title: Savoie

text: It is widely accepted that Savoie takes its name from the Latin "Sapaudia" or "Sabaudia", meaning land covered in fir trees. Savoie was long part of the states of Savoy; though beginning in the 16th century, it was occupied by France several times. It was integrated into the Mont-Blanc department from 1792 to 1815 (and partially into the Léman department from 1798 to 1814). The province was annexed by France in 1860. The former Duchy of Savoy became the two departments of Savoie and Haute-Savoie.


title: Savoie

text: Moûtiers, capital of the former province of Tarentaise Valley (French: "Vallée de la Tarentaise"), ceased to be a subprefecture following a law that took effect on 10 September 1926.


title: Savoie

text: Savoie hosted the 1992 Winter Olympics, based in Albertville with ski events at Tarentaise and Beaufortain. The coat of arms for Savoie was used as a pattern for the flames in the official emblem of the games.


title: Savoie

text: The other main alpine valley is the Maurienne, connected to the Tarentaise valley by two passes, the col de la Madeleine and the highest pass in Europe, the col de l'Iseran. The Maurienne valley was through the col du Mont Cenis, the major commercial route between France and Italy. It is one of the longest intra-alpine valleys in the Alps.


title: Savoie

text: Savoie is part of the Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes region established on 1 January 2016. It was previously part of Rhône-Alpes. It borders the departments of Haute-Savoie, Ain, Isère and Hautes-Alpes in addition to the Aosta Valley and the Metropolitan City of Turin in Italy.


title: Savoie

text: The department is crossed by the Isère river, which has its source in the Iseran pass. Its two main lakes are Lac du Bourget (the largest and deepest lake entirely in France) and Lac d'Aiguebelette, one of the least polluted in France due to a 1976 law forbidding any use of motorboats on the lake.


title: Savoie

text: Most of the department features an alpine climate or a subalpine climate. At lower altitudes and in the valleys, the climate is humid continental (Köppen: Dfb) or even oceanic in the frontcounrty and lake Bourget area (Köppen: Cfb), using the isotherm.


title: Savoie

text: According to the Chambéry chamber of commerce, close to 50% of the department's wealth comes from tourism. Each year, Savoie hosts over 30 million visitor-nights of tourists. Savoie also profits from its natural resources with particular strengths in ore processing and hydroelectric power.


title: Savoie

text: Savoie had an exceptionally high export/import ratio of 214% in 2005. Its exports rose to €1.768 billion and €825 million in imports. Its leading exports were steel, aluminum, and electric and electronic components.


title: Savoie

text: Numerous wine grapes are also grown in Savoie. The most famous wines are made of Gamay, Pinot noir and Mondeuse grapes. Fruit production is the third largest component of agriculture in Savoie.


title: Savoie

text: Residents of Savoie are known as "Savoyards", though they can also be called "Savoisiens" (the historical name) or "Savoyens".


title: Savoie

text: The most populous commune is Chambéry, the prefecture. As of 2019, there are 8 communes with more than 7,000 inhabitants:


title: Savoie

text: The "average" (see arithmetic mean) population density is not a good indicator: the valleys tend to be much more densely populated, whereas the mountains tend to be near-completely uninhabited.


title: Savoie

text: The Catholic Church in Savoie is divided into three dioceses: Chambéry, Maurienne, and Tarentaise. Together, they form an archdiocese, in which the bishop of Chambéry is the archbishop.


title: Savoie

text: The Departmental Council of Savoie has 38 seats. 30 councillors are part of the J'aime la Savoie ("I love Savoie") right-wing group; 8 councillors are part of the Savoie pour Tous ("Savoie for All") left-wing group. Hervé Gaymard (The Republicans) has been President of the Departmental Council since 2008. Thierry Repentin (Socialist Party) has been Opposition Leader since 1998.


title: Savoie

text: Savoie is represented by two Senators in Parliament. Jean-Pierre Vial and Martine Berthet have served since 1995 and 2017 respectively. Both are members of The Republicans (LR).


title: Savoie

text: Tourism, which is quite important to Savoie, began to develop towards the end of the 19th century, mostly summer oriented. The increase in the popularity of skiing in the 20th century made Savoie home to the largest number of ski hills in France, including many famous ones:


title: Savoie

text: Hydrotherapy, practised in the region since antiquity, is also quite developed. There are four locations that are still active:


title: Harris's hawk

text: The Harris's hawk (Parabuteo unicinctus), formerly known as the bay-winged hawk, dusky hawk, and sometimes a wolf hawk, and known in Latin America as peuco, is a medium-large bird of prey that breeds from the southwestern United States south to Chile, central Argentina, and Brazil. Birds are sometimes reported at large in Western Europe, especially Britain, but it is a popular species in falconry and these records almost invariably all refer to escapes from captivity.


title: Harris's hawk

text: The name is derived from the Greek "para", meaning beside, near or like, and the Latin "buteo", referring to a kind of buzzard; "uni" meaning once; and "cinctus" meaning girdled, referring to the white band at the tip of the tail. John James Audubon gave this bird its English name in honor of his ornithological companion, financial supporter, and friend Edward Harris.


title: Harris's hawk

text: The Harris's hawk is notable for its behavior of hunting cooperatively in packs consisting of tolerant groups, while other raptors often hunt alone. Harris hawks' social nature has been attributed to their intelligence, which makes them easy to train and have made them a popular bird for use in falconry.


title: Harris's hawk

text: This medium-large hawk is roughly intermediate in size between a peregrine falcon ("Falco peregrinus") and a red-tailed hawk ("Buteo jamaicensis"). Harris's hawks range in length from and generally have a wingspan of about . These hawks have a brownish plumage, reddish shoulders and tail feathers with a white base and white tip.


title: Harris's hawk

text: They exhibit sexual dimorphism with the females being larger by about 35%. In the United States, the average weight for adult males is about , with a range of , while the adult female average is , with a range of . They have dark brown plumage with chestnut shoulders, wing linings, and thighs, white on the base and tip of the tail, long, yellow legs and a yellow cere. The vocalizations of the Harris's hawk are very harsh sounds.


title: Harris's hawk

text: The juvenile Harris's hawk is mostly streaked with buff, and appears much lighter than the dark adults. When in flight, the undersides of the juveniles' wings are buff-colored with brown streaking. They can look unlike adults at first glance, but the identical chestnut plumage is an aid for identification.


title: Harris's hawk

text: Harris's hawks live in sparse woodland and semi-desert, as well as marshes (with some trees) in some parts of their range (Howell and Webb 1995), including mangrove swamps, as in parts of their South American range. Harris's hawks are permanent residents and do not migrate. Important perches and nest supports are provided by scattered larger trees or other features (e.g., power poles, woodland edges, standing dead trees, live trees, and boulders, and saguaros).


title: Harris's hawk

text: The wild Harris's hawk population is declining due to habitat loss; however, under some circumstances, they have been known to move into developed areas.


title: Harris's hawk

text: This species occurs in relatively stable groups. A dominance hierarchy occurs in Harris's hawks, wherein the mature female is the dominant bird, followed by the adult male and then the young of previous years. Groups typically include from two to seven birds. Not only do birds cooperate in hunting, they also assist in the nesting process. No other bird of prey is known to hunt in groups as routinely as this species.


title: Harris's hawk

text: They nest in small trees, shrubby growth, or cacti. The nests are often compact, made of sticks, plant roots, and stems, and are often lined with leaves, moss, bark and plant roots. They are built mainly by the female. There are usually two to four white to blueish white eggs sometimes with a speckling of pale brown or gray. The nestlings start out light buff, but in five to six days turn a rich brown.


title: Harris's hawk

text: Very often, there will be three hawks attending one nest: two males and one female. Whether or not this is polyandry is debated, as it may be confused with backstanding (one bird standing on another's back). The female does most of the incubation. The eggs hatch in 31 to 36 days. The young begin to explore outside the nest at 38 days, and fledge, or start to fly, at 45 to 50 days. The female sometimes breeds two or three times in a year. Young may stay with their parents for up to three years, helping to raise later broods. Nests are known to be predated by coyotes ("Canis latrans"), golden eagles ("Aquila chrysaetos"), red-tailed hawks ("Buteo jamaicensis"), great horned owls ("Bubo virginianus") and flocks of common ravens ("Corvus corax"), predators possibly too formidable to be fully displaced by the Harris's hawk's cooperative nest defenses. No accounts show predation on adults in the United States and the Harris's hawk may be considered an apex predator, although presumably predators like eagles and great horned owls would be capable of killing them. In Chile, black-chested buzzard-eagles ("Geranoaetus melanoleucus") are likely predators.


title: Harris's hawk

text: The diet of the Harris's hawk consists of small creatures including birds, lizards, mammals, and large insects. Because it often hunts in groups, the Harris's hawk can also take down larger prey. Although not particularly common, the Harris's hawk may take prey weighing over , such as adult jackrabbits, great blue heron ("Ardea herodias") and half-grown wild turkeys ("Meleagris gallapavo"). The desert cottontail ("Syvilagus auduboni"), the leading prey species in the north of the Harris's hawk's range, usually weighs or less. Undoubtedly because it pursues large prey often, this hawk has larger and stronger feet, with long talons, and a larger, more prominent hooked beak than most other raptors around its size. Locally, other buteonine hawks, including the ferruginous hawk, the red-tailed hawk and the white-tailed hawk also hunt primarily cottontails and jackrabbits, but each are bigger, weighing about , and , respectively, more on average than a Harris's hawk.


title: Harris's hawk

text: In the Southwestern United States, the most common prey species (in descending order of prevalence) are desert cottontail ("Syvilagus auduboni"), eastern cottontail ("Syvilagus floridanus"), black-tailed jackrabbit ("Lepus californicus"), ground squirrels ("Ammopsermophilus" spp. and "Spermophilus" spp.), woodrats ("Neotoma" spp.), kangaroo rats ("Dipodomys" spp.), pocket gophers ("Geomys" and "Thomomys" spp.), Gambel's quail ("Callipepla gambelii"), scaled quail ("C. squamata"), northern bobwhite ("Colinus virginianus"), cactus wren ("Campylorhynchus brunneicapillus"), northern mockingbird ("Mimus polyglottos"), desert spiny lizards ("Sceloporus magister"), and skinks ("Eumeces" spp.) In the tropics, Harris's hawks have adapted to taking prey of several varieties, including those like chickens and European rabbits introduced by man. In Chile, the common degu ("Octodon degus") makes up 67.5% of the prey.


