title: Soda–lime glass

text: Soda–lime glass undergoes a steady increase in viscosity with decreasing temperature, permitting operations of steadily increasing precision. The glass is readily formable into objects when it has a viscosity of 10 poises, typically reached at a temperature around 900 °C. The glass is softened and undergoes steady deformation when viscosity is less than 10 poises, near 700 °C. Though apparently hardened, soda–lime glass can nonetheless be annealed to remove internal stresses with about 15 minutes at 10 poises, near 500 °C. The relationship between viscosity and temperature is largely logarithmic, with an Arrhenius equation strongly dependent on the composition of the glass, but the activation energy increases at higher temperatures.


title: Soda–lime glass

text: The following table lists some physical properties of soda–lime glasses. Unless otherwise stated, the glass compositions and many experimentally determined properties are taken from one large study. Those values marked in "italic" font have been interpolated from similar glass compositions (see calculation of glass properties) due to the lack of experimental data.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Rebecca Ann Kleefisch (née Reed; born August 7, 1975) is an American politician and former television reporter who served as the 44th Lieutenant Governor of Wisconsin from 2011 to 2019. A member of the Republican Party, she was elected to the position on November 2, 2010, as the running mate of Governor Scott Walker; the pair narrowly lost reelection to a third term in 2018.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Kleefisch was a candidate in the 2022 Wisconsin gubernatorial election, but lost the Republican nomination to businessman Tim Michels in the August 9 primary.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Rebecca Ann Reed was born in Pontiac, Michigan. Her family later relocated to Ohio, where she won the Miss Ohio Teen USA 1994 title. On August 16, 1994, she competed in the nationally televised Miss Teen USA 1994 pageant as Miss Ohio Teen USA in Biloxi, Mississippi, but did not place in the competition. Reed graduated from the University of Wisconsin–Madison. She was a reporter for WIFR-TV in Rockford, Illinois, and then was a reporter and later morning anchor for WISN-TV in Milwaukee, before leaving in 2004. Kleefisch formed her own company, Rebecca Kleefisch Enterprises and was a contributor to Charlie Sykes' program on WTMJ Radio in Milwaukee.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Kleefisch supports Wisconsin's 1849 abortion ban that went into effect in 2022 after the Dobbs v. Jackson Women's Health Organization decision by the United States Supreme Court eliminated the constitutional right to an abortion in the United States. The law bans abortion in all instances except to save the life of the mother. Kleefisch believes that abortion should be illegal in all other instances, including after rape or incest, or to protect the health of the mother. She also wrote that she agrees with Sharron Angle that raped women should "turn lemons into lemonade" by having their rapist's child.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Kleefisch has indicated support for same-sex marriage, acknowledging her views have changed since she compared same-sex marriage to marrying a dog or an inanimate object in 2010, comments she later called a "poor choice of words." By 2022, Kleefisch said "I am in the same place that I would say as a vast majority of Wisconsinites and Americans are. My opinion has changed…gay marriage will be legal when I am governor of Wisconsin."


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Kleefisch opposes the Affordable Care Act (ACA) and has supported efforts to repeal the legislation. She has called the ACA "an abomination."


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Kleefisch criticized Wisconsin's progressive income tax system and has promised "transformational income tax reform" if she were to become governor. She suggested eliminating taxes on retirement income.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Kleefisch is open to paid family leave, saying "we need to make sure that moms and dads have time to bond with their babies. That's absolutely something that I would look at as governor."


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: In 2012, when she faced a recall election, Kleefisch criticized the recall process, arguing that it has become a "spectacle" and were designed only to recall officials guilty of grave wrongdoing, rather than used as a way to resolve policy disputes. In 2021, however, Kleefisch championed the recall election of four Mequon-Thiensville School District over policy disputes. In 2022, she proposed removing some election-related powers from the bipartisan Wisconsin Elections Commission and transferring them to the state Department of Justice, headed by the elected state attorney general.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: In 2020, she praised Donald Trump's trade policies, as well as his handling of the COVID-19 pandemic. After Trump lost the 2020 presidential election and made false claims of fraud while refusing to concede, she defended Trump's false claims of fraud.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: In 2021, she called for a ban on sanctuary cities, as well as a ban on the teaching of critical race theory in public schools.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Although Kleefisch's husband Joel had been a member of the Wisconsin State Assembly since being elected in 2004, Kleefisch's own first entry into politics began when she ran for Lieutenant Governor in 2010. During her Republican primary campaign, Scott Jensen was her strategist; she made appeals to conservative talk radio hosts and Tea Party groups, as well as social conservatives and the Christian right, circulating a flier saying that, if elected, she would be "relying on the wisdom and faith she has in Jesus." In the primary election, she defeated four rivals, including Brett Davis, who had support from the party establishment and was favored by Scott Walker, the Republican candidate for governor. In the November 2010 general election, she won election on a single ticket as Walker's running mate.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Kleefisch spent eight years as lieutenant governor under Walker. Along with Walker, Kleefisch played a major role in supporting and promoting the $3 billion incentive package to Foxconn.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: In 2018, Kleefisch claimed that her campaign opponent Mandela Barnes was kneeling during the U.S. national anthem protests at the Wisconsin State Fair. She later apologized for making the claim.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Following a contentious collective bargaining dispute in 2011, an effort began to recall Walker and Kleefisch. After examining petitions, the Wisconsin Government Accountability Board determined there were more than 800,000 valid signatures to hold a recall election. In the June 5, 2012 recall election, Walker and Kleefisch were retained in office. Kleefisch is the only lieutenant governor in the history of any state in the United States to face recall election and ultimately survive a recall.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: In January 2019, Kleefisch was appointed to serve as the executive director of the Women's Suffrage Centennial Commission. She served in that position until becoming a Jobs Ambassador for Associated Builders and Contractors of Wisconsin in November 2019. As a jobs ambassador, she promotes careers in the skilled construction trades.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: In September 2021, Kleefisch announced that she would seek the Republican nomination for Governor of Wisconsin in the following year's election. In her announcement, she likened herself to Donald Trump. She began her campaign by criticizing the leadership of incumbent Democratic Governor Tony Evers and attacking his response to the 2020 Kenosha unrest. In October 2021, she told Republicans that they needed to "hire mercenaries" and engage in "ballot harvesting" (a practice she has called for banning) to help her win the 2022 race. In November 2021, she said that a vaccine requirement for poll workers in Wisconsin was intended to prevent Republicans from becoming poll workers and thus hide wrongdoing. Kleefisch recently sued the Wisconsin Elections Commission, alleging that they broke the law during the 2020 election.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: During her campaign, Kleefisch initially recognized that Biden won the 2020 election but by early 2022, she declined to take a position on the matter. In April 2022, Kleefisch said that the election was "rigged." On decertifying the results of the 2020 election in Wisconsin, Kleefisch said it is "not constitutionally possible."


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: Kleefisch is married to former State Representative Joel Kleefisch, who was also a reporter for WISN-TV. They have two daughters. They lived in Oconomowoc, located 16 miles west of Waukesha, Wisconsin, and were members of Crosspoint Community Church, a Christian & Missionary Alliance-affiliated megachurch in Oconomowoc. Since losing re-election, Kleefisch and her family moved to Concord, Wisconsin.


title: Rebecca Kleefisch

text: In late August 2010, Kleefisch was diagnosed with colon cancer. She had a tumor removed in early September 2010, and finished chemotherapy treatment by April 2011.


title: Giuoco Piano

text: The Giuoco Piano (Italian: "Quiet Game"; ), also called the Italian Opening, is a chess opening beginning with the moves:


title: Giuoco Piano

text: "White aims to develop quickly – but so does Black. White can construct a pawn centre but in unfavourable conditions a centre which cannot provide a basis for further active play."


title: Giuoco Piano

text: The name Italian Game is used by some authors ; however, that name is also used to describe all openings starting 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nc6 3.Bc4, including 3...Nf6 (the Two Knights Defence) and other less common replies.


title: Giuoco Piano

text: The Giuoco Piano is one of the oldest recorded openings. The Portuguese Damiano played it at the beginning of the 16th century and the Italian Greco played it at the beginning of the 17th century. The Giuoco Piano was popular through the 19th century, but modern refinements in defensive play have led most chess masters towards openings like the Ruy Lopez that offer White greater chances for long-term initiative.


title: Giuoco Piano

text: In modern play, grandmasters have shown distinct preference for the slower and more strategic Giuoco Pianissimo (4.d3, or 4.c3 Nf6 5.d3). Anatoly Karpov used the Giuoco Pianissimo against Viktor Korchnoi twice in the 1981 World Championship match, with both games ending in a draw; Garry Kasparov used it against Joël Lautier at Linares 1994, resigning after 29 moves; Vladimir Kramnik chose it against Teimour Radjabov at Linares (2004); Viswanathan Anand used it to defeat Jon Hammer in 2010; Magnus Carlsen used it against Hikaru Nakamura at London 2011, winning in 41 moves and Ian Nepomniachtchi used it against Magnus Carlsen in the 2021 World Championship match, losing in 49 moves.


title: Giuoco Piano

text: The main move 4...Nf6 was first analysed by Greco in the 17th century. Alternatives include 4...Qe7, with the intention of holding on to the centre.


title: Giuoco Piano

text: If White does not want to gambit material, 7.Bd2 is a good alternative. The game could continue 7...Bxd2+ (Kaufman recommends 7...Nxe4 8.Bxb4 Nxb4 9.Bxf7+ Kxf7 10.Qb3+ d5!? [10...Kf8 11.Qxb4+ Qe7 12.Qxe7+ Kxe7 is safer, reaching an equal endgame] 11.Ne5+ Ke6! 12.Qxb4 c5!?) 8.Nbxd2 d5 9.exd5 Nxd5 10.Qb3 Nce7 (10...Na5 is an alternative, inviting a repetition of moves after 11.Qa4+ Nc6 [threatening 12...Nb6] 12.Qb3 Na5) 11.0-0 0-0 12.Rfe1 c6. In this position White has more freedom, but the can be a weakness. 7.Nbd2 is also a viable move for White, although this still only offers approximate equality. It has not been a popular choice among human players, but it seems to be recommended by computer engines. 7.Kf1?! has been largely abandoned.


