of a crash or explosion on the runway (V1 speed)—for example, Charles Lindbergh's takeoff in "The Spirit of St. Louis" in 1927 in which there was uncertainty about the plane's ability to take off from a 5,000 foot mud soaked runway while fully loaded with aviation fuel.