title: Harris's hawk

text: While most raptors are solitary, only coming together for breeding and migration, Harris's hawks will hunt in cooperative groups of two to six. This is believed to be an adaptation to the lack of prey in the desert climate in which they live. In one hunting technique, a small group flies ahead and scouts, then another group member flies ahead and scouts, and this continues until prey is bagged and shared. In another, all the hawks spread around the prey and one bird flushes it out. Harris's hawks will often chase prey on foot, and are quite fast on the ground and their long, yellow legs are adapted for this, as most hawks don't spend as much time on the ground. Groups of Harris's hawks tend to be more successful at capturing prey than lone hawks, with groups of two to four individuals having ~10% higher success rates per extra individual.


title: Harris's hawk

text: Since about 1980, Harris's hawks have been increasingly used in falconry and are now the most popular hawks in the West (outside of Asia) for that purpose, as they are one of the easiest to train and the most social.


title: Harris's hawk

text: Trained Harris's hawks have been used to remove an unwanted pigeon population from London's Trafalgar Square, and from the tennis courts at Wimbledon.


title: Harris's hawk

text: Trained Harris's hawks have been used for bird abatement by falconry experts in Canada and the United States at various locations including airports, resorts, landfill sites, and industrial sites.


title: Harris's hawk

text: John James Audubon illustrated the Harris's hawk in "The Birds of America" (published in London, 1827–38) as Plate 392 with the title "Louisiana Hawk -"Buteo harrisi"". The image was engraved and colored by the Robert Havell, London workshops in 1837. The original watercolor by Audubon was purchased by the New York History Society where it remains to this day (January 2009).


The Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations was one of the original Thirteen Colonies established on the east coast of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean. It was founded by Roger Williams. It was an English colony from 1636 until 1707, and then a colony of Great Britain until the American Revolution in 1776, when it became the State of Rhode Island.


title: Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations

text: The land that became the English colony was first home to the Narragansett Indigenous Peoples, which led to the name of the modern town of Narragansett, Rhode Island. European settlement began around 1622 with a trading post at Sowams, now the town of Warren, Rhode Island.


text: Roger Williams was a Puritan theologian and linguist who founded Providence Plantations in 1636 on land given to him by Narragansett sachem Canonicus. He was exiled under religious persecution from the Massachusetts Bay Colony; he and his fellow settlers agreed on an egalitarian constitution providing for majority rule "in civil things" with liberty of conscience on spiritual matters. He named the settlement Providence Plantation, believing that God had brought them there. (The term "plantation" was used in the 17th century to mean an agricultural colony.) Williams named the islands in the Narragansett Bay after Christian virtues: Patience, Prudence, and Hope Islands.


text: In 1637, another group of Massachusetts dissenters purchased land from the Indigenous Peoples on Aquidneck Island, which was called Rhode Island at the time, and they established a settlement called Pocasset. The group included William Coddington, John Clarke, and Anne and William Hutchinson, among others. That settlement, however, quickly split into two separate settlements. Samuel Gorton and others remained to establish the settlement of Portsmouth (which formerly was Pocasset) in 1638, while Coddington and Clarke established nearby Newport in 1639. Both settlements were situated on Rhode Island (Aquidneck).


text: The second plantation settlement on the mainland was Samuel Gorton's "Shawomet Purchase" from the Narragansetts in 1642. As soon as Gorton settled at Shawomet, however, the Massachusetts Bay authorities laid claim to his territory and acted to enforce their claim. After considerable difficulties with the Massachusetts Bay General Court, Gorton traveled to London to enlist the help of Robert Rich, 2nd Earl of Warwick, head of the Commission for Foreign Plantations. Gorton returned in 1648 with a letter from Rich, ordering Massachusetts to cease molesting him and his people. In gratitude, he changed the name of Shawomet Plantation to Warwick.


text: In 1651, William Coddington obtained a separate charter from England setting up the Coddington Commission, which made him life governor of the islands of Rhode Island and Conanicut in a federation with Connecticut Colony and Massachusetts Bay Colony. Protest, open rebellion, and a further petition to Oliver Cromwell in London led to the reinstatement of the original charter in 1653.


text: Following the 1660 restoration of royal rule in England, it was necessary to gain a Royal Charter from King Charles II. Charles was a Catholic sympathizer in staunchly Protestant England, and he approved of the colony's promise of religious freedom. He granted the request with the Royal Charter of 1663, uniting the four settlements together into the Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. In the following years, many persecuted groups settled in the colony, notably Quakers and Jews. The Rhode Island colony was very progressive for the time, passing laws abolishing witchcraft trials, imprisonment for debt, and most capital punishment. The colony also passed the first anti-slavery law in America on May 18, 1652, though the practice remained widespread in Rhode Island and there exists no evidence that the legislation was ever enforced.


text: Rhode Island remained at peace with local Indigenous Peoples, but the relationship was more strained between other New England colonies and certain tribes and sometimes led to bloodshed, despite attempts by the Rhode Island leadership to broker peace. During King Philip's War (1675–1676), both sides regularly violated Rhode Island's neutrality. The war's largest battle occurred in Rhode Island on December 19, 1675 when a force of Massachusetts, Connecticut, and Plymouth militia under General Josiah Winslow invaded and destroyed the fortified Narragansett village in the Great Swamp. The Narragansetts also invaded and burned several towns in Rhode Island, including Providence. Roger Williams knew both Metacom (Philip) and Canonchet as children. He was aware of the tribe's activities and promptly sent letters informing the Governor of Massachusetts of enemy movements. Providence Plantations made some efforts at fortifying the town, and Williams even started training recruits for protection. In one of the final actions of the war, troops from Connecticut killed King Philip (Metacom) in Mount Hope, Rhode Island.


text: In the 1680s, Charles II sought to streamline administration of the English colonies and to more closely control their trade. The Navigation Acts passed in the 1660s were widely disliked, since merchants often found themselves trapped and at odds with the rules. However, many colonial governments, Massachusetts principally among them, refused to enforce the acts, and took matters one step further by obstructing the activities of the Crown agents. Charles' successor James II introduced the Dominion of New England in 1686 as a means to accomplish these goals. Under its provisional president Joseph Dudley, the disputed "King's Country" (present-day Washington County) was brought into the dominion, and the rest of the colony was brought under dominion control by Governor Sir Edmund Andros. The rule of Andros was extremely unpopular, especially in Massachusetts. The 1688 Glorious Revolution deposed James II and brought William III and Mary II to the English throne; Massachusetts authorities conspired in April 1689 to have Andros arrested and sent back to England. With this event, the dominion collapsed and Rhode Island resumed its previous government.


text: The bedrock of the economy continued to be agriculture – especially dairy farming – and fishing; lumber and shipbuilding also became major industries. Slaves were introduced at this time, although there is no record of any law re-legalizing slave holding. Ironically, the colony later prospered under the slave trade, by distilling rum to sell in Africa as part of a profitable triangular trade in slaves and sugar between Africa, America, and the Caribbean.


text: Leading figures in the colony were involved in the 1776 launch of the American Revolutionary War which delivered American independence from the British Empire, such as former royal governors Stephen Hopkins and Samuel Ward, as well as John Brown, Nicholas Brown, William Ellery, the Reverend James Manning, and the Reverend Ezra Stiles, each of whom had played an influential role in founding Brown University in Providence in 1764 as a sanctuary for religious and intellectual freedom.


text: On May 4, 1776, Rhode Island became the first of the 13 colonies to renounce its allegiance to the British Crown, and was the fourth to ratify the Articles of Confederation between the newly sovereign states on February 9, 1778. It boycotted the 1787 convention that drew up the United States Constitution, and initially refused to ratify it. It relented after Congress sent a series of constitutional amendments to the states for ratification, the Bill of Rights guaranteeing specific personal freedoms and rights; clear limitations on the government's power in judicial and other proceedings; and explicit declarations that all powers not specifically delegated to Congress by the Constitution are reserved for the states or the people. On May 29, 1790, Rhode Island became the 13th state and the last of the former colonies to ratify the Constitution.


text: The boundaries of the colony underwent numerous changes, including repeated disputes with Massachusetts and Connecticut Colonies who contested for control of territory later awarded to Rhode Island. Rhode Island's early compacts did not stipulate the boundary on the eastern shore of Narrangansett Bay, and did not include any of Washington County, land that belonged to the Narragansett people. The original settlements were at Providence, Warwick, Newport, and Portsmouth, and the territory was expanded by purchasing land from the Narragansetts westward toward Connecticut and the smaller islands in Narrangasett Bay. Block Island was settled in 1637 after the Pequot War, became a part of the colony in 1664, and was incorporated in 1672 as New Shoreham.


text: The western boundary with Connecticut was defined ambiguously as the "Narragansett River" in the Connecticut charter, which was decided by arbitrators in 1663 to be the Pawcatuck River from its mouth to the Ashaway River mouth, from which a northward line was drawn to the Massachusetts line. This resolved a long-standing dispute concerning the former Narragansett lands which were also claimed by Connecticut and Massachusetts, although the dispute continued until 1703, when the arbitration award was upheld. After repeated surveys, a mutually agreeable line was defined and surveyed in 1728.


text: The eastern boundary was also an area of dispute with Massachusetts. Overlapping charters had awarded an area extending three miles inland to both Plymouth and Rhode Island east of Narragansett Bay; this area was awarded to Rhode Island in 1741, establishing Rhode Island's jurisdiction over Barrington, Warren, Bristol, Tiverton, and Little Compton which Massachusetts had claimed. Also adjudicated in the 1741 decision was the award of most of Cumberland to Rhode Island from Massachusetts. The final establishment of the boundaries north of Barrington and east of the Blackstone River occurred almost a century after American independence, requiring protracted litigation and multiple US Supreme Court decisions. In the final decision, a portion of Tiverton was awarded to Massachusetts to become part of Fall River, and 2/3 of Seekonk (Now eastern Pawtucket and East Providence) was awarded to Rhode Island in 1862.