title: Giuoco Piano

text: Black can try to hold a in the centre at e5 with 4...Qe7, a move which first appeared in the Göttingen manuscript around 1500. After 5.d4 (5.0-0 usually transposes) Bb6, White's options include 6.0-0, 6.d5, 6.a4 and 6.Bg5. A typical continuation is 6.0-0 d6 7.a4 a6 8.h3 Nf6 9.Re1 0-0 (Leonhardt–Spielmann, Ostend 1907).


title: Giuoco Piano

text: With 4., White plays the Giuoco Pianissimo (Italian: "Very Quiet Game", a name given by Adolf Anderssen). White aims for a slow buildup, deferring the to d4 until it can be prepared. By avoiding an immediate confrontation in the centre, White prevents the early release of through exchanges and enters a positional maneuvering game. 4.Nc3 Nf6 5.d3 is the Giuoco Pianissimo Deferred. 4.d3 f5 is the not-so-quiet Lucchini Gambit; there can follow 5.Ng5 f4, the Dubois Variation.


title: Giuoco Piano

text: If White plays c2–c3, the position can take some characteristics of the Ruy Lopez if the bishop retreats to c2 via Bc4–b3–c2. This idea has been taken up by some grandmasters, such as Anish Giri, to avoid the drawish Berlin Defence in the Ruy Lopez. The game can also retain an Italian flavour after c3 if White plays a4 and b4, staking out on the . Despite its slow, drawish reputation, this variation became more popular after being taken up by John Nunn in the 1980s. The common move orders are 4.c3 Nf6 5.d3 ("ECO" C54), and transposition from the Bishop's Opening: 2.Bc4 Nf6 3.d3 Nc6 4.Nf3 Bc5 5.c3 or 5.0-0 d6 6.c3.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Frederic Edwin Church (May 4, 1826 – April 7, 1900) was an American landscape painter born in Hartford, Connecticut. He was a central figure in the Hudson River School of American landscape painters, best known for painting large landscapes, often depicting mountains, waterfalls, and sunsets. Church's paintings put an emphasis on realistic detail, dramatic light, and panoramic views. He debuted some of his major works in single-painting exhibitions to a paying and often enthralled audience in New York City. In his prime, he was one of the most famous painters in the United States.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Frederic Edwin Church was a direct descendant of Richard Church, a Puritan pioneer from England who accompanied Thomas Hooker on the original journey through the wilderness from Massachusetts to what would become Hartford, Connecticut. Church was the son of Eliza (1796–1883) and Joseph Church (1793–1876). Frederic had two sisters and no surviving brothers. His father was successful in business as a silversmith and jeweler and was a director at several financial firms. His mother's brother was Adrian Janes, who owned an iron foundry that constructed the U.S. Capitol Dome. The family's wealth allowed Frederic to pursue his interest in art from a very early age. In 1844, aged 18, Church became the pupil of landscape artist Thomas Cole in Catskill, New York after Daniel Wadsworth, a family neighbor and founder of the Wadsworth Athenaeum in Hartford, Connecticut, introduced the two. Church studied with him for two years; by this time his talent was evident. Cole wrote Church had "the finest eye for drawing in the world". During his time with Cole he travelled around New England and New York to make sketches, visiting East Hampton, Connecticut, Long Island, Catskill Mountain House, The Berkshires, New Haven, Connecticut, and Vermont. His first recorded sale was in 1846 to the Wadsworth Athenaeum for $130; it was a pastoral painting .


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: In 1848, he was elected the youngest Associate of the National Academy of Design. He was promoted to full member the following year and began to take in his own students including Walter Launt Palmer, William James Stillman and Jervis McEntee.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Romanticism was prominent in Britain and France in the early 1800s as a counter-movement to the rationalism of the Age of Enlightenment. Artists of the Romantic period often depicted nature in idealized scenes that depicted the richness and beauty of nature, sometimes with emphasis on its grand scale. This tradition carried on in the works of Church, who idealizes an uninterrupted nature, highlighted by his excruciatingly detailed art. The emphasis on nature is encouraged by low horizontal lines and a preponderance of sky. Church usually "hid" his brushstrokes so that the painting surface was smooth and the painter's "personality" seemingly absent.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Church was the product of the second generation of the Hudson River School, a movement in American landscape art founded by his teacher Thomas Cole. Both Cole and Church were devout Protestants, and the latter's beliefs played a role in his paintings, especially his early canvases. Hudson River School paintings were characterized by their focus on traditional pastoral settings, especially the Catskill Mountains, and their Romantic qualities. They attempted to capture the wild realism of an unsettled America that was quickly disappearing, and the appreciation of natural beauty. His American frontier landscapes show the "expansionist and optimistic outlook of the United States in the mid-nineteenth century." Church differed from Cole in the topics of his paintings: he preferred natural and often majestic scenes over Cole's propensity towards allegory—though Church's work has increasingly been re-examined in terms of themes and meanings.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: The Prussian explorer and scientist Alexander von Humboldt was a major influence on Church. In his "Kosmos", Humboldt put forth a vision of the interconnectedness of science, the natural world, and spiritual concerns. "Kosmos", which Church owned, dedicated a chapter to landscape painting; Humboldt gave an important role to the visual artist in "scientifically" portraying the diversity of nature, especially in the New World. As Charles Darwin's theory of evolution began to overturn Humboldt's ideas of unity in the 1860s, art historians have examined how Church's painting responded to this disruption in Church's world view.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: The English art critic John Ruskin was another important and big influence on Church. In Ruskin's "Modern Painters", he emphasizes the close observation of nature: "the imperative duty of the landscape painter [is] to descend to the lowest details with undiminished attention. Every class of rock, every kind of earth, every form of cloud, must be studied with equal industry, and rendered with equal precision." This attention to detail must be combined with the artist's interpretation, impressions, and imagination to achieve great art. While Church's paintings were widely praised in the 1850s and 1860s, some critics found his detailed panoramas lacking in the imaginative or poetic. In his 1879 "American Painters", George W. Sheldon wrote of Church's canvases, "It is scarcely necessary to ... explain what their principal defect is, because, by this time, that defect must have been recognized by almost every intelligent American lover of art. It consists in the elaboration of details at the expense of the unity and force of sentiment... They are faithful and beautiful, but they are not so rich as they might be in the poetry, the aroma, of art. The higher and spiritual verities of Nature are the true home of landscape art."