text: Rhode Island's northern border with Massachusetts also underwent a number of changes. Massachusetts surveyed this line in 1642, but subsequent surveys by Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut agreed that it was placed too far south. In 1718-19, commissioners for Rhode Island and Massachusetts agreed on roughly that line anyway (except the section east of the Blackstone River, which remained disputed until 1741), and this is where the line remains today.


text: From 1640 to 1774, the population of Rhode Island grew from 300 to 59,607, but then declined during the American Revolutionary War to 52,946 in 1780. After William Coddington and a group of 13 other men bought Aquidneck Island from Narragansett Indigenous Peoples in 1639, the population of Newport, Rhode Island grew from 96 in 1640 to 7,500 in 1760 (making Newport the fifth-largest city in the Thirteen Colonies at the time), and Newport grew further to 9,209 by 1774. The black population in the colony grew from 25 in 1650 to 3,668 in 1774 (ranging between 3 and 10 percent of the population), and like the state as a whole, declined to 2,671 (or 5 percent of the population) by 1780. In 1774, Indigenous Peoples accounted for 1,479 of the inhabitants of the colony (or 3 percent).


text: Rhode Island was the only New England colony without an established church. In 1650, of the 109 places of worship with regular services in the eight British American colonies (including those without resident clergy), only 4 were located in Rhode Island (2 Baptist and 2 Congregational), while there was a small Jewish enclave in Newport by 1658. Following the First Great Awakening (1730–1755), the number of regular places of worship in Rhode Island grew to 50 in 1750 (30 Baptist, 12 Congregational, 7 Anglican, and 1 Jewish), with the colony gaining an additional 5 regular places of worship by 1776 (26 Baptist, 11 Friends, 9 Congregational, 5 Episcopal, 1 Jewish, 1 New Light Congregational, 1 Presbyterian, and 1 Sandemanian).


text: Puritan mass migration to New England began following the issuance of the royal charter for the Massachusetts Bay Company by Charles I of England in 1629 and continued until the beginning of the English Civil War in 1642, while following the war's conclusion in 1651, immigration to New England leveled off and the population growth owed almost entirely to natural increase rather than immigration or slave importations for the remainder of the 17th century and through the 18th century. Mass migration from New England to the Province of New York and the Province of New Jersey began following the surrender of New Netherland by the Dutch Republic at Fort Amsterdam in 1664, and the population of New York would continue to expand more so by in-migration by families from New England (including Rhode Island) in the 18th century rather than from natural increase.


text: Despite the initial Puritan mass migration also having a 2:1 male sex-imbalance like the British colonization of the Chesapeake Colonies, unlike the Southern Colonies in the 17th century, most Puritan immigrants to New England migrated as families (as approximately two-thirds of the male Puritan immigrants to New England were married rather than unmarried indentured servants), and in late 17th century New England, 3 percent of the population was over the age of 65 (while only 1 percent in the Chesapeake was in 1704). By the American Revolutionary War, only 2 percent of the New England colonial labor force were bonded or convict laborers and another 2 percent were black slaves, while 9 percent of the colonial black population in New England were free persons of color (as compared with only 3 percent in the Southern Colonies). In February 1784, the Rhode Island General Assembly passed a gradual emancipation law that increased the ratio of the free black population in Rhode Island to 78 percent by the 1790 U.S. Census and that would ultimately eliminate slavery in Rhode Island by 1842.


title: Territorial dispute

text: A territorial dispute or boundary dispute is a disagreement over the possession or control of land between two or more political entities.


title: Territorial dispute

text: Territorial disputes are often related to the possession of natural resources such as rivers, fertile farmland, mineral or petroleum resources although the disputes can also be driven by culture, religion, and ethnic nationalism. Territorial disputes often result from vague and unclear language in a treaty that set up the original boundary.


title: Territorial dispute

text: Territorial disputes are a major cause of wars and terrorism, as states often try to assert their sovereignty over a territory through invasion, and non-state entities try to influence the actions of politicians through terrorism. International law does not support the use of force by one state to annex the territory of another state. The UN Charter states, "All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state, or in any other manner inconsistent with the Purposes of the United Nations."


title: Territorial dispute

text: In some cases in which the boundary is not demarcated, such as the Taiwan Strait, and Kashmir, the parties involved define a Line of Control, which serves as the "de facto" international border.


title: Territorial dispute

text: Territorial disputes have significant meaning in the international society, both by their relation to the fundamental right of states, sovereignty and also because they are important for international peace. International law has significant relations with territorial disputes because territorial disputes tackles the basis of international law; the state territory. International law is based on the persons of international law, which requires a defined territory, as mentioned in the 1933 Montevideo Convention on the Rights and Duties of States.


title: Territorial dispute

text: "a person of international law should possess the following qualifications: (a) a permanent population; (b) a defined territory; (c) government; and (d) capacity to enter into relations with other States"


title: Territorial dispute

text: Also, B. T. Sumner's article mentions, "In international law and relations, ownership of territory is significant because sovereignty over land defines what constitutes a state."


title: Territorial dispute

text: Therefore, the breach of a country's borders or territorial disputes pose a threat to a state's very sovereignty and the right as a person of international law. In addition, territorial disputes are sometimes brought to the International Court of Justice, as was the case in Costa Rica and Nicaragua (2005). Territorial disputes cannot be separated from international law, whose basis is on the law of state borders, and their potential settlement also relies on international law and the Court.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) is a general linear model which blends ANOVA and regression. ANCOVA evaluates whether the means of a dependent variable (DV) are equal across levels of a categorical independent variable (IV) often called a treatment, while statistically controlling for the effects of other continuous variables that are not of primary interest, known as covariates (CV) or nuisance variables. Mathematically, ANCOVA decomposes the variance in the DV into variance explained by the CV(s), variance explained by the categorical IV, and residual variance. Intuitively, ANCOVA can be thought of as 'adjusting' the DV by the group means of the CV(s).


title: Analysis of covariance

text: In this equation, the DV, formula_2 is the jth observation under the ith categorical group; the CV, formula_3 is the "j"th observation of the covariate under the "i"th group. Variables in the model that are derived from the observed data are formula_4 (the grand mean) and formula_5 (the global mean for covariate formula_6). The variables to be fitted are formula_7 (the effect of the "i"th level of the IV), formula_8 (the slope of the line) and formula_9 (the associated unobserved error term for the "j"th observation in the "i"th group).


title: Analysis of covariance

text: Under this specification, the categorical treatment effects sum to zero formula_10 The standard assumptions of the linear regression model are also assumed to hold, as discussed below.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: ANCOVA can be used to increase statistical power (the probability a significant difference is found between groups when one exists) by reducing the within-group error variance. In order to understand this, it is necessary to understand the test used to evaluate differences between groups, the F-test. The "F"-test is computed by dividing the explained variance between groups (e.g., medical recovery differences) by the unexplained variance within the groups. Thus,


title: Analysis of covariance

text: If this value is larger than a critical value, we conclude that there is a significant difference between groups. Unexplained variance includes error variance (e.g., individual differences), as well as the influence of other factors. Therefore, the influence of CVs is grouped in the denominator. When we control for the effect of CVs on the DV, we remove it from the denominator making "F" larger, thereby increasing our power to find a significant effect if one exists at all.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: Another use of ANCOVA is to adjust for preexisting differences in nonequivalent (intact) groups. This controversial application aims at correcting for initial group differences (prior to group assignment) that exists on DV among several intact groups. In this situation, participants cannot be made equal through random assignment, so CVs are used to adjust scores and make participants more similar than without the CV. However, even with the use of covariates, there are no statistical techniques that can equate unequal groups. Furthermore, the CV may be so intimately related to the IV that removing the variance on the DV associated with the CV would remove considerable variance on the DV, rendering the results meaningless.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: There are several key assumptions that underlie the use of ANCOVA and affect interpretation of the results. The standard linear regression assumptions hold; further we assume that the slope of the covariate is equal across all treatment groups (homogeneity of regression slopes).


title: Analysis of covariance

text: The error is a random variable with conditional zero mean and equal variances for different treatment classes and observations.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: The slopes of the different regression lines should be equivalent, i.e., regression lines should be parallel among groups.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: The fifth issue, concerning the homogeneity of different treatment regression slopes is particularly important in evaluating the appropriateness of ANCOVA model. Also note that we only need the error terms to be normally distributed. In fact both the independent variable and the concomitant variables will not be normally distributed in most cases.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: If a CV is highly related to another CV (at a correlation of 0.5 or more), then it will not adjust the DV over and above the other CV. One or the other should be removed since they are statistically redundant.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: This is most important after adjustments have been made, but if you have it before adjustment you are likely to have it afterwards.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: To see if the CV significantly interacts with the IV, run an ANCOVA model including both the IV and the CVxIV interaction term.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: If the CVxIV interaction is significant, ANCOVA should not be performed. Instead, Green & Salkind suggest assessing group differences on the DV at particular levels of the CV. Also consider using a moderated regression analysis, treating the CV and its interaction as another IV. Alternatively, one could use mediation analyses to determine if the CV accounts for the IV's effect on the DV.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: In this analysis, you need to use the adjusted means and adjusted MSerror. The adjusted means (also referred to as least squares means, LS means, estimated marginal means, or EMM) refer to the group means after controlling for the influence of the CV on the DV.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: If there was a significant main effect, it means that there is a significant difference between the levels of one IV, ignoring all other factors. To find exactly which levels are significantly different from one another, one can use the same follow-up tests as for the ANOVA.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: If there are two or more IVs, there may be a significant interaction, which means that the effect of one IV on the DV changes depending on the level of another factor. One can investigate the simple main effects using the same methods as in a factorial ANOVA.


title: Analysis of covariance

text: While the inclusion of a covariate into an ANOVA generally increases statistical power by accounting for some of the variance in the dependent variable and thus increasing the ratio of variance explained by the independent variables, adding a covariate into ANOVA also reduces the degrees of freedom. Accordingly, adding a covariate which accounts for very little variance in the dependent variable might actually reduce power.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: <section begin=lead />Anti-abortion violence is violence committed against individuals and organizations that perform abortions or provide abortion counseling. Incidents of violence have included destruction of property, including vandalism; crimes against people, including kidnapping, stalking, assault, attempted murder, and murder; and crimes affecting both people and property, including arson and terrorism, such as bombings.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: Anti-abortion extremists are considered a current domestic terrorist threat by the United States Department of Justice. Most documented incidents have occurred in the United States, though they have also occurred in Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. G. Davidson Smith of Canadian Security Intelligence Service defined anti-abortion violence as single-issue terrorism. A study of 198287 violence considered the incidents "limited political" or "sub-revolutionary" terrorism.<section end=lead />


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: Anti-abortion violence is specifically directed towards people who or places which provide abortion. It is recognized as "single-issue terrorism". Incidents include vandalism, arson, and bombings of abortion clinics, such as those committed by Eric Rudolph (199698), and murders or attempted murders of physicians and clinic staff, as committed by James Kopp (1998), Paul Jennings Hill (1994), Scott Roeder (2009), Michael F. Griffin (1993), and Peter James Knight (2001).