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Some of Church's paintings relate to, and influenced, the luminist landscape style as well. Luminist art tends to emphasize horizontals, use non-diffuse light, and hide brushstrokes such that the painter's presence, or "personality", is less apparent to the viewer. An exhibition book considers Church's "" and "" to highlight the style's "meticulous draftsmanship and intense colors", while "" and "The Parthenon" "exemplify the style ... in their panoramic structure". Nevertheless, Church is not considered a primarily luminist artist.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Church began his career by painting classic Hudson River School scenes of New York and New England, but by 1850, he had settled in New York. He exhibited his art at the American Art Union, the Boston Art Club, and (most impressively for a young artist) the National Academy of Design. His method consisted of creating paintings in his studio based on sketches in nature. In the earlier years of his career, Church's style was reminiscent of that of his teacher, Thomas Cole, and epitomized the Hudson River School's founding styles. As his style progressed he departed from Cole's approach: he painted in more elaborate detail and his compositions became more adventurous in format, sometimes with dramatic light effects.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Church quickly earned a reputation as a traveler-artist, with early domestic painting and sketching trips to the White Mountains, western Massachusetts, the Catskills, Hartford, Conn, Niagara, Virginia, Kentucky, and Maine. He made two trips to South America in 1853 and 1857 and stayed predominantly in Quito, visiting the volcanoes and cities of modern day Colombia and Ecuador, and crossing the isthmus of Panama. The first trip was with businessman Cyrus West Field, who financed the voyage, hoping to use Church's paintings to lure investors to his South American ventures. Church was inspired by Alexander von Humboldt's exploration of the continent in the early 1800s; Humboldt had challenged artists to portray the "physiognomy" of the Andes. After Humboldt's "Personal Narrative of Travels to the Equinoctial Regions of America" was published in 1852, Church jumped at the chance to travel and study in Humboldt's footsteps. When Church returned to South America in 1857 with painter Louis Rémy Mignot, he added to his sketches of the area. After both trips, Church had produced a number of landscapes of Ecuador and the Andes, such as "The Andes of Ecuador" (1855), "Cayambe" (1858), "The Heart of the Andes" (1859), and "Cotopaxi" (1862). "The Heart of the Andes", Church's most famous painting, pictures several elements of topography combined into an idealistic, broad portrait of nature. The painting was very large, yet highly detailed; every species of plant and animal is identifiable and numerous climate zones appear at once.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: As he had with "Niagara" before, Church debuted "The Heart of the Andes" in a single-painting exhibition in New York City in 1859. Thousands of people paid to see the painting, with the painting's huge floor-based frame playing the part of a window looking out on the Andes. The audience sat on benches to view the piece, sometimes using opera glasses to get close, and Church strategically arranged the room to illuminate the painting with the light from overhead skylights. The work was an instant success. Church eventually sold it for $10,000, at that time the highest price ever paid for a work by a living American artist.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Church’s friendship with Dr. Isaac Israel Hayes, a prominent arctic explorer, stimulated the artist’s interest in the arctic regions. In 1859, Church and his good friend Rev. Louis Legrand Noble traveled to Newfoundland and Labrador. The journey was chronicled in Noble’s book "After Icebergs with a Painter" (1861), published shortly before Church’s painting “The Icebergs” went on display.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: By 1860, Church was the most renowned American artist. In his prime, Church was a commercial as well as an artistic success. Church's art was very lucrative; he was reported to be worth half a million dollars at his death in 1900.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: In 1861, at the start of the Civil War, Church was inspired to paint "Our Banner in the Sky" by a sunset featuring red, white, and blue that he believed was a symbol that "the heavens indicated their support for the United States by reflecting the nation's colors in the setting sun". A lithograph was made from it and sold to benefit the families of Union soldiers.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: In 1860, Church bought a farm near Hudson, New York and married Isabel Mortimer Carnes (born 1836, of Dayton, Ohio), whom he had met during the New York exhibition of "The Heart of the Andes". They soon started a family, but their two-year-old son Herbert and five-month-old daughter Emma both died of diphtheria in March 1865. Still grief stricken, Church, his wife, and a young artist they befriended traveled to Jamaica. Church sketched while Isabel made a collection of pressed Jamaican ferns. He and his wife started a new family with the birth of Frederic Joseph in 1866, followed by Theodore Winthrop in 1869, Louis Palmer in 1870 and Isabel Charlotte ("Downie") in 1871.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: In late 1867, Church began the longest period of travel of his career. That fall he and his family went to Europe, moving through London and Paris fairly quickly. From Marseille they went to Alexandria, Egypt, but Church did not visit the pyramids, perhaps being afraid to leave his family alone. Passing through Jaffa, they arrived at Beirut, where they spent four months. They stayed with American missionaries, including David Stuart Dodge. In February 1868 Church travelled with Dodge to the city of Petra by camel from Jerusalem. There he sketched the "Al Khazneh" tomb, which became the subject of one of his important later works, "El Khasné, Petra" (1874). Later that spring the family visited Damascus and Baalbek, then sailed the Aegean Sea with a stop in Constantinople. Back in southern Europe by summer, they wintered in Rome. There were many American artists in Rome that year, and they joined several artist/friends, including Sanford Robinson Gifford, Jervis McEntee and other friends who were also living in Rome. While in Rome, Church learned fresco painting, and made a collection of “Old Masters” paintings. However, apparently Europe on the whole did not seem to interest Church as it did most American artists of the 19th century, many of whom traveled there to experience the Western artistic heritage. Leaving his expanded family in Rome with friends, Frederic made a two-week visit to stay in Athens ended the journey in April 1869. At Athens the Parthenon exceeded all his expectations as the finest single specimen of architecture in the world, and he sketched and painted energetically. The Churches left Rome in May 1869, and made their way home via Paris and England, arriving home by the end of June.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Before departing America for that trip, Church purchased the on the hilltop above his Hudson farmland, which he had long wanted for its magnificent views of the Hudson River and the Catskills. In 1870, he began the construction of a Persian-inspired mansion on the hilltop, and the family moved into the home in the summer of 1872. Today this estate is conserved as the Olana State Historic Site. Richard Morris Hunt was consulted early on in the plans for the mansion at Olana, but after the Churches' trip, the English-born American architect Calvert Vaux was hired to complete the project. Church was deeply involved in the process, even completing his own architectural sketches for its design. This highly personal and eclectic building incorporated many of the design ideas that he had acquired during his travels. In one letter of the period, he wrote “I have made about 1 3/4 miles of road this season, opening entirely new and beautiful views. I can make more and better landscapes in this way than by tampering with canvas and paint in the studio." He devoted much of his energy during his last twenty years to Olana.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Church had been enormously successful as an artist. In his last decades, illness limited Church's ability to paint. By 1876, Church was stricken with rheumatoid arthritis, making painting difficult. He eventually painted with his left hand and continued to produce works, although at a much slower pace. He still taught painting as Cole had before him. Two students were Walter Launt Palmer, son of his close friend Erastus Dow Palmer, and Howard Russell Butler. In later life he often wintered in Mexico, where he taught Butler.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Spending time at Olana and in Mexico, Church was less exposed to trends in New York City. He kept a studio there into the 1880s, but it was usually sublet to Martin Johnson Heade. His wife Isabel had been ill for years, and she died on May 12, 1899, at the home of their late friend and patron, William H. Osborn, on Park Avenue in New York. Less than a year later, on April 7, 1900, at the age of 73, Church also died at the home of Osborn's widow. Frederic and Isabel were buried in the family plot at Spring Grove Cemetery, Hartford, Connecticut.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: In the last decades of his life Church's fame dwindled, and by his death in 1900 there was little interest in his work. His paintings were seen as part of an "old-fashioned and discredited" school that was too devoted to details. His reputation improved with a 1945 exhibition devoted to the Hudson River School at the Art Institute of Chicago, and that year the "Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin" revisited the original reception of "The Heart of the Andes". In 1960 art historian David C. Huntington completed a dissertation on Church that explored his influences and milieu. By 1966 he had written a monograph on Church and organized the first exhibition devoted to Church since his death, for the National Collection of Fine Arts. Huntington recognized Church's estate as his greatest artwork and spearheaded the effort to preserve Olana when the property, which had been preserved largely as Church created it by later generations of the family, was threatened with destruction. He spearheaded a two-year campaign to save Frederic Church's Olana, resulting in a public-private partnership that created Olana State Historic Site.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Church's legacy was rekindled; American museums began to acquire his works, and by 1979 Church's "The Icebergs" sold for $2.5 million, then the third-highest auction for any work of art. The next year the National Gallery of Art held a major exhibition, "American Light: The Luminist Movement, 1825–1875", which positioned Church as the leading American painter of his time.


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Church's paintings, more confident and on a grander scale than those of his contemporaries, uniquely captured the spirit of an optimistic American people who associated the landscape of the New World with manifest destiny. Art historian Barbara Novak wrote that Church was "a paradigm of the artist who becomes the public voice of a culture, summarizing its beliefs, embodying its ideas, and confirming its assumptions."


title: Frederic Edwin Church

text: Olana State Historic Site is now owned and operated by the New York State Office of Parks, Recreation and Historic Preservation, Taconic Region, and with its curatorial work, visitor services, and external relations managed by The Olana Partnership, a private, non-profit organization. In 1999, just before the centenary of Church’s death, The Olana Partnership established the Frederic Church Award to honor individuals and organizations who make extraordinary contributions to American art and culture.


title: Minnow

text: Minnow is the common name for a number of species of small freshwater fish, belonging to several genera of the families Cyprinidae and Leuciscidae. They are also known in Ireland as pinkeens.


title: Minnow

text: Bluntnose minnow ("Pimephales notatus"): The bluntnose minnow is a primary bait fish for Northern America, and has a very high tolerance for variable water qualities, which helps its distribution throughout many regions. The snout of the bluntnose minnow overhangs the mouth, giving it the bluntnose. There is a dark lateral line which stretches from the opercle to the base of the tail, where a large black spot is located. The average size of the adult is approximately 5 cm (2 in). 'Pimephales"


title: Minnow

text: Common shiner ("Notropis cornutus)": These fish are one of the most common type of bait fish and are almost exclusively stream dwellers. The common shiner can be identified by the nine rays on its anal fin and terminal mouth. This minnow is typically bluish silver on the sides and greenish blue on the back., save for breeding season in which case the male gains a rose colored tail and anal fin. The shiner grows about 5–10 cm (2–4 in) within one year and reach a size of 13 cm (5 in) at adulthood. Another common "shiner" bait fish is the young version of the European chub ("Leuciscus cephalus" or "Squalius cephaloides") which is quite easy to catch. "Notropis potteri" is known as the chub shiner.


title: Minnow

text: Common emerald shiner ("Notropis atherinoides atherinoides"): Common shiners are most abundant in the Great Lakes of North America, primarily Lake Erie. The name of the emerald shiner comes from the greenish emerald band that expands from the back of the gill cover to the tail. This type of minnow has a short, rounded snout, the only difference between the common emerald shiner and the silver shiner is that the silver shiner has a longer snout and a larger eye. These fish grow to an average length of about 6 cm. This is one of the most common bait fish used in the Lake Erie region of Ohio and many fisherman hold it over all other bait.


title: Minnow

text: While primarily used for bait, minnows can also be eaten directly by humans. Some Native American cultures have used minnows as food. If minnows are small enough, they can be eaten whole.


title: Minnow

text: Generally, minnows breed with the slightest rainfall and within a wide temperature range. Contrary to the long-standing presumptions, climate change poses 'negligible' threat to minnows' reproduction. Minnows are also flexible in attaining pre-spawning fitness, which makes them avoid 'skipped spawning' decisions while facing climatic variabilities.


title: Demographics of Florida

text: Florida is the third-most populous state in the United States. Its residents include people from a wide variety of ethnic, racial, national and religious backgrounds. The state has attracted immigrants, particularly from Latin America. Florida's majority ethnic group are European Americans, with approximately 65% of the population identifying as White. National ethnic communities in the state include Cubans, who migrated "en masse" following the revolution in the mid 20th century. They have been joined by other immigrants from Latin America, and Spanish is spoken by more than 20% of the state's population, with high usage especially in the Miami-Dade County area.


title: Demographics of Florida

text: With a population of 21.5 million according to the 2020 census, Florida is the most populous state in the Southeastern United States, and the second-most populous state in the South behind Texas. Within the United States, it contains the highest percentage of people over 65 (17.3%), and the 8th fewest people under 18 (21.9%).


title: Demographics of Florida

text: According to the 2020 census, the racial distributions are as follows; 51.5% Non-Hispanic White, 26.6% of the population are Hispanics or Latino (of any race), 14.5% African American, 4% Native American, and 2.3% Asian, Oriental and other.


title: Demographics of Florida

text: According to the 2010 census, the racial distributions are as follows; 53.5% Non-Hispanic White, 25.6% of the population are Hispanic Americans or Latino (of any race), 15.2% African American (includes Afro-Caribbeans), 4.5% Native American, 2.0% Asian, Orientals and others Florida has one of the largest African-American populations in the country, and has the second-highest Latino population on the East Coast outside of New York state. Its ethnic Asian and Oriental population has grown rapidly since the late 1990s; the majority are South Asians, Filipinos, Vietnamese, ethnic Chinese. The state has some federally recognized Native American tribes, such as the Seminoles in the southeastern part of the state.