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: Those who engage in or support such actions defend the use of force with claims of justifiable homicide or defense of others in the interest of protecting the life of the fetus. David C. Nice, of the University of Georgia, describes support for anti-abortion violence as a political weapon against women's rights, one that is associated with tolerance for violence toward women. Numerous organizations have also recognized anti-abortion extremism as a form of Christian terrorism.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: Since the 1970s in the United States, there have been at least 11 murders, 42 bombings, 196 arsons, and 491 assaults against abortion providers. At least one murder occurred in Australia, as well as several attempted murders in Canada. There were 1,793 abortion providers in the United States in 2008, as well as 197 abortion providers in Canada in 2001. The National Abortion Federation reported between 1,356 and 13,415 incidents of picketing at United States providers each year from 1995 to 2014.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: The Federal Freedom of Access to Clinic Entrances Act was passed in 1994 to protect reproductive health service facilities and their staff and patients from violent threats, assault, vandalism, and blockade. The law (18 U.S.C. sec. 248) also provides the same level of legal protection to all pregnancy-related medical clinics, including anti-abortion counseling centers; it also applies to use of threatening tactics directed towards churches and places of worship. State, provincial, and local governments have also passed similar laws designed to afford legal protection of access to abortion in the United States and Canada.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: Violence has also occurred in Canada, where at least three doctors have been attacked to date. The physicians were part of a pattern of attacks, which targeted providers in Canada and upstate New York (including the fatal shooting of Barnett Slepian of New York). All victims were shot, or shot at, in their homes with a rifle, at dusk or in the morning, in late October or early November over a multi-year period. There is speculation that the timing of the shootings is related to the Canadian observance of Remembrance Day.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: A joint Canadian-FBI task force investigating the shootings was formed in December 1997—three years after the first attack. An official of the Hamilton-Wentworth Regional Police complained that the Canadian Government was not adequately financing the investigation. He said he requested more funds in July that would raise its budget to $250,000. Federal officials rejected the request on October 15, a week before Slepian was killed.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: In 2001, James Kopp, an American citizen and resident was charged with the murder of Slepian and the attempted murder of Short; some speculate that Kopp was responsible for the other shootings.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: In the United States, violence directed towards abortion providers has killed at least eleven people, including four doctors, two clinic employees, a security guard, a police officer, two people (unclear of their connection), and a clinic escort. Seven murders occurred in the 1990s.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: According to statistics gathered by the National Abortion Federation (NAF), an organization of abortion providers, since 1977 in the United States and Canada, there have been 17 attempted murders, 383 death threats, 153 incidents of assault or battery, 13 wounded, 100 butyric acid stink bomb attacks, 373 physical invasions, 41 bombings, 655 anthrax threats, and 3 kidnappings committed against abortion providers. Between 1977 and 1990, 77 death threats were made, with 250 made between 1991 and 1999. Attempted murders in the U.S. included: in 1985 45% of clinics reported bomb threats, decreasing to 15% in 2000. One fifth of clinics in 2000 experienced some form of extreme activity.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: According to NAF, since 1977 in the United States and Canada, property crimes committed against abortion providers have included 41 bombings, 173 arsons, 91 attempted bombings or arsons, 619 bomb threats, 1630 incidents of trespassing, 1264 incidents of vandalism, and 100 attacks with butyric acid ("stink bombs"). "The New York Times" also cites over one hundred clinic bombings and incidents of arson, over three hundred invasions, and over four hundred incidents of vandalism between 1978 and 1993. The first clinic arson occurred in Oregon in March 1976 and the first bombing occurred in February 1978 in Ohio. Incidents have included:


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: The first hoax letters claiming to contain anthrax were mailed to U.S. clinics in October 1998, a few days after the shooting of Barnett Slepian; since then, there have been 655 such bioterror threats made against abortion providers. None of the "anthrax" in these cases was real.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: The Department of Justice and Department of Homeland Security's joint Terrorism Knowledge Base, identify the Army of God as an underground terrorist organization active in the United States. It was formed in 1982, and is responsible for a substantial amount of anti-abortion violence. The group has committed property crimes, acts of kidnapping, attempted murder, and murder. While sharing a common ideology and tactics, members claim to rarely communicate; to avoid risk of information leaking to outside sources.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: In August 1982, three men identifying as the Army of God kidnapped Hector Zevallos (a doctor and clinic owner) and his wife, Rosalee Jean, holding them for eight days and released them unharmed. In 1993, Shelly Shannon, an Army of God member, admitted to the attempted murder of George Tiller. Law enforcement officials found the "Army of God Manual", a tactical guide to arson, chemical attacks, invasions, and bombings buried in Shelly Shannon's backyard. Paul Jennings Hill was found guilty of the murder of both John Britton and clinic escort James Barrett.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: The Army of God published a "Defensive Action Statement" signed by more than two dozen supporters of Hill, saying that "whatever force is legitimate to defend the life of a born child is legitimate to defend the life of an unborn child... if in fact Paul Hill did kill or wound abortionist John Britton and clinic assistants James Barrett and Mrs. Barrett, his actions are morally justified if they were necessary for the purpose of defending innocent human life". The AOG claimed responsibility for Eric Robert Rudolph's 1997 shrapnel bombing of abortion clinics in Atlanta and Birmingham. The organization embraces its description as terrorist.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: In the late 1990s, an organization called American Coalition of Life Activists (ACLA) was accused of implicitly advocating violence by its publication on its "Nuremberg Files" website of wanted-style posters, which featured a photograph of a physician who performed abortions along with a monetary reward for any information that would lead to his "arrest, conviction, and revocation of license to practice medicine". The ACLA's website described these physicians as war criminals and accused them of committing "crimes against humanity". The web site also published names, home addresses, telephone numbers, and other personal information regarding abortion providers—highlighting the names of those who had been wounded and striking out those of who had been killed. George Tiller's name was included on this list along with many others. The site was accused of being a thinly-veiled hit list intended to incite violence; others claimed that it was protected under the First Amendment of the United States Constitution. In 2002, after a prolonged debate, the 9th Circuit Court of Appeals ruled that the "posters" constituted an illegal threat.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: Anti-abortion organizations including Family Research Council, Americans United for Life, Concerned Women for America, Susan B. Anthony List, American Life League, Students for Life of America, Pro-Life Action League and 40 Days For Life condemned the 2009 murder of Kansas doctor George Tiller.


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: In a 2009 press release, Operation Rescue founder Randall Terry issued a statement calling for peaceful protests to expose abortion providers. According to Media Matters and "The Colorado Independent", however, Terry has also led apparently contradictory public prayers that an abortion provider would "[convert] to God" or that "calamity [would] strike him". Terry added that he hoped the "baby killer would be tried and executed for crimes against humanity". The doctor targeted by Terry's prayers said to the press, "He's clearly inciting someone, anyone, to kill me"; a spokesman responded that Terry only meant that "God would deal with [the doctor]".


title: Anti-abortion violence

text: Flip Benham, director of Operation Rescue, accused "those in the abortion-providing industry" of committing most of the violence in an attempt to discredit the antiabortion movement. He defended his organization's use of inflammatory rhetoric, saying: "This whole thing isn't about violence. It's all about silence – silencing the Christian message. That's what they want." He also stated, "Our inflammatory rhetoric is only revealing a far more inflammatory truth."


title: Shane Duffy

text: Shane Patrick Michael Duffy (born 1 January 1992) is an Irish professional footballer who plays as a defender for club Fulham, on loan from Brighton & Hove Albion, and the Republic of Ireland national team.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy came through the youth academy at Everton, where he completed his development after being promoted into the senior squad, spending most of his time at the club out on loan. He joined Blackburn Rovers in 2014 for an undisclosed fee, spending two years with the Lancashire club before moving to Brighton in 2016, where he earned promotion to the Premier League. He spent the 2020–21 season on loan at Celtic where he won the delayed 2020 Scottish Cup final.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy played for Northern Ireland at youth international level before switching allegiance to the Republic of Ireland. Duffy made his debut for the senior side in 2014, representing the country at UEFA Euro 2016 and gone on to make 51 caps to date.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy was born in Derry, Northern Ireland. As a youth, he played Gaelic football for Doire Colmcille CLG and association football for Foyle Harps, both based in Derry. However, Duffy had to make a choice between Gaelic football and association football, so he choose association football. He represented Northern Ireland at under 16 level in the 2007 Victory Shield tournament and impressed Everton manager David Moyes in a performance at Bloomfield Road against England.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy said that he once played for Derry City as a youngster and described it as a good experience for him.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy joined Everton in November 2008 as a first-year scholar and worked his way through the U-18 and reserve teams.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Manager David Moyes named him and several young players in the first team for the pre-season friendlies and Duffy scored his first Everton goal against Rochdale in a 4–0 victory. He was promoted to the first team for the 2009–10 season and appeared on the substitute bench in league matches. At the age of 17, he made his professional debut versus AEK Athens in the UEFA Europa League in December 2009, coming on for the injured Sylvain Distin. In Everton's next European fixture, Duffy made his home debut at Goodison Park, completing the full 90 minutes against BATE Borisov, making his second and last appearances for the side in the 2009–10 season. At the end of the 2009–10 season, he was awarded the club's Reserve Player of the Year.


title: Shane Duffy

text: In May 2010 Duffy was seriously injured after colliding with a goalkeeper during a training match. He had undergone emergency surgery after lacerating his liver, and losing over three litres of blood in what medical staff described as 'freak accident'. Two months later, he spoke out about his injury, saying: "I can't thank them enough. I've thanked them so many times and I'll thank them again for being so good at their jobs and saving me. I'm so happy. I appreciate everything they've done for me. It's hard to tell people what it feels like because no one else knows I nearly died. So I just have to live life now, and don't take anything for granted." Duffy made his return from injury, starting the whole game for Everton's Reserves Team in a 2–0 defeat against Sligo Rovers on 8 August 2010.


title: Shane Duffy

text: After being recalled from his loan spell at Scunthorpe United, Duffy made his Premier League debut at White Hart Lane on 11 January 2012, coming on as a substitute for the final 30 minutes in a 2–0 defeat to Tottenham Hotspur. With Everton's regular centre-backs, Sylvain Distin and Phil Jagielka, injured for the next game three days later, Duffy made the first Premier League start of his career in a 1–1 draw with Aston Villa. He then made two more starts by the end of the month, coming against Blackburn Rovers and Fulham. His performance was praised by Manager David Moyes, saying: "Duffy has played really well in the games. He has been steady and looked mature in the games he has played. It is not easy for a young centre-half to play in the Premier League and we have tried to keep his game steady and simple and he has done well." Following the return of Jagieka and Distin, Duffy returned to the substitute bench and playing for the reserve side for the rest of the 2011–12 season. He went on to make five appearances in all competitions for the side.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Ahead of the 2012–13 season, Duffy was officially promoted to the senior first team following his involvement in the club's pre–season matches. He made his first appearance of the 2012–13 season, coming on as a second-half substitute, in a 5–0 win against Leyton Orient in the second round of the League Cup on 29 August 2012. It was announced on 12 September 2012 that Duffy signed a contract extension with Everton, keeping him until 2015. However, he found himself behind the pecking order in the first team, being placed on the substitute bench throughout the 2012–13 season. As a result, Duffy played in the reserve team throughout the 2012–13 season, making a contribution for the reserve side, scoring three times. He also captained the side as well. Despite this, Duffy later made two more appearances for the club, both coming on as a late substitute.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy joined Burnley on loan on 24 March 2011 on an initial 28-day loan with the possibility of an extension until the end of the 2010–11 season. Duffy made his debut for Burnley on 2 April 2011 in the 2–1 defeat to Ipswich Town, playing the full 90 minutes. This turns out to be his only appearances for the club, as he returned to his parent club on 20 April 2011.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy stated on his Twitter account that he wanted to be loaned out to get first team football. As a result, Duffy joined Scunthorpe United on loan on 31 August 2011. He made his debut on 10 September 2011, starting the whole game, in a 1–1 draw against Sheffield United, winning the Man of the Match award. Duffy's appearance in the first team led to Scunthorpe United extending his loan spells on three occasions. It wasn't until on 29 October 2011 when he scored his first goal for the club, in a 2–1 win against Tranmere Rovers. Two months later on 26 December 2011, Duffy scored his second goal for the club, in a 3–1 loss against Bury. He made a total of 19 appearances for the Iron before his parent club recalled him on 5 January 2012, due to an injury to Phil Jagielka, Everton's regular centre-back.


title: Shane Duffy

text: On 26 September 2013, Duffy joined Championship club Yeovil Town on an initial month loan. He made his Yeovil Town's debut, starting the whole game, in a 1–1 draw against Bolton Wanderers two days later. Duffy then helped the side two consecutive clean sheets in two matches between 30 November 2013 and 3 December 2013 against Watford and Blackpool. Duffy's loan was eventually extended for a further two months and he made a total of 14 appearances for Yeovil before returning to Everton on 27 December 2013. He rejoined Yeovil on 1 January 2014 when the transfer window re-opened, joining on loan until the end of the season. After keeping two consecutive clean sheets once again, Duffy scored his first goal for the club, in a 1–1 draw against Reading on 1 March 2014. Having become a first team regular for Yeovil Town throughout the 2013–14 season, he made thirty–nine appearances and scoring once in all competitions.


title: Shane Duffy

text: On 1 September 2014, Duffy joined Blackburn Rovers, on a three-year deal for an undisclosed fee. The initial payment was understood to be in the region of £400,000.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy made his Blackburn Rovers debut, coming on as a late substitute, in a 3–2 loss against Derby County on 17 September 2014. Since making his debut for the club, he quickly became a first team regular for the side, playing in the centre–back position, partnering with Grant Hanley. On 4 November 2014, Duffy scored his first goal for Blackburn Rovers, in a 2–2 draw against Millwall. However, he lost his first team place as the 2014–15 season progressed and never played for the side again after suffering a knee injury in training. Duffy acknowledged by saying: "I know by my own standards I haven't been good enough. I've been disappointed with myself and I fully deserved not to be in the team last week. But I'm pleased by the way I've reacted and I'm determined to get back in there." He went on to finish the season by making twenty–two appearances and scoring once in all competitions.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Ahead of the 2015–16 season, Duffy managed to recover from his knee injury and expect to fight his way to the first team for Blackburn Rovers. He made his first appearance of the season, starting the game, in a 2–1 loss against Wolverhampton Wanderers in the opening game of the season. Since returning from injury, Duffy continued to be a first team regular for the side, playing in the centre–back position. On 16 September 2015 he scored his first goal of the season, in a 2–2 draw against Queens Park Rangers. This was followed up by setting up the club's first goal of the game, in a 3–0 win against Charlton Athletic. His performance was considered an improvement on the previous season. Manager Paul Lambert praised the partnership of Hanley and Duffy. Duffy lost out to Sam Byram after making it to the final 3-man shortlist for the December 2015 Championship Player of the Month. After the absence of Hanley, Duffy captained Blackburn Rovers for the first time, in a 2–0 loss against Hull City on 12 February 2016. This was followed up by scoring his second goal of the season, in a 3–0 win against Fulham.


title: Shane Duffy

text: On 21 February 2016, he captained the side for the second time this season, as Blackburn Rovers lost 5–1 against West Ham United. A month later on 19 March 2016, Duffy scored his third goal of the season, in a 1–0 win against Brentford. In a follow–up match against Preston North End, he captained the side, only to be sent–off in the 24th minute for handball, as they lost 2–1. After serving a one match suspension, Duffy then scored his fourth goal of the season, in a 1–0 win against Rotherham United on 30 April 2016. Despite missing five matches later in the 2015–16 season, he went on to make forty–two appearances and scoring four times in all competitions.


title: Shane Duffy

text: At the start of the 2016–17 season, Duffy started the first five matches of the season, including scoring two goals in the League Cup against Mansfield Town and Crewe Alexandra. However, during a league match against Cardiff City, Duffy scored 2 own goals and was later sent off in the final minutes of the game.


title: Shane Duffy

text: On 26 August 2016, Duffy signed a four-year deal with fellow Championship side Brighton & Hove Albion for an undisclosed fee. Earlier the same day, it had been reported by "The Mirror" that the transfer cost the "Seagulls" a club record fee of £4 million, after turning down an extension to his contract at Blackburn Rovers.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy made his debut for Brighton & Hove Albion, starting the whole game, in a 2–0 loss against Newcastle United on 27 August 2016. He helped the side keep four consecutive clean sheets between 13 September 2016 and 27 September 2016 against Huddersfield Town, Burton Albion, Barnsley and Ipswich Town. His performance earned him a nomination for September's Player of the Month but lost out to Scott Hogan. A month later, Duffy, once again, kept four consecutive clean sheets between 18 October 2016 and 5 November 2016 against Wolverhampton Wanderers, Wigan Athletic, Norwich City and Bristol City. On 13 December 2016 he scored his first goal for the club, in a 3–2 win against Blackburn Rovers. Duffy's second goal then came on 5 February 2017, in a 3–3 draw against Brentford. Duffy was an ever-present in Brighton's backline in his first season at the club, forming a partnership with Lewis Dunk. This lasted until he suffered a metatarsal fracture that kept him out for the rest of the 2016–17 season. Despite this, Duffy's contribution has helped Brighton gain promotion to the Premier League in 2016–17 by making over 30 league appearances for the club. In the summer following Brighton's promotion, Duffy signed a new contract with the club, extending his stay on the south coast to June 2021.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy was named in the starting 11 for Brighton in their first ever Premier League fixture on 12 August 2017 where they lost at home to Manchester City 2–0. He played in Brighton's first ever Premier League victory, a 3–1 home win over West Brom on 9 September. Since the start of the 2017–18 season, Duffy continued to regain his first team place, partnering with Dunk once again. By December, he made 128 clearances - more than any other player, and then 173 a month later. Duffy only made one FA Cup appearance in the 2017–18 season coming in the 2–0 quarter final defeat away to Manchester United on 17 March 2018. In a 1–1 draw against Huddersfield Town on 7 April 2018, he was at fault for terrible back pass to allow Steve Mounié slot in the equaliser. After the match, Manager Chris Hughton said: "It was one of those things. When you get a player who has been as good as he has been this season, he will be the first one – and he has been – to hold his hand up. You just hope that any mistake you make doesn't lead to a goal. Unfortunately for us it did." On 4 May, Duffy helped keep a clean sheet where Brighton beat Manchester United 1–0 at home to secure their Premier League status. Duffy played in all but one league appearance where the Sussex Club finished 15th in the table.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Brighton played against Manchester United in their second match of the 2018–19 season where Duffy scored to help "The Seagulls" to a consecutive win over "United" in a 3–2 victory at Falmer Stadium on 19 August 2018. He scored again on 17 September opening Brighton's come back in the eventual 2–2 away draw at Southampton. Duffy helped the side keep three consecutive clean sheets between 5 October 2018 and 27 October 2018 against West Ham United, Newcastle United and Wolverhampton Wanderers. In a match against Huddersfield Town on 1 December 2018, he scored his second goal of the season, in a 1–1 draw. However, Duffy was shown a straight red card for head butting Patrick van Aanholt on 4 December in a match against rivals Crystal Palace. Brighton went on to win the match 3–1 at home. Up until his sending off, he started in every match for the side since the start of the season.