title: Demographics of Florida

text: According to the 2018 US Census Bureau estimates, Florida's population was 74.7% White (53.3% Non-Hispanic White), 16.0% Black or African American, 2.8% Asian, 0.3% Native American and Alaskan Native, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.3% Some Other Race, and 2.9% from two or more races. The White population continues to remain the largest racial category as Hispanics in Florida primarily identify as White (81.9%) with others identifying as Some Other Race (11.3%), Multiracial (3.4%), Black (2.8%), American Indian and Alaskan Native (0.3%), Asian (0.1%), and Hawaiian and Pacific Islander (0.1%). By ethnicity, 26.1% of the total population is Hispanic-Latino (of any race) and 73.9% is Non-Hispanic (of any race). If treated as a separate category, Hispanics are the largest minority group in Florida.


title: Demographics of Florida

text: "Note: Births in the table exceed 100% because some Hispanics are counted both by their ethnicity and by their race, giving a higher overall number.


title: Demographics of Florida

text: , 73.36% of Florida residents age 5 and older spoke English at home as a primary language, while 19.54% spoke Spanish, 1.84% French Creole (mostly Haitian Creole), 0.60% French and 0.50% Portuguese. In total, 26.64% of Florida's population age 5 and older spoke a mother language other than English.


title: Demographics of Florida

text: Florida's public education system identified more than 200 first languages other than English spoken in the homes of students. In 1990, the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC) settled a class action lawsuit against the state Florida Department of Education with a consent decree that required educators to be trained in teaching English for Speakers of Other Languages (ESOL).


title: Demographics of Florida

text: , of the Florida Constitution provides that "English is the official language of the State of Florida." This provision was adopted in 1988 by a vote following an Initiative Petition.


title: Demographics of Florida

text: A Miami accent has developed among persons born and/or raised in and around Miami-Dade County and a few other parts of South Florida. It is more prominent among Hispanics (especially Cuban Americans and other Latino groups, influenced by the Spanish language).


title: Demographics of Florida

text: Florida residents identify as mostly of various Protestant groups. Roman Catholics make up the single largest denomination in the state. Florida residents' current religious affiliations are shown in the table below:


title: Demographics of Florida

text: In 2013, most net migrants come from 1) New York, 2) New Jersey, 3) Pennsylvania, and 4) the Midwestern United States; emigration is higher from these same states. For example, about 50,000 moved to New York; but more than 50,000 people moved from New York to Florida.


title: Sjambok

text: The sjambok () or litupa is a heavy leather whip. It is traditionally made from an adult hippopotamus or rhinoceros hide, but is also commonly made out of plastic.


title: Sjambok

text: A strip of the animal's hide is cut and carved into a strip long, tapering from about thick at the handle to about at the tip. This strip is then rolled until reaching a tapered-cylindrical form. The resulting whip is both flexible and durable. A plastic version was made for the apartheid era South African Police, and used for riot control.


title: Sjambok

text: Peter Hathaway Capstick describes a sjambok as a short swordlike whip made from rhino pizzle leather that could lay a man open like a straight razor.


title: Sjambok

text: The sjambok was heavily used by the Voortrekkers driving their oxen while migrating from the Cape of Good Hope, and remains in use by herdsmen to drive cattle. They are widely available in South Africa from informal traders to regular stores from a variety of materials, lengths and thicknesses.


title: Sjambok

text: In South Africa, use of the sjambok by police is sometimes seen as synonymous with the apartheid era, but its use on people started much earlier. It is sometimes used outside the official judiciary by people who carry out punishments imposed by extralegal courts.


title: Sjambok

text: In 1963, an enquiry into the police force of Sheffield in the United Kingdom found that rhino whips had been used on suspects.


title: Sjambok

text: The name seems to have originated as "cambuk" in Indonesia, where it was the name of a wooden rod for punishing slaves, where it was possibly derived from the Persian "chabouk" or "chabuk". When Malay slaves arrived in South Africa in the 1800s, the instrument and its name were imported with them, the material was changed to hide, and the name was finally incorporated into Afrikaans, spelled as "sambok". It is known in Bengali as "chabuk".


title: Sjambok

text: The instrument is also known as "imvubu" (hippopotamus in Zulu), "kiboko" (hippopotamus in Swahili) and as "mnigolo" (hippopotamus in Malinké). In the Portuguese African colonies and Congo Free State, it was called a "chicote", from the Portuguese word for whip.


title: Sjambok

text: In the Belgian Congo, the instrument was also known as "fimbo" and was used to force labour from local people through flogging, sometimes to death. The official tariff for punishment in this case was lowered in time from twenty strokes to eight, then (in 1949) six, and progressively four and two, until flogging was outlawed completely in 1955. In North Africa, particularly Egypt, the whip was called a kurbash, after the Arabic for whip. The term "shaabuug" is used in the Somali language; it can also refer to a generic leather whip.


title: Sjambok

text: In the film "Would You Rather", players are given the option to stab a fellow contestant with an ice pick or whip another contestant with a sjambok.


title: Sjambok

text: In Willard Price's "Elephant Adventure", the cruel Arab slaver known as the Thunder Man enjoys flogging captives with a sjambok made from hippopotamus hide.


title: Sjambok

text: The Islamic preacher Shah Mustafa is known to have used a chabuk to defeat a snake which was on the throne of Raja Chandra Narayan Singh. This earned him the title of Chabukmar.


title: Varun Badola

text: Varun Badola was born on 7 January 1974. His father is a known artist, Vishwa Mohan Badola. He has two elder sisters – Alka, who is married and has appeared in the TV serial "Kumkum" and "Qubool Hai", and Kalindi, who is a radio jockey. His family hails from Garhwal, Uttarakhand.


title: Varun Badola

text: Badola spent the early part of his childhood in Allahabad after which he lived in New Delhi. He did his schooling from Sardar Patel Vidyalaya in New Delhi. After completing college, he started working to fulfill his ambition to become an actor.


title: Varun Badola

text: Badola started his creative career as a costume coordinator followed by eight years experience of writing and directing. He assisted Tigmanshu Dhulia in "Haasil" and "Charas," apart from acting in the two films. He had decided to take a break from directing to do some acting when he was offered the television serial "Astitva.. Ek Prem Kahani""."


title: Varun Badola

text: Some of his successful soaps are include "Banegi Apni Baat, Koshish - Ek Asha", Aroona Irani's "Des Mein Nikla Hoga Chand," and "Astitva... Ek Prem Kahani". He shot to fame when he played the role of a mentally disabled person on the television show "Koshish" produced by Balaji Telefilms, which proved to be a super-hit on Zee TV. Badola has directed and written the script for the show "Aek Chabhi Hai Padoss Mein".


title: Varun Badola

text: He is an accomplished singer and dancer as well, having shown his talents on reality television shows including the celebrity dance show named Nach Baliye 2 with his wife Rajeshwari where he was one of the semi-finalists. He is known to be an extremely hard-working actor and has been called television's Aamir Khan for his dedication and Dev Anand for his intense on-screen romance.


title: Varun Badola

text: Badola and his wife Rajeshwari worked together on a play for the first time in a production called "Shabd Leela" which was based on Dr. Dharamveer Bharati's powerful love letters to his wife. He participated in the Celebrity Cricket League as a member of the team Mumbai Heroes, as an all-rounder.


title: Varun Badola

text: Varun married dancer/singer/actress Rajeshwari Sachdev on 24 November 2004. They met on the sets of the television show "Antakshari" and were engaged the same year. They have a son, born on 10 May 2010 at the Benzer Hospital, Lokhandwala. Badola has a farm house in his native Uttarakhand at a place called Bhabher in Kotdwar.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: Maxwell is the codename for a GPU microarchitecture developed by Nvidia as the successor to the Kepler microarchitecture. The Maxwell architecture was introduced in later models of the GeForce 700 series and is also used in the GeForce 800M series, GeForce 900 series, and Quadro Mxxx series, as well as some Jetson products, all manufactured with TSMC's 28 nm process.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: The first Maxwell-based products were the GeForce GTX 745 (OEM), GeForce GTX 750, and the GeForce GTX 750 Ti. Both were released on February 18, 2014, both with the chip code number GM107. Earlier GeForce 700 series GPUs had used Kepler chips with the code numbers GK1xx. First-generation Maxwell GPUs (code numbers GM10x) are also used in the GeForce 800M series and the Quadro Kxxx series. A second generation of Maxwell-based products was introduced on September 18, 2014 with the GeForce GTX 970 and GeForce GTX 980, followed by the GeForce GTX 960 on January 22, 2015, the GeForce GTX Titan X on March 17, 2015, and the GeForce GTX 980 Ti on June 1, 2015. The final and lowest spec Maxwell 2.0 card was the GTX950 released on


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: Maxwell introduced an improved Streaming Multiprocessor (SM) design that increased power efficiency, the sixth and seventh generation PureVideo HD, and CUDA Compute Capability 5.2.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: The architecture is named after James Clerk Maxwell, the founder of the theory of electromagnetic radiation.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: The Maxwell architecture is used in the system on a chip (SOC), mobile application processor, Tegra X1.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: First generation Maxwell GPUs (GM107/GM108) were released as GeForce GTX 745, GTX 750/750 Ti, GTX 850M/860M (GM107) and GeForce 830M/840M (GM108). These new chips introduced few consumer-facing additional features, as Nvidia instead focused more on increasing GPU power efficiency. The L2 cache was increased from 256 KiB on Kepler to 2 MiB on Maxwell, reducing the need for more memory bandwidth. Accordingly, the memory bus was reduced from 192 bit on Kepler (GK106) to 128 bit, reducing die area, cost, and power draw.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: The "SMX" streaming multiprocessor design from Kepler was also retooled and partitioned, being renamed "SMM" for Maxwell. The structure of the warp scheduler was inherited from Kepler, with the texture units and FP64 CUDA cores still shared, but the layout of most execution units were partitioned so that each warp schedulers in an SMM controls one set of 32 FP32 CUDA cores, one set of 8 load/store units and one set of 8 special function units. This is in contrast to Kepler, where each SMX had 4 schedulers that scheduled to a shared pool of execution units. The latter necessitated an SMX-wide crossbar that used unnecessary power to allow all execution units to be shared. Conversely, Maxwell's more modular design allows for a finer-grained and more efficient allocation of resources, saving power when the workload isn't optimal for shared resources. Nvidia claims a 128 CUDA core SMM has 90% of the performance of a 192 CUDA core SMX while efficiency increases by a factor of 2. Also, each Graphics Processing Cluster, or GPC, contains up to 4 SMX units in Kepler, and up to 5 SMM units in first generation Maxwell.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: GM107 also supports CUDA Compute Capability 5.0 compared to 3.5 on GK110/GK208 GPUs and 3.0 on GK10x GPUs. Dynamic Parallelism and HyperQ, two features in GK110/GK208 GPUs, are also supported across the entire Maxwell product line. Maxwell also provides native shared memory atomic operations for 32-bit integers and native shared memory 32-bit and 64-bit compare-and-swap (CAS), which can be used to implement other atomic functions.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: Nvidia's video encoder, NVENC, was upgraded to be 1.5 to 2 times faster than on Kepler-based GPUs, meaning it can encode video at six to eight times playback speed. Nvidia also claims an eight to ten times performance increase in PureVideo Feature Set E video decoding due to the video decoder cache, paired with increases in memory efficiency. However, H.265 is not supported for full hardware decoding in first generation Maxwell GPUs, relying on a mix of hardware and software decoding. When decoding video, a new low power state "GC5" is used on Maxwell GPUs to conserve power.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: Second generation Maxwell GPUs introduced several new technologies: Dynamic Super Resolution, Third Generation Delta Color Compression, Multi-Pixel Programming Sampling, Nvidia VXGI (Real-Time-Voxel-Global Illumination), VR Direct, Multi-Projection Acceleration, Multi-Frame Sampled Anti-Aliasing(MFAA) (however, support for Coverage-Sampling Anti-Aliasing(CSAA) was removed), and Direct3D12 API at Feature Level 12_1. HDMI 2.0 support was also added.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: The ROP to memory controller ratio was changed from 8:1 to 16:1. However, some of the ROPs are generally idle in the GTX 970 because there are not enough enabled SMMs to give them work to do, reducing its maximum fill rate.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: The Polymorph Engine responsible for tessellation was upgraded to version 3.0 in second generation Maxwell GPUs, resulting in improved tessellation performance per unit/clock.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: GM204 supports CUDA Compute Capability 5.2 (compared to 5.0 on GM107/GM108 GPUs, 3.5 on GK110/GK208 GPUs and 3.0 on GK10x GPUs).


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: GM20x GPUs have an upgraded NVENC which supports HEVC encoding and adds support for H.264 encoding resolutions at 1440p/60FPS & 4K/60FPS (compared to NVENC on Maxwell first generation GM10x GPUs which only supported H.264 1080p/60FPS encoding).


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: After consumer complaints, Nvidia revealed that it is able to disable individual units, each containing 256KB of L2 cache and 8 ROPs, without disabling whole memory controllers. This comes at the cost of dividing the memory bus into high speed and low speed segments that cannot be accessed at the same time for reads, because the L2/ROP unit managing both of the GDDR5 controllers shares the read return channel and the write data bus between the GDDR5 controllers. This makes simultaneous reading from both GDDR5 controllers or simultaneous writing to both GDDR5 controllers impossible. This is used in the GeForce GTX 970, which therefore can be described as having 3.5 GB in a high-speed segment on a 224-bit bus and 512 MB in a low-speed segment on a 32-bit bus. The peak speed of such a GPU can still be attained, but the peak speed figure is only reachable if one segment is executing a read operation while the other segment is executing a write operation.


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: The theoretical single-precision processing power of a Maxwell GPU in FLOPS is computed as 2 (operations per FMA instruction per CUDA core per cycle) × number of CUDA cores × core clock speed (in Hz).


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: The theoretical double-precision processing power of a Maxwell GPU is 1/32 of the single precision performance (which has been noted as being very low compared to the previous generation Kepler).


title: Maxwell (microarchitecture)

text: The successor to Maxwell is codenamed Pascal. The Pascal architecture features higher bandwidth unified memory and NVLink.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs) are the viruses that cause human parainfluenza. HPIVs are a paraphyletic group of four distinct single-stranded RNA viruses belonging to the "Paramyxoviridae" family. These viruses are closely associated with both human and veterinary disease. Virions are approximately 150–250 nm in size and contain negative sense RNA with a genome encompassing about 15,000 nucleotides.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: The viruses can be detected via cell culture, immunofluorescent microscopy, and PCR. HPIVs remain the second main cause of hospitalisation in children under 5 years of age for a respiratory illness (only Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes more respiratory hospitalisations for this age group).


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: The first HPIV was discovered in the late 1950s. The taxonomic division is broadly based on antigenic and genetic characteristics, forming four major serotypes or clades, which today are considered distinct viruses. These include:


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: HPIVs are characterised by producing enveloped virions and containing single stranded negative sense RNA. Non-infectious virions have also been reported to contain RNA with positive polarity. HPIV genomes are about 15,000 nucleotides in length and encode six key structural proteins.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: The structural gene sequence of HPIVs is as follows: 3′-NP-P-M-F-HN-L-5′ (the protein prefixes and further details are outlined in the table below).


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: With the advent of reverse genetics, it has been found that the most efficient human parainfluenza viruses (in terms of replication and transcription) have a genome nucleotide total that is divisible by the number 6. This has led to the "rule of six" being coined. Exceptions to this rule have been found and its exact advantages are not fully understood.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Electrophoresis has shown that the molecular weight (MW) of the proteins for the four HPIVs are similar (with the exception of the phosphoprotein, which shows significant variation).


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Viral replication is initiated only after successful entry into a cell by attachment and fusion between the virus and the host cell lipid membrane. Viral RNA (vRNA) is initially associated with nucleoprotein (NP), phosphoprotein (P) and the large protein (L). The hemagglutinin–neuraminidase (HN) is involved with viral attachment and thus hemadsorption and hemagglutination. Furthermore, the fusion (F) protein is important in aiding the fusion of the host and viral cellular membranes, eventually forming syncytia.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Initially the F protein is in an inactive form (F) but can be cleaved by proteolysis to form its active form, F and F, linked by di-sulphide bonds. Once complete, this is followed by the HPIV nucleocapsid entering the cytoplasm of the cell. Subsequently, genomic transcription occurs using the viruses own 'viral RNA-dependent RNA polymerase' (L protein). The cell's own ribosomes are then tasked with translation, forming the viral proteins from the viral mRNA.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Towards the end of the process, (after the formation of the viral proteins) the replication of the viral genome occurs. Initially, this occurs with the formation of a positive-sense RNA (intermediate step, necessary for producing progeny), and finally, negative-sense RNA is formed which is then associated with the nucleoprotein. This may then be either packaged and released from the cell by budding or used for subsequent rounds of transcription and replication.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: The observable and morphological changes that can be seen in infected cells include the enlargement of the cytoplasm, decreased mitotic activity and 'focal rounding', with the potential formation of multi-nucleate cells (syncytia).


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: The pathogenicity of HPIVs is mutually dependent on the viruses having the correct accessory proteins that are able to elicit anti-interferon properties. This is a major factor in the clinical significance of disease.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: The main host remains the human. However, infections have been induced in other animals (both under natural and experimental situations), although these were always asymptomatic.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: It is estimated that there are 5 million children with lower respiratory infections (LRI) each year in the United States alone. HPIV-1, HPIV-2 and HPIV-3 have been linked with up to a third of these infections. Upper respiratory infections (URI) are also important in the context of HPIV, however, they are caused to a lesser extent by the virus. The highest rates of serious HPIV illnesses occur among young children, and surveys have shown that about 75% of children aged 5 or older have antibodies to HPIV-1.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: For infants and young children, it has been estimated that about 25% will develop "clinically significant disease".