title: Shane Duffy

text: After serving a three match suspension, Duffy returned to the starting line–up against Arsenal, as they drew 1–1 on 26 December 2018. A week later on 2 January 2019, he scored his fourth goal of the season, in a 2–2 draw against West Ham United. His fifth goal of the season then came on 9 February 2019, in a 3–1 loss against Burnley. Duffy played in 5 FA Cup appearances and was featured game at Brighton's trip to Wembley, where "The Albion" made the Semi-final in which they were knocked out by the eventual champions, Manchester City. Since returning from suspension, he continued to regain his first team place for the rest of the season. On 27 April 2019 Duffy featured in the 1–1 home draw against Newcastle in which was a vital point in Brighton's survival battle coming against Cardiff. Brighton's Premier league safety was secured on 4 May as a result of Cardiff losing at home to Brighton's bitter rivals, Crystal Palace. This confirmation came exactly a year after "The Seagulls" secured their safety in the 2017–18 season. However, after narrowly avoiding relegation, Chris Hughton was dismissed on 13 May, a day after the 2018–19 season ended. Duffy was named Brighton's player of the year for the 2018–19 season helping the club maintain Premier League football. At the end of the 2018–19 season, he made forty appearances and scoring five times in all competitions.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Hughton was replaced by Swansea City and former Östersund's boss, Graham Potter on 20 May. (The end of the previous season). Duffy played in Potter's first ever game in charge of a Premier League club, a 3–0 away win over Watford on the opening day of the 2019–20 season. Duffy made his first EFL Cup appearance for the Sussex Club where he captained the side on 25 September 2019 in a 3–1 home loss to Aston Villa, only for him to go off injured in the game where Potter gave 10 debuts with an average team age of just over 21. Duffy netted his first goal of the season in a 2–0 home victory over Norwich on 2 November 2019. Throughout Graham Potter's first season Duffy's playing time fell due to extra competition in defense including the new signing Adam Webster consistently keeping him out of the starting 11. Despite this, he went on to make twenty–one appearances and scoring once in all competitions.


title: Shane Duffy

text: On 2 September 2020, Duffy joined Celtic on a season-long loan. Duffy scored on his Celtic debut in a 5–0 win over Ross County on 12 September. He scored in the next game four days later away at St Mirren, scoring a header from a free kick to make it two goals in as many games. He made his first UEFA Europa League appearance in over 10 years playing the whole match helping keep in a clean sheet in a 1–0 away victory over Riga of Latvia in the third qualifying round to progress into the play-off round. He started in the 2020 Scottish Cup Final on 20 December in which the semi final and final were delayed until the 2020–21 season as a result of Coronavirus. He was replaced at the start of extra time in an eventual penalty shootout win or for "The Bhoys" to claim their 40th title after a 3–3 draw after 120+ minutes.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy scored his first goal at Celtic Park on 13 December adding Celtic's second in a 2–0 win over Kilmarnock in front of the empty stadium. Duffy's last game for Celtic on 14 February 2021 in a 2–1 away win at St Johnstone with 10 league games remaining. On 7 May, Duffy returned to Brighton with two games of the season remaining after picking up an injury after what he called a "tough year" on and off the pitch. He made 27 appearances overall, scoring three goals where Celtic finished as league runners-up missing out on 10 titles in a row.


title: Shane Duffy

text: With speculation about Duffy's future with "The Seagulls" during pre-season ahead of the 2021–22 campaign Graham Potter told The Argus that, "He has done really well since he has been back" since his return from Celtic. Duffy made an appearance in all three friendlies being assigned to the number 24 shirt. On 14 August, he made his first competitive "Albion" appearance since the 2019–20 season helping Brighton fight back to take all three points in a 2–1 away win at Burnley in the opening game of the season. Duffy scored on his first "Albion" appearance at The Amex since his return, opening the scoring in the 2–0 home victory over Watford on 21 August in the second game of the season.


title: Shane Duffy

text: On 5 August 2022, Duffy joined newly promoted Premier League club Fulham on a season-long loan deal. He made his debut the following day, replacing Bobby Decordova-Reid after 94 minutes in a 2–2 home draw against Liverpool.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy was part of the Northern Ireland youth set-up from the U16 level upward. In July 2008, he was called up to the Northern Ireland U20 squad for the Milk Cup. An U17 regular, he was in the squad for their unsuccessful 2009 European Championship qualifying campaign and scored the only goal of the match, a penalty, in the opening game against Liechtenstein.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Aged 17, Duffy was called up to the senior team in June 2009 for a friendly against Italy but was an unused substitute. Despite not playing, he was praised by Manager Nigel Worthington, saying: "I would have liked to have given him a little bit. It's unfortunate because he was first class. I had a word with him and, even though he did not play, he has had a great season." In August 2009, he made his Northern Ireland U21 debut, playing the whole match and scoring in the 2–1 away loss to Portugal.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy played several games in the 2010 UEFA Under-19 Championship qualifiers, scoring twice in a 4–0 victory over Bosnia-Herzegovina, Northern Ireland's first win of the qualifying campaign.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy opted to play for the Republic of Ireland, for which he was eligible through his Irish nationality. Duffy later reflected on his decision, saying: "It was what I wanted to do. It was difficult for me to leave because of what they've done for me in Northern Ireland since I was young. They brought me through the ranks which gave me the chance to come to Everton. So it was hard to leave all the coaches and all the players, but it was always a case of wanting to come to my own country. I spoke to a couple of people about it because I didn't want to disrespect Northern Ireland, but I just had to do what was best for me and I thought it would be best for me to switch."


title: Shane Duffy

text: Following a discussion with former international Liam Brady, Duffy was called up to the Republic of Ireland training camp in May 2010. Everton formally informed the IFA of Duffy's change in allegiance, and the player was called up for a training camp squad for the Republic of Ireland squad to take place in May 2010. At the camp Duffy suffered a 'freak' injury, during a match between the Republic of Ireland development squad and the Ireland amateur side, when he collided with goalkeeper Adrian Walsh and had to undergo lifesaving surgery at the Mater Hospital after damaging his liver and was discharged six days later after making a full recovery. Although it was expected to take a number of months for him to recuperate and regain his fitness, Duffy returned to action in little over ten weeks after his injury and has appeared for Republic of Ireland under-19 and under-21 squads throughout 2010. He was called up for the U21 friendly versus Portugal in March 2011. Duffy then scored his first Republic of Ireland U21 goal, in a 4–1 win against Liechtenstein U21 on 11 October 2011. Two years later, he was given the armband for the U21 side, leading the side for the rest of 2013. Duffy went on to make twenty appearances and scoring once for the Republic of Ireland U21 side.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Players such as Duffy, James McClean, Daniel Kearns, Darron Gibson and Marc Wilson had represented Northern Ireland at youth level but later opted to play for Republic of Ireland. The IFA disputed the players' right to do so under FIFA rules and felt the current rules were a "clear disadvantage over all other 206 Associations". The Irish Football Association took a case to the Court of Arbitration for Sport with the hope of getting FIFA to 'uphold' the rules. Although Duffy's name is often linked with this dispute and the IFA appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, his situation differs from that of players such as Darron Gibson because of his close family ties to Donegal. This means he would have been eligible to play for the Republic of Ireland wherever he was born.


title: Shane Duffy

text: On 13 February 2012, less than two years after sustaining a life-threatening injury, Duffy received a call-up to the Republic of Ireland senior squad, replacing the injured Richard Dunne. At the same month, he expressed his desire to earn a place for the national team for the UEFA Euro 2012. Duffy, however, failed to make the final cut, which left him "disappointed". On 1 November 2012, Duffy was named in the provisional 26-man Republic of Ireland squad for the friendly fixture against Greece on 14 November 2012. Duffy received his next call-up on 9 May 2014 when he was included in the 32-man provisional squad ahead of friendlies against Turkey, Italy, Costa Rica and Portugal.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy had his international debut in June 2014 lining up against Costa Rica in a friendly in Philadelphia. Two years later, he made his second appearance for Ireland against Switzerland, winning the Man of the Match award, setting up Ciaran Clark for the only goal of the game. He was called up for Euro 2016, but was an unused sub for the first two matches against Sweden and Belgium. In the final group game of the tournament Duffy came into the team and a heroic performance helped secure an historic victory against Italy to propel the Republic of Ireland into the last sixteen. He was sent off for a professional foul on Antoine Griezmann as the Republic of Ireland were knocked out Euro 2016, losing 2–1 to France.


title: Shane Duffy

text: A year later on 2 September 2017, Duffy scored his first Republic of Ireland goal, in a 1–1 draw against Georgia. Two months later, Duffy played in both legs of the World Cup Play–Offs for a place in the World Cup against Denmark, which he scored the opening goal in the second leg, as Republic of Ireland lost 5–1 on aggregate and Denmark qualified for the 2018 FIFA World Cup. On 7 June 2019, Duffy scored an 85th minute headed equalizer for the Republic of Ireland against Denmark in a Euro 2020 qualifier, securing a 1–1 draw and preserving Ireland's unbeaten start to the campaign. On 18 November 2019, he captained Republic of Ireland for the first time, as they drew 1–1 against Denmark.