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Repeated infection throughout the life of the host is not uncommon and symptoms of later breakouts include upper respiratory tract illness, such as cold and a sore throat. The incubation period for all four serotypes is 1 to 7 days. In immunosuppressed people, parainfluenza virus infections can cause severe pneumonia, which can be fatal.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: HPIV-1 and HPIV-2 have been demonstrated to be the principal causative agent behind croup (laryngotracheobronchitis), which is a viral disease of the upper airway and is mainly problematic in children aged 6–48 months of age. Biennial epidemics starting in Autumn are associated with both HPIV-1 and 2; however, HPIV-2 can also have yearly outbreaks. Additionally, HPIV-1 tends to cause biennial outbreaks of croup in the Fall. In the United States, large peaks have presently been occurring during odd-numbered years.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: HPIV-3 has been closely associated with bronchiolitis and pneumonia and principally targets those aged <1 year.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: HPIV-4 remains infrequently detected. However, it is now believed to be more common than previously thought, but is less likely to cause severe disease. By the age of 10, the majority of children are sero-positive for HPIV-4 infection which may be indicative of a large proportion of asymptomatic or mild infections.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Important epidemiological factors that are associated with a higher risk of infection and mortality are those who are immuno-compromised and may be taken ill with more extreme forms of LRI. Associations between HPIVs and neurologic disease are known; for example, hospitalisation with certain HPIVs has a strong association with febrile seizures. HPIV-4B has the strongest association (up to 62%) followed by HPIV-3 and -1.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: HPIVs have also been linked with rare cases of virally caused meningitis and Guillain–Barré syndrome.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: HPIVs are spread from person to person ('horizontal transmission') by contact with infected secretions through respiratory droplets or contaminated surfaces or objects. Infection can occur when infectious material contacts mucous membranes of the eyes, mouth, or nose, and possibly through the inhalation of droplets generated by a sneeze or cough. HPIVs can remain infectious in airborne droplets for over an hour.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Overall, HPIVs remain best known for its effects on the respiratory system and this appears to be where the majority of the focus has been upon.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: The inflammation of the airway is a common attribute of HPIV infection. It is believed to occur due to the large scale up-regulation of inflammatory cytokines. Common cytokines, expected to be up-regulated, include IFN–α, various other interleukins (IL–2, IL-6) and TNF–α. Various chemokines and inflammatory proteins are also believed to be associated with the common symptoms of HPIV infection.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Recent evidence seems to suggest that virus-specific antibodies (IgE) may be responsible for mediating large-scale releases of histamine in the trachea, which are believed to cause croup. More detail on the pathways and interactions can be found here.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: The body's primary defense against HPIV infection remains humoral immunity. This is mainly directed against surface proteins which can be found on the virus. In particular the proteins HN and F prove to be most immunogenic in terms of stimulating the immune system.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Recently the importance of the 'cell mediated immune system' has been scrutinized. Reports have shown that those with defective adaptive immune responses are at a higher risk of severe infection.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Because of the similarity in terms of the antigenic profile between the viruses, hemagglutination assay (HA) or hemadsorption inhibition (HAdI) processes are often used. Both complement fixation, neutralisation and enzyme linked immunosorbent assays – ELISA, can also be used to aid in the process of distinguishing between viral serotypes.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Mortality caused by HPIVs in developed regions of the world remains rare. Where mortality has occurred, it is principally in the three core risk groups (very young, elderly and immuno-compromised). Long term changes can however be associated with airway remodelling and are believed to be a significant cause of morbidity. The exact associations between HPIVs and diseases such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) are still being investigated.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: In developing regions of the world, preschool children remain the highest mortality risk group. Mortality may be a consequence of primary viral infection or secondary problems such as bacterial infection. Predispositions, such as malnutrition and other deficiencies may further elevate the chances of mortality associated with infection.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Overall, LRI's cause approximately 25–30% of total deaths in preschool children in the developing world. HPIVs is believed to be associated with 10% of all LRI cases, thus remaining a significant cause of mortality.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Numerous factors have been suggested and linked to a higher risk of acquiring the infection, inclusive of malnutrition, vitamin A deficiency, absence of breastfeeding during the early stages of life, environmental pollution and overcrowding.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Recombinant technology has however been used to target the formation of vaccines for HPIV-1, -2 and -3 and has taken the form of several live-attenuated intranasal vaccines. Two vaccines in particular were found to be immunogenic and well tolerated against HPIV-3 in phase I trials. HPIV-1 and -2 vaccine candidates remain less advanced.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Vaccine techniques which have been used against HPIVs are not limited to intranasal forms, but also viruses attenuated by cold passage, host range attenuation, chimeric construct vaccines and also introducing mutations with the help of reverse genetics to achieve attenuation.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Maternal antibodies may offer some degree of protection against HPIVs during the early stages of life via the colostrum in breast milk.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Ribavirin is one medication which has shown good potential for the treatment of HPIV-3 given recent in-vitro tests (in-vivo tests show mixed results). Ribavirin is a broad-spectrum antiviral, and as of 2012, was being administered to those who are severely immuno-compromised, despite the lack of conclusive evidence for its benefit. Protein inhibitors and novel forms of medication have also been proposed to relieve the symptoms of infection.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Furthermore, antibiotics may be used if a secondary bacterial infection develops. Corticosteroid treatment and nebulizers are also a first line choice against croup if breathing difficulties ensue.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Parainfluenza viruses last only a few hours in the environment and are inactivated by soap and water. Furthermore, the virus can also be easily destroyed using common hygiene techniques and detergents, disinfectants and antiseptics.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: Environmental factors which are important for HPIV survival are pH, humidity, temperature and the medium within which the virus is found. The optimal pH is around the physiologic pH values (7.4 to 8.0), whilst at high temperatures (above 37 °C) and low humidity, infectivity reduces.


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: The majority of transmission has been linked to close contact, especially in nosocomial infections. Chronic care facilities and doctors' surgeries are also known to be transmission 'hotspots' with transmission occurring via aerosols, large droplets and also fomites (contaminated surfaces).


title: Human parainfluenza viruses

text: In economically disadvantaged regions of the world, HPIV infection can be measured in terms of mortality. In the developed world where mortality remains rare, the economic costs of the infection can be estimated. Estimates from the US are suggestive of a cost (based on extrapolation) in the region of $200 million per annum.


title: I (newspaper)

text: The i is a British national morning paper published in London by Daily Mail and General Trust and distributed across the United Kingdom. It is aimed at "readers and lapsed readers" of all ages and commuters with limited time, and was originally launched in 2010 as a sister paper to "The Independent". It was later acquired by Johnston Press in 2016 after "The Independent" shifted to a digital-only model. The "i" came under the control of JPIMedia a day after Johnston Press filed for administration on 16 November 2018. The paper and its website were bought by the Daily Mail and General Trust (DMGT) on 29 November 2019, for £49.6 million. On 6 December 2019 the Competition and Markets Authority served an initial enforcement order on DMGT and DMG Media Limited requiring the paper to be run separately pending investigation.


title: I (newspaper)

text: Since its inception, the "i" has expanded its layout and coverage, adding special sections for notable events and revamping its weekend edition. The paper had an average daily circulation of 302,757 in March 2013, significantly more than "The Independent", though that figure has since continued to decline, and had dropped to 233,869 by February 2019. The paper is classified as a 'quality' in the UK market but is published in the standard compact tabloid-size format.


title: I (newspaper)

text: A press statement released on the website of "The Independent" on 19 October 2010 announced the launch of the "i". Also in October 2010, Independent Print Limited launched an advertising campaign to promote the new publication. The first issue of the "i" went on sale for 20p on 26 October 2010, along with a new-look version of "The Independent".


title: I (newspaper)

text: Starting on 7 May 2011 a Saturday edition was published, with more pages and at the price of 30p. This increased to 40p in January 2014, with the weekday edition rising to 30p. In September 2016, the price was raised to 60p, with the weekday edition rising to 50p.


title: I (newspaper)

text: At the start of September 2017, the price rose once again, to 60p for the weekday edition and 80p for the relaunched "i" weekend beginning later that month. The paper cited the rising cost of materials needed to print the paper and the increasingly difficult environment in which print journalism finds itself.


title: I (newspaper)

text: On 11 February 2016, it was revealed that regional publisher Johnston Press, which owned "The Yorkshire Post" and "The Scotsman", were in the advanced stages of talks to buy the "i" for around £24 million. The acquisition was completed before "The Independent" became a digital-only publication, and a "significant number" of staff joined the team from "The Independent". The new editorial team was announced in April 2016 and moved one floor down in Northcliffe House.


title: I (newspaper)

text: On 30 September 2017, a new, redesigned, version of the weekend edition of the "i" went on sale, costing 80p. This relaunch of the weekend paper saw circulation rise by around 30,000, to around 290,000 of the first edition of the redesigned paper being sold. By August 2018, the weekend edition had become the strongest day of trading for the "i".


title: I (newspaper)

text: In December 2017, the owners of the "i", Johnston Press, announced the newspaper was bringing in a monthly profit of around £1 million. They stated that this was the result of: "Johnston Press management’s strategy of investing in improved content under editor Olly Duff's clear leadership, increased brand awareness, distribution, and advertiser solutions, while delivering efficiencies". A February 2018 trading update from parent company Johnston Press stated that the paper held a 20% market share of the 'Quality' weekday market.


title: I (newspaper)

text: The "i" website, "inews.co.uk", was reported to attract around two million unique viewers at the start of 2018, but that figure had grown 457% by November, with Comscore reporting unique visitors to the website then stood at 5.2 million, surpassing the reach of "The Times" and "Huffington Post UK".


title: I (newspaper)

text: In November 2018, ownership of the "i" alongside the other assets of Johnston Press were transferred in a pre-packaged administration deal to JPIMedia, a company set up by the bondholders of Johnston Press, after several attempts to restructure the debt or sell the business were unsuccessful.


title: I (newspaper)

text: On 29 November 2019, it was announced that JPIMedia had sold the "i" newspaper and website to the Daily Mail and General Trust, which owns the Mail on Sunday and MailOnline. Lord Rothermere, the chair of DMGT, said that the paper would maintain its politically independent editorial style.


title: I (newspaper)

text: In March 2021, the "i" broke the story that Pontins holiday parks used a list of common Irish surnames as an internal document to prevent bookings by "undesirable guests".


title: I (newspaper)

text: In December 2021, DMGT announced that both "i" and the DMGT-owned "New Scientist" magazine would be moved to a new division of the company, to be called Harmsworth Media.


title: I (newspaper)

text: The "i" is tabloid-size and stapled, and the first issue contained 56 pages. The Friday edition of the paper, which contains the "Friday" section, has a slightly increased page count, at around 65. The weekend version of the paper is significantly larger than the weekday version, containing 87 pages. The "i" prides itself on having no supplements, something common in many other quality British newspapers, saying they want to give readers the best experience without supplements that "clog up" recycling bins. The newspaper contains "matrices" for news, business and sports—small paragraphs of information which are expanded upon in full articles further on in the paper. The title also includes a features section titled "iQ", Arts and Business sections and a television guide.


title: I (newspaper)

text: The managing director of "The Independent" stated several days before the newspaper went into print that the publication is designed for people who do not have much time to read a newspaper. On 20 April 2011, editor Simon Kelner announced that a Saturday edition of the "i" would be published, starting from 7 May 2011 and costing 30 pence, 10 pence more than the weekday version. The paper is now 65p on weekdays and £1.20 at the weekend, running Monday to Saturday (although the Saturday edition is also sold on Sunday).


title: I (newspaper)

text: The paper now runs a subscription, whereby customers can buy pre-paid vouchers to exchange for their copy of the paper. The subscription can be either six months or a year long and can be chosen Monday to Friday or including Saturday. There is also a discounted student subscription that lasts for one academic year.


title: I (newspaper)

text: Nick Clegg, former UK Deputy Prime Minister and former leader of the Liberal Democrats, a centrist party, is a fortnightly columnist for the "i". His column usually features in the "My View" comment section of the paper.


title: I (newspaper)

text: During an interview for the "i" in December 2017, then Labour leader, Jeremy Corbyn declared himself to be a dedicated reader of the "i", saying that its compact size and concise articles suited his busy lifestyle as Leader of Her Majesty's Opposition.