title: Shane Duffy

text: He retained the captaincy in Stephen Kenny's first game in charge of Ireland on 3 September 2020, scoring with an injury time header in the 1–1 draw with Bulgaria in the UEFA Nations League.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy made his 50th appearance for the Republic of Ireland on 11 November 2021, helping keep a clean sheet in the goalless 2022 World Cup qualifier tie at home against Portugal. Three days and one cap later, Duffy scored the opening goal, a header from a free kick, in an eventual 3–0 away win over Luxembourg, coming in the dead rubber World Cup qualifier.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy said he's close friends with former teammate, Darron Gibson. Duffy attended a St. Anne's school in Ireland, and supported Celtic growing up. Duffy has two children.


title: Shane Duffy

text: Duffy once ranked Wigan Athletic's supporters as "the worst fans in England" and compared the atmosphere at the DW Stadium's atmosphere to a "library". In December 2017, he was fined £811 after being convicted of speeding by breaking a 30 mph limit in his Mercedes. In May 2020, Duffy's father, Brian, passed away at age of 53. He previously suffered a family bereavement that saw him miss a match during his playing career.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: In human anatomy, the infraspinatus muscle is a thick triangular muscle, which occupies the chief part of the infraspinatous fossa. As one of the four muscles of the rotator cuff, the main function of the infraspinatus is to externally rotate the humerus and stabilize the shoulder joint.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: It attaches medially to the infraspinous fossa of the scapula and laterally to the middle facet of the greater tubercle of the humerus.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: The muscle arises by fleshy fibers from the medial two-thirds of the infraspinatous fossa, and by tendinous fibers from the ridges on its surface; it also arises from the infraspinatous fascia which covers it, and separates it from the teres major and teres minor.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: The fibers converge to a tendon, which glides over the lateral border of the spine of the scapula and passing across the posterior part of the capsule of the shoulder-joint, is inserted into the middle impression on the greater tubercle of the humerus.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: The trapezoidal insertion of the infraspinatus onto the humerus is much larger than the equivalent insertion of the supraspinatus, the reason why the infraspinatus is involved in rotator cuff tears about as frequently as the supraspinatus.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: The tendon of this muscle is sometimes separated from the capsule of the shoulder-joint by a bursa, which may communicate with the joint cavity.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: The suprascapular nerve innervates the supraspinatus and infraspinatus muscles. These muscles function to abduct and laterally rotate the arm, respectively.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: The infraspinatus is the main external rotator of the shoulder. When the arm is fixed, it adducts the inferior angle of the scapula. Its synergists are teres minor and the deltoid. The infraspinatus and teres minor rotate the head of the humerus outward (external, or lateral, rotation); they also assist in carrying the arm backward. Additionally, the infraspinatus reinforces the capsule of the shoulder joint.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: From an evolutionary prospective, the pectoral muscles – the pectoralis major and pectoralis minor – are thought to have evolved from a primitive muscle sheet that connected the coracoid to the humerus. In late reptilians and early mammals, this muscle structure was displaced dorsally; while most of its components evolved into the pectoralis major, some fibers eventually attached to the scapula and evolved into the supraspinatus, the infraspinatus, and parts of the subscapularis.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: Saladin, Kenneth. Anatomy and Physiology: the Unity of Form and Function. 7th ed., McGraw Hill Education, 2014. pp. 343, 346, 491, 543.


title: Infraspinatus muscle

text: Funk, Lennard. Rotator Cuff Biomechanics. Shoulderdoc.co.uk. TheFresh Healthcare Marketing, 11 Feb 2016. Web.


title: Rise of nationalism in Europe

text: The rise of nationalism in Europe was spurred by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars. American political science professor Leon Baradat has argued that “nationalism calls on people to identify with the interests of their national group and to support the creation of a state – a nation-state – to support those interests.” Nationalism was the ideological impetus that, in a few decades, transformed Europe. Rule by monarchies and foreign control of territory was replaced by self-determination and newly formed national governments. Some countries, such as Germany and Italy were formed by uniting various regional states with a common "national identity". Others, such as Greece, Serbia, Bulgaria, and Poland were formed by uprisings against the Ottoman or Russian Empires. Romania is a special case, formed by the unification of the principalities of Moldavia and Wallachia on 1859 and later gaining independence from the Ottoman Empire in 1878.


title: Rise of nationalism in Europe

text: National awakening also grew out of an intellectual reaction to the Enlightenment that emphasized national identity and developed an authentic view of cultural self-expression through nationhood. The key exponent of the modern idea of the nation-state was the German G. W. Friedrich Hegel. The French Revolution, although primarily a republican revolution, initiated a movement toward the modern nation-state and also played a key role in the birth of nationalism across Europe where radical intellectuals were influenced by Napoleon and the Napoleonic Code, an instrument for the political transformation of Europe. "Its twin ideological goals, nationalism and democracy, were given substance and form during the tumultuous events beginning at the end of the eighteenth century." Revolutionary armies carried the slogan of "liberty, equality, brotherhood" and ideas of liberalism and national self-determinism. He argued that a sense of nationality was the cement that held modern societies together in the age when dynastic and religious allegiance was in decline. In 1815, at the end of the Napoleonic wars, the major powers of Europe met at the Congress of Vienna and tried to restore the old dynastic system as far as possible, ignoring the principle of nationality in favour of "legitimism", the assertion of traditional claims to royal authority. With most of Europe's peoples still loyal to their local province or city, nationalism was confined to small groups of intellectuals and political radicals. Furthermore, political repression, symbolized by the Carlsbad Decrees published in Austria in 1819, pushed nationalist agitation underground.


title: Rise of nationalism in Europe

text: A strong resentment of what came to be regarded as foreign rule began to develop. In Ireland, Italy, Belgium, Greece, Poland, Hungary, and Norway local hostility to alien dynastic authority started to take the form of nationalist agitation. The first revolt in the Ottoman Empire to acquire a national character was the Serbian Revolution (1804–17), which was the culmination of Serbian renaissance which had begun in Habsburg territory, in Sremski Karlovci. The eight-year Greek War of Independence (1821–29) against Ottoman rule led to an independent Greek state, although with major political influence of the great powers. The Belgian Revolution (1830–31) led to the recognition of independence from the Netherlands in 1839. Over the next two decades nationalism developed a more powerful voice, spurred by nationalist writers championing the cause of self-determination. The Poles attempted twice to overthrow Russian rule in 1831 and 1863. In 1848, revolutions broke out across Europe, sparked by severe famine and economic crisis and mounting popular demand for political change. In Italy, Giuseppe Mazzini used the opportunity to encourage a war mission: "A people destined to achieve great things for the welfare of humanity must one day or other be constituted a nation".


title: Rise of nationalism in Europe

text: In Hungary, Lajos Kossuth led a national revolt against Habsburg rule; in Transylvania, Avram Iancu led successful revolts in 1846. The 1848 crisis had given nationalism its second full public airing, and in the thirty years that followed no fewer than seven new national states were created in Europe. This was partly the result of the recognition by conservative forces that the old order could not continue in its existing form. Conservative reformers such as Cavour and Bismarck made common cause with liberal political modernizers to create a consensus for the creation of conservative nation-states in Italy and Germany. In the Habsburg monarchy a compromise was reached with Hungarians in 1867 which led to the establishment of the Dual Monarchy. Native history and culture were rediscovered and appropriated for the national struggle. Following a conflict between Russia and Turkey, the Great Powers met at Berlin in 1878 and granted independence to Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and limited autonomy to Bulgaria.


title: Rise of nationalism in Europe

text: The invention of a symbolic national identity became the concern of racial, ethnic or linguistic groups throughout Europe as they struggled to come to terms with the rise of mass politics, the decline of the traditional social elites, popular discrimination and xenophobia. Within the Habsburg monarchy the different peoples developed a more mass-based, radical and exclusive form of nationalism. This developed even among the Germans and Magyars, who actually benefited from the power-structure of the empire. On the European periphery, especially in Ireland and Norway, campaigns for national independence became more strident. In 1905, Norway won independence from Sweden, but attempts to grant Ireland a kind of autonomy foundered on the national divisions on the island between the Catholic and Protestant populations. The Polish attempts to win independence from Russia had previously proved to be unsuccessful, with Poland being the only country in Europe whose autonomy was gradually limited rather than expanded throughout the 19th century, as a punishment for the failed uprisings; in 1831 Poland lost its status as a formally independent state and was merged into Russia as a real union country and in 1867 she became nothing more than just another Russian province. Faced with internal and external resistance to assimilation, as well as increased xenophobic anti-Semitism, radical demands began to develop among the stateless Jewish population of eastern and central Europe for their own national home and refuge. In 1897, inspired by the Hungarian-born Jewish nationalist Theodor Herzl, the First Zionist Congress was held in Basle, and declared their national 'home' should be in Palestine. By the end of the period, the ideals of European nationalism had been exported worldwide and were now beginning to develop, and both compete and threaten the empires ruled by colonial European nation-states.