title: I (newspaper)

text: During the referendum on the United Kingdom's membership of the European Union, held in June 2016, the paper chose not to declare for either "leave" or "remain", unlike a majority of other British newspapers who came out for either side of the debate.


title: I (newspaper)

text: Since being named National Newspaper of the Year at the 2015 News Awards, the "i" has also gone on to win and be shortlisted for numerous awards in the UK.


title: I (newspaper)

text: At the 2017 Press Awards, the "i" secured six nominations. Katy Balls was a finalist alongside Stephen Bush for Political Commentary of the Year, Yasmin Alibhai-Brown for Broadsheet Columnist of the Year, Alice Jones for Critic of the Year, Steve Connor for Science Editor of the Year, Kim Sengupta for Foreign Reporter of the Year, Sam Cunningham for Sports Journalist of the Year, while the paper itself was nominated for Best News Site of the Year. At the 2017 British Sports Journalism Awards, Hugo Lowell was nominated for Young Sports Writer of the Year.


title: I (newspaper)

text: At the 2018 British Media Awards, the "i" won Gold in the Launch of the Year category for "i weekend" and Editorial Campaign of the Year category for its coverage of NHS cuts. The paper were also runner-ups for Print Product of the Year and Media Brand of the Year.


title: I (newspaper)

text: The "i" was found in a 2018 poll to be the second-most trusted news brand in the UK after "The Guardian". In March 2019, the "i" overtook "The Guardian" to become the most trusted digital newsbrand on-line, and third in print. The two then tied as most trusted national newsbrand for their paper editions in 2020; the "i" was third on-line.


title: I (newspaper)

text: At the 2019 British Media Awards, the "i" won Gold in the Media Brand of the Year category, Silver for the Digital Product of the Year, and Bronze in the Print Product of the Year category.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Germany–Japan relations (; ), also referred to as German-Japanese relations, were officially established in 1861 with the first ambassadorial visit to Japan from Prussia (which predated the formation of the German Empire in 1866/1870). Japan modernized rapidly after the Meiji Restoration of 1867, often using German models through intense intellectual and cultural exchange. After Japan aligned itself with Britain in 1900, Germany and Japan became enemies in World War I. Japan declared war on the German Empire in 1914 and seized key German possessions in China and the Pacific.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: In the 1930s, both countries adopted aggressive militaristic attitudes toward their respective regions. This led to a rapprochement and, eventually, a political and military alliance that included Italy: the "Axis". During World War II, however, the alliance was limited by the great distances between the Axis powers; for the most part, Japan and Germany fought separate wars, and eventually surrendered separately.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: After the Second World War, the economies of both nations experienced rapid recoveries; bilateral relations, now focused on economic issues, were soon re-established. Today, Japan and Germany are, respectively, the third and fourth largest economies in the world, and benefit greatly from many kinds of political, cultural, scientific and economic cooperation.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: According to a late 2012 Bertelsmann Foundation Poll, the Germans view Japan overwhelmingly positively, and regard that nation as less a competitor and more a partner. The Japanese views of Germany are positive as well, with 97% viewing Germany positively and only 3% viewing Germany negatively.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Relations between Japan and Germany date from the Tokugawa shogunate (1603–1868), when Germans in Dutch service arrived in Japan to work for the Dutch East India Company (VOC). The first well-documented cases are those of the physicians Engelbert Kaempfer (1651–1716) and Philipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold (1796–1866) in the 1690s and 1820s, respectively. Both accompanied the director of the Dutch trading post at Dejima on the obligatory voyage to Edo to pay tribute to the "shōgun". Siebold became the author of "Nippon, Archiv zur Beschreibung von Japan" (Nippon, Archive for the Description of Japan), one of the most valuable sources of information on Japan well into the 20th century; since 1979 his achievements have been recognised with an annual German award in his honour, the "Philipp Franz von Siebold-Preis", granted to Japanese scientists. Von Siebold's second visit to Japan (1859–1862) became a disaster because he tried to influence Dutch politics in Japan and attempted to obtain a permanent post as a diplomat in that country.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: In 1854 the United States pressured Japan into the Convention of Kanagawa, which ended Japan's isolation. It was considered an "unequal treaty" by the Japanese public, since the US did not reciprocate most of Japan's concessions with similar privileges. In many cases Japan was effectively forced into a system of extraterritoriality that provided for the subjugation of foreign residents to the laws of their own consular courts instead of the Japanese law system, open up ports for trade, and later even allow Christian missionaries to enter the country. Shortly after the end of Japan's seclusion, in a period called "Bakumatsu" (幕末, "End of the Shogunate"), the first German traders arrived in Japan. In 1860 Count Friedrich Albrecht zu Eulenburg led the Eulenburg Expedition to Japan as ambassador from Prussia, a leading regional state in the German Confederation at that time. After four months of negotiations, another "unequal treaty", officially dedicated to amity and commerce, was signed in January 1861 between Prussia and Japan.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Despite being considered one of the numerous unjust negotiations pressed on Japan during that time, the Eulenburg Expedition, and both the short- and long-term consequences of the treaty of amity and commerce, are today honoured as the beginning of official Japanese-German relations. To commemorate its 150th anniversary, events were held in both Germany and Japan from autumn 2010 through autumn 2011 hoping "to 'raise the treasures of [their] common past' in order to build a bridge to the future."


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: In 1863, three years after von Eulenburg's visit in Tokyo, a Shogunal legation arrived at the Prussian court of King Wilhelm I and was greeted with a grandiose ceremony in Berlin. After the treaty was signed, Max von Brandt became diplomatic representative in Japan – first representing Prussia, and after 1866 representing the North German Confederation, and by 1871 representing the newly established German Empire.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: In 1868 the Tokugawa shogunate was overthrown and the Empire of Japan under Emperor Meiji was established. With the return of power to the Tennō dynasty, Japan demanded a revocation of the "unequal treaties" with the western powers and a civil war ensued. During the conflict, German weapons trader Henry Schnell counselled and supplied weapons to the "daimyō" of Nagaoka, a land lord loyal to the Shogunate. One year later, the war ended with the defeat of the Tokugawa and the renegotiation of the "unequal treaties".