title: Rise of nationalism in Europe

text: Now, within the modern era, nationalism continues to rise in Europe, but in the form of anti-globalization. In a study recently conducted, researchers found that Chinese import shock from globalization leads to uneven adjustment costs being spread across regions of Europe. In response, there has been an increase in support for nationalist and radical-right wing parties in Europe that promote anti-globalist policies.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: Lilya 4-ever () is a 2002 crime drama film written and directed by Lukas Moodysson, which was released in Sweden on 23 August 2002. It depicts the downward spiral of Lilja Michailova, played by Oksana Akinshina, a girl in the former Soviet Union whose mother abandons her to move to the United States. The story is loosely based on the true case of Danguolė Rasalaitė, and examines the issue of human trafficking and sexual slavery.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: The film received positive reviews both in Sweden and abroad. It won five Guldbagge Awards including Best Film, as well as was nominated for Best Film and Best Actress at the European Film Awards.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: The film begins with a figure running towards a motorway bridge. When the figure turns around, the film introduces the audience to Lilya Michailova, an adolescent girl who has recently been badly beaten. The film then reveals her past.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: Lilya lives with her mother in a run-down apartment block in an unnamed former republic of the Soviet Union. Lilya's mother tells her they are emigrating to the United States with the mother's new boyfriend, but instead, she abandons Lilya in the care of her aunt while she and the boyfriend move to America. The aunt moves herself into the larger, nicer flat Lilya and her mother had lived in while forcing Lilya to move into a smaller, squalid apartment.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: A subsequent succession of humiliations and miseries are heaped upon Lilya. Her best friend Natasha encourages her to join her in prostitution, but Lilya declines. When money is discovered in Natasha's possession, she lies and says the money belongs to Lilya, whose reputation is subsequently ruined in the community and at school. This culminates in Lilya being raped by a group of boys she knows. She ultimately has to become a prostitute to support herself.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: Meanwhile, Lilya forms another close, protective friendship with a younger boy named Volodya, who is physically abused by his alcoholic single father. She buys Volodya a basketball, but his father punctures it with a pair of scissors. She then meets a young man, Andrei, who becomes her boyfriend and convinces her to move to Sweden, where he says she will have a better life. After arriving in Sweden, she is instead met by a pimp who takes her to a nearly empty apartment where he imprisons and rapes her. Lilya is then forced to perform sexual acts for a large number of clients.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: Despondent over the departure of his only friend, Volodya commits suicide, his soul taking the form of an angel. As an angel, Volodya comes to Lilya to watch over her. On Christmas Day, he transports Lilya to the roof of the apartment building where they lived and, deeply regretting having killed himself, gives her the world as a present, but Lilya rejects him. After an escape attempt, Lilya is violently beaten by her pimp, but she escapes again successfully. With the story arriving full circle to the scene at the beginning of the film, Lilya jumps from the bridge and commits suicide herself.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: The film's conclusion presents two different endings. One version shows Lilya being sent back in time after killing herself to when she made the decision to go to Sweden with Andrei. However, this time she rejects Andrei's offer, and she and Volodya are shown to presumably live happier lives. In the final scene, Lilya and Volodya are both angels happily playing basketball on the roof of a tenement building.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: The script was loosely based on the life of Danguolė Rasalaitė, a 16-year-old girl from Lithuania whose case had made headlines in Sweden in 2000. A male acquaintance helped Rasalaitė travel to Sweden with the promise of a job in Malmö. When she arrived, a man referred to as "the Russian," who would become her pimp, took her passport and told her she would have to repay him 20,000 SEK ($2410 USD in 1999; $ today) for travel expenses and she was forced to prostitute herself for the next month. She escaped from the apartment where she was being held in the rough suburb of Arlöv, moved to Malmö and after three months, day after she had been raped by her boyfriend and two other men, on 7 January 2000 jumped from a bridge and died three days later in the hospital. Three letters she was carrying with her unravelled the story. The screenplay was originally supposed to be deeply religious, with Jesus being a prominent character, walking next to Lilja throughout the story. Moodysson wrote the script in Swedish and then had it translated into Russian.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: Production was led by Moodysson's usual studio Memfis Film. Co-producers were Film i Väst, Sveriges Television, and Zentropa. Financial support was provided by the Swedish and Danish Film Institutes as well as Nordisk Film- & TV-Fond. The budget was 30 million SEK.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: During the casting period, Moodysson and the crew interviewed "something like 1000" young applicants for the leading roles. The actors had to improvise on a scenario where they had been grounded and were trying to convince their mother to let them go out. While Artyom Bogucharsky had no previous acting experience, Oksana Akinshina had already starred in Sergei Bodrov, Jr.'s 2001 crime film "Sisters". Moodysson has commented Akinshina as "[not] exactly what I had imagined. She is better than I imagined but different, somehow."


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: As Moodysson recalls, filming took "something like 40 days" to finish in total. Outdoor scenes set in the former Soviet Union were shot in Paldiski, Estonia, a former nuclear submarine training centre for the Soviet Navy. Swedish exteriors were filmed in Malmö and studio scenes in Trollhättan. Interpreters had to be present for the Russian actors to be able to understand Moodysson, who in turn had to direct based on emotional impression from the actors' intonation rather than the words. When the lines didn't sound well he would ask the actors to drop the script and improvise. One of the interpreters was Alexandra Dahlström, the star from Moodysson's debut feature "Show Me Love". Dahlström, whose mother is of Russian descent, also served as assistant director, which the producers held as an advantage since she was the same age as the title character.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: Director of photography was Ulf Brantås, who started his career as a cinematographer for Roy Andersson and had filmed both of Moodysson's previous feature films. "Lilya 4-ever" was shot with an Aaton XTR Prod on 16mm film which was later transferred to 35mm. Minimum lighting was used, mainly from practicals and whenever possible only sunlight. Locations were only sparsely rigged by the crew. A custom built rickshaw, made from the wheels of a mountain bike, was used for the long rearward-facing tracking shots. No correction filters were used though the stock was eventually graded in post-production in order to appear slightly warmer.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: On 23 August 2002, Sonet Film released "Lilja 4-ever" in Swedish cinemas. Several festival appearances followed including Venice, Toronto, Vancouver, and London Film Festival. A limited release in the United States begun on 18 April 2003 through Newmarket Films. Metrodome released it on 25 April 2003 in the United Kingdom, where it opened in 13 theatres. The Australian premiere followed on 7 August the same year, distributed by Potential Films.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: The film has also been utilised by humanitarian organisations, in information campaigns against human trafficking in various Eastern European countries. In Moldova, the International Organization for Migration received the distribution rights and organised screenings attended by 60,000 people, mostly young females but also members of the government.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: Swedish critics were very positive to "Lilja 4-ever" upon its release. Malena Janson started her review in "Svenska Dagbladet" by hailing Moodysson's ability to address different themes and emotional spectra, thereby escaping comparison between his pictures. Janson went on to compare the directing to Lars von Trier's "Breaking the Waves" and "Dancer in the Dark", but found "Lilja 4-ever" to be superior: "What particularly distinguishes Moodysson's from von Trier's destruction tales and makes it so much more gruesome, are the ties to reality. While we're sitting in the movie theatre and delight and torment ourselves through this masterpiece, happens outside exactly what Lilja encounters perhaps only a few kilometres or miles away from us." The film was fairly successful at the Swedish box office, although significantly less so than Moodysson's previous films. "Lilya 4-ever" sold 270,000 tickets during the theatrical run, compared to 867,584 and 882,000 respectively for "Show Me Love" and "Together".


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: The film was embraced by most English-language critics as well. As of January 2013, it had an 87% approval from 67 reviews listed at Rotten Tomatoes, with an average rating of 7.6/10. The consensus states: "A tragic, hard-hitting story about a teenager trapped in a life of prostitution." Metacritic gives a score of 82 out of 100, based on 26 critics, indicating "universal acclaim". It was rated with four out of five stars by Michael Hayden in the British film magazine "Empire", where he praised the performance by Oksana Akinshina and wrote that the film was "the darkest of fairy tales, complete with wicked aunts and guardian angels” while being “reminiscent of Ken Loach at his most socially aware”. Manohla Dargis of the "Los Angeles Times" noted that the image of the girl lured into prostitution might be a cliché, but held the director's honest intention as an acceptable excuse: "Moodysson wants us to see that there's a real person under the platitudes". She also noted that while the story might be unpleasant to take part of, the discomfort is surpassed by the sheer quality of the film: "This isn't an easy film -- only a memorable one." A negative review came from "Sight & Sound"s Tony Rayns. Rayns dismissed the film as melodramatic and lacking in substance, while also criticizing the stylistic choice of the dream sequences, as well as the soundtrack's composition: "The most extreme case is [the] use of Rammstein's 'Mein Herz brennt', played at woofer-challenging volume over the opening and closing scenes. ... Even if we take the volume as a metaphor for the girl's wish to block out the world, it's absurd to imagine that Lilja would ever relate to or even listen to a Rammstein track in German. So the wall of sound comes from some 'higher' version of MTV, not from the character or story." Rayns ignored at the time that Rammstein was extremely popular in Russia.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: "Lilya 4-ever" won several awards from film festivals around the world including Best Film at Gijón International Film Festival. Akinshina won the awards for Best Actress both in Gijón and at Rouen Nordic Film Festival. Ulf Brantås was prized for Best Cinematography at Zimbabwe International Film Festival and Moodysson won the award for Best Director at Brasília International Film Festival.


title: Lilya 4-ever

text: The film was the big winner at the 2003 Guldbagge Awards where it received prizes for Best Film, Best Direction, Best Screenplay, Akinshina as Best Actress and Best Cinematography. Bogucharsky was also nominated for Best Actor. It was nominated for Best Film and Best Actress at the European Film Awards. It was Sweden's submission for the Academy Award for Best Foreign Language Film at the 75th Academy Awards, which sparked some controversy when the Academy considered to deem it ineligible since the primary language is not Swedish. Eventually it was accepted, but failed to be nominated. In November 2009 the film magazine "FLM" published a list of the 10 best Swedish films of the decade as voted by 26 of the country's leading critics. "Lilya 4-ever" appeared as number three on the list, surpassed only by "Involuntary" and "Songs from the Second Floor".


title: Archie Griffin

text: Archie Mason Griffin (born August 21, 1954) is a former American football running back. He played seven seasons in the NFL with the Cincinnati Bengals. As college football's only two-time Heisman Trophy winner, he is considered one of the greatest college football players of all time. Griffin won four Big Ten Conference titles with the Ohio State Buckeyes and was the first player ever to start in four Rose Bowls.


title: Archie Griffin

text: Griffin rushed for 1,787 yards and scored over 170 points in 11 games, including 29 touchdowns, as a senior fullback at Eastmoor High School (now Eastmoor Academy) in Columbus, Ohio. That year, he led Eastmoor to the Columbus City League championship, rushing for 267 yards on 31 carries in the title game against Linden-McKinley High School. In his junior year, Griffin also rushed for over 1,000 yards.


title: Archie Griffin

text: In 1996, Griffin was inducted into the High School Hall of Fame. Eastmoor Academy renamed their playing field "Archie Griffin Field" in his honor.