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: With the start of the Meiji period (1868–1912), many Germans came to work in Japan as advisors to the new government as so-called "oyatoi gaikokujin" (, "hired foreigners") and contributed to the modernization of Japan, especially in the fields of medicine (Leopold Mueller, 1824–1894; Julius Scriba, 1848–1905; Erwin Bälz, 1849–1913), law (K. F. Hermann Roesler, 1834–1894; Albert Mosse, 1846–1925) and military affairs (K. W. Jacob Meckel, 1842–1906). Meckel had been invited by Japan's government in 1885 as an advisor to the Japanese general staff and as teacher at the Army War College. He spent three years in Japan, working with influential persons including Katsura Tarō and Kawakami Soroku, thereby decisively contributing to the modernization of the Imperial Japanese Army. Meckel left behind a loyal group of Japanese admirers, who, after his death, had a bronze statue of him erected in front of his former army college in Tokyo. Overall, the Imperial Japanese Army intensively oriented its organization along Prusso-German lines when building a modern fighting force during the 1880s.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: In 1889 the Constitution of the Empire of Japan was promulgated, greatly influenced by German legal scholars Rudolf von Gneist and Lorenz von Stein, whom the Meiji oligarch and future Prime Minister Itō Hirobumi (1841–1909) visited in Berlin and Vienna in 1882. At the request of the German government, Albert Mosse also met with Hirobumi and his group of government officials and scholars and gave a series of lectures on constitutional law, which helped to convince Hirobumi that the Prussian-style monarchical constitution was best-suited for Japan. In 1886 Mosse was invited to Japan on a three-year contract as "hired foreigner" to the Japanese government to assist Hirobumi and Inoue Kowashi in drafting the Meiji Constitution. He later worked on other important legal drafts, international agreements, and contracts and served as a cabinet advisor in the Home Ministry, assisting Prime Minister Yamagata Aritomo in establishing the draft laws and systems for local government. Dozens of Japanese students and military officers also went to Germany in the late 19th century, to study the German military system and receive military training at German army educational facilities and within the ranks of the German, mostly the Prussian army. For example, later famous writer Mori Rintarô (Mori Ōgai), who originally was an army doctor, received tutoring in the German language between 1872 and 1874, which was the primary language for medical education at the time. From 1884 to 1888, Ōgai visited Germany and developed an interest in European literature producing the first translations of the works of Goethe, Schiller, and Gerhart Hauptmann.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: At the end of the 19th century, Japanese–German relations cooled due to Germany's, and in general Europe's, imperialist aspirations in East Asia. After the conclusion of the First Sino-Japanese War in April 1895, the Treaty of Shimonoseki was signed, which included several territorial cessions from China to Japan, most importantly Taiwan and the eastern portion of the bay of the Liaodong Peninsula including Port Arthur. However, Russia, France and Germany grew wary of an ever-expanding Japanese sphere of influence and wanted to take advantage of China's bad situation by expanding their own colonial possessions instead. The frictions culminated in the so-called "Triple Intervention" on 23 April 1895, when the three powers "urged" Japan to refrain from acquiring its awarded possessions on the Liaodong Peninsula.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Another stress test for German–Japanese relations was the Russo-Japanese War of 1904/05, during which Germany strongly supported Russia. This circumstance triggered the Japanese foreign ministry to proclaim that any ship delivering coal to Russian vessels within the war zone would be sunk. After the Russo-Japanese War, Germany insisted on reciprocity in the exchange of military officers and students, and in the following years, several German military officers were sent to Japan to study the Japanese military, which, after its victory over the tsarist army became a promising organization to study. However, Japan's growing power and influence also caused increased distrust on the German side.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: The onset of the First World War in Europe eventually showed how far German–Japanese relations had truly deteriorated. On 7 August 1914, only three days after Britain declared war on the German Empire, the Japanese government received an official request from the British government for assistance in destroying the German raiders of the Kaiserliche Marine in and around Chinese waters. Japan, eager to reduce the presence of European colonial powers in South-East Asia, especially on China's coast, sent Germany an ultimatum on 14 August 1914, which was left unanswered. Japan then formally declared war on Germany on 23 August 1914 thereby entering the First World War as an ally of Britain, France and Russia to seize the German-held Caroline, Marshall, and Mariana Islands in the Pacific.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: The only major battle that took place between Japan and Germany was the siege of the German-controlled Chinese port of Tsingtao in Kiautschou Bay. The German forces held out from August until November 1914, under a total Japanese/British blockade, sustained artillery barrages and manpower odds of 6:1 – a fact that gave a morale boost during the siege as well as later in defeat. After Japanese troops stormed the city, the German dead were buried at Tsingtao and the remaining troops were transported to Japan where they were treated with respect at places like the Bandō Prisoner of War camp. In 1919, when Germany formally signed the Treaty of Versailles, all prisoners of war were set free and most returned to Europe.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Japan was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles, which stipulated harsh repercussions for Germany. In the Pacific, Japan gained Germany's islands north of the equator (the Marshall Islands, the Carolines, the Marianas, the Palau Islands) and Kiautschou/Tsingtao in China. Article 156 of the Treaty also transferred German concessions in Shandong to Japan rather than returning sovereign authority to the Republic of China, an issue soon to be known as Shandong Problem. Chinese outrage over this provision led to demonstrations, and a cultural movement known as the May Fourth Movement influenced China not to sign the treaty. China declared the end of its war against Germany in September 1919 and signed a separate treaty with Germany in 1921. This fact greatly contributed to Germany relying on China, and not Japan, as its strategic partner in East Asia for the coming years.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: After Germany had to cede most of its Pacific and Asian possessions to Japan and with an intensifying Sino-German cooperation, relations between Berlin and Tokyo were nearly dead. Under the initiative of Wilhelm Solf, who served as German ambassador to Japan from 1920 to 1928, cultural exchange was strengthened again. A cultural agreement was signed in 1926 that led to the re-establishment of the "German-Japanese Society" (1926), the founding of the "Japan Institute" in Berlin (1926), the establishment of the "Japanese-German Cultural Society" in Tokyo (1927), and later also the incorporation of the "Japanese-German Research Institute" in Kyoto (1934). Both, France and Germany, were also very attractive for Japanese wanting to study abroad, as both countries kept their currencies undervalued in the 1920s. As German universities were considered superior to their French counterparts, 80% of Japanese students going abroad thus chose Germany. In fact, many of the men who emerged as leaders of the Pan-Asia movement in Japan in the 1930s studied at German universities in the 1920s, which led the Japanese historian Hotta Eri to note there was a strong German influence on the discourse of Japanese Pan-Asianism.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: On 30 January 1933, the Nazi Party under Adolf Hitler assumed power in Germany, abolishing the democratic system of the Weimar Republic within the first two months of its reign. This political turning point proved to be far-reaching for the relations between Germany and Japan. In spring and again in fall of 1933, German-Japanese relations were damaged, when the Sturmabteilung (SA), a para-military branch of the NSDAP, took to beating up Asians studying at German universities. Japanese and Chinese officials complained about "Yellow Peril" propaganda in German newspapers, reports of German plans to ban interracial relationships, and ongoing violence against Asian students all over the country. In October 1933, the Japanese government warned its nationals not to visit Germany, saying the country was unsafe for Asians to be in, and in November 1933, the Chinese government issued a similar warning to its citizens. German foreign minister and head of the "Auswärtiges Amt" Konstantin von Neurath persuaded Hitler to stop the SA violence against Asians, pointing out that Chinese head of state Chiang Kai-shek was threatening to expel the German military mission and replace it with a French one. In regards to Japan, Neurath noted it was advantageous to have so many scions of the Japanese elite studying at German universities, arguing that it was an incalculable advantage to Germany in the long run. At this time, however, Germany had much closer relations with China, which purchased an increasing amount of German arms and whose National Revolutionary Army received training by a German military mission. Not only did this happen against Japanese objections, but it also caused the original complaints from China, and not those from Japan, to eventually motivate Berlin's change of attitude.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: In late 1933-early 1934, another strain was placed on German-Japanese relations when the new German ambassador to Japan and outspoken proponent of German-Japanese partnership, Herbert von Dirksen, backed the appointment of Ferdinand Heye, a member of the Nazi Party and disreputable businessman, the Special German Trade Commissioner for Japan's puppet state Manchukuo in northern China. Berlin's interaction with Manchukuo was delicate, as its official diplomatic recognition by Germany was sought after by Japan, but would greatly damage Sino-German relations. Hitler's interest to keep China as a partner for the time being became obvious, when he disavowed Heye, who had falsely promised German recognition of Manchukuo in order to monopolize German trading in the region under his name. In the summer of 1935, Joachim von Ribbentrop, a German foreign policy official operating independently from the "Auswärtiges Amt", together with his friend, the Japanese military attaché to Germany, General Hiroshi Ōshima, planned to relieve Germany of its China-or-Japan-dilemma by promoting an anti-Communist alliance that would unite all three countries together. However, the "Auswärtiges Amt" under Konstantin von Neurath vetoed this approach, as it deemed trade relations with China too important to be risked by a pact that Chiang Kai-shek was unlikely to join.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Around the same time, von Rippentrop negotiated the Anglo-German Naval Agreement, which caused a temporary deterioration of German-Japanese relations when it was signed in June 1935. At the time, many Japanese politicians, including Admiral Isoroku Yamamoto (who was an outspoken critic of an alliance with Nazi Germany), were shocked by what was seen as Germany attempting to create an alliance with Great Britain. Nevertheless, the leaders of the military clique then in control in Tokyo concluded that it was a ruse designed to buy the Germans time to match the Royal Navy. After all, Hitler had already laid down his plans in "Mein Kampf", in which he identified Britain as a potential ally but also defined Japan as a target of "international Jewry", and thus a nation which Germany could potentially form an alliance with:


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Tokyo's military leaders proceeded to devise plans assuring the Empire's supply with resources by eventually creating a "Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere". In general, further expansion was envisioned – either northwards, attacking the Soviet Union, a plan which was called "Hokushin-ron", or by seizing French, Dutch and/or British colonies to the south, a concept dubbed "Nanshin-ron". Hitler, on the other hand, never desisted from his plan to conquer new territories in Eastern Europe for "Lebensraum"; thus, conflicts with Poland and later with the Soviet Union seemed inevitable.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: The first legal consolidation of German-Japanese mutual interests occurred in 1936, when the two countries signed the Anti-Comintern Pact, which was directed against the Communist International (Comintern) in general and the Soviet Union in particular. After the signing, Nazi Germany's government also included the Japanese people in their concept of "honorary Aryans". Yasuhito, Prince Chichibu then attended the 1937 Nuremberg Rally in Germany and met Adolf Hitler, with whom he tried to boost personal relations. Fascist Italy, led by Benito Mussolini joined the Anti-Comintern Pact the same year, thereby taking the first steps towards the formation of the so-called Axis between Rome, Berlin, and Tokyo.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Originally, Germany had a very close relationship with the Chinese nationalist government, even providing military aid and assistance to the Republic of China. Relations soured after the outbreak of the Second Sino-Japanese War on 7 July 1937, and when China shortly thereafter concluded the Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact with the Soviet Union. Notwithstanding the superior Sino-German economic relationship, Hitler concluded that Japan would be a more reliable geostrategic partner and chose to end his alliance with the Chinese as the price of gaining an alignment with the more modern and militarily powerful Japan. In a May 1938 address to the "Reichstag", Hitler announced German recognition of Japan's puppet state Manchukuo and renounced the German claims to the former colonies in the Pacific now held by the Japanese Empire. Hitler ordered the end of arm shipments to China, as well as the recall of all German officers attached to the Chinese Army. Despite this move, however, Hitler retained his general perception of neither the Japanese nor the Chinese civilizations being inferior to the German one. In "The Testament of Adolf Hitler", he wrote:


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Pride in one's own race – and that does not imply contempt for other races – is also a normal and healthy sentiment. I have never regarded the Chinese or the Japanese as being inferior to ourselves. They belong to ancient civilizations, and I admit freely that their past history is superior to our own. They have the right to be proud of their past, just as we have the right to be proud of the civilization to which we belong. Indeed, I believe the more steadfast the Chinese and the Japanese remain in their pride of race, the easier I shall find it to get on with them.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: The relations between Japan and Germany continued to grow closer during the late 1930s and several cultural exchanges took place, albeit motivated by political and propaganda reasons. A focus was put on youth exchanges, and numerous mutual visits were conducted; for instance, in late 1938, the ship Gneisenau carried a delegation of 30 members of the Hitlerjugend to Tokyo for a study visit. In 1938, representative measures for embracing the German-Japanese partnership were sought and the construction of a new Japanese embassy building in Berlin was started. After the preceding embassy had to give way to Hitler's and Albert Speer's plans of re-modeling Berlin to the world capital city of Germania, a new and more pompous building was erected in a newly established diplomatic district next to the Tiergarten. It was conceived by Ludwig Moshamer under the supervision of Speer and was placed opposite the Italian embassy, thereby bestowing an architectural emphasis on the Rome-Berlin-Tokyo axis.


title: Germany–Japan relations

text: Although tentative plans for a joint German-Japanese approach against the USSR were hinted on in the 1936 Anti-Comintern Pact, the years 1938 and 1939 were already decisive for Japan's decision to not expand northward (i.e., against the USSR) but to the south. The Empire decisively lost two border fights against the Soviets, the Battles of Lake Khasan and Khalkin Gol, thereby convincing itself that the Imperial Japanese Army, lacking heavy tanks and the like, would be in no position to challenge the Soviet Army at that time. Nevertheless, Hitler's anti-Soviet sentiment soon led to further rapprochements with Japan, since he still believed that Japan would join Germany in a future war against the Soviet Union, either actively by invading southeast Siberia, or passively by binding large parts of the Red Army, which was fearing an attack of Japan's Kwantung Army in Manchukuo, numbering ca. 700,000 men as of the late 1930